Background: the production of sound for speech

Adam Albright (albright@mit.edu)

LSA 2017 PhonologyUniversity of Kentucky

albright@mit.edu

How do humans use sound to communicate?

▶ Speech production▶ Intended meaning, calculate syntactic form, determinephonological form, translate into physical instructions

▶ Speech perception▶ Sound waves enter ear, auditory analysis, parse for linguisticallysignificant units, determine phonological and syntactic form,reconstruct intended meaning

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Properties of speech sounds

What makes a speech sound speech?▶ Speech is noise created by air flowing from the lungs, modified asit exits through the mouth/nose

▶ Speech is just one of many modes of linguistic communication▶ Hand signs, writing, semaphore, morse code, …▶ But all except sign language are derivative from spoken speech

▶ Speech is continuous▶ A fluid stream of sounds, without necessarily any pauses betweenindividual sounds, words, or even sentences

▶ Speech is segmentable▶ Composed of smaller units: words, morphemes, syllables, andindividual sounds

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Speech: continuous, yet segmentable

▷ “If you can’t see that, then I don’t know if I can explain it to you”

▶ explain = e k s p l ai n

Although it’s not obvious from the waveform, the speech stream iscomposed of smaller units, which we can refer to discretely

▶ Phrases, words, phones (= individual speech sounds)

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Speech: continuous, yet segmentable

▷ “If you can’t see that, then I don’t know if I can explain it to you”

▶ explain = e k s p l ai n

Although it’s not obvious from the waveform, the speech stream iscomposed of smaller units, which we can refer to discretely

▶ Phrases, words, phones (= individual speech sounds)

The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 3/54

Speech: continuous, yet segmentable

▷ “If you can’t see that, then I don’t know if I can explain it to you”

▶ explain = e k s p l ai n

Although it’s not obvious from the waveform, the speech stream iscomposed of smaller units, which we can refer to discretely

▶ Phrases, words, phones (= individual speech sounds)

The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 3/54

Speech: continuous, yet segmentable

▷ “If you can’t see that, then I don’t know if I can explain it to you”

▶ explain = e k s p l ai n

Although it’s not obvious from the waveform, the speech stream iscomposed of smaller units, which we can refer to discretely

▶ Phrases, words, phones (= individual speech sounds)

The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 3/54

Evidence for discrete phones

▶ Phonemic awareness tasks (typically used for testingdevelopment in children)

▶ What is the first sound in cat?▶ Which of these words start with the same sound: cat, pat, coat▶ Say cat without the [k]; say stand without the [t]▶ Say cat. What word do you get if you change the [k] to [m]?

▶ Language games▶ pig latin→ ig-pay atin-lay

▶ Speech errors▶ “cad you rean the small print?”▶ (More common: ‘spoonerisms’ of word-initial consonants)

▶ Alphabetic writing

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Producing speech

Two components:▶ Aerodynamic component

▶ Air is forced out of lungs, though throat, mouth, and nose

▶ Articulatory component▶ Air stream is modified in various ways on its way out

The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 5/54

The vocal tract

2

Articulation of English sounds: Consonants

(6) A bit of anatomynasal passages

(7) The airstream:

lungs larynx vocal tract outside world

(8) Step 1: The larynx, or vocal cords

• closed: vibrate, make buzzing noise → voicing• open: no vibration, just let air pass through → no voicing

☞ What would speech sound like if there was no voicing?

(9) Step 2: The vocal tract

• air flowing through the mouth = oral sounds• air flowing through the nose = nasal sounds

(10) Articulation: doing something to block or obstruct the airstream

(11) Place of articulation = where is the obstruction?lips = labial articulationalveolar ridge = alveolar articulationpalate = palatal articulationvelum = velar articulationuvula = uvular articulationglottis = glottal articulation

And one other useful term:air escaping around side(s) of the tongue = lateral articulation

☞ how would a labiodental articulation be made? an interdental articulation? analveopalatal articulation?

larynx(glottis)

lips

teeth

alveolarridge

palate

velum

uvula

tongue blade

tongue dorsum

tongue

to the lungs

brain

(my vocal tract, for illustrative purposes)

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The vocal tract

The first linguistically significant airstream obstruction:

+ The larynx (= the glottis)

From http://www.oto-hns.northwestern.edu/Voice/education.html (brokenlink)

The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 7/54

http://www.oto-hns.northwestern.edu/Voice/education.html

The vocal tract

The first linguistically significant airstream obstruction:

+ The larynx (= the glottis)

From http://www.oto-hns.northwestern.edu/Voice/education.html (brokenlink)

The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 7/54

http://www.oto-hns.northwestern.edu/Voice/education.html

Manipulations of the vocal folds

Vocal folds are held at varying degrees of stiffness/closure▶ Completely open: for respiration (= breathing)▶ Close enough to obstruct airflow: whispering, sighing, [h](aspiration)

▶ Close together, intermediate stiffness: normal (modal) voice▶ Tightly closed: glottal stop (as in [ʔ]uh-[ʔ]oh)

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Voicing

▶ When the vocal folds are held somewhat close together, and withthe right amount of stiffness, air rushing through causes them to“vibrate”

▶ Vocal folds are forced apart and rapidly close again, repeatedly▶ Periodic vibrations = voicing

▶ Can feel externally as a “buzzing” on your throat; try[sssszzzzsssszzz]

Voicing is the first major source of noise for speech▶ Creates a complex periodic wave, which resonates in the mouthand nose, and is otherwise modified on its way into theatmosphere

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Voicing

▶ When the vocal folds are held somewhat close together, and withthe right amount of stiffness, air rushing through causes them to“vibrate”

▶ Vocal folds are forced apart and rapidly close again, repeatedly▶ Periodic vibrations = voicing

▶ Can feel externally as a “buzzing” on your throat; try[sssszzzzsssszzz]

Voicing is the first major source of noise for speech▶ Creates a complex periodic wave, which resonates in the mouthand nose, and is otherwise modified on its way into theatmosphere

The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 9/54

Source properties: voice quality

How would you characterize the difference between these pairs ofsounds?

▶ Mpi (Tibeto-Burman, spoken by ≈ 900 people in Thailand)

Tone Word Gloss Word GlossLow rising ▷ si ‘to be putrid’ ▷ si ‘to be dried up’Low level ▷ si ‘blood’ ▷ si ‘seven’Mid rising ▷ si ‘to roll rope’ ▷ si ‘to smoke’Mid level ▷ si (a color) ▷ si (classifier)High falling ▷ si ‘to die’ ▷ si (name)High level ▷ si ‘four’ ▷ si (name)

▶ Regular vs. ‘tense’ voice

Hear them here.

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http://phonetics.ucla.edu/vowels/chapter12/mpi.htmlhttp://www.phonetik.uni-muenchen.de/~hoole/kurse/phil_demos/language_demos/mpi.html

Source properties: voice quality

!Xóõ (Khoisan, Botswana/Namibia)

Plain (voiced) Pharyngealized Strident Breathy▷ kǁáa ▷ qáʕa ▷ k!ào ▷ k!a̤o

‘camelthorn tree’ ‘long ago’ ‘base’ ‘slope’

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Source properties: voice quality

Voice quality contrasts▶ Bai (Tibeto-Burman, China) (Esling 2002)

▷ tɕi31 ‘field’ ▷ tɕi21 ‘flag’(breathy) (harsh)

▶ English: what determines the voice quality that a word is spokenwith?

▶ Emotive use: frustration, surprise, etc.▶ Individual style: Louis Armstrong, Julie Kavner, etc.

▷ description

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Source properties: voice quality

Voice quality contrasts▶ Bai (Tibeto-Burman, China) (Esling 2002)

▷ tɕi31 ‘field’ ▷ tɕi21 ‘flag’(breathy) (harsh)

▶ English: what determines the voice quality that a word is spokenwith?

▶ Emotive use: frustration, surprise, etc.▶ Individual style: Louis Armstrong, Julie Kavner, etc.

▷ description

The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 12/54

The vocal tract as filter

2

Articulation of English sounds: Consonants

(6) A bit of anatomynasal passages

(7) The airstream:

lungs larynx vocal tract outside world

(8) Step 1: The larynx, or vocal cords

• closed: vibrate, make buzzing noise → voicing• open: no vibration, just let air pass through → no voicing

☞ What would speech sound like if there was no voicing?

(9) Step 2: The vocal tract

• air flowing through the mouth = oral sounds• air flowing through the nose = nasal sounds

(10) Articulation: doing something to block or obstruct the airstream

(11) Place of articulation = where is the obstruction?lips = labial articulationalveolar ridge = alveolar articulationpalate = palatal articulationvelum = velar articulationuvula = uvular articulationglottis = glottal articulation

And one other useful term:air escaping around side(s) of the tongue = lateral articulation

☞ how would a labiodental articulation be made? an interdental articulation? analveopalatal articulation?

larynx(glottis)

lips

teeth

alveolarridge

palate

velum

uvula

tongue blade

tongue dorsum

tongue

to the lungs

brain

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The simplest effect

The vocal tract as a tube, closed at one end

From: Ladefoged (1996) Elements of Acoustic Phonetics, p. 117

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Resonances

▶ Formants:

Fn =2n− 1

4× c

L▶ Fn = formant n▶ c = speed of sound ≈ 35000cm/sec in warm moist air▶ L = length of the tube

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Calculating tube length

▶ Solving for L

L =2n− 1

4× c

Fn▶ Example: F1 = 500Hz, F2 = 1500Hz, F3 = 2500Hz

▶ L = 17.5cm

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Possible filtering actions

▶ Can change the size and shape of the oral cavity▶ Can obstruct the flow of air so much that it must flow through avery narrow passageway

▶ Can completely block airflow through the mouth▶ Can open or close velum to allow allow air to flow through nose

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Examining speech sounds

▶ Examining acoustic properties of speech▶ Praat: http://www.praat.org

▶ Useful for isolating/replaying sounds, and examining acousticproperties

▶ Waveform vs. spectrogram▶ Periodic (voicing) vs. aperiod (frication/aspiration)

▶ Both together: [z], [a̤]▶ Formants

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http://www.praat.orghttp://www.praat.orghttp://www.praat.org

The simplest filtering action

▶ Vocal tract acts as resonance chamber▶ Tongue acts to control the size of the chamber, and divide intosub-chambers

▶ Changing size of these chambers alters the sound wave▶ Boosts amplitude at certain frequencies, dampens others

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What this means, practically speaking

The effect of different tongue positions on the speech signal:

Click!

▶ Raising/lowering tongue in different locations results in differentvowel sounds

▶ Height (high, mid, low) and backness (front, central, back)

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A neat demo

Very realistic vowel qualities can be constructed with simple tubemodels

▶ Exploratorium demo:http://www.exploratorium.edu/exhibits/vocal_vowels/vocal_vowels.html

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http://www.exploratorium.edu/exhibits/vocal_vowels/vocal_vowels.htmlhttp://www.exploratorium.edu/exhibits/vocal_vowels/vocal_vowels.html

Vowel features

Try this:▶ Very slowly say the word yeah…, and feel what you are doing▶ The primary motion is mouth opening/tongue lowering▶ Along the way, you say a variety of vowels, including:

▶ [i] in heat▶ [ɛ] in pet▶ [æ] in cat▶ (and probably quite a few others…)

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Vowel features

Now try this:▶ Very slowly say the word how…▶ Several motions:

▶ Tongue body moving back in the mouth▶ Tongue body moving up▶ Tongue “root” (in throat) moving up/become more tense▶ Mouth closing, lips rounding

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The description of vowels

Vowels can be described along four dimensions:▶ Backness▶ Height▶ Tenseness▶ Rounding

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Some American English vowels

Typical American English vowels, in phonetic transcription(Phonetic transcription indicated with square brackets)

Front Central BackHigh (tense) i u

(lax) ɪ ʊMid (tense) eɪ oʊ

(lax) ɛ ə, ʌ (ɔ)Low (tense) ɑ

(lax) æ

Diphthongs:[aɪ] ([aj]) ‘eye’, [aʊ] ([aw]) ‘how’, [ɔɪ] ([ɔj]) ‘boy’

[i] heat[ɪ] hit[u] hoot[ʊ] hook[eɪ] (=[ej]) gate[ɛ] get[oʊ] (=[ow]) goat[ə] attack[ʌ] gut[ɔ] ought[æ] hat[ɑ] father

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Some things to note

+ Vowel letters (i, e, a, o, u) stand for what are sometimes called“pure” vowels

▶ Roughly, values used for languages like Spanish, Italian, etc.▶ These are closest to the English tense vowels, but English vowelstypically also involve an extra off-glide

▶ [eɪ] (= [ej], [e]), and [oʊ] (= [ow], [o])

+ Special symbols for lax vowels: [ɪ], [ɛ], [æ], [ɔ], [ʊ], [ə], [ʌ]

The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 26/54

A great resource

Demo with sample words, sounds, and animations▶ http://soundsofspeech.uiowa.edu/english/english.html

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http://soundsofspeech.uiowa.edu/english/english.html

ə and ʌ

▶ [ə], [ʌ] = “neutral vowels” (uh…)▶ [ʌ] = stressed, [ə] = stressless

▶ abut [əbʌt], amok [əmʌk], Canuck [kənʌk]

▶ Sometimes [ə] is used for both

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ɑ and ɔFor some American dialects…

▶ [ɑ] = first syllable in father▶ [ɔ] = walk, caught, all▶ But many dialects have merged these into an [ɑ]-like vowel

▶ In fact, the U Iowa site mixes together [ɑ] and [ɔ] words, thoughthe isolated examples are correct

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ɑ and ɔFor some American dialects…

▶ [ɑ] = first syllable in father▶ [ɔ] = walk, caught, all▶ But many dialects have merged these into an [ɑ]-like vowel

▶ In fact, the U Iowa site mixes together [ɑ] and [ɔ] words, thoughthe isolated examples are correct

The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 29/54

ɑ and ɔFor some American dialects…

▶ [ɑ] = first syllable in father▶ [ɔ] = walk, caught, all▶ But many dialects have merged these into an [ɑ]-like vowel

▶ In fact, the U Iowa site mixes together [ɑ] and [ɔ] words, thoughthe isolated examples are correct

The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 29/54

ɑ and ɔ

[ɔ]… [a]…

The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 30/54

ɑ and ɔ

[rɔ] [ra]

The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 31/54

Vowel dimensions

Front, central, back▶ Front = tongue body toward the front of the mouth

▶ [i], [ɪ], [eɪ], [ɛ], [æ]

▶ Central = tongue body neither front nor back▶ [ə], [ʌ]

▶ Back = tongue body toward the back of the mouth▶ [u], [ʊ], [oʊ], [ɔ], [a]

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Vowel dimensions

High, mid, low▶ High: tongue body significantly raised

▶ [i], [ɪ], [u], [ʊ]

▶ Mid: tongue body “neutral”▶ [eɪ], [ɛ], [ə], [ʌ], [oʊ], [ɔ]

▶ Low: tongue body lowered▶ [æ], [ɑ]

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Vowel dimensions

Tense, lax:▶ Tense: tongue root raised, narrower constriction in back of mouth

▶ [i], [eɪ], [ɑ], [oʊ], [u]

▶ Lax: tongue root lowered/relaxed▶ [ɪ], [ɛ], [æ], [ɔ], [ʊ], [ə], [ʌ]

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Vowel dimensions

Rounding:▶ Rounded: lips rounded

▶ [u], [ʊ], [ow], [ɔ]

▶ Unrounded: lips not rounded▶ In English, everything else…

▶ Some languages have front rounded vowels (German ü, ö; alsoFrench, Swedish, Hungarian, and many others)

▶ The Japanese vowel that is usually written u is actually a backunrounded vowel

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Vowels: a fuller set

Front Central BackHigh (tense) i y ɯ u

(lax) ɪ ʏ ʊMid (tense) e ø ɤ o

(lax) ɛ ɶ ə, ʌ ɔLow (tense) a ɑ ɒ

(lax) æ

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Rounding and backness

▶ In English, the non-low back vowels are all round▶ What is the connection between rounding and backness?

▶ “Rounding” = lip protrusion▶ Lengthens vocal tracts▶ Back vowels get ‘backer’

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Rounding and backness

▶ In English, the non-low back vowels are all round▶ What is the connection between rounding and backness?▶ “Rounding” = lip protrusion

▶ Lengthens vocal tracts▶ Back vowels get ‘backer’

The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 37/54

Diphthongs

▶ Vowel and glide combinations▶ Vowel + glide: aɪ, aʊ, ɔɪ, oʊ, etc.▶ Glide + vowel: ju, wo, etc.

▶ English: all have glide second▶ shine, crowd, toy

▶ Spanish: prueba [prweba] ‘test’, viejo [bjexo] ‘old’

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Practice

Describe and give the symbol for the vowels of the following words, asyou pronounce them in your speech

English: remember to include height, backness, rounding, tenseness

▶ cat, couch, book, feet, neat, lute

(If you are not a native speaker of English, you may want to have anative speaker pronounce them for you.)

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Some useful web resources

▶ IPA chart (including symbols for other languages)https://web.uvic.ca/ling/resources/ipa/charts/IPAlab/IPAlab.htm

▶ Free IPA fonts for your computerhttp://dejavu-fonts.org/wiki/Main_Pagehttp://sourceforge.net/projects/linuxlibertine/http://scripts.sil.org/cms/scripts/page.php?&cat_id=FontDownloadsIPA

▶ Typing IPA on the web, to copy into another documenthttp://ipa.typeit.org/

▶ Drills for describing consonantshttp://home.cc.umanitoba.ca/∼krussll/phonetics/practice/consonant/d2intro.htm

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https://web.uvic.ca/ling/resources/ipa/charts/IPAlab/IPAlab.htmhttp://dejavu-fonts.org/wiki/Main_Pagehttp://sourceforge.net/projects/linuxlibertine/http://scripts.sil.org/cms/scripts/page.php?&cat_id=FontDownloadsIPAhttp://scripts.sil.org/cms/scripts/page.php?&cat_id=FontDownloadsIPAhttp://ipa.typeit.org/http://home.cc.umanitoba.ca/~krussll/phonetics/practice/consonant/d2intro.htmhttp://home.cc.umanitoba.ca/~krussll/phonetics/practice/consonant/d2intro.htm

How are consonants different from vowels?

Airflow obstructions▶ Stopping flow completely▶ Rerouting through nose▶ Impeding to varying degrees

Moving tongue, lips, etc., to block air = articulation

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Describing articulation of consonants

Voicing:▶ Voiced or voiceless

Place of articulation:▶ Where in the mouth the constriction is created

Manner of articulation:▶ Degree (and nature) of the constriction

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Place of articulation

2

Articulation of English sounds: Consonants

(6) A bit of anatomynasal passages

(7) The airstream:

lungs larynx vocal tract outside world

(8) Step 1: The larynx, or vocal cords

• closed: vibrate, make buzzing noise → voicing• open: no vibration, just let air pass through → no voicing

☞ What would speech sound like if there was no voicing?

(9) Step 2: The vocal tract

• air flowing through the mouth = oral sounds• air flowing through the nose = nasal sounds

(10) Articulation: doing something to block or obstruct the airstream

(11) Place of articulation = where is the obstruction?lips = labial articulationalveolar ridge = alveolar articulationpalate = palatal articulationvelum = velar articulationuvula = uvular articulationglottis = glottal articulation

And one other useful term:air escaping around side(s) of the tongue = lateral articulation

☞ how would a labiodental articulation be made? an interdental articulation? analveopalatal articulation?

larynx(glottis)

lips

teeth

alveolarridge

palate

velum

uvula

tongue blade

tongue dorsum

tongue

to the lungs

brain

The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 43/54

Place of articulation

Labial (Bilabial) p, b, m(Labiodental) f, v

Interdental θ, ðAlveolar t, d, n, l, s, z,Alveopalatal ʃ, ʒPalatal jVelar k, g, ŋUvular (q, ʁ)Glottal ʔ

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Manner of articulation

In increasing amount of obstruction:

Stops

Obstruents

AffricatesFricativesNasals

Sonorants

LiquidsGlides

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Manner of articulation

In increasing amount of obstruction:

StopsObstruentsAffricates

FricativesNasals

SonorantsLiquidsGlides

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Manner of articulation

Stops: completely block airflow▶ Voiceless: [p], [t], [k]

▶ [p] = voiceless bilabial stop

▶ Voiced: [b], [d], [g]▶ [g] = voiced velar stop

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Aspiration

In English, voiceless stops in some contexts are aspirated▶ A puff of air after release of closure, and before the beginning ofvoicing

▶ Occurs at the beginnings of words▶ pie [phaɪ], top [thap]

▶ But not after [s]▶ spy [spaɪ], stop [stap]

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Nasals

▶ It is possible to keep the mouth closed, but open the velum, torelease air through the nose

Labial m whim [wɪm]Alveolar n win [wɪn]Velar ŋ wing [wɪŋ]

If your nose is blocked, these sounds you can’t make very well; theybecome the corresponding regular (oral) stops

▶ a stuffy [d]ose

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Fricatives

Flow of air is obstructed, but not completely blocked▶ Narrow constriction = air escapes quickly and noisily▶ Characterized by added turbulent noise

Labiodental f, v fan [fæn], van [væn]Interdental θ, ð thin [θɪn], then [ðɛn]Alveolar s, z sin [sɪn], zen [zɛn]Alveopalatal ʃ, ʒ cash [kæʃ], beige [beɪʒ]Velar x Bach [bax]

▶ th in thin = voiceless interdental fricative▶ th in then = voiced interdental fricative▶ s in measure = voiced alveopalatal fricative

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Affricates

Air is stopped briefly, but then released slowly, so there is stillobstruent

▶ Essentially, stop + fricative combinations

Alveopalatal tʃ, dʒ choke [tʃoʊk], joke [dʒoʊk]

▶ ch in church = voiceless alveopalatal affricate▶ j in judge = voiced alveopalatal affricate

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Stridents

▶ Alveolar and alveopalatal fricatives and affricates are especiallynoisy, because they involve very narrow passages for the air topass through

▶ These are known as stridents, or sibilants▶ [s], [z], [ʃ], [ʒ], [tʃ], [dʒ]

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Liquids

▶ Relatively less constriction; air escapes freely around tongue▶ Lateral: [l]

▶ Alveolar constriction, but air escapes around sides of tongue

▶ Rhotic: [r]▶ Tongue curled back or bunched up

▶ Flap: [ɾ]▶ Tongue briefly tapped against alveolar ridge▶ atom [æɾəm]

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Glides

▶ Consonant versions of [i], [u]▶ Very similar articulation, but shorter and with narrowerconstriction

Palatal [j] yes [jɛs]Labiovelar [w] wet [wɛt]

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Consonants

Bilab Lab Inter- Alv Alv- Retr Pal Vel Uvu Phar Glotdent Pal

Stop p b t d ʈ ɖ c ɟ k ɡ q ɢ ʔFric Non-lat ɸ β f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ ʂ ʐ ç ʝ x ɣ χ ʁ ħ ʕ h ɦ

Lat ɬ ɮAffric tʃ dʒNas m ɱ n ɳ ɲ ŋ ɴTrill r ʀTap/flap ɾApprox Non-lat ʍ w ɹ ̥ ɹ ɻ j (ʍ w)

Lat l ̥ l

The nature of speech The production of voicing Vowels Consonants 54/54

The nature of speechThe production of voicingVowelsConsonants

fd@seethat.mp3: fd@seethat.mp3: fd@seethat.mp3: fd@seethat.mp3: fd@mpi1.mp3: fd@mpi2.mp3: fd@mpi3.mp3: fd@mpi4.mp3: fd@mpi5.mp3: fd@mpi6.mp3: fd@mpi7.mp3: fd@mpi8.mp3: fd@mpi9.mp3: fd@mpi10.mp3: fd@mpi11.mp3: fd@mpi12.mp3: fd@xoo1.mp3: fd@xoo2.mp3: fd@xoo3.mp3: fd@xoo4.mp3: fd@Bai_lax_breathy_field.mp3: fd@Bai_tense_harsh_flag.mp3: fd@JulieKavner.mp3: fd@Bai_lax_breathy_field.mp3: fd@Bai_tense_harsh_flag.mp3: fd@JulieKavner.mp3: fd@rm@26: