B1. Ecology and Life - bioscience-bioethics.org · Savannah: Dry grasslands with widely-dispersed...

A Cross-Cultural Introduction to Bioethics 30

B1. Ecology and Life Chapter objectives.

Ecology is the biological science of living relationships. This chapter aims to: 1. Introduce ecology and how life is defined. 2. Show how life is categorised and organised. 3. Explain living systems, processes & interactions.

B1.1. Ecology - basic ingredients Biology is the scientific study of life. Ecology is the branch of biology which investigates living relationships - the science of organization and interaction between different organisms, living systems they inhabit and their physical environments. There is much less research into the large-scale systems of ecology compared to the small-scale systems of molecular biology. As we see the fragility of our world, the future of life depends on human understanding of this subject. We need more ecologists if we are to manage the many predictions of global ecological crisis.

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Of particular concern are the abundance of life and the distribution of life. Three primary subjects studied by ecology are: 1. Organisms 2. Interactions 3. Communities To these traditional areas of discussion in ecology must be added a fourth major concern, since life cannot be considered in isolation from the impacts and pressures placed on it by relentless forces of global change, industrial technology and the expansion of human-dominated ecosystems: 4. Ecological ethics Q1. What other areas of knowledge do you think are important for a young ecologist to have a working knowledge of, beyond 'natural' ecosystem interactions? Q2. Are the soil, water and sky parts of the ecological community?

. Collaborating author: Morgan Pollard, Australia


B1.2. Ecology - the cast of characters Life is defined by science to have particular characteristics: birth, metabolism (synthesis of energy from the environment), growth, replication (capacity for reproduction), hereditary variation, adaptation (evolution by natural selection), inner program (DNA, genetics), organic (carbon-based) chemistry in an aqueous medium, systems behaviour (self-organization, feedback) and complexity (emergent properties like consciousness). Also relevant to the future of life are systems which display most of the above characteristics and behaviours, having their own ways of 'living'. These include viruses, ideas (the 'meme'), human institutions, technologies, software (e.g. 'genetic' algorithms), and possible future developments in artificial intelligence and nanotechnology. The classification of living organisms into a logical hierarchy of groups is called taxonomy. Biology subdivides life in the following manner: Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus and Species. A commonly used five-kingdom system is Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista and Monera (bacteria). Communities are assemblages of species in the same habitat. Species are one of the fundamental units of biology (along with genes, organisms and communities), referring to a genetically and anatomically distinctive groups of organisms capable of breeding. Species are written down in italics with a capitalised genus name followed by the species name (e.g. the human species is Homo sapiens). Habitat is the home or environmental space in which an organism lives and grows. Examples shown in Table 1 are large-scale habitats, but boundaries typically merge. Habitats range down in size to a particular forest community, leaf, pond or the specific localised conditions of microhabitat. Each species has its ecological niche, or the tactics or role to play in the community as defined by its food, shelter, foraging habitat, mating season and interactions with other individuals and species. Keystone species play key roles, linking together community and ecosystem structure (e.g. the dominant vegetation type of a habitat, specialised micro-organisms etc.), making them essential conservation targets. An ecosystem is the collected cast of characters, connected in a balanced performance of networked systems, subsystems, processes, flows and cycles. Conservation effort is most effectively directed at larger-scale units such as communities, habitats, ecosystems and vulnerable biodiversity hotspots (Figure 1). Biodiversity refers to the variety of life, and is studied at the scales of genetic diversity, species diversity and ecosystem diversity. There have been around 1.8 million species so far described, but the majority of invertebrates and micro-organisms remain undiscovered. Estimating the total number of species uses extrapolation from ecological models, scaling up a well known region or taxon to the global level. Most estimates range from 10 to 50 million, but perhaps even up to 100 million species alive on Earth. Around 13,000 new species are catalogued each year. There are so many kinds of insects that a young ecologist on a trip to the Amazon could easily discover and name a new species of beetle. The inventory of life is the most exotic unmapped territory remaining to science.

Q3. Where does the human species fit into the above cast of characters?



Table 1: Large scale communities and habitats (also called ecotypes or biomes) Polar (Arctic): Land of the polar bear Coniferous Forest: Northern cold-temperate pine forest (also called boreal forest or taiga) Deciduous Forest: Distinctly seasonal forests which shed their leaves in winter Montane: High-altitude (cold-adapted) mountain ecosystems Temperate Rainforest: Mid-latitude moist closed-canopy evergreen forest Tropical Rainforest: Warm moist closed forest containing Earth's greatest biodiversity Coral Reefs: Tropical coral reef containing the greatest marine biodiversity Oceans: Littoral (shallow), neritic (continental shelf) & oceanic (deepwater) Riparian: Rivers, lakes and deltas, the essential fresh water habitats Estuarine: Intertidal bays & river mouths essential as fish nursery-grounds Sclerophyll Forest: Mainly hard-leaved (dry-adapted) forests such as Eucalyptus Savannah: Dry grasslands with widely-dispersed trees, such as the African plains Deserts: Arid (low rainfall) environment with little permanent vegetation Polar (Antarctic): Land of the penguin

Figure 1: Biodiversity Hotspots (known forest & heath habitats only)

Source: E.O. Wilson (1992) The Diversity of Life p.250-251



B1.3. Ecology - the action How do organisms and communities change and arrange, and how have the characteristics and diversity of life changed over the long term? This is the subject of evolution, and the discovery by Charles Darwin (On The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, 1859) of a mechanism by which a lineage can adapt into greater complexity through a series of incremental changes to suit its environment. Natural selection is the 'survival of the fittest' idea, where evolutionary success in the struggle for life goes to those replicators (e.g. genes, organisms) best adapted to reproduce descendants in competition with other living forms. Small genetic changes which are adaptive

to the environment will bestow competitive advantage, and aid the manoeuvre of the lineage into new niches. In building up civilizations, the human species has also designed its institutions around models of competition and the struggle for fitness (witness major historical activities such as warfare, economics and politics). Almost forgotten in all this competitive activity has been the more fundamental interaction exemplified by ecology: namely cooperation. Fundamentally, the functioning of ecosystems is a broadly cooperative enterprise. A base framework of cooperation must underlie competitive surface activity; for example even ruthless business competition must rely upon adherence to a cooperative framework of financial and trade regulations. Models of cooperation (e.g. open-source software, multilateral agreements) are increasingly recognised as necessary models for the future. Close cooperation between two or more species is referred to as symbiosis, or a symbiotic relationship. It's called mutualism when both species benefit from the association, commensalism when only one species gains advantage, and parasitism when damage is done to the host. Specialised cooperation increases dependence of one species on the evolutionary success of the other. In some sense, the whole plant and animal kingdoms are in broad mutual symbiosis, with animal respiration involving conversion of oxygen into carbon dioxide, and plant photosynthesis involving conversion of sunlight and carbon dioxide into energy and oxygen (which is why tropical rainforests are the 'lungs of the Earth'). Fungi and bacteria are decomposers, creating life after death by recycling dead nutrients into a form usable by plants. Another example of mutual symbiosis is plants and their pollinators, a delicate evolutionary dance between nectar-producing flowers and pollen-transporting insects.

Q4. The human species is constantly interacting with natural ecosystems of the

Earth. What kind of symbiotic relationships do we have? Does human activity generally seem to be in cooperation with, or in competition with nature?



B1.4. Ecosystems - structure and function Commoners' laws of ecology ('Ecology for Beginners')


a) everything is connected to everything else b) everything must go somewhere c) nature knows best d) there's no such thing as a free lunch. As the name implies, an ecosystem is a type of complex system, the structure and

function of which can be described by systems theory. The difference between a system and a bundle of parts is that the elements of a system are functioning together as an interconnected whole. At its simplest, a system is a web or network, a model highlighting the intersection points (nodes) and flow routes (links). For example, a food web is a network flow diagram with a series of links between predators and their prey. Flows may be one-way or both ways along a link, and matter or energy are often transformed at a node. Analysis of how factors change with time is the study of system dynamics. System dynamics are driven by a series of operations called processes. Examples of ecological processes include chemical transformation, genetic exchange and mass transfer, and actions at such micro-scales have impacts at the scale of organisms and communities. Complexity theory is the study of natural information patterns and the predictability of systems. Just because a system is complex (which means unpredictable) doesn't imply that it's complicated (which means difficult to understand). Actually, one of the amazing things about systems is that they have common features and follow similar general rules across many different scales and levels of organisation. Knowledge of systems and complexity allows connections between many different disciplines to become apparent. Systems are composed of many subsystems 'nested' hierarchically within them. Complex interactions and cybernetic feedback (flows of changes which are self-reinforcing or self-regulating) in the subsystems result in unpredictable collective behaviours in large-scale systems called emergent properties - the emergence, at a certain level, of new order and simplicity from a sea of complexity. For example, science tries to 'explain' life as an emergent property of interacting molecular subsystems. In any case, the important thing is that when nodes or links are altered or removed, a system must find stability by rearranging itself into a new structure. The dilemma for ecology is that human rearrangement of its parts, towards and beyond unknown thresholds (breaking-points), is likely to cause life-threatening non-linear dynamics (dramatic changes or phase shifts) in the stability and habitability of the entire global ecosystem.

Q5. Compare and contrast any two systems of your choice.


Student Activity:

This simple natural scene could be from your local backyard or park. Draw a quick sketch or network flow diagram showing hidden ecological interactions (e.g. predator-prey relations) and cycles (e.g. energy, matter). Involve other important nodes (e.g. micro-organisms, soil) beyond the existing sun, bird, lizard, caterpillar, and plants (represented here by Bodhi leaves).



B2. Biodiversity and Extinction Chapter objectives Biodiversity is genetic, taxonomic and ecosystem variety. What is the significance of species extinction? This chapter aims to: 1. Highlight the importance of biodiversity & its loss. 2. Discuss extinction & past/present mass extinctions.

B2.1. Biodiversity.

Biodiversity is the variety and richness of life on earth, measured at different levels such as the diversity of genes, species, higher taxonomic groups, and ecosystems. Genetic diversity increases reproductive fitness, allowing outbreeding and adaptation to environmental change. Species diversity is required for the effective functioning of ecological communities. Ecosystem diversity provides habitat and the highest-level richness of the world. In simple terms, biodiversity makes life more interesting. Attempts to resurrect extinct species (popularised by 'Jurassic Park') have not yet been successful. A project of the Australian Museum to resurrect the thylacine, or Tasmanian tiger, has recently been cancelled. Another project unable yet to be completed was to resurrect the mammoth from tissue samples preserved in permafrost. Mixing of genetic material with that of a host egg cell does not reproduce the pure original form. Cloning research and cryopreservation (preservation by freezing) of DNA, cells, gametes and embryos in genome resource banks, despite limited current applications, are potential investments in the future of conservation. The first successful natural breeding of cloned male and cloned female American wildcats was reported in August 2005, which offers proof of principle for efforts to clone extinct species. It will need to be tested over further generations however. Seed banks and captive breeding programmes in zoos are also very important for endangered species. However, technological breeding methods must not also breed complacency. After all, it will be technically impossible to replicate or replace the most important unit of biodiversity - viable whole ecosystems.

Q1. Discuss differences between prevention and cure. Can extinction be ‘cured’? Q2. How are seed banks useful for conservation and agriculture?




B2.2. Biodiversity - the drama Extinction is the death, and loss for ever from the Earth, of a genetic lineage of a species. Extinction can be viewed as a tragedy, although it has happened throughout biological history. Even from a purely human centered view, ignoring any intrinsic moral value of life, extinction means we lose essential ecosystem support services, potential new information, ideas, patterns, processes, foods, chemicals, products and may impact on other economic, aesthetic and spiritual values. Threatened species are those at risk of extinction, indicated by rapid decline of population, limited extent of occurrence, models of ecological disturbance or fluctuation, projected habitat loss or fragmentation, and/or low absolute number of remaining individuals. Along the descending journey, threatened species pass through the categories of 'vulnerable', 'endangered', 'critically endangered' and 'extinct in the wild'. A 'ghost species' is a non-viable population, or the ‘living dead’ with negligible chance of escaping extinction. What happens to an ecosystem when some of its inhabitants go

extinct? Feedback interactions occur, and the fluctuations of the adjusting system put further species at risk. If a keystone species is affected, the repercussions may include rapid and dramatic unravelling of the whole community. As a well-known example, hunting of the north-eastern Pacific sea-otter for its fur allowed its sea-urchin prey to grow to excessive population size, resulting in the decline of beautiful kelp forests in favour of an exposed-seabed community with reduced biota. Similarly, if a seemingly-successful population expands beyond the limits of its food or resource-base, loss of equilibrium and catastrophic population decline typically follow, unleashing the 'Four Horsemen': conflict, famine, pestilence and death. Risk factors which make a group more susceptible to extinction include some of the following characteristics: small population size (rarity is the predominant risk factor), narrow geographic distribution, niche or habitat specificity, large body size, symbiotic dependence on other species (e.g. for pollination), narrow diet, low dispersal ability, slow reproduction, morphological ornateness, susceptibility to stress, and stenotypy (or specialised lifestyle with limited adaptability). Bad luck can perhaps also be mentioned, as there seems to be a random component to the fossil record of mass extinctions. Furthermore, weird and wonderful adaptations, seemingly beneficial over the short term, such as over-reliance on symbiosis or strange features resulting from evolutionary arms races, may in fact be detrimental to survival over the longer term, leading unwitting species down a potentially dead-end path known as an evolutionary cul-de-sac.

Q3. Is it possible that the human species is in an evolutionary cul-de-sac (dead

end street)? Which behaviours, seemingly adaptive over the short term, may be disadvantageous to our survival over the longer term?



B2.3. Extinction Five mass extinction events of the geological record are flagged and graphed by loss of whole families in Figure 2. The big five should act as warnings. They marked the end of the Ordovician, Devonian, Permian, Triassic and Cretaceous (extinction of the dinosaurs) geological periods, and seem to have been caused at different times by combinations of climate change, comet or meteorite impact, super-volcanism, marine regression and/or broad ecological restructuring or collapse. A case in point is death by suffocation, such as when the evolutionary blossoming of photosynthesis created a (then) toxic oxygen-rich atmosphere, or during the Permian extinction with up to fifty percent less oxygen postulated for a temporary period. Mass extinctions may occur over millions of years, or may take only a few decades depending on whether the cause is gradual (uniformitarianism) or suddenly nonlinear (catastrophism). Researchers have differing opinions on the causes and history of extinction as interpreted from the fossil record. Despite vigorous debate about the past, most experts in evolution or ecology display uncanny agreement about the present. As an example in the following quote, from within a minority view - uniformitarian argument - for gradual change during past eras, we nevertheless see emerge the majority-view which is warning of catastrophism for the present era.

"Although the fossil evidence does not support the concept of historical mass extinctions or mass killings, there is a catastrophic extinction event occurring in contemporary time. Raven (1990) has estimated that, by the first quarter of the 21st century, the world will have lost 2 million out of a minimal world total of 10 million animal species and about 65,000 out of 300,000 species of vascular plants. These losses, due to habitat destruction by humans, are occurring with a rapidity that is unprecedented in Phanerozoic time. Historic extinction episodes were so gradual that many lineages were able to accommodate in an evolutionary and ecological sense. The tempo of the current extinctions precludes any such adjustments."

John Briggs (1994) 'Mass Extinctions: Fact or Fallacy?' p.235-6

Figure 2: History of Biodiversity Illustrating Mass Extinction Events

Q4. Do you agree it is likely we have now entered the sixth great mass

extinction?



"I will consider only species being lost by reduction in forest area … I will not include overharvesting or invasion by alien organisms. I will assume a number of species living in the rain forests, 10 million (on the low side), and I will further suppose that many of the species enjoy wide geographical ranges. Even with these cautious parameters, selected in a biased manner to draw a maximally optimistic conclusion, the number of species doomed each year is 27,000. Each day it is 74, and each hour 3."

E.O. Wilson (1992) 'The Diversity of Life' p. 268

Change in global biodiversity is measured by a simple equation - number of speciations (evolutions of new species) minus number of extinctions. The average longevity of a species is 1 to 10 million years, only about half that for mammals. Estimated normal 'background' extinction has been estimated at less than one species per million per year. How are we managing the living world at this moment? As usual estimates vary, but the important thing is that detailed scientific studies agree the current extinction rate is very large. The above quote is based on decades of study and satellite imagery observations of habitat destruction and fragmentation in tropical rainforests (the most biodiverse terrestrial ecosystem) by Thomas Lovejoy and E.O. Wilson. Empirical biogeography theory indicates that a tenfold decrease in habitat area removes approximately half of existing species. The quote below reflects scientific predictions for tropical coral reefs (the most biodiverse marine ecosystem) in a world of global warming, susceptible to widespread death by coral bleaching, where essential symbionts of coral polyps (tiny dinoflagellates called zooxanthellae) are lost and the reef dies a barren white. Nevertheless, average biodiversity has increased over the long-term history of life (Figure 2), the rebounds partly explained by species selected for extinction resistance taking advantage of vacated niches. Unfortunately however, recovery of biodiversity is slow enough to ensure that even if Homo sapiens were to survive a mass extinction event, we would live in an impoverished world for longer than our expected natural lifespan.

"Even under the best case scenario, losses of at least 50% of the [Great Barrier] Reef's living coral cover are likely to occur by 2050. How humans will be affected by these changes is still uncharted yet is enormously important." (p.1), "Projections of changes in water temperature do not bode well for coral and the reefs that they help build. Already increases in water temperature of only 0.6°C since 1880 have increased the bleaching and mortality of reef-building corals across the planet … These levels of change in sea temperature are unsustainable by corals growing where they are today, even under the milder scenarios in which seas only warm by 2°C." (p.54), and "these temperatures will exceed the local thermal tolerances of reef-building corals on annual basis by 2030-2060. The calculated thermal stress levels rise to several-fold higher than those seen in 2002 and lead to the highly probable conclusion that reefs dominated by coral will be rare in the Great Barrier Reef region by 2050." (p.84) Hans & Ove Hoegh-Guldberg (2004) 'The Implications of Climate Change

for Australia's Great Barrier Reef'

Q5. Everyone dies. But can Homo sapiens, the human species, go extinct? How likely do you think it might be over short, medium and long time-scales? What are the alternatives to extinction?



B3. Ecological Ethics Chapter objectives.

This chapter aims to introduce concepts of ecocentrism and stewardship, and to encourage awareness of ecological ethics.

B3.1. Points of View Ecological ethics has typically been subsumed by anthropocentric (human-centred) and individual-centric concerns (for example, the focus on individual moral choice and autonomy in recent ethics). A biocentric viewpoint is the view from an individual living organism, like a tree or a dog. Ecocentrism is to view a problem from the perspective of a whole ecosystem, and it comes from an awareness that we are only part of a larger system. Ecological ethics education can be made even more effective with understanding of actions played out at the systems level and group level. Concepts of collective wisdom and human maturity as a species are important here. Homo sapiens is a young and new species, having been around for less than 200,000 years or so. Ethical choices and consequences ought to be assessed on the scale of large groups, at the systems level, over the long term, to non-human as well as to human life and wellbeing. Q1. Can you think of occasions when you view ethical questions ecocentrically?

B3.2. The Gaia Hypothesis Almost the largest relevant system and scale is the planet as a whole, also known as Gaia, named after the Greek mother goddess of the Earth. James Lovelock's hypothesis, proposed in Gaia - A New Look at Life on Earth (1979), views the planet as a living super-organism. As well as life adapting to its environmental conditions, it proposes that the homeostatic (or balanced and self-organising) planet, the sum of all its living interactions, in turn acts to optimise surface conditions for the maintenance of life. Q2. Do you think our planet as a whole can be classified as one living organism?




B3.3. Stewardship Humans are not the only animals to feel emotions and pain (damaged ecosystems in fact exhibit widespread animal suffering), but our species has exhibited conscience and intelligence. We invented tools and civilisations, and derived management and ethical systems beyond what we know are the capabilities of other known forms of life. With such power also comes responsibility. In this case our responsibility is stewardship, or the protective guardianship of Spaceship Earth and its living systems. Should we be technocentric, placing trust in future technology to save us from the mess we make of the Earth, or should we be ecocentric and remain within known limits and principles of ecology with adequate precaution, prevention and preservation of critical life-support processes? We are probably not alone across the myriad galaxies, just as we no longer think we're at the centre of the solar system or universe. There’s a theory which says that lack of verifiable contact with extraterrestrials is because 'intelligent' life quickly tends to destroy itself with its own technology! Instead of such a gloomy prognosis, taking a different path we could yet add to Gaia's definitional features of life - like providing replication and heredity through 'terraforming', the potential future technology of seeding other planets. This would of course open up a whole new ethical debate, but will we be around long enough for our technology to progress that far? We can be, but only if we choose soon, and utilise the scientific and ecological management tools of the subject known as environmental science.

Sustainable living involves not just efficient agriculture, but also minimizing our energy use and pollution. The type of research that is required for a transition to a lasting earth is of three broad types. One is the use of science to discover the workings of nature, such as elemental cycles, and developing technology for energy and resource conservation. Another is economic systems that are consistent with sustainable living. We need a fresh approach to add to the battle of protecting the environment. In the long term the most important approach is a lasting change of human attitudes to those that are compatible with sustainable life. We need lifestyle change. We cannot isolate any environmental problem from the whole crisis of modern life. The environment is influenced mainly by human behaviour, national and international development, economics and politics.

Q3. Consider the table on the following page and consider where your

community is in the evolution of ecological ethics? Do you think there are some differences in the evolution of these concepts in different cultures? (See also p.62)



B4. Environmental Science Chapter objectives.

Environment includes both natural and human systems. This chapter aims to: 1. Survey the wide range of environmental problems. 2. Introduce a basic understanding of environment, science, measurement and models. 3. Demonstrate environmental science and management tools, techniques and solutions.

* World Scientists' Warning to Humanity * from the Union of Concerned Scientists

(signed by 1600 leading scientists from 71 nations, 1992)

"Human beings and the natural world are on a collision course... No more than one or a few decades remain before the chance to avert the threats we now confront will be lost and the prospects for humanity immeasurably diminished. WARNING: We the undersigned, senior members of the world’s scientific community, hereby warn all humanity of what lies ahead. A great change in our stewardship of the Earth and life on it is required, if vast human misery is to be avoided and our global home on this planet is not to be irretrievably mutilated."

B4.1. Environmental Problems Much attention has been focused in previous decades on problems of the environment, human nature and human governance… but the current century is almost certainly the most hazardous that humans have ever entered, and may be our last unless we can shift the attention of our leaders and the global power they wield towards the solutions - and act on them! Specific problems must be identified and understood, but squishing many into Table 1 makes extra room to identify more tools and techniques from among the solutions.




Table 1: Problems …

War An industrialised form of violent mass organised acquisition of power Conflict Land, money & resources the real reason (religion/culture often just an excuse) Poverty Inequality causes conflict, suffering, environmental & psychological damage Greed Lust for kinds of power, such as money, tends to corrupt moral concerns

Over-Population First 200,000 years to 0CE: 0.2 billion; 1850 1 bill; 1960 3 bill; 1999 6 billion Over-Production Economic system geared to constant growth, ready to supply any demand

Over-Consumption Cultural system constantly encouraging desire, consumerism & materialism Over-Development Wealthy nations wasting limited resources at the expense of poor nations

Habitat Destruction Land-clearing for agriculture, grazing, forestry, mining, urban sprawl etc Habitat Degradation Decline in ecological function, integrity, fertility, biodiversity, aesthetics etc

Fragmentation Isolated fragments of habitat become ecologically disconnected & vulnerable Ecosystem Collapse Dramatic restructuring of communities due to key extinctions or changes

Deforestation Clearing or burning of forests & rainforest for timber or other land-use

Desertification Previously productive land becoming infertile, arid or saline (salty) River Decline Turbidity (muddiness), eutrophication (algal blooms), eco-disruption (dams) Overfishing Most fisheries have been shown to be harvested beyond sustainable limits

Pollution Pesticides, fertilisers, sewage, petrochemical smog, acid rain, landfill wastes

Climate Change Global warming, Greenhouse Effect, El Nino, rising temperature & sea levels Ozone Depletion Loss of the atmospheric layer which protects life from harmful UV radiation Coral Bleaching Impending large-scale death of the second most biodiverse ecosystem

Pest Species Natives displaced by introduced species (predation, weeds, hybridisation etc)

Disease Epidemics Evolution of new diseases, epidemics (extensive), pandemics (global) Food Supply Preventable hunger/disease kills about 40 million people/year (~100,000/day!)

Water Supply Fresh water crises, waterborne disease, drought, diversion from ecosystems

Nuclear Legacy Nuclear waste remains toxic thousands of years longer than storage methods Resource Decline Non-renewable depletion, slow transfer to renewable resources & energy

Loss of Biodiversity Ecosystems, habitats, species and local populations lost to extinction Extinction Conservative estimate (Wilson) of 74 species lost forever each new morning

Apathy I don’t want to know either. Don’t care.

Ignorance The unknown & uncertain. What you don’t know can’t hurt you… or can it? Unhappiness Unrealistic expectations, rising rates of depression, anxiety & youth suicide

Unease Trying to be 'normal' in a prevailing climate of fear and paradox

Q1. Which do you think are the most urgent environmental problems in the

world today, and what are their main causes?



B4.2. Environmental Science Environmental Science is the study and implementation of systems, methods and tools for predicting, analysing, solving and preventing large-scale ecological and social problems.

Environment is … a) influences and conditions external to the genes; b) the physical surroundings of a living organism; c) natural ecosystems which surround humans; d) the total biophysical world including humans and our systems; e) the total biophysical world and its connected sphere of knowledge and information; f) all of the above, including emotion, behaviour, culture and consciousness of life.

Q2. Which of the above definitions of 'Environment' do you think is most useful? Are there benefits to looking at the answer in different ways?

Science is . . . Science is a rational method for discovering whether the behaviour of the world conforms to certain theoretical ideas. The scientific method begins with a theory or hypothesis, which proposes some solution to a specific question or problem, and then uses logical analysis and systematic measurement to find evidence in the form of data to either falsify or help support the hypothesis. The experiment is a series of controlled observations which can be quantified and replicated. Further scientific principles include objectivity (a value-neutral position), reductionism (analysis of the parts), simplicity (elegance), parsimony (minimised assumptions), quantification (statistical measurement), testability, predictive and explanatory power, logical consistency, and (usually) general agreement with existing knowledge. Even after all this, an exposed new theory must still survive critical inspection of its methods, results and assumptions - by a scientific community pervasively in a sceptical and analytical mood.

Ideas that are open to all these tests and survive them are more likely to be true.

Q3. Should scientific information be the major driver of environmental

decisions over competing short-term political or economic objectives?



B4.3. Environmental Science Solutions: tools and techniques

Tools and Techniques #1: Measurement Statistics ensure that data are quantified for interpretation, a fundamental requirement of science. Data by themselves (numbers, raw facts) are meaningless until they can be organised into information (patterns, statistics) which can be graphed and analysed. Statistics may be either descriptive or inferential (inference is the assumption that measures of a sample set can be extrapolated to the whole set). Precision is how closely the measurement is made, and accuracy refers to how correctly it is made. Examples of basic descriptive statistics are measures of central tendency (estimating the middle of data) including mean (average), median and mode, and measures of dispersion (estimating the spread of data) including variance, standard error, standard deviation and range. Don’t worry, so long as you know the basic statistical principles of what you’re trying to find in data and how the data are arranged, a computer can do the hard maths for you!

Tools and Techniques #2: Models are simplified representations of the real-world systems of the environment. They make things clearer by cutting away the non-relevant parts to better illustrate fundamental structures, functions, processes and connections. These things are represented by specific icons representing inputs, outputs, material flows, options, decisions etc. A map is a model of the landscape, a graph is a scientific model, and an engineer’s blueprint is a technological model. Models are powerful tools and can be used to describe, explain, predict, prescribe or evaluate. The problem to watch out for with models is in the assumptions needed to reduce their complexity, where important parts can be left out – for example economic models which don’t include environmental impacts. Many of the tools and techniques on following pages are types of model.


Tools and Techniques #3: Indicators are the broadly representative and easily monitored measures of the environment used to imply additional information about the system as a whole. For example, the abundance of an indicator species can be measured as a signal of the health of the whole ecosystem. A variety of environmental indicators should be used to plot comparisons between locations and across time, including physical, chemical, biological, social and economic indicators.

Tools and Techniques #4: Index refers to a measure made from the combination of many different variables, creating a much broader type of indicator. For example, the United Nations Development Programme publishes indications of the progress of nations called the “Human Freedom Index” and the “Human Development Index”.

Q4. How do data, information, theory and knowledge differ from each other?

How do we differentiate facts from opinions?


Tools and Techniques #5: Problem-solving models (e.g. Figure 1b) identify stages in the process of defining, analysing and solving a specific problem. You must identify the goal or desired objective, identify obstacles to progress towards the objective, formulate options or alternative courses of action, choose between them, and plan actions to implement the decision.

Tools and Techniques #6: Decision-Making models (e.g. Figure 1a) are part of the problem-solving process and help you to decide between a number of alternative courses of action (including the “no action” option). Simple decisions with a single goal can be dealt with using a ‘decision tree’ which identifies stages of the process and the risks associated with different options. Harder decisions may require ‘multi-criteria decision analysis’. The process of making a decision usually requires optimisation, or calculating the overall best and safest (optimal) alternative.

Tools and Techniques #7: Expert Systems are decision support software which mimics the reasoning of a human expert. They consist of a set of logical rules about systems behaviour, combined with the input of expertise from a particular domain of knowledge. Expert systems are a practical application of artificial intelligence.

Tools and Techniques #8: Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a systematic process to assess the consequences of any major infrastructure development. First developed in the 1970s by the US Geological Survey (see Leopold matrix, Figure 1a), it has become widely used and compulsory by regulation in many countries. An EIA typically includes an initial scoping study to identify boundaries of concern, descriptions of the proposed development, predictions of the magnitude and importance of probable environmental impacts, comparison of alternatives, and suggested mitigation measures. Public consultation is required throughout the process, and the final report is called an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) which must include a non-technical summary and recommendations. Environmental monitoring is important, beforehand to know the environmental baseline, and afterwards to audit outcomes and inform future EIA.

Tools and Techniques #9: Social Impact Assessment (SIA) is a systematic process along the same lines as Environmental Impact Assessment, but focusing on the consequences to society, culture, community and wellbeing.

Tools and Techniques #10: Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) also uses similar principles to Environmental Impact Assessment, but focusing on alternative policies, plans or programmes at an earlier, more strategic phase of development.



Figure 1: Historical Models of Decision-Making and Problem-Solving Processes a) Small sample of original Leopold Matrix used for Environmental Impact Assessment; proposed

actions which may cause impact tabulated against existing characteristics of the environment. (US Geological Survey 1971)

b) (overlaid) Jackson, Keith F. (1975) The Art of Problem Solving



Tools and Techniques #11: Life-cycle Assessment (LCA) analyses material and energy flows by following the complete lifecycle of a product through the processes of resource extraction, transport, manufacturing, marketing, consumption and disposal.

Tools and Techniques #12: Pressure / State / Response Models follow the causal relationship from pressures on the environment (e.g. economic demands, energy use, fisheries, industrial developments), through the state or condition of the environment (e.g. impacts upon atmosphere, water, biodiversity, ecology, heritage and human settlements), to the responses (institutional, legislative and economic instruments, environmental management practices etc.). Pressure/State/Response models are required for OECD member countries to inform national State of the Environment (SoE) reporting.

Tools and Techniques #13: Before/After Control/Impact (BACI) Studies are used for definitive experimental proof beyond reasonable doubt that an environmental impact has occurred as the result of some sort of development. Monitoring of the site both before and after the development process identifies the impacts, and simultaneous monitoring of one or more closely similar non-impacted control sites demonstrates that the resulting changes only occurred at the developed site.

Tools and Techniques #14: Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are the use of computerised overlay maps, often from satellite remote sensing, to combine social and/or environmental data sets. The resulting composite maps are useful to find new patterns of information and optimise strategic decision-making.

Tools and Techniques #15: Risk Assessment is a systematic method for estimating and analysing the probability, potential frequency, range, severity and social acceptability of hazards and other adverse consequences.

Tools and Techniques #16: Cost-Benefit Analysis (often called benefit-cost analysis in the US) is systematic assessment of the advantages/benefits and disadvantages/costs of any decision, so as to obtain the greatest net social benefit (i.e. benefits minus costs significantly greater than zero). Problems with cost-benefit analysis arise when it (too commonly) ignores non-monetary values, and secondly when it only measures benefits to a particular small group (e.g. corporate shareholders) rather than true social and ecological benefits.



Tools and Techniques #17: Systems Analysis is the use of information technology to discover the nature and requirements of systems. Systems engineering is the creation of new arrangements. Today typically used in software design and business management, systems analysis should also play an increased role in the environmental sciences.

Tools and Techniques #18: Software Engineering and new Internet architectures, which can be based around environmental or democratic principles, have the potential to make a significant impact on human activity and the information-gathering practices of future researchers from anywhere in the world.

Tools and Techniques #19: Best Practice refers to knowing about and using current advances in environmental management or technology, and incorporation of “Best Available Information”. Regulatory approaches are called in the US “Best Available Control Technology”, and in the UK “Best Practicable Means” or “Best Available Technology Not Entailing Excessive Cost”.

Tools and Techniques #20: Principles of Bioethics and Sustainability should be the central guidelines and objectives for any new models or management tools you may create if you perhaps decide to choose a career in environmental science or in environmental economics.

Student Activity

Use the basic principles of decision-making used in EIA (similar to Figure 1a) to solve your own problem in any area of interest (e.g. some major life decision). 1) list alternative courses of action (options) as columns (e.g. career choices). 2) list aspects of wellbeing (elements) as rows (e.g. health and happiness of self and others). 3) estimate the importance of each element from 0 (not important) to 10 (most important) [x, y and z in figure]. 4) in the upper-left corner of each intersecting square of the matrix, estimate the magnitude of impact (of each option on each element) between -10 (worst negative impact) and +10 (best positive impact) [a, b and c in figure]. 5), multiply each importance estimate by the magnitude estimate and enter these scores into the lower-right corner of each square [xa, yb and zc in figure]. 6) Add up these lower-right scores to determine the total for each option. Which option does the matrix say is best? 7) Does the answer 'feel right' according to your original instincts?



B5. Environmental Economics Chapter objectives Economics is the measurement of wealth and well-being. This chapter aims to: 1. Prioritise environmental problems and their causes. 2. Illustrate links between economics and ecology. 3. Describe ecological limits and social justice. 4. Characterise components of wellbeing. 5. Discuss the ethics of environmental economics.

B5.1. The Big Problem.

We currently seem to be experiencing a human-driven mass extinction event. Human activity has now reached a level of collective impact often matching or exceeding that of some natural global biogeographical processes which shape and organise ecosystems and their critical ecological life-support services. Many of the systems we have created (for example economic, political or institutional systems), once-removed from individual human control, are having a devastating impact upon the global abundance and distribution of life. Habitat destruction, ecosystem fragmentation, introduced species, pollution, global warming… and at the same time squandering scarce resources on weapons of war (destruction) and dubious entertainments (distraction). This is a source of depression for permanent loss of biodiversity, and a cause for anxiety over our human future. Ecosystems and biodiversity function like organs of the global body to maintain stable planetary conditions for life. Usually taken for granted, ecosystem services are provided free by ecosystems, but end up costing heavily in life and money if damaged. As extinction progressively degrades or destroys links and nodes of ecological systems, critical thresholds may be reached whereby large-scale properties of the global system may switch to a different and unfavourable stable state. It's not guaranteed that the majority of humans will be able to adapt to unexpected non-linear dynamics in large-scale systems upon which we depend.

It seems pertinent to address the question of major causes as soon as possible. By its own definition, priority of objectives is of the utmost importance in human activity.




Historically, immediate reasons (proximate causes) of widespread extinctions include: Proximate cause #1: most importantly, habitat destruction, such as the clearing of land to make way for human dominated environments, particularly agriculture or grazing, or as a result of large dams, logging operations, settlements etc. Proximate cause #2: habitat fragmentation into isolated segments or habitat 'islands' vulnerable to edge effects, and preventing genetic exchange and migration, for example the migration of ecosystems towards the poles to adapt to global warming. Proximate cause #3: introduced species which displace native species. For example, much of Australia's high extinction rate has been caused by introduced species out-competing (e.g. rabbits), preying upon (e.g. foxes), poisoning (e.g. cane toads), or replacing (e.g. crops, sheep, cattle) the existing native species or their habitats. Proximate cause #4: over-fishing / hunting / harvesting, although it’s theoretically possible to manage these at sustainable levels since they harvest renewable resources.

A news flash for the 'big problem' might sound something like: "Mass extinction by habitat destruction threatens human survival"

There must be underlying reasons behind the immediate problems so far identified. In modern times the fundamental underlying reasons (ultimate causes) include: Ultimate cause #1: Overpopulation. When were your grandparents born? Not very long ago in the 200,000-year history of human evolution. Yet as recently as 1960 the human population had only just reached 3 billion. Since then, with an expansion of exponential proportions, it suddenly rose to well over 6 billion (Figure 1), possibly to double again over the current century before it is expected to stabilise. Potential costs to the Earth’s ecology and the resulting future human conflict are unknown. Also uncertain is whether future technology can protect humans from the fate typical of other species whose populations outgrow their resource-base. Fortunately however, human fertility rates have been slowing, especially in developed economies where children often cost more than they contribute. Better access to women's rights, education, contraception, and family planning are very important especially in developing nations.

Q1. What happens when a population outgrows its habitat or resources?



B5.2. Environmental Economics Further fundamental or ultimate causes are economic factors, resulting from models and systems we created and have attempted to press upon the living systems of the world. Ultimate cause #2: Over-production Ultimate cause #3: Over-consumption Ultimate cause #4: Over-development

In this view, the newspaper headline might read: "Non-living systems threaten global living systems"

Why? Because the economic processes of production (supply of goods and services by firms), consumption (demand for use of goods and services), and development (growth/expansion of goods and services), are ultimately linked to ecology and are largely sourced from the environment and the labour of human society. Figure 2 illustrates the big-picture interactions, noting how the terminologies differ between the subjects of environmental science and economics. The economy is an open system reliant on three basic functions: a) supply of resources, b) assimilation of wastes, and c) provision of life-support and natural services (including spiritual). Mainstream economics, as widely practiced today, focuses almost exclusively within the boundaries of the upper section of Figure 2. In economics-speak, the non-monetary components in the lower section are known by the obscure but telling term ‘externalities’. Thus environmental losses, withdrawn from a parallel ‘living bank account’, are relegated into the background and rarely considered as costs in business policy and profit-calculations.

Q2. Identify and discuss links and flows between economy and environment.



B5.3. Putting economics in its place It’s useful to know that the prefix ‘Eco-’ comes from the Greek root ‘oikos’, meaning ‘house’ or ‘home’. Therefore Eco-logy means the science of the home (because ‘-logy’ means ‘the study of’, from ‘logos’ or ‘word’), and Eco-nomics means the management of the home (‘-nemein’ is ‘to manage’). The paradox is that our global home is currently being managed according to measurements and models which are basically ignoring the science of the home. The biological science of ecology, dealing with the distribution, abundance and interactions of Earth’s living systems including humans, should logically be (more to the point, must logically become) the central focus and driving force commanding the economy.

"Economic models and measurement focus not ecologically rational" We must accept that economics, measurement of the distribution, abundance and interactions of money, is only a means to an end, not an end in itself. Economics, as a subset of the many non-monetary social and ecological interactions going on among and around us, is simply a means to the higher ends of widespread ecological and human wellbeing, happiness, fulfilment, satisfaction, contentment and overall spiritual/moral ease with ourselves and our environment. Unfortunately, the economy is growing too big for its boots. The production-consumption-development cycle, driven by population growth and economic growth, is now reaching or over-reaching global social and ecological limits and critical thresholds. Rather than market efficiency and economic incentives, explained in detail and promoted by mainstream media and news sources, what’s really required is non-consumerism, and dematerialization, an unnecessarily unwieldy term which means the use of much less materials in production and development. In recently accepted models (Figure 3), clearly the economic sphere cannot continue to grow indefinitely without crowding out the social and ecological spheres, bounded by the limited size of the Earth.

"What economics calls ‘externalities’ turn out to be most important parts"

Figure 3: Putting Economics in its Place Sources: (left) John Peet 1995; (right) Ian Lowe 1998

Q3. Discuss ends and means in relation to economics.



B5.4. Limits ignored There’s not really much excuse for our economic and political leaders to claim ignorance of these things, as there’s been no shortage of classic philosophical warnings about limits. Thomas Malthus warned of absolute limits to population size in Essay on the Principle of Population (1798). Ricardo warned of relative scarcity, or relative limits to growth in Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (1817). J.S. Mill in Principles of Political Economy (1857) expected the endpoint of an economy to be a desirable 'stationary state' (in modern economic terms a constant capital stock) in which there would be time for spiritual, artistic and educational pursuits. Karl Marx talked about social limits to growth and the rights of workers in Capital (1867). Kenneth Boulding introduced the concept of 'Spaceship Earth' versus 'cowboy economy' in The Economics of the Coming Spaceship Earth (1966). Paul and Ann Ehrlich foresaw catastrophic future consequences in Population Bomb (1968). Garrett Hardin warned of the depletion of open-access resources due to the self-interested actions of too many competitors for a common stock in The Tragedy of the Commons (1968). Daly (1973) promoted a no-growth or steady-state economy in which optimum and maximum size of the economy within the greater system are taken into consideration (the ‘scale issue’). Meadows et al. wrote for the Club of Rome’s Project on the Predicament of Mankind: Limits to Growth (1972), which has been followed up by Beyond the Limits (1992) and Limits to Growth – 30 year Update (2005). These concepts have often been met with denial, and sometimes wrongly rejected due to criticisms of the timing of specific predictions rather than of fundamental premises. Ecological limits are undeniable, and are measured in ecology by the symbol K for carrying capacity, or the maximum population density an area can sustain without causing lasting degradation. There are limits of acceptable change. The area of land required to compensate our resource consumption is known as our ecological footprint. If all people were to live the lifestyle enjoyed by the wealthiest nations, our collective ecological footprint would be more than three times the Earth's surface. Our activities have a certain forward momentum, and the resulting impacts may be positive or negative, primary (direct) or secondary (flow-on effects), may be sudden (e.g. land clearing), gradual (e.g. land degradation), or delayed (e.g. climate change), may produce feedback, act in combination (additive or multiplicative), and may be measurable or completely unknown. Attempts have been made to estimate the total environmental impact of human activity on the Earth, for example:

Total impact = PF (Population x Impact per capita) Ecological impact = PCT (Population x Consumption/affluence x Technological efficiency) Impact damage = population x economic intensity x resource intensity x

environmental pressure on the resource x susceptibility of the environment

Impact = PLOT (Population x Lifestyle x Organization x Technology)



B5.5. Opportunities lost Economics can been divided into two major goals: efficiency and equity. Our models are very good at efficiency, which refers to maximising the amount of work done/money made (benefits), compared to the energy supplied/money spent (costs). Adam Smith’s An Inquiry Into the Nature and the Wealth of Nations (1776) was the defining work on classical economic efficiency, introducing the guidance of the ‘invisible hand of the market’. John Maynard Keynes concentrated on social employment efficiency, and Joseph Schumpeter on adaptive efficiency with investment in technology and creativity. In practice, our economic models were formulated around the market efficiency objective, completely overshadowing the more ethically-important social equity objective (fairness in the distribution of wealth and equality of opportunity). Classic philosophers on the equity component of economics include Jeremy Bentham (1781) who introduced the ethical philosophy of Utilitarianism, further developed by James Mill and then his son J.S. Mill in Utilitarianism (1863), and commonly known as the 'happiness principle' or 'the greatest good for the greatest number' (economists use utility to mean wellbeing). Marshall McLuhan’s global village concept (1970s) highlighted wealth disparities in a comprehensible way using the metaphor of a local neighbourhood. About half of the world village is in relative or extreme poverty, earning only a few dollars a day, without access to clean drinking water, modern healthcare, contraception, immunization or security. Roughly, over 80% of the world’s wealth is wrapped up by less than 20% of its people. John Rawls in A Theory of Justice (1971) proposes that a just world would be the one we would organise such that we’d feel okay to be born randomly anywhere in it. This refers to social (distributive) justice rather than simply legal (retributive) justice. The other justice debate is whether to distribute wealth according to right, merit or need – but any form of justice would surely do compared to the status quo of distribution by non-living market forces. A small step towards addressing the equity problem would be the application of ‘fair trade’ rules in preference to ‘free trade’. Another relatively ignored and euphemistic economics term is ‘opportunity cost’, sometimes also called ‘external costs’. This refers to the fact that if you do one thing with scarce money, time and resources, there’s a cost in lost opportunities towards other things you could have done instead. A brief glance at where the bulk of the world’s money is spent, shows that most often the opportunity costs are far more ethically significant than the wasteful spending choices of wealthy people and nations. Poverty, hunger, preventable disease and war have killed at least tens of thousands of children and adults every time you wake up in the morning – perhaps 40 million per year, which is around one hundred thousand preventable deaths every day.

Q 4: [Source of idea: Peter Unger (1996) & Peter Singer (2002) One World: the Ethics of Globalisation] a) Imagine you saw that a runaway train was definitely about to kill a child playing in the

railway tunnel. Would you pull a switch to divert the train to a different track, even if it meant the train would then smash up your new car parked there?

b) Consider that donations of as little as US$200 can pay for enough food & medicine (including administration) to save a child’s life through UNICEF or other charity organisations. Are there valid reasons to suppose any of us are in a different moral situation to the dilemma posed in a) above?



B5.6. Local children on the global scrapheap Big global problems are comprised of a mosaic of lots of small local problems. The over-developed countries (self-defined as the ‘first world’) have used global financial mechanisms to take human and natural resources from under-developed (‘third world’) nations. Those too poor to provide prospects for profit have typically been ignored, along with other externalities like pollution. Essential human needs in the modern world include at least nutritious food, clean water, warm clothes and shelter, healthcare, education, security and access to information and opportunity. Without food on the plate, one can’t much afford to consider ethical and environmental concerns. Desperation and resentment resulting from poverty also make it a security issue and root cause of war and terrorism. Nevertheless, the United Nations finds it hard to extract just the recommended 0.7% foreign aid from wealthy nations towards the needs of the desperately poor. Philosophers of ethics suggest at least 10% of income should be donated.

"Ignorance of ‘opportunity cost’ kills tens of thousands a day"

Figure 4: Barefoot Timorese Children Consigned to the Scrap Heap [photos: M. Pollard] Their best available opportunity is our discarded rubbish.

Q5. What makes us all the same? Do children everywhere have the same

ability to feel love, happiness, depression and fear?



The very name of the world’s dominant economic ideology gives a hint as to its fundamental flaw. ‘Capital’ refers to forms of money, and ideology (‘-ism’) implies the elevation of something in the mind to the exclusion of all competing considerations. Therefore, power has been enthralled by the measurement of a surrogate or analogue of itself, called capital (money). Power is concentrated at the middle-scale, the scale relevant to nations and corporations, which explains why the global scale and the local scale tend to pay for, or at least miss out on, its benefits. This marginalisation of ethics in the implementation of business is known as economic ‘realism’. Should common people be driven according to financial rules constructed only by the wealthy? The study of power-relations is hardly soothing to the psychology of the faint-hearted, but cannot just be left to the cold-hearted. Power caters to itself. To this end, economics, although called the ‘dismal science’, is a master discipline of measurement (every possible cent). This skill can be used to its fullest capacity by extending the scope of measurement in economics – to focus instead on ecological health, human wellbeing, and the creation of ethical outcomes (Tables 1 & 2). We must develop and implement new global financial and socioeconomic models able to synchronize the powerful driving forces of market incentives with the achievement of bioethical outcomes. If global economic models were correctly aligned to the cause of wellbeing, their collective power (a system which took us to the moon) would have been able to eliminate poverty long ago.

Q6. Why do you think economics has for so long been called ‘the dismal

science’? How could we make it more cheerful? Consider economics a puzzle and a challenge to save species and lives.

“Unfortunately many people assume that we can solve the big global problems facing us if we recycle our garbage, develop energy efficient devices and better pollution control etc., while we retain an economy that continues to be driven by market forces, the profit motive and growth. This is a totally mistaken assumption. There is no possibility whatsoever of achieving a sustainable society while we have anything like the present economic system. Our present economy is the essential cause of our serious global problems and these problems can only rapidly worsen so long as we retain this economy. The problems are primarily due to over-production, over-consumption and over-development and it is our economic system which inevitably leads to these outcomes.” p.74, and “…we have an economy that constantly has to increase levels of production and consumption. We must change to a very different economy, one which makes it possible to produce only as much as we need for a high quality of life, and to implement ways of reducing resource use, production, work, investment, trade and living standards as conventionally defined. (This does not imply any reduction in technical innovation, standards, cultural or scientific achievement or the quality of life.)” p.79-80

Ted Trainer (1995) The Conserver Society: Alternatives for Sustainability.

“Dost thou not know, my son, with what little wisdom the world is governed?” Count Oxenstierna (letter to his son 1648)

Q7. Why on Earth would our most commonly-used prescriptive models focus on

growth and efficiency, at the cost of trampling ecological limits and ethical principles of equity and social justice?



Table 1: Measures of National Progress and Development Gross National Product (GNP) and Gross Domestic Product (GDP) – overused annual indicators based only on economic measures, they do not measure sustainable development or wellbeing because they include any monetary activity even if environmentally destructive or non-sustainable. Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI) – an economic measure comparable to the GNP, but including estimates of 24 elements of social wellbeing like income distribution, leisure time, crime rate, environmental damage and volunteer work. This index is declining in many Western (over-developed) countries. Human Development Index – United Nations Development Programme quality of life indicator which combines economic output, life expectancy, literacy rate and education enrolment. Human Freedom Index – United Nations Development Programme index of 40 rights and freedoms, like freedom of speech, gender equality, homosexual rights and freedom from torture. Index of Social Health – developed by the Fordham Institute, this index includes measures such as infant mortality, teenage suicide, homicides, unemployment, health access and child poverty. State of the Environment (SoE) Reporting – environmental reviews used to monitor the progress of environmental protection in OECD countries.



Economic development of course alleviates the suffering of poverty, conflict and crime; and increases human wellbeing, family planning, and the ‘luxury’ of environmental protection. These are vitally important paths for those with less. Economic growth and globalisation (opening up to the world economy) are certainly necessary to relieve the suffering of the poorest people and under-developed countries. But for those with more, there is new scientific evidence that wealth increases happiness only to a point (a social and ecological limit). The health and wellbeing of current wealthy generations is hardly helped by the constant fuelling of material desires by advertising, trying to keep up with the neighbour, working too hard in stressful occupations, no time to spend on leisure or family, over-consumption of food, morally dubious goods and services, or subconscious feelings of guilt. The so-called ‘trickle-down effect’, where wealth is said to trickle down from rich to poor, is actually a cleverly inverted metaphor – in free market capitalism money flows towards existing money like water down a valley. If there were fairer globalisation of health, wealth and education rather than just capital, people would place more trust in the process. Real globalisation of ‘free’ trade would include the free movement of capital, production, consumption and labour (e.g. the European model). It would make policy based not on measures of money, but of happiness (e.g. in Bhutan). The ethical and sustainable corporation works to enhance the workplace, environment and society. This is known as Corporate Social Responsibility and is measured by triple bottom line accounting (the addition of social outcomes and environmental impacts to the traditional ‘bottom line’ of profits). Ethical investments will have nothing to do with guns, gambling, tobacco, uranium or habitat destruction. But moral argument is only one tool for protecting the environment; other possibly more powerful/effective tools may be economic arguments. Old-style business, which treats workers, community and environment like resources to be exploited, will eventually suffer the consequences of public cynicism and alienation, environmental activism, and industrial relations conflict. New-style companies, driven not by profits but by vision and principle, will increase their effectiveness and staying-power by inspiring worker and public satisfaction, autonomy, innovation and teamwork towards new niches and green markets opened up by progress towards our sustainable future. Ecological networks can be emulated in economic models and organisational architectures, and efficient use and recycling of energy and materials can cut costs. Regulatory ‘command and control’ measures can be supplemented with market-based economic incentives such as environmental valuation, green labelling, subsidies, permits, carbon credits and pollution taxes. Environmental valuation has traditionally been based around use (‘instrumental value’), but nature is increasingly recognised as having additional non-use values such as the ‘option value’ of potential future use, ‘bequest value’ to future generations, ‘existence value’ and ultimately ‘intrinsic value’. Ecological economics is a sub-discipline of environmental economics, and ecologism is a new sub-discipline of environmentalism. These two branches of their respective fields reflect rejection of the assumption that problems can be solved from within the constraints of the current dominant paradigm, and perceive solutions from an ecocentric perspective reaching beyond current debates.

Q8. Do you think animals, plants and ecosystems have intrinsic value, or is the

value of nature only in its utility to humans?



Solutions are at hand. Much information is finally coming out which outlines a humane basis for our economic future. Recent popular examples include Paul Hawken’s Ecology of Commerce (1993) and Natural Capitalism (1999), Weizsacker Lovins’ Factor Four: Doubling Wealth, Halving Resource Use (1998), Charles Handy’s The Hungry Spirit (1998), Suzuki & Dressel’s Good News for a Change (2002), Clive Hamilton’s Growth Fetish (2003), Doug Cocks’ Deep Futures (2003), George Monbiot’s Age of Consent (2003), John Cavanagh & Jerry Mander’s Alternatives to Economic Globalization (2004), Jeffrey Sachs’ The End of Poverty (2005), and just about any book with “Sustainability” in its title. With all these solutions proposed by ethical philosophers, ecologists and environmental economists for so long, why haven’t we solved, or even seriously addressed, the big problems yet? There seems a significant gap between the theory and the practice. A new contender for the crown of ‘biggest problem’ is one of psychology. How will the greedy be weaned off their addiction? How do we deal with people’s desires, motivations, beliefs, fears of change? One answer is ‘soft power’, the persuasive power of moral authority and ethically superior value-systems. The successful marketing of important ideas involves putting them into a form which combines a sound philosophical and scientific basis with simplicity, clarity, accessibility, usefulness, attractiveness and fun. A message to current and future leaders: would you want to be frowned upon by our wiser future descendants as one of the old-style leaders, or are you a true leader for the history books? What have some of our true leaders said about economic issues? Jesus said that it is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to get into heaven. Buddha said that the path to contentment does not lie in material things. Mohammed emphasized the virtue of charity, as one of the five pillars of Islam. Hospitality and generosity are surely one of the key solutions to social disorder, crime and conflict. Gandhi said there is enough for all of our needs, but not for all of our wants. And finally John Lennon said give peace a chance.

[East Timor photograph: M. Pollard]



B6. Sustainable Development Chapter objectives Sustainable Development is about the survival and wellbeing of current and future generations of life. This chapter aims to introduce: 1. Sustainability and sustainable development. 2. The political use of relevant terms. 3. Integration of economy, society, culture and ecology. 4. Uncertainty and the precautionary principle. 5. Principles of sustainable management.

The Earth from Space Photos of the Earth as a single, fragile entity in inhospitable space have highlighted the concept of limits and inspired the search for human unity and global sustainability. (NASA Image)

B6.1. The Biggest Problem in the World. Sustainable Development and Sustainability deal with quite simply the LARGEST and

most extreme problem ever faced by humanity. What will be the future for our species? What must we do to ensure our long-term survival? Can we control our collective destiny as inhabitants of this earth? A few leading scientists have predicted double-digit percentages for the likelihood of human extinction by the end of this century. You can always find someone with some opinion or other. But hang on a second… Do they know what they’re talking about? If there’s even a remote chance they’re right… shouldn’t we be a little more concerned?? “It may not be absurd hyperbole – indeed, it may not even be an overstatement – to assert that the most crucial location in space and time (apart from the big bang itself) could be here and now. I think the odds are no better than fifty-fifty that our present civilisation on Earth will survive to the end of the present century without a serious setback.” Martin Rees (2003) Our Final Century p.7-8 What can we do? Everything!! Modern knowledge, freedoms and strong ethical convictions can turn it around. A career in environmental science or human rights might help! But even despite the ‘money’ temptation, careers in business, science, law and politics can deliver environmental and social wellbeing, sustainable technologies and ethical value systems.




B6.2. What About the Kids? “Sustainable Development. It’s an objective. It’s a concept, a symbol, a slogan, a word-phrase, a process, an action, a pathway, a guideline, a desire, a motivation, a mechanism, a measurement, an interpretation, a relationship, an interaction, an aim, a method, a result, an outcome, as well as many other possible interpretations. It’s currently the focus of the

United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development 2005-2014. It was first mentioned in: I.U.C.N. (1980) World Conservation Strategy: Living Resources Conservation for Sustainable Development. I.U.C.N. (World Conservation Union), Gland, Switzerland. The first widely recognized definition was in ‘The Brundtland Report’: World Commission on Environment and Development (W.C.E.D.) (1987) Our Common Future. Brundtland, Gro Harlem (editor), Oxford University Press:

“Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present

without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”

There’s a lot more to it, and people have been redefining it, deciding on its principles and arguing over its goals ever since. This original aspect is still central, and has been shortened to the phrase:

“Inter-generational Equity” meaning equity between present people and future generations. Since equity means fair and equal wealth, wellbeing, environment and opportunity, and since future generations are you, kids, and your children and their kids… it can be simplified even further to:

"What about the kids?"

Q1. Most recent definitions and principles of ‘Sustainable Development’

have also included Intra-generational Equity, or equitable distribution within the current generation. Discuss some ethical and practical differences between Inter-generational equity and Intra-generational equity.



B6.3. Slippery Terminology ‘Sustainable Development’ has been a slippery term to pin down, and defining it has caused much heated debate and controversy (see Table 1). But it isn’t really all that confusing - if it’s not defined in a vague

or veiled way (like putting the emphasis on ‘economic’ sustainability). To ‘sustain’ is to support, cause to continue, keep in existence, replenish, preferably enhance, and at least maintain at a certain standard or level. ‘Sustainable’ (as well as meaning ‘able to be sustained’), refers to the level at which a

resource may be used, harvested or depleted such that it is able to regenerate or replenish (sustain) itself indefinitely (e.g. the stock of a fishery, timber yield in forestry, agricultural productivity, etc).

‘Development’ is any activity or progress which increases the wellbeing of humans and the environment. Too often it is accidentally or deliberately confused with concepts and growth (particularly economic growth, including consumerism, commercialism and technocentrism). But growth isn’t always development, which must include things like reduction of poverty and increased quality of life, modernization, equity, health, democracy, freedom, fair trade and conservation. ‘Sustainability’ is a measure of how well policy and management live up to the principles and philosophies of sustainable development. Sustainability can

also be thought of as a wonderful imaginary place or ultimate objective where all good requirements are met for sustaining ecosystems and maintaining human wellbeing.

‘Sustainable development’ has most commonly been used in specific reference to the sustainability of ecosystems. For example, the Australian government has incorporated the term ‘ecologically sustainable development’ as an official aim of policy, although

environmental groups feel some principles are missing (see Table 2), and there’s still a long way to go in practice! The environment is much more than ecology and biodiversity. It also includes the human environment, including social, cultural, economic, political and informational components, all included in ‘environmentally sustainable development’. Oh, and by the way, this is one of the reasons why environmental science is such a fascinating career to choose - it

includes the big and the small, the concrete and the abstract, humans and nature - and it’s never short of interesting and vitally important issues! Despite all these inclusions, sustainable development is a term still often abused and

misrepresented. It’s even been accused of being an ‘oxymoron’, a strange word describing a self-contradictory phrase, where seemingly opposite words combine to suddenly make sense.



Q2. Sustainable development is somewhat ambiguous - a fuzzy concept which often means different things to different people. Is the term ‘Sustainable Development’ self-contradictory? Why and/or why not? Do differing interpretations help it to become a more useful and popular phrase, or do they make it less useful and practical?

Table 1: Landmarks and Defining Events

majority of human history - barbarism reigns 1948 - Universal Declaration of Human Rights

1970 - UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Program 1972 - Club of Rome The Limits to Growth 1980 - IUCN World Conservation Strategy

1987 - WCED Brundtland Commission Our Common Future 1990 - Commonwealth of Australia Ecologically Sustainable Development Working Groups

1992 - UNCED Rio Earth Summit, and Agenda 21 1992 - United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development

1993 - Commission of the European Community Fifth Environmental Action Programme 1994 - IUCN / IIED Strategies for National Sustainable Development

1994 - United Nations Conference on Population & Development 1995 - United Nations Conference on Social Development 1996 - Earth Council Making Sustainability Work strategy

1996 - Earth Network for Sustainable Development website 1997 - Rio+5 Forum and Earth Summit+5 review

1997 - Kyoto Conference on Climate Change, Kyoto Protocol 1999 - Seattle WTO Conference anti-globalization protest gathering

Millennium Earth Initiative 2000 - time to contemplate embarking into the 21st century

2000 - Earth Charter (revised after non-adoption at 1992 Rio Earth Summit) 2001 - United Nations Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

2001 - first annual World Social Forum (Another World Is Possible) 2002 - Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development

2002 - International Criminal Court 2005-2014 United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development

now - time to turn all this talk into action!



Table 2: Summary of Ecologically Sustainable Development adapted from: Ronnie Harding (1998) Environmental Decision-Making p. 27-29

ECOLOGICALLY SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Principles and Objectives

Recommended by: Australian Environment

Government Groups 1. Integration of Economic and Environmental Goals in Policy

√

2. Inter-Generational Equity √ √ 3. Conservation of Biodiversity and Ecological Integrity √ √ 4. Recognising the Global Dimension (Integration) √ √ 5. Caution with Risk & Irreversibility (Precautionary Principle) √ √ 6. Appropriate Valuation of Environmental Assets √ √ 7. Efficiency √ √ 8. Economic Resilience (Capacity for Environment Protection) √ √ 9. International Competitiveness and External Balance √ √ 10. 1Community Participation √ √ 11. 1Constant Natural Capital and ‘Sustainable Income’ √ 12. 1Qualitative Development √ 13. 1Limits on Natural Resource Use √ 14. 1Intra-Generational (Social) Equity √

An easy to comprehend example of sustainable development in action is sustainable fishing. Sustainable yield refers to an uncertain level or threshold of harvesting at which a population or resource will not be at risk of overall long-term decline. In sustainable fishing we do not to try to maximise our catch (yield), but rather optimise it for sustainability (‘optimum sustainable yield’) in accordance with a sustainable fishery management plan. Boats in the commercial fishing fleet may be allocated fishery property rights, sharing proportions of the annual quota (‘total allowable catch’), or alternatively regulated by closing the fishery when total allowable catch is reached. Fishing quotas may be transferable, seasonal, area-specific, species-specific and/or enforceable by law. Modern fishing gear is available which avoids damage to unintended by-catch and the sea-bed habitat. Individual recreational fishers also have bag-limits, (quota), size limits, and gear restrictions. Protection of the ecosystem and large-scale habitat is often even more important than limiting exploitation of the stock. Regional systems of Marine Parks (National Parks for the sea), such as those managed by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority in Australia, allocate areas for different or multiple uses (e.g. commercial fishing, recreational fishing, tourism or conservation zones). Marine protected areas, and also conservation of breeding and nursery grounds such as coastal wetlands, reserve habitat space for fish populations to rejuvenate. Sustainable fishing is more akin to farming than to hunting, as it ensures that new cohorts of fish are helped to survive and grow for harvesting in following years.



B6.4. Take a Seat for a Minute…


So, what is it we’re trying to sustain? Sustainability must be integrated, meaning that it should be broad and all-inclusive. That’s why Francesco di Castri came up with a neat metaphor: “The Chair of Sustainable Development” [journal Nature & Resources 31(3)]. A metaphor is a handy comparison which helps memory and understanding, and in this one the

chair has four connected ‘legs’ of sustainability which must all be included in

sustainable policy and management. If one leg is over-emphasised, (usually the ‘economic leg’), then the chair won’t be flat or comfortable. Also, this is a tall Renaissance-style chair, because the Renaissance and Enlightenment were periods of Western history when integrated thinking led to some of the best discoveries. The concern now, is that education is too specialised - and training only for a very specific career may not be equipping you with the broad multidisciplinary knowledge we need to solve inter-connected global problems.

cological Leg Economic Leg

e

cal

ia

Economic Growth

Fa

3. What difficulties and compromises do you think might arise in our

E Social Leg Cultural Leg

Biodiversity Institutions Religion & Culture Ecosystems Habitats

ed Species EndangerKeystone Species

Pollution & WastePhysical Processes Natural Resources

InfrastructurEducation

m Legal SysteHealth & MediPolitics/DemocracyMilitary Industries Human Resources

Ethics & Behaviour Desires/Motivations Entertainments

s Freedoms/RightResponsibilities Family Values

edInformation/M

Natural Capital Goods & Services Corporate Practice

Employment Quality of Life

Efficiency ir Trade/Equity

Q

attempts to measure such factors for sustainability?


B6.5. Precaution for uncertainty Uncertainty is a fact of life. But one thing's for sure… Those causes cause these effects. These effects affect those because… Act-contact-impact in fact… Unless because of non-causal correlation of course… Oh dear... These systems seem complex. That feedback sure is noisy… Impacts interact. Processes produce probabilistic progress of properties… huh? Actions cause impacts with interactions. Indicators illustrate. Contents index complex sets and common context connects concepts… what? Welcome to uncertainty, and yes I'm confused too. What did I do with my network flow diagram? It’s something to do with that systems theory. Emergent properties are part of complexity theory. Risk is where the probabilities can be guessed at. A bit risky… Indeterminacy is ‘I’m afraid I don’t know’. Oh no. Ignorance is ‘I don’t know what it is I don’t know’. Uh oh… Apathy is ‘I don’t really care’. That’s the worst. And I don’t suppose chaos will interfere this time – where’s my noodles…

Uncertainty is one of the reasons why many environmental management and sustainability policies sometimes fail to live up to expectations. That can be dangerous, because of the risk of irreversible damage to free but easily disrupted ecosystem services which provide critical life-support functions. If we make mistakes providing for people, deaths can be the result. If we make mistakes with ecology, well… you’ve heard the phrase ‘extinction is forever’. These are just two examples of irreversible damage. Some ways to reduce uncertainty include measurement, modelling and monitoring. These important methods make use of environmental and social indicators, selected because they also convey information about the bigger picture. But you can never totally get rid of uncertainty. That’s why they invented the

‘Precautionary Principle’ “Where there are threats of serious or irreversible environmental damage,

lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing measures to prevent environmental degradation.

In the application of the precautionary principle, public and private decisions

should be guided by: (i) careful evaluation to avoid, wherever practicable,

serious or irreversible damage to the environment, and (ii) an assessment of the risk-weighted consequences of various options.”

(definition from Intergovernmental Agreement on the Environment, Australia, 1992)

(see also p. 5)

Q4. Can you find definitions for Risk, Uncertainty, Ignorance, and Apathy,

and identify the differences between them? Can you think of situations where they contribute to an ethical problem?



B6.6. Lean and Green Sustainable planning and sustainable management are the practical applications of sustainability to policies of government or business which affect society or the environment. They involve using principles of sustainable development in problem-solving and decision-making. In the spirit of the ‘Chair of Sustainable Development’ introduced earlier, here’s a new memory-aid metaphor, based on the ‘Leaning Tower of Pisa’ in Italy, which also uses concepts of balance and equilibrium. This model doesn’t show what is to be included in sustainability, but hints at how to do it in planning, policy and management.

‘The Tower of PISA for Sustainable Management’ Precautionary

Caution with risk and uncertainty, and avoidance of serious or irreversible damage by using predictive impact models and the Precautionary Principle.

“Be careful”

Integrated Inclusion of all aspects of sustainability (e.g. political, social, cultural, economic, ecological), with large spatial scale (whole habitats) and long time scale.

“Look at the big picture”

Strategic (Sustainable) Strategic means well co-ordinated and goal directed. In this case the goal is sustainability! (If this context isn’t clear, ‘Sustainable’ can be used in place of the term ‘Strategic’.) “Have a strong ethical & scientific backbone”

Adaptive Adaptive means responsive to changing circumstances (the adaptive thinker can change her or his mind on the basis of new information).

“Flexibility is best”



Q5. This question may help you to start thinking a bit like a philosopher. Can you come up with a new model or metaphor which helps to explain something

related to bioethics of interest to you? Simplify something abstract and hard to understand by comparing it to something more concrete and well known.

If that’s a bit hard, maybe you can come up with a new -ism (-ism is a suffix denoting a doctrine or ideology), or a new -ology (-logy is from the Greek for ‘study’ and indicates the scientific study of something).

Describe and analyse your new metaphor, model, ideology or scientific discipline. Does it have ethical dangers, weaknesses and benefits?

Activity 1: Write an Essay

The Internet is an amazing tool for information-gathering and communication. Look at the Internet Resources Directory in the file <www2.unescobkk.org/eubios/BetCD/Bet14sq.doc>. The web-sites are sorted under the following headings: ‘Academic Literature’ ‘Decision-Support’ ‘Environment’ ‘Medical & Health’ ‘Activism & Charities’ ‘Dictionaries’ ‘Ethics’ ‘Modelling’ ‘Agriculture’ ‘Education’ ‘Global Warming’ ‘Museums’ ‘Biotechnology’ ‘Election’ ‘Internet Media’ ‘Sustainable Development’ ‘Business’ ‘Employment’ ‘Legal’ ‘Translation’ ‘Coastal & Marine’ ‘Encyclopaedias’ ‘Libraries & Books’ ‘Web-search’ a) Can you write an essay or short answer which, somewhere, uses most or all of

these words? b) What ideas or conclusions have emerged from this exercise about the sustainability of:

(i) humanity as a whole? (ii) your own life?

c) If you have a computer linked to the internet, visit some of the web-sites listed in the directory. Which ones did you choose and why? Are they interesting or useful? Are there any drawbacks to this kind of research (e.g. do some of the sites no longer exist)?

d) What has this exercise taught you about the power and future potential of information tools like the Net?

Activity 2: Do the Sustainability crossword on a copy of the crossword on p.72. The soft copy of the crossword file is <www2.unescobkk.org/eubios/BetCD/Betcwd.doc> on the website.

© Eubios Ethics Institute Bioethics for Informed Citizens across Cultures < http://www2.unescobkk.org/eubios/betext.htm


B7. Cars and the Ethics of Costs and Benefits Chapter objectives. While most people have used cars few have considered the full economic, environmental and ethical impact of personal automobiles. This chapter has two important goals: 1. Encourage students to broaden their thinking about ethical issues to look comprehensively at both direct and indirect costs and benefits, and 2. Challenge students to critically reconsider one of the most pervasive and hyped products of the modern era.

B7.1. Costs and benefits of car use for local transport Q1. Do you want your own car? In life, everything we make or do has costs, benefits, or often both (e.g. benefits to the individuals and costs to society). Evolution by natural selection removes traits that have greater costs than benefits. People have developed many behaviors and technologies. Just like biological traits, these human behaviors and technologies have both costs and benefits. Self interest demands that we use technologies and behave in ways that either individually or collectively have greater benefits than costs. Evolution makes this choice for biological traits, with those individuals and species having advantageous traits leaving more offspring. However, we do not always make rational choices and some costs are difficult to see or unpleasant to look at. This chapter challenges you to consider all the costs and benefits of personal car use for local travel.

During the past century, the car has drastically transformed both human life and the surface and atmosphere of the Earth. The automobile has given people mobility, convenience, and independence that could not even be dreamed of in earlier times. The automotive industry is one of the dominant sectors of the largest industrial economies; it provides jobs, economic power, and even military might. Most of the world's richest countries produce cars and all of them rely on cars for a major proportion of transportation needs. Cars are seen as symbols of wealth and status. Today, it seems that most people in the world either have cars or want them.

Cars are a mixed blessing. Along with the great benefits that cars provide come costs, many of which are difficult to quantify or unpleasant to consider. In this chapter, challenge yourself to quantify some of the costs and benefits of personal car use.

. Collaborating author: Richard Weisburd, Japan/USA.



B7.2. Calculate the costs and benefits Worksheet I—Start by adding up the costs of car purchase and use; calculate how much you would have to pay (or your family does pay) for each kilometer you or your family drive. If your family has its own car, use your family's actual expenses for the calculations; if not, then do a hypothetical analysis of what it would cost for your family to buy and use a car. Car dealers should be happy to provide you with cost estimates for a car purchase; they might also be able to help with estimates of the other required expenses like maintenance, insurance, and taxes. Below is a sample calculation for Japan. If you have access to a computer, the internet, and a spreadsheet program, you can download a sample Microsoft Excel spreadsheet from the Eubios Ethics Institute at <http://www2.unescobkk.org/eubios/BET/bet6cal.xls> (or see on the Eubios CD). A hard copy example is printed below. This sample spreadsheet can be modified to fit your local situation and perform the calculations for you. The costs should all be expressed on an annual basis; in your locality, the costs may exclude some of the items in the spreadsheet and the table below or include others. In Japan, the average car is used for only 7.3 years (ref. 1). The sample calculation for Japan, family sedan with an 1.8 L engine and an automatic transmission. Including all taxes and fees that are paid for the original purchase only, the price of this new car is 2,132,545 yen. The sample calculation uses the car catalog specified fuel efficiency for 10/15 mode driving (a standard urban driving sequence), but you can easily measure the fuel efficiency of a car yourself by filling the gas tank, measuring the distance until the next refueling, and then recording how much gas is needed for the refueling: divide distance traveled by fuel needed to refill the tank (km/L). The fuel efficiency you measure will probably be less than the value listed in the car catalog. Worksheet I shows the annual costs for using this car. Example - Worksheet I item calculation Annual basisPurchase of 1800 cc family sedan 2,132,545 Yen/7.3 years 292129 Maintenance and parts, yen 30,000 Road tax, yen 35,000 Inspection (shaken), yen 41407 Insurance, yen 80,267 (1) Parking, yen 60000 Total fixed costs, yen 538803 Distance driven, km 10,000 (2) Annual fixed cost, yen/km 538803 yen/10000 km 54 Fuel efficiency, km/L 16 Fuel price, yen/L 95 Fuel cost, yen/km 95 yen/L x (10000 km/16 km/L) 6 Total cost, yen/km 54 + 6 yen/km 60



Q2. Can you think of some ways to reduce the costs or increase the benefits of personal car use?

Q3. Do you still want to buy and use your own personal car? Q4. Look at magazines, television and find images of fast cars. Is that an image

you would like to portray?

B7.3. How fast do you travel? The primary benefit of owning and operating your own car is the freedom to travel quickly wherever you want. Speed is distance divided by time. Most cars can be driven faster than 120 km/h; however, in urban conditions, the actual speed is far less than the maximum speed. If your family has a car, then measure the distance and time taken for several typical local drives. The speed for each trip will be much less than the maximum speed because the driver must stop at red lights and stop signs, etc. Most cities and towns also have periods with heavy traffic; during such rush hours, travel speed is low. For example, the average driving speed in Bangkok, Thailand for all hours of the day and night is about 15 km/h. The average speeds of several courses measured in morning, noon, and evening were 19.2 km/h in Tokyo and 34.3 km/h in Tsukuba (3), a town about 60 km northeast of Tokyo. In fact, most drivers do not realize how low the actual average speed of their local car trips is.

Worksheet II—Calculate the average speed of some drives in your town. Express your results in units of km/h. Then divide this result into 1 to get hours/km traveled; for Tsukuba, the average speed of 34.3 km/h is equal to (1/34.3) = 0.0292 h/km. Worksheet II drive course distance time speed a b c c e average Examples: Tsukuba Tokyo average speed, km/h 34.3 19.2 hours/km 0.0292 0.0521 speed including time to earn the money to pay for the car and car usetotal h/km 0.0490 0.0719 average km/h 20.4 13.9 Q5. How does the speed of local driving you calculated for your family differ

from that for the Japanese example? Q6. Compare how much time it would take for you to travel by foot, bicycle, car

and public transport for some of your local trips.



B7.4. How hard do you have to work to own a car? Q7. Do you want to work harder to buy a good car? Cars are expensive. Car owners must spend a substantial part of their working time earning money to pay for their cars. In a sense, this time spent earning money to pay for the car could be considered part of the travel time. Worksheet III—Estimate how much time the providers in your family spend or would spend to earn the money needed for each km of travel in a family car. Start from the after-tax income and divide by hours worked: this will give income per hour. If sharing the real information with your classmates and teacher is against your value of privacy, then use some typical values for your community. The average after-tax annual income for salaried employees in Japan in 2001 was 5576676 yen for 1848 hours of work, or 3018 yen/h. Divide the cost/km traveled you calculated in Worksheet I by the income per hour; this gives hours worked to pay for each kilometer driven. For Japan, 60 yen/km divided by 3018 yen/h gives 0.0198 h of work to pay for each km the car is driven. Add this number to the average speed of local trips from Worksheet II (also in units of hours per kilometer) to get another estimate of average speed: for Tsukuba, the sum of 0.0198 + 0.0292 = 0.0490 h/km. To convert the sum back into units of km/h, divide it into 1. For the example calculated for Tsukuba, when we include the time required to earn the cost of car ownership and use, then the average speed of local driving is reduced from about 34.3 to 20.4 km/h, equivalent to vigorous bicycling speed. Traveling by car does not provide an exercise benefit that is provided by walking or cycling. Worksheet III monthly after-tax income (mean for salaried workers) 464723annual disposable income 5576676hours worked/year 1848yen/h 3018 hours of work to pay for each km of car travel 0.0198minutes of work to pay for each km of car travel 1.2



B7.5. Can we quantify ethics? Some other costs of car use are more difficult to quantify. Cars release much of the carbon dioxide, causing the greenhouse effect, which is now causing climate change and warming the Earth. In Japan, 8326 people were killed in traffic accidents in 2002. Cars cause much of the air pollution. Every year air pollution kills about 2.7 to 3 million people, about 6% of all deaths. Even for people who are not killed, air pollution damages health causing much sickness and disability. Health care for people sickened by air pollution represents a cost of car use not included in the calculations above. Cars require networks of paved roads. These roads are built with taxes we pay to the government; road construction and maintenance are costs of car use not included in the calculations above. Paving reduces the land's ability to absorb water; as paving increases, the flooding and destruction caused by heavy rains also increases. Roads fragment natural habitats, interrupting migration pathways; cars also kill many animals on roads. Structuring our cities and towns to favor car use also makes them less friendly to pedestrians and cyclists. While traveling in a car, the local environment is the car; cars cut people of from experiencing natural environments and from interactions with other people. Q8. Can we or should we try to express this loss of lives in monetary terms? Has anyone you love been killed or injured in a traffic accident Q9. Can you think of some other costs and benefits of local car use that are excluded from the calculations? How can we compare and balance costs and benefits that have different units?

Q10. Can you think of some other technologies that are causing large changes in ecosystems or in the way people live? If so, what are some of the costs and benefits of these other technologies? Q11. Should all technologies be used? Can any technologies be stopped?



B8. Energy crisis, resources & environment Chapter Objectives.

There are limits to the human consumption of different forms of energy and natural resources. Environmental impacts from our consumption depend upon the different forms of energy or resource, rates of use, and whether or not they are renewable. This chapter aims to: 1. Describe the different forms of conventional and non-conventional energies. 2. Illustrate dilemmas between use of energy and preservation of the environment. 3. Consider conservation of different natural resources. B8.1. Energy

Energy is the capacity to do work. Energy is found on our planet in a variety of forms, some of which are immediately useful, while others requires a process of transformation from one form to another which is easier to use. Energy is an important input for development of society.

The energy consumption of a nation is usually considered as an index of its development. This is because almost all developmental activities are directly or indirectly dependent upon energy. We find wide disparity in per capita energy use between the developed and developing nations. Because of eminent shortages in conventional energy sources there is increasing attention to non-conventional energy sources such as solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, geothermal energy and biomass energy.

In tapping the non conventional energy sources an eco-friendly approach is essential in order to keep our environment more habitable. Energy sources can classified into conventional energy sources and non conventional energy sources.

B8.2. Conventional Energy Sources

The conventional energy sources include, coal, oil, natural gas and biomass. Coal is the most widely used fossil fuel. Anthracite coal which is harder with low sulphur

content and more than 90% carbon is considered better than the bituminous coal which is softer with 70% to 90% carbon and produces less heat than the anthracite. A coal mine is called a colliery. The major coal uses in the world are in the iron and steel industry, and generating electricity from heat in thermal power plants. In high temperature and pressure coal can be converted to coal gas, which can also be used like natural gas.

Burning of coal creates environmental problems due to the production of fly ash, SO2, oxides of nitrogen, different hydrocarbons and acid rain problems. Coal dust also affects vegetation leading to coloured necrotic symptoms. Fly ash also contaminates water and leads to heavy metal pollution. Coal is the world’s single largest contributor for global warming.


. Collaborating author: M. Selvanayagam, India


Q1. Can you suggest five ways to prevent global warming? Activity 1: Group activity – start planting trees in your gardens, and in places the community wants to have more trees. Q2. What is your ethical concern about air pollution? List out advantages and disadvantages of oil in daily life?

Oil is the second major conventional energy source. This is more inflammable than coal

with highest energy content per unit of fuel matter. Oil is found as organic remains within underground sedimentary deposits at different parts of the world. Crude oil is taken from the ground, refined in oil refineries and categorized into different forms based on the purity, petrol, diesel and gasoline. Kerosene and lubricating oils are also produced.

Oil powered vehicles emits CO2, SO2, NO2, CO and particulate matter that are major causes of air pollution, especially in urban areas with heavy traffic density. Leaded petrol leads to neurological damages. Petrol vehicles can be run with unleaded fuel by adding catalytic converters on all the new cars but unleaded fuel contains benzene and butadiene which are known to be carcinogenic compounds (See chapter B7).

Natural gas is mainly composed of methane with small amounts of propane and ethane. Natural gas deposits are mostly found along with oil deposits because they have been formed by decomposing remains of dead animals and plants buried under the earth. Natural gas is the cleanest fuel. It can be easily transported through pipelines. It has high calorific value and burns without any smoke. It is used as a domestic fuel, industrial fuel and also in power plants for generating electricity. It is also used as a source of hydrogen gas in the fertilizer industry and as a source of carbon in the tyre industry, for example.

Compressed natural gas (CNG) is used as an alternative to petrol and diesel for transport of vehicles. Nowadays buses and auto-rickshaws run on this new fuel. This has greatly reduced the vehicular pollution.

Synthetic natural gas (SNG) is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. It is a connecting link between a fossil fuel and substituted natural gas. Low grade coal is initially transformed into synthetic gas by gasification followed by catalytic conversion of methane. Group activity: Visit a natural gas plant and submit a mini project report.



B8.3. Non conventional energy sources Non-conventional energy sources are mostly renewable, which can be generated

continuously in nature and are inexhaustible. These energy sources are not yet used widely by human beings due to easy availability of conventional energy sources. Due to over-exploitation of conventional energy sources and its impact has deteriorated the quality of our environment. This has necessitated the transition towards non-conventional energy sources, which are more eco friendly and non-exhaustible. Solar energy: Solar radiation is one of the cheapest energies available throughout daytime and can be trapped through various ways. For example, consider the following cases.

a. Solar thermal devices such as solar cookers, solar water heaters that concentrate solar radiation with the help of a reflector to form heat. The solar energy received by near earth space is approximately 1.4 kiljoules/second/m2, this is known as the solar constant.

b. Photovoltaic (PV) silicon devices of solar cells directly convert solar radiation to electricity and are widely used to create solar lamps. Solar cells are made of thin wafers of semiconductor materials like silicon and gallium. When solar radiation falls on them a potential difference is produced which causes a flow of electrons and produces electricity. By using gallium arsenide, cadmium sulphide or boron, the efficiency of the PV cells can be improved. A group of solar cells joined together in a definite pattern form a solar panel, which can harness a large amount of solar energy and can produce enough electricity to run streetlights, irrigation water pumps. Similar cells are also used in calculators, electronic watches, and traffic signals.

c. Solar cookers: solar cookers make use of solar heat by reflecting the solar radiation using mirrors directly on to a glass sheet which covers a black insulated box within which the raw food is kept. A new design of solar cooker is now available which involves a spherical reflector instead of plane mirror that has more heating and hence greater efficiency.

Q3. Please collect data on how many houses, institutions, and industries have set up solar water heaters.



Q4. List ways and means you can conserve the energy.

Wind energy was the earliest energy source used for long distance transportation, by sailing ships. Today some countries like Denmark and Germany, and the state of California in USA, have large wind turbines cooperatives, which sell electricity to the central electricity grid. Wind power is the function of wind speed and therefore the average wind speed of an area is an important determinant of economically feasible power. Wind energy is harnessed by making use of windmills. The blades of the windmills keep on rotating continuously due to the force of striking wind.

During the past two decades there has been a great deal of technical progress made in the design, sitting and installation, operation and maintenance of power producing windmills. These improvements have resulted in decreased cost of electricity production. The rotational motion of the blades is converted into energy for a number of machines like water pumps, flourmills and electric generation. A large number of windmills are installed in clusters called wind forms and feed power to the utility grid and produce a large amount of electricity. These forms are ideally located in coastal regions, open grasslands or hilly regions, particularly mountain passes and ridges where the winds are strong and steady. Wind energy is very useful, as it does not cause environmental pollution, though it changes the appearance of the landscape. After initial installation cost, the wind energy is very cheap.

Tidal energy: Tidal and oceanic waves have enormous potentiality to produce electricity as continuous rotation of turbines can be achieved to generate electricity if tidal waves are allowed to make impact on turbines continuously. Kinetic energy of tidal flow can be harnessed through two main technologies namely: a. Lift device turbine where the windmill type of technology is applied to the liquid environment. Here the propeller has speed much faster than the current speed and is considered to be most efficient device. b. Drag device water wheels technology is less efficient than the lift device and the blade speed is unable to exceed that of the current.

Geothermal energy is derived from the heat present in the interior of the earth, and can be converted into heat and electricity. Three popular technologies to harness this energy are 1) Geothermal heat pumps that use shallow ground energy to heat and cool buildings; 2) directly piped hot water to warm greenhouses, of bathing; and 3) power plants that generate electricity from geothermal reservoirs like deep wells. Suitable sites for power generation from geothermal energy includes volcanic locations, geysers and hot springs, and it is used in New Zealand to generate electricity.



Biogas is a mixture of methane, CO2, hydrogen and hydrogen sulphide. This gas is obtained from biological degradation of organic wastes. For example in India, gobar gas is derived from cow dung within a chamber of suitable environment the presence of water. Digestion of cattle excreta within a chamber primarily by methanogenic bacteria provides an ecofriendly technology to produce a large amount of biogas that can be used local villages for cooking. Biogas plants also produce large quantity of refuse in the form of slurry, which can be used as organic fertilizers. Biogas is non-polluting, clear and low cost fuel which is very useful for rural areas where a lot of animal waste and agricultural waste are available. You could try to setup a mini biogas plant in your house/institution. Energy from solid waste: As the population increases day by day, the amount of waste generated is also increasing. One of the important methods of solid waste management is using this waste for energy production. This waste can be burnt to produce heat that creates steam from water in the boilers. This steam can be used to rotate turbines for generating electricity. This energy is popularly known as trash power. However, the solid waste burning creates air pollution, unless it is incinerated under very careful conditions. Nuclear energy is known for its high destructive power as evidenced from nuclear weapons. The nuclear energy can be harnessed by two methods, namely nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. 1. Nuclear fission: the nucleus of certain isotopes with large mass numbers are split into higher nuclei on bombardment by neutrons and a large amount of energy is released through a chain reaction.

2. Nuclear fusion: two isotopes of light elements are forced together at extremely high temperature around 1 billion degrees Celsius until they fuse to form a heavier nucleus releasing an enormous amount of energy in the process. It is difficult to initiate the process but it releases more energy than nuclear fission. It is not yet used for energy production.

The major problem related to nuclear energy is the disposal of nuclear waste. The management, storage and disposal of radioactive wastes resulting from the nuclear power generation are the biggest expenses of the nuclear power industry. Human errors have created disasters or accidents in nuclear power plants in the past, such as in Chernobyl in the former USSR. It will result in collapse of both living and non-living components of our ecosystems. Q5. Do you know the destructive power of nuclear energy? Can you suggest some safe disposal methods for nuclear waste.



B8.4. Energy and Resource Conservation

Conserving energy for the future has become a key issue in the present scenario of environmental degradation and protection. Energy saved is energy given for another day. Saving energy will cut down pollution levels and help our fossil fuel last longer. We should improve the energy efficiency of our own operation. We should use creativity in the development of new technologies to achieve greater efficiency in energy transfer. We should encourage people to use less polluting energy sources so that the damage caused to our environment will be reduced (See other chapters also in section B). Q6. Give examples of eco-friendly approaches in all our activities and ways we can reduce energy use. Natural Resources are the resources, which are available in nature, which are necessary and useful for human needs in the form of matter and energy. They help to improve the quality of human life when used well. These natural resources includes air, water, soil and minerals along with the solar energy as abiotic factors, while biotic factors consist of plants, animals and microbes. Mineral resources: Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic crystalline solids having a definite chemical composition and characteristic properties. Commonly used minerals are quartz, feldspar, biotitic, dolomite, calcite, and laterite. Use metals by human beings have been extensive since the beginning of human civilization. The metals used in maximum quantity are iron, followed by manganese, copper, chromium, aluminum and nickel. Coal is a major source of energy.

Mining includes extracting minerals from deep deposits in soil by using sub-surfacing mining, or from shallow deposits by surface mining. Open-pit mining, dredging and strip mining are forms of surface mining. The damage done to the environment from mining is enormous. It results in devegetation and defacing of landscape, subsidence of land, ground water pollution, surface water pollution, air pollution, and occupational health hazards for the workers.



Hydrosphere: Water is our most abundant resource, covering about 71% of the earth’s surface. This precious film of water is about 97% salt water and the remainder is fresh water. Water helps maintain the earth’s climate and dilute the environmental pollutants. Essential to all life, water constitutes from 50% to 97% of the weight of all plants and animals and about 70% of our body. Water is also essential for agriculture, manufacturing, transportation and countless other human activities. Water is a precious commodity, and we need to think how to conserve water. Food Resources: The main food resources include wheat, rice, maize, potato, barley oats, cassava, sweet potato, sugarcane, pulses, sorghum, millet, fruits, vegetables, milk, meat, fish and seafood. Meat and milk are mainly consumed by more developed countries while rice, wheat, maize are staple foods everywhere. Deficiency or lack of nutrition often leads to malnutrition resulting in several diseases in the developing countries. In some of the developing countries, even though the production has increased considerably still there is a starvation and hunger prevails. Conserving genetic resources for food and agriculture is veryt important and the subject of international treaties.

Every two seconds someone dies of hunger in the world. This is mainly due to improper distribution systems. The green revolution brought modern agriculture in terms of using more fertilizer, pesticides and new hybrid varieties but it also lead to undesirable changes in our environment. Even though the pesticides and fertilizers have increased the productivity it also became lethal to some of the useful and beneficial insects and animals. In order to increase our agricultural productivity and minimize the damage of pesticides on environment, agriculturists are encouraged to take up organic farming which is one of the traditional ways of agriculture.

Organic farming refers to agricultural production system used to produce food and fibre with out chemicals namely pesticide and fertilizers. Organic farming relies on developing biological diversity in the field to disrupt habitat for pest organisms and the purposeful maintenance and replenishment of soil fertility. The maintenance of soil fertility relies principally on the use of legumes, crop rotations, the application of composted animal manures. Certain wild species commonly known as wildlife resources are important because of their actual and potential economic value to people. Wildlife resources that provide sport in the form of hunting and fishing are known as game species. Biological resources provide people with a wide variety of direct economic benefits as a sources of food, spices, flowering agent, soap, cocking oils, lubricating, waxes, dyes, natural insecticides, papers, fuels, fiber, leathers, natural rubber, medicines and other important materials. Aspirin, probably the worlds most widely used drug, was developed according the chemical “blue print” supplied by a compound extracted from the leaves of a tropical willow tree. A fungus produces penicillin. The ethical issues of animal use are discussed in chapters A3 and A4.

Q7. Please consider how to conserve natural resources? Think of ways to conserve water, conserve Energy, protect the soil, and promote sustainable agriculture.

Q8. Which biological resources did you use yesterday in your daily life?



B9. Ecotourism Chapter objectives. Tourism is a popular hobby and an important economic activity. There are different reasons that people use to choose holiday destinations. This chapter aims to: 1. Introduce the concept of ecotourism. 2. Make people reflect on the potential impacts of tourism on local environments and cultures. B9.1. Holidays This chapter includes a number of questions and activities, which we hope makes you think about the ethical issues of travel and holidays. Have fun! If you cannot think of where you have been, then think about what you would like to do.

Q1 Reflect for five to ten minutes on two or three holidays youhave had. Where did you go? What kinds of activities did you engage in?

Q2 Make a list of things you enjoyed the most and the least? Q3 Compare your list with others. Think of some possible reasons why you liked or

disliked these activities. Now, read this postcard together … 15 July 2003 Dear Lisa,

Thanks for the letter. It’s really hot in the

city. Do you think I have hope to shed a few kilos? Happy to know you have settled in your new home.

I took a 4-day break in Palawan, such a

lovely place! I went island hopping around Honda Bay. And I also have a picture with a crocodile from the Wildlife Conservation Institute, if that’s anything to brag about.

Oh, my sister came over for a 2 week visit.

It was fun being with her again. Take care,

Maria ☺

TO: Lisa Yamamoto

320 Fukuroda Heights Sakura 2-1-1 Tsuchiura, Ibaraki Japan 305-005 FROM: Maria Santos

45 Rizal Drive Happy Village Quezon City Philippines 1001

Q4. What kind of holiday did Maria have? Did she enjoy her holiday? Why do you think so? What do you think she did on her holiday?

Q5. Write postcards to each other about your recent holiday. . Collaborating author: MaryAnn Chen Ng, Philippines/USA



B9.2 Tourism and Nature Q6. Look at the tourist activities below. Are there any words that you don’t understand?

Adventure Racing Sustainable Tourism Trekking

River Rafting Bungee Jumping Bird Watching Photo Safari Scuba Diving Swimming Surfing Cultural Tours Repelling Beach bumming Whale/Dolphin Watching Going to zoos Canopy Walking Archaeological Tours Shell Collecting Alternative Tourism Looking at Flowers Hunting Listening to Nature Fishing Collecting Insects

Q7. Now, classify them according to Martha Honey’s classification scheme: 1. Wildlife Tourism: observing animals in their native habitat. 2. Nature Tourism: traveling to remote areas to enjoy and experience nature 3. Adventure Tourism: nature tourism involving risk-taking activities. Draw a table like this on a piece of paper… Wildlife Tourism Nature Tourism Adventure Tourism

Can you think of any other activities for each of these types?



B9.3. What is Ecotourism? Read what some people have thought about ecotourism:

Travelling to relatively undisturbed or uncontaminated natural areas with the specific objective of studying, admiring, and enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals, as well as any existing cultural manifestation.

Responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the

well-being of local people.

Hector Ceballos Lascurain

The Ecotourism Society Q8. Think about your classification in the previous section and the table you

made. Which of the activities can be considered as ecotourism? Q9. Write your own definition of ecotourism… Name:



B9.4. Ecotour Packages Q10. Quickly scan for the main attractions of the ecotour packages offered by

H&M Travel. What words would be appealing to a potential customer? Which ecotour package would you choose? Why?

Q11. Are the two packages true examples of ecotourism?

H & M Travel


To: Mario Gonzalez

From: Teresa Bautista

Date: 12/21/2005

Re: Ecotour Package

Dear Mr. Gonzalez,

Greetings from H&M Travel! It is nice to hear from you again. Regarding your inquiry, please find details as follows. For further assistance, please feel free to write to us. We will be glad to assist you.

Best wishes, Teresa

Ecotour Package A: Mountain Adventure Visit the mystical mountains where a world of raw and unspoilt treasures unfold. Come and behold the grandeur of breathtaking Crystal Falls. Go wild along the river, trekking through primitive mountain trails. Witness the glory of life in the legendary mountains for a bargain price of $100 !!!! Rates are inclusive of three nights accommodation and full breakfast/lunch /dinner daily. Leaves on M/W/F. Ecotour Package B: Fun in the Sun Soak up the sun at White Point, a place where magnificent mountains meet blue seas. Go windsurfing, sea-kayaking, boating, snorkeling! See a myriad of colors in the coral reefs teeming with breathtaking biodiversity. Simply relax and experience our special hibiscus aromatherapy and massage treatment. All these and more for a special price of $175!!! Rates are inclusive of two nights accommodation and breakfast. Leaves on T/Th/Sat.


B9.5. Interview with the Batcave Guide

Profile

Name: Mike Santos Age: 29 Marital Status: Married # of Children: 2 Occupation: Tour Guide Income: $2 /day

Mr. Anderson: How far is it to the batcave? Mike: It’s just a 30-minute hike up the mountain, sir. Mr. A: Is it dangerous? Mike: No, sir. I’ve been taking visitors up there since I was 8. Mr. A: That young? Mike: Around these parts, work is hard to come by…so children need to help their parents earn a living. Mr. A: How much will it cost to hire your services for the day?

Mr. A: What is that net doing there? Mike: Oh, the one hanging at the mouth of the cave? That’s for catching bats. Mike: It’s up to you, sir. But the Tour Guide

Association charges tourists a daily rate of $ 20. Mr. A: Why in the world would you want to catch bats? Mr. A: How much goes to you?

Mike: Well, half goes to the association, bike rental fees cost $4, $3 for gasoline, $1 for entrance fee and the rest goes to me.

Mike: Bats are a delicacy in this region. We usually eat them during feasts. Mr. A: Really?

Mr. A: Entrance fee? Mike: No kidding, sir. Bat meat is quite expensive when sold in town. Mike: For the batcave, sir.

Mr. A: How do you cook it? Batcave entrance… Mike: It’s usually boiled in soysauce and

vinegar, topped with chopped onions. Mr. A: It is stinky. Mike: Yes, that’s the odor of the bats. Quite delicious! Would you like to try some,

sir? Watch your step, sir. Mr. A: Maybe, next time.

Q12. Let’s think about this example?

Who benefits from ecotourism? Does it contribute to

environmental conservation? What do ecotourists learn? Are there any potential risks

involved?

Into the depths… Mr. A: Oh, it’s fabulous down here. Those stalactites are simply wonderful! Mike: Yes, they are. Please use this umbrella, sir. Mr. A: Umbrella? Mike: ….the bat droppings, sir.



B9.6. Once in a South Pacific Island…

Island A, located in the South Pacific, has a local population of 800 people. In the early

1900s, the island was dependent on fishing and agriculture. Huts were made from coconut

leaves. Non-islanders seldom visited this island in the middle of nowhere. All this changed in

the 1960s when a film crew “discovered” the island. Images of white sand beaches were

shown in various cinemas around the world. Some enterprising locals, with the help of foreign

investment, then developed the island into a tropical paradise get-away for weary travelers.

The 1970s saw the advent of rich tourists looking for exotic holidays away from civilization.

More tourists came to the island in the 1980s. No longer was the island a quiet fishing

community.

Q13. What could be a good title for this story? Q14. What do you think happens next? Write your own version. What will be the likely positive or negative impacts on the culture and environment of the Island?



B9.7. Case Study: Ecotourism in the Philippines As you read the following, what would you say are the key words of the passage?

The Philippines, a developing country in South East Asia, is faced with the challenges of

an increasing population, poverty, inequality, and corruption. With more than a quarter of

the Filipino population falling below the poverty threshold, the pressure for productivity and

growth has led to practices that have resulted in environmental stress and degradation. In

response, the Philippine government has adopted the rhetoric of sustainable development as

defined by the 1987 World Commission on Environment and Development. Government

policies on economic development have reflected this vision of sustainability and poverty

reduction. A major part of the government’s economic development plan is ecotourism.

Ecotourism, as a Philippine government policy, had its roots in the 1991, 20-year Tourism

Master Plan developed by the Philippine Department of Tourism, the United Nations

Development Program, and the World Tourism Organization. This blueprint on the

development of the tourism industry aims to “be sensitive”, “contribute to livelihood”,

“minimize impact of negative factors”, “maximize and generate sustainable growth”. In 1998,

the Department of Environment and Natural Resources and the Department of Tourism issued

a joint-memorandum, Guide Laws for Ecotourism Development in the Philippines, wherein

ecotourism was defined as:

“A low-impact, environmentally-sound and community-participatory tourism activity in

a given natural environment that enhances the conservation of biophysical understanding and

education and yields socio-economic benefits to the concerned community.”

The present government has reiterated the importance of tourism as “a major engine of

socio-economic development”. Specifically, it has been promoting ecotourism as a key to

sustainable development.

Reading Analysis:

Q15. What is the point-of-view of the author? Which word/phrase/part indicates the

message of the text? What is the tone of the text? Who is being addressed? What kind of

time and place is it set in? Do you agree or disagree with the author’s main point? Is there a

main point?



Activity: Talking Points on Ecotourism and Holidays

In groups, please discuss at least two of the following questions:

Q16. How important are “holidays” and “leisure time” in your life?

Q17. What is the ideal holiday for you? Where will you go? What will you do? Who will

you go with?

Q18. Would you go on an ecotour? What factors would be important in your decision

whether or not to go on an ecotour?

Q19. Have you gone on an ecotour? How did you feel and what did you know before

going? And afterwards? Does school organize any "ecotrips" for the day?

Q20. Do you think that the goals of ecotourism can be achieved? Why? Why not?

Q21. Are there any examples of ecotourism in your country? What kind of role does

ecotourism play in your country’s development plan?

Q22. What do you think are the ethical issues of ecotourism? Is it possible to resolve

these issues? Is it necessary to find right answers to these questions?

Q23. If you were given the authority to decide whether to adopt ecotourism policies for

your country, would you do so or not? Why? Why not?

Possible Project Topics

Make an ecotour brochure. Be as creative as possible.

Research into ecotourism in your country. Create a country profile.

Imagine that you are in charge of your country’s tourism department. How would you

market your country as a prime ecotourist destination?



B10. The Earth Charter Initiative The principles of the Earth Charter reflect extensive international consultations conducted over a period of many years. These principles are also based upon contemporary science, international law, and the insights of philosophy and religion. Successive drafts of the Earth Charter were circulated around the world for comment and debate by nongovernmental organizations, community groups, professional societies, and international experts in many fields. [www.earthcharter.org]

Vision for the Earth Charter Initiative

The Earth Charter was officially launched at the Peace Palace in The Hague on June 29, 2000. The vision is to establish a sound ethical foundation for the emerging global society and to help build a sustainable world based on respect for nature, universal human rights, economic justice, and a culture of peace. The charter raises a number of points related to environmental ethics and can be used for debate. 2005-2014 is the Decade for Education for Sustainable Development, launched under the lead of UNESCO. There have been a number of global environmental statements, including the Convention on Biological Diversity and Agenda 21 that arose out of the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. The texts are available on the Internet, but for discussion of environmental ethics this document is more challenging upon the readers, and it is yet to be adopted at the UN. Objectives of the Earth Charter: • To promote the dissemination, endorsement, and implementation of the Earth Charter by civil society, business, and government. • To encourage and support the educational use of the Earth Charter in schools, universities, faith communities, and many other settings. • To seek endorsement of the Earth Charter by the UN.

PREAMBLE We stand at a critical moment in Earth's history, a time when humanity must choose its

future. As the world becomes increasingly interdependent and fragile, the future at once holds great peril and great promise. To move forward we must recognize that in the midst of a magnificent diversity of cultures and life forms we are one human family and one Earth community with a common destiny. We must join to bring forth a sustainable global society founded on respect for nature, universal human rights, economic justice, and a culture of peace. Towards this end, it is imperative that we, the peoples of Earth, declare our responsibility to one another, to the greater community of life, and to future generations.

Earth, Our Home Humanity is part of a vast evolving universe. Earth, our home, is alive with a unique

community of life. The forces of nature make existence a demanding and uncertain adventure, but Earth has provided the conditions essential to life's evolution. The resilience of the community of life and the well being of humanity depend upon preserving a healthy biosphere with all its ecological systems, a rich variety of plants and animals, fertile soils, pure waters, and clean air. The global environment with its finite resources is a common concern of all peoples. The protection of Earth's vitality, diversity, and beauty is a sacred trust.

The Global Situation The dominant patterns of production and consumption are causing environmental

devastation, the depletion of resources, and a massive extinction of species. Communities are being undermined. The benefits of development are not shared equitably and the gap between rich and poor is widening. Injustice, poverty, ignorance, and violent conflict are widespread and the cause of great suffering. An unprecedented rise in human population has



overburdened ecological and social systems. The foundations of global security are threatened. These trends are perilous—but not inevitable. The Challenges Ahead

The choice is ours: form a global partnership to care for Earth and one another or risk the destruction of ourselves and the diversity of life. Fundamental changes are needed in our values, institutions, and ways of living. We must realize that when basic needs have been met, human development is primarily about being more, not having more. We have the knowledge and technology to provide for all and to reduce our impacts on the environment. The emergence of a global civil society is creating new opportunities to build a democratic and humane world. Our environmental, economic, political, social, and spiritual challenges are interconnected, and together we can forge inclusive solutions. Universal Responsibility

To realize these aspirations, we must decide to live with a sense of universal responsibility, identifying ourselves with the whole Earth community as well as our local communities. We are at once citizens of different nations and of one world in which the local and global are linked. Everyone shares responsibility for the present and future well being of the human family and the larger living world. The spirit of human solidarity and kinship with all life is strengthened when we live with reverence for the mystery of being, gratitude for the gift of life, and humility regarding the human place in nature.

We urgently need a shared vision of basic values to provide an ethical foundation for the emerging world community. Therefore, together in hope we affirm the following interdependent principles for a sustainable way of life as a common standard by which the conduct of all individuals, organizations, businesses, governments, and transnational institutions is to be guided and assessed. PRINCIPLES I. RESPECT AND CARE FOR THE COMMUNITY OF LIFE 1. Respect Earth and life in all its diversity. a. Recognize that all beings are interdependent and every form of life has value regardless of its worth to human beings. b. Affirm faith in the inherent dignity of all human beings and in the intellectual, artistic, ethical, and spiritual potential of humanity. 2. Care for the community of life with understanding, compassion, and love. a. Accept that with the right to own, manage, and use natural resources comes the duty to prevent environmental harm and to protect the rights of people. b. Affirm that with increased freedom, knowledge, and power comes increased responsibility to promote the common good. 3. Build democratic societies that are just, participatory, sustainable, and peaceful. a. Ensure that communities at all levels guarantee human rights and fundamental freedoms and provide everyone an opportunity to realize his or her full potential. b. Promote social and economic justice, enabling all to achieve a secure and meaningful livelihood that is ecologically responsible. 4. Secure Earth's bounty and beauty for present and future generations. a. Recognize that the freedom of action of each generation is qualified by the needs of future generations. b. Transmit to future generations values, traditions, and institutions that support the long-term flourishing of Earth's human and ecological communities. In order to fulfill these four broad commitments, it is necessary to: II. ECOLOGICAL INTEGRITY 5. Protect and restore the integrity of Earth's ecological systems, with special concern for biological diversity and the natural processes that sustain life.



a. Adopt at all levels sustainable development plans and regulations that make environmental conservation and rehabilitation integral to all development initiatives. b. Establish and safeguard viable nature and biosphere reserves, including wild lands and marine areas, to protect Earth's life support systems, maintain biodiversity, and preserve our natural heritage. c. Promote the recovery of endangered species and ecosystems. d. Control and eradicate non-native or genetically modified organisms harmful to native species and the environment, and prevent introduction of such harmful organisms. e. Manage the use of renewable resources such as water, soil, forest products, and marine life in ways that do not exceed rates of regeneration and that protect the health of ecosystems. f. Manage the extraction and use of non-renewable resources such as minerals and fossil fuels in ways that minimize depletion and cause no serious environmental damage. 6. Prevent harm as the best method of environmental protection and, when knowledge is limited, apply a precautionary approach. a. Take action to avoid the possibility of serious or irreversible environmental harm even when scientific knowledge is incomplete or inconclusive. b. Place the burden of proof on those who argue that a proposed activity will not cause significant harm, and make the responsible parties liable for environmental harm. c. Ensure that decision-making addresses the cumulative, long-term, indirect, long distance, and global consequences of human activities. d. Prevent pollution of any part of the environment and allow no build-up of radioactive, toxic, or other hazardous substances. e. Avoid military activities damaging to the environment. 7. Adopt patterns of production, consumption, and reproduction that safeguard Earth's regenerative capacities, human rights, and community well being. a. Reduce, reuse, and recycle the materials used in production and consumption systems, and ensure that residual waste can be assimilated by ecological systems. b. Act with restraint and efficiency when using energy, and rely increasingly on renewable energy sources such as solar and wind. c. Promote the development, adoption, and equitable transfer of environmentally sound technologies. d. Internalize the full environmental and social costs of goods and services in the selling price, and enable consumers to identify products that meet the highest social and environmental standards. e. Ensure universal access to health care that fosters reproductive health and responsible reproduction. f. Adopt lifestyles that emphasize the quality of life and material sufficiency in a finite world. 8. Advance the study of ecological sustainability and promote the open exchange and wide application of the knowledge acquired. a. Support international scientific and technical cooperation on sustainability, with special attention to the needs of developing nations. b. Recognize and preserve the traditional knowledge and spiritual wisdom in all cultures that contribute to environmental protection and human well-being. c. Ensure that information of vital importance to human health and environmental protection, including genetic information, remains available in the public domain. III. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC JUSTICE 9. Eradicate poverty as an ethical, social, and environmental imperative. a. Guarantee the right to potable water, clean air, food security, uncontaminated soil, shelter, and safe sanitation, allocating the national and international resources required. b. Empower every human being with the education and resources to secure a sustainable livelihood, and provide social security and safety nets for those who are unable to support themselves.



c. Recognize the ignored, protect the vulnerable, serve those who suffer, and enable them to develop their capacities and to pursue their aspirations. 10. Ensure that economic activities and institutions at all levels promote human development in an equitable and sustainable manner. a. Promote the equitable distribution of wealth within nations and among nations. b. Enhance the intellectual, financial, technical, and social resources of developing nations, and relieve them of onerous international debt. c. Ensure that all trade supports sustainable resource use, environmental protection, and progressive labor standards. d. Require multinational corporations and international financial organizations to act transparently in the public good, and hold them accountable for the consequences of their activities. 11. Affirm gender equality and equity as prerequisites to sustainable development and ensure universal access to education, health care, and economic opportunity. a. Secure the human rights of women and girls and end all violence against them. b. Promote the active participation of women in all aspects of economic, political, civil, social, and cultural life as full and equal partners, decision makers, leaders, and beneficiaries. c. Strengthen families and ensure the safety and loving nurture of all family members. 12. Uphold the right of all, without discrimination, to a natural and social environment supportive of human dignity, bodily health, and spiritual well-being, with special attention to the rights of indigenous peoples and minorities. a. Eliminate discrimination in all its forms, such as that based on race, color, sex, sexual orientation, religion, language, and national, ethnic or social origin. b. Affirm the right of indigenous peoples to their spirituality, knowledge, lands and resources and to their related practice of sustainable livelihoods. c. Honor and support the young people of our communities, enabling them to fulfill their essential role in creating sustainable societies. d. Protect and restore outstanding places of cultural and spiritual significance. IV. DEMOCRACY, NONVIOLENCE, AND PEACE 13. Strengthen democratic institutions at all levels, and provide transparency and accountability in governance, inclusive participation in decision making, and access to justice. a. Uphold the right of everyone to receive clear and timely information on environmental matters and all development plans and activities which are likely to affect them or in which they have an interest. b. Support local, regional and global civil society, and promote the meaningful participation of all interested individuals and organizations in decision making. c. Protect the rights to freedom of opinion, expression, peaceful assembly, association, and dissent. d. Institute effective and efficient access to administrative and independent judicial procedures, including remedies and redress for environmental harm and the threat of such harm. e. Eliminate corruption in all public and private institutions. f. Strengthen local communities, enabling them to care for their environments, and assign environmental responsibilities to the levels of government where they can be carried out most effectively. 14. Integrate into formal education and life-long learning the knowledge, values, and skills needed for a sustainable way of life. a. Provide all, especially children and youth, with educational opportunities that empower them to contribute actively to sustainable development. b. Promote the contribution of the arts and humanities as well as the sciences in sustainability education.



c. Enhance the role of the mass media in raising awareness of ecological and social challenges. d. Recognize the importance of moral and spiritual education for sustainable living. 15. Treat all living beings with respect and consideration. a. Prevent cruelty to animals kept in human societies and protect them from suffering. b. Protect wild animals from methods of hunting, trapping, and fishing that cause extreme, prolonged, or avoidable suffering. c. Avoid or eliminate to the full extent possible the taking or destruction of non-targeted species. 16. Promote a culture of tolerance, nonviolence, and peace. a. Encourage and support mutual understanding, solidarity, and cooperation among all peoples and within and among nations. b. Implement comprehensive strategies to prevent violent conflict and use collaborative problem solving to manage and resolve environmental conflicts and other disputes. c. Demilitarize national security systems to the level of a non-provocative defense posture, and convert military resources to peaceful purposes, including ecological restoration. d. Eliminate nuclear, biological, and toxic weapons and other weapons of mass destruction. e. Ensure that the use of orbital and outer space supports environmental protection and peace. f. Recognize that peace is the wholeness created by right relationships with oneself, other persons, other cultures, other life, Earth, and the larger whole of which all are a part. THE WAY FORWARD

As never before in history, common destiny beckons us to seek a new beginning. Such renewal is the promise of these Earth Charter principles. To fulfill this promise, we must commit ourselves to adopt and promote the values and objectives of the Charter.

This requires a change of mind and heart. It requires a new sense of global interdependence and universal responsibility. We must imaginatively develop and apply the vision of a sustainable way of life locally, nationally, regionally, and globally. Our cultural diversity is a precious heritage and different cultures will find their own distinctive ways to realize the vision. We must deepen and expand the global dialogue that generated the Earth Charter, for we have much to learn from the ongoing collaborative search for truth and wisdom.

Life often involves tensions between important values. This can mean difficult choices. However, we must find ways to harmonize diversity with unity, the exercise of freedom with the common good, short-term objectives with long-term goals. Every individual, family, organization, and community has a vital role to play. The arts, sciences, religions, educational institutions, media, businesses, nongovernmental organizations, and governments are all called to offer creative leadership. The partnership of government, civil society, and business is essential for effective governance.

In order to build a sustainable global community, the nations of the world must renew their commitment to the United Nations, fulfill their obligations under existing international agreements, and support the implementation of Earth Charter principles with an international legally binding instrument on environment and development.

Let ours be a time remembered for the awakening of a new reverence for life, the firm resolve to achieve sustainability, the quickening of the struggle for justice and peace, and the joyful celebration of life.


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