B CON REPORT

BULDING CONSTRUCTION 1 (BLD60303)

Experiencing ConstructionDocumented by:

Teoh Jun Xiang 0322099Tan Min Chuen 0322938 Tang Ying Jien 0322357Saw E Sean 0322003Tang Fu Hong 0323092Tan Yan Jie 0323906Teh Wei Hong 0323743Thomas Ting Shii Kai 0323962

Content page

No. Section Page 1.0 Introduction (Tang Ying Jien and Saw E Sean) 1 1.1 Introduction to Site 1 (Tang Ying Jien) 1 1.2 Introduction to Site 2 (Saw E Sean) 1 2.0 Site and safety (Tang Ying Jien) 2 2.1 Introduction to site and safety in Elmina Valley Phase EV1A

(Tang Ying Jien) 2

2.2 Safety signboards (Tang Ying Jien) 2 2.3 Bulletin board (Tang Ying Jien) 2 2.4 Safety protocols (Tang Ying Jien) 2 2.5 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) (Tang Ying Jien) 3 2.6 Plants and machineries (Tan Min Chuen) 4-6 3.0 Preliminaries (Tan Min Chuen, Teh Wei Hong and Tang Fu Hong) 7 3.1 Site Layout (Tan Min Chuen) 7-8 3.2 Preliminary (Services connection) (Teh Wei Hong) 9 3.3 Setting out (Teh Wei Hong) 9-11 3.4 Earth work (Tang Fu Hong) 11-12 4.0 Foundation (Teoh Jun Xiang and Saw E Sean) 13 4.1 Foundation type and construction process (Site visit) (Teoh Jun

Xiang) 13-14

4.2 Foundation type and construction process (Reference) (Saw E Sean)

15-20

5.0 Superstructure (Tan Yan Jie, Thomas Ting Shii Kai and Teoh Jun Xiang)

21

5.1 Superstructure (Site visit) (Tan Yan Jie) 21-24 5.2 Superstructure (Reference) (Thomas Ting Shii Kai and Teoh Jun

Xiang) 25

5.2.1 Ground beams (Thomas Ting Shii Kai) 25 5.2.2 Slabs (Thomas Ting Shii Kai) 25 5.2.3 Beams and columns (Thomas Ting Shii Kai) 26-27 5.2.4 Walls (Teoh Jun Xiang) 27-36 5.2.5 Staircase (Thomas Ting Shii Kai) 36-37 6.0 Doors and Windows (Tan Yan Jie and Thomas Ting Shii Kai) 38 6.1 Doors (Tan Yan Jie and Thomas Ting Shii Kai) 38-39 6.2 Windows (Tan Yan Jie and Thomas Ting Shii Kai) 39-41 7.0 Roof (Teh Wei Hong and Tang Fu Hong) 42 7.1 Roof type and construction process (Site visit) (Tang Fu Hong) 42-45 7.2 Roof type and construction process (Reference) (Teh Wei

Hong) 45-49

8.0 Summary (Teoh Jun Xiang) 50 9.0 References (Thomas Ting Shii Kai) 51- CO

NTE

NTS

1.0 Introduction1.1 Elmina Valley Phase EV1A

Tang Ying Jien 0322357 Saw E Sean 0322003 1

1.2 Lot 120, Mukim Lunas, Daerah Kulim, Kedah Darulaman The Elmina Valley Phase EV1A was once an oil palm plantation estate until it was transformed into a residential area. It is located at Petaling district which is connected to the Guthrie Corridor Expressway, Federal Highway, Kuala Lumpur Kuala Selangor Expressway and North Klang Valley Expressway. The strategic location of the site meant that a shorter drive to Kota Damansara, Shah Alam and the Subang Airport is made possible. The residential area consists of 157 terrace units with nature parks as its recreational area. A man-made lake was also built in the middle of the residential area for aesthetic and recreational purposes. There is also an amphitheatre provided within the residential area to act as a gathering place for the residents.

The project is located at Kulim District, Kedah, Malaysia. It is the closest town to the Greater Penang in Kedah. As there are quite a huge amount of people living in the district, rapid development of residential areas occurs around the area to cater the provide accommodation for the increasing number of citizens. Lot 120, Mukim Lunas, Daerah Kulim, Kedah Darulaman is one of the residential construction projects that aims to provide comfortable living place for the public. The project is located near a river as well as a police and petrol station. The residential area consists of 12 units of single-storey terrace houses, 28 units of 2-storey terrace houses, 8 units of single-storey semi-detached houses and 20 units of semi-detached houses.

Project: Lot 120, Mukim Lunas, Daerah Kulim, Kedah Darulaman

Project Title:-12 units of single-storey Terrace House-28 units of 2-Storey Terrace House-8 units of single-storey semi-detached house- 20 units of semi-detached house

Project Duration: 24 months

Site Possession Date: 10 September 2016

Completion Date: 9 September 2018

Project: Elmina Valley Phase EV1AProject Title: 157 unit, 2-Storey Terrace House (1,709 sq. ft.)Project Duration: 18 monthsSite Possession Date: 29th of January 2016Completion Date: 28th of July 2017

Figure 1.1 Two-storey terrace houses which were proposed to be built at Elmina Valley Phase EV1A

Figure 1.2 Location Plan of Elmina Valley Phase EV1A Figure 1.6 Location Plan of Mukim Lunas, Daerah Kulim, Kedah Darulaman

Figure 1.3 floor plans of a single terrace house unit within Elmina Valley Phase EV1A.

Figure 1.4 Two-storey semi-detached houses which were proposed to be built at Mukim Lunas, Daerah Kulim, Kedah Darulaman

Figure 1.5 Two-Storey terrace houses which were proposed to be built at Mukim Lunas, Daerah Kulim, Kedah Darulaman

2.0 Site and Safety2.1 Introduction

2.2 Signage

2.3 Bulletin Board

2.4 Safety Protocols

The safety of personnel working in the construction site of Elmina Valley is taken very seriously and every safety measures have been carried out to ensure the workers safety on site at all times. The Sime Darby Development Department have designated a green zone in every construction site to provide an area to conduct security checks on workers as well as visitors to ensure their safety on site. Safety equipment which are stored in the green zone are also distributed to provide protection to those at site. Safety signboards, bulletin boards and security booths are present in the green zone.

The safety issued on workers are very strict and they were required to wear helmet, vest safety boots for normal safety compliance. The workers need to be registered as verified foreigners and need to have formal permits and passports. Every workers requires to keep their ID, which is written at the back of the safety helmet for security and safety measurements. The workers are also required to enter personal code and hand print in the green zone when entering the construction site.

- Consist of various pinned project information for workers, visitors and other authorised personnel to refer to.

- Articles on health and safety for construction site personnel to read.

- Posters on safety campaigns are posted on the boards to create awareness among the construction site personnel.

- Provides emphasis on important reminders and alerts the public on the potential dangers and risks on the construction site.

- A diagram of the Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) to remind workers of the required safety equipment when on site.

- Signage of assembly point to indicate the location of the emergency gathering point during any unforeseen accidents or emergencies.

Figure 2.1 Signage of the emergency assembly point and the sign with diagrams of the Personal Protective Equipment (PPE).

Figure 2.2 Penalty sign. Fines will be issued to those who violate the safety rules and regulations of the construction site.

Figure 2.3 Bulletin Board

Figure 2.4 Hand Print Scanner Figure 2.5 Safety Gate

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2.5 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Figure 2.6 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) sign within the construction site.

Figure 2.7 Collection of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

- To provide protection from falling objects and to protect the safety of workers when they are operating a construction vehicle.

- To prevent direct contact between dangerous objects and the head which may cause injuries to the head.

i. Safety Helmet

- Providing protection to the eyes of the workers from hazardous objects such as dust particles, molten metal as well as sparks during construction.

ii. Eye Protection

- Protects the hands of the workers when handling sharp objects, tools and corrosive chemicals.

iii. Protective Gloves

- To protect the workers from any direct contact to objects which may cause harm to the physical body.

- To allow a worker to be highly visible in the construction site.

iv. Safety Clothing

- To provide protection to workers feet from sharp objects which may pierce and injure the feet.

- To protect the feet against any falling objects.

v. Safety Boots

Safety Helmet

Safety Clothing

Safety Clothing

Safety Boots

Tang Ying Jien 0322357 3

2.6 Plants and Machinery

2.6.1 Earthmoving and excavating equipment

he selection of the appropriate type and size of construction equipment often affects the required amount of time and effort and thus the job-site productivity of a project. It is therefore important for site managers and construction planners to be familiar with the characteristics of the major types of equipment most commonly used in construction.

- Earthmoving and excavating equipment are heavy-duty vehicles, designed specially to execute construction tasks, most frequently involving earthwork operations.

- As they imply the mechanical advantage of a simple machine, the ratio between input force applied and force exerted is multiplied. Some equipment uses hydraulic drives as a primary source of motion.

The back-hoe loader can be used for a wide variety of tasks as there are both a bucket and a shovel attached to it. It is normally used in smaller construction works to dig shallow excavations and trenches, general grading, mall demolitions as well as light transportation of building materials

i. Back-hoe Loader

Used to excavate below or above natural surface of ground on which machine rests and dig pits for basement. It can excavate close range works as they have better bucket. Excavators can also be used for forestry work, demolition and many more.

ii. Excavator

Compactors are used for compacting crushed rock as the base layer underneath concrete or stone foundations or slabs. The function of compactors is to produce higher density soil mechanically. The basic forces used in compaction are static weight, kneading, impact and vibration. The degree of compaction that may be achieved depends on the properties of soil, its moisture content, the thickness of the soil layer for compaction and the method of compaction.

iii. Vibratory soil compactor

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2.6.2 Lifting and erecting equipment

A crane mounted on a truck carrier provides the mobility for this type of crane, these cranes are able to travel on highways, eliminating the need for special equipment to transport the crane, usually used in smaller construction to dig shallow excavations and trenches, general grading, hoist and place materials

Concrete transport trucks (intransit mixers) are used to transport and mix concrete while travelling to the construction site. The concrete mixing transport truck maintains the material's liquid state through agitation, or turning of the drum, until delivery. The interior of the drum on a concrete mixing truck is fitted with a spiral blade. In one rotational direction, the concrete is pushed deeper into the drum. This is the direction the drum is rotated while the concrete is being transported to the building site. This is known as "charging" the mixer. When the drum rotates in the other direction, the spiral blade "discharges, forces the concrete out of the drum.

A device that homogeneously combines cement, aggregate such as sand or gravel, and water to form concrete. The portable concrete mixer uses a small revolving drum to mix the components. For smaller jobs, the concrete made at the construction site has no time lost during its transportation, giving the workers ample time to use the concrete before it hardens.

Lifting and erecting equipment are machineries that are used to deliver materials and equipment or lift loads from a place to another vertically and horizontally.

2.6.3 Mixing and grading equipmentMixing and grading equipment are construction equipment that mix up the materials and are mainly used to produce concrete by mixing aggregates, water and cement.

i. Truck Mounted Moblie Cranei. Concrete Transport Truck

ii. Portable Concrete MixerA tractor with a fork built in front to lift heavy objects. It is commonly used in construction to move aside or load materials into or onto another type of machinery. Another critical characteristic of the forklift is its instability. The forklift and load must be considered a unit with a continually varying center of gravity with every movement of the load. A forklift must never negotiate a turn at speed with a raised load, it may combine to cause a disastrous tip-over

ii. Forklift


2.6.4 Transporting vehicleTransportation vehicles are heavy vehicles that able to transport materials and equipment for a long distance. They are usually used to transport materials from the base to the construction site.

2.6.5 Construction equipment

i. Dump Truck

i. Bar Bending Machine

ii. Truck

Dump trucks are used for transporting loose material (such as sand, gravel, or dirt) for construction. A typical dump truck is equipped with an open-box bed, which is hinged at the rear and equipped with hydraulic pistons to lift the front, allowing the material in the bed to be deposited on the ground behind the truck at the site of delivery.

A motor vehicle designed to transport cargo. Trucks vary greatly in size, power, and configuration, with the smallest being mechanically similar to an automobile. Trucks are usually used to transport plants such as, generator set, portable concrete mixer, mobile lighting tower to desire places on site.

Bar bending machines are used for bending reinforcement bars and various forms of round bars.

ii. Bar Cutting MachineBar cutting machines are used for cutting reinforcement bars and various forms of round bars.

iii. Mobile lighting towerMobile lighting towers are used to light up the construction site at night. And also used to light up spaces with low light intensity.

iv. Generator SetA generator set is an electronic device that supplies electric energy to devices and machineries on site.


3.0 Preliminaries i. Site Entrance ii. Signboard

Workers cabin

Shower area

Kitchen

Surau

Canteen

Carpark

Barbenders yardTo Construction site

Storage area

Entrance

security post

green zonesite office

generator set canteen

3.1 Site Layout

Allows vehicles and machineries to get in to the construction site.

The sign board displays information about the construction and the various companies involved in the construction process.

iii. Access Road iv. Hoarding

Allows vehicles and machineries to access the construction site from the main road.

Erected around the of construction site to shield it from view and prevent unauthorised access. It is an important component to prevent theft and vandalism.

v. Storage

Designated places were used to store excess materials and also park unused machineries.


vi. Site Security vii. Drainage

Hand print scanning for each worker to identify their identity. This can prevent unauthorized access to the site.

Temporary drainages are excavated on site to discharge water from site during rain and heavy downpour as well as to prevent flooding.

viiii. Green Zone

The green zone is the area within the yellow fencing. Within the green zone, people are not required to put on safety helmet and safety boots.

xiii. Barbenders Yard xiiii. Rubbish dump

Designated places were used to store excess materials and also park unused machineries.

Rubbish containers that allow workers to dispose garbage on site. It will be transported by the dump truck when it is full.

viii. Site Office

Construction sites will generally require office facilities to provide accommodation for site managers, provide space for meetings and to provide storage for site documentation. It is important that site offices are comfortable, attractive and versatile, as well as being suitably robust and secure

xi. Canteen xii. Surau

The canteen is a place for workers to have their meals. Kitchens are also provided to allow the workers to cook their own meals.

A Muslim prayer room is provided for Muslim workers to conduct their daily prayers.

xv. Workers Accomodation

The workers accommodation is a composition of large numbers of cabins to accommodate the workers. The accommodation is constructed using containers and zinc roofing, which results in the containment of hot air within the living space. Stairs are provided to allow accessibility to the first floors. In addition to that, balconies are also present outside of the cabins to allow the workers to hang their shirts for drying and a car park is also provided for the workers to park their vehicles.

x. Wash Trough

The green zone is the area within the yellow fencing. Within the green zone, people are not required to put on safety helmet and safety boots.


3.2 Preliminary (Service Connection)

3.3 Setting Out

3.3.1 Horizontal Control TechniqueBefore starting earthwork make sure there are no service lines such as electrical connections, water supply and drainage connections, telephone lines or others below ground.

Setting out involves working out the location and extent of the building on site. As each site is different, contractors should start by establishing the particular conditions. The process involves the positions and levels of building lines and road alignments shown on the construction plans to be established on the ground by various techniques and instruments. Setting out is usually divided into two stages which is the first stage of setting out and the second stage.

The second stage of setting out continues from the first stage, beginning at the ground floor slab or road sub-base level. Up to this point, all the control will be located outside the main construction, for example the pegs defining building corners, centre lines and so on will have been knocked out during the earth moving work and only the original control will be undisturbed.

Horizontal control surveys are conducted to coordinate horizontal positional data. These positions can be referenced by parallels or plane coordinate axes. Because they are used as a framework for other surveys, these surveys must be precise and accurate. These surveys provide a network of monuments or points on the ground that can be used as the control for any other surveying project, such as a boundary or construction survey. The advantages of using a horizontal control survey is that lost monuments can be replaced accurately, surveys can be coordinated, more than one network station can provide a check to the work, and a reduction in the cost of the project can be achieved. Most horizontals should (and will) be connected to the control network.

3.3.2 Vertical Control TechniqueA vertical control survey determines elevation with respect to sea level. These surveys are also used as a benchmark upon which other surveys are based and high degree of accuracy is required. These surveys are useful for tidal boundary surveys, route surveys, construction surveys and topographic surveys. In a vertical control system, at least two permanent benchmarks should be used, but the number of benchmarks required may increase depending upon the needs and complexity of the project. These projects are needed for the construction of water and sewer systems, highways, bridges, drains, and other major town or city infrastructure. These surveys can be done alone, but are often done in conjunction with a horizontal control survey.

Foundation

In practice, the first stage of setting out involves the use of the horizontal and vertical control techniques. The purpose of this stage is to locate boundaries of the work in their correct position on the ground surface and to define the major elements. In order to do this, horizontal and vertical control points must be established on the site.

Figure beside shows the setting out process before the foundations were constructed. Timber frames were first fixed on site to allow strings to be tied and to determine the location in which the walls will be erected.

i. First Stage

ii. Second Stage

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3.3.3 Method used in setting out

3.3.4 Setting out of pipelines

3.3.5 Optical level, optical square and Theodolite construction

3.3.6 Sight Rails

Baselines are located by setting out their terminals. If co-ordinated they would be set out from a traverse. The length of the baseline can be measured and compared with its compound values. Alternatively, the baseline could be set out with reference to other detail such as road centrelines, existing buildings, etc. Again it is necessary to check the measured length against that given on the drawings. Usually for the purpose of measuring angles.

Offset pegs are normally used in the form of baselines or grids or as horizontal control points used to establish the design of the proposed structure. The offset pegs are only used when the original pegs are unable to be installed.

A temporary benchmark (TBM) is a fixed point with a known elevation used for level control during construction works and surveys. Nails in road seals, or marks on kerb & channel are commonly used as temporary benchmarks

A Theodolite is an instrument for measuring both horizontal and vertical angles, as used in triangulation networks, and geo-location work. Other specialized purposes make Theodolites ideal for shop and factory floor layout of tools and fixtures. They also work well for layout for the construction of concrete slabs, landscaping, and road design.

A series of rails set with a surveying instrument, and used to check the vertical alignment of a pipe in a trench.

Pipelines are to be checked on chainage, this could be every few pipes, for small diameter and every pipe for large diameter. The pipelines must be tested in accordance with the contract specification, any air or water testing of line should be done by an experienced person.

Use plumb bob to get point below if it is farther than can be done with a spirit level

Clearly mark what the various nals are for. e.g. centreline, edge, trench, wall, plumbing

ii. Offset pegs

i. Baselinesiii. Temporary benchmark


3.3.7 Equipment used 3.4 Earth work3.4.1 Site clearing

3.4.2 Benchmark

The purpose of this section is to establish uniform practices to be followed for removal of trees and stumps. Where such removals are set up on a lump sum basis, varying interpretations as to the extent of removal are possible. It is necessary to exercise judgment in the administration of this item to accomplish the desired results.

The desired level was marked in a permanent place. This mark will be needed throughout the project duration.

Figure 3.5 Excavators are used to remove the trees

There are several type of ground marking and setting out equipment including:

- Survey Flags- Paint- Survey Nails- Marking Crayons- Marking Plates (Temporary and permanent)

i. Theodolites

iii. Marking & survey points

iii. Software

Removal of trees and stumps

A surveying instrument with a rotating telescope for measuring horizontal and vertical angles.

Figure 3.4 Site clearance at Lot 120, Mukim Lunas, Daerah Kulim, Kedah Darulaman

Surveying software is essential to any land surveyor or building surveyor who undertakes simple or complex land surveys or measured building surveys using a total stations.

Figure 3.1 Survey Flags Figure 3.2 Marking crayons Figure 3.3 Survey naills


3.4.3 Side-slope in excavation

During earth excavation check that slope is maintained in side-soil.

Dump trucks are normally used instead of scrapers when the soil is being excavated by loaders. Most dump trucks can travel over public highways, and move faster than scrapers.

Figure 3.6 Soil compactor are used in the compaction of soils after grading.

3.4.4 Base soil

3.4.5 Excavation area

3.4.6 Backfill

3.4.7 Compaction

Check the base soil, on which building's foundation will rest, is hard enough. You may consult geotechnical engineer that the base soil is perfect for further work execution.

Compaction reduces the volume of air space in the soil. This compaction increases the dry unit weight and strength of the soil to better support structures. This is a very important step.

- Check backfill is being done after ending the shutter removal period of footing.

- Backfilling material: Try to backfill with the excavated soil. And check the backfilling material is free from large lumps, organic or any other foreign materials. Check all shuttering materials are removed before backfilling.

- Backfilling should be done evenly on all sides. Check that is being done properly.

- Backfilling should be done layer by layer. Each layer shouldn't exceed 6 inch thickness. And each layer should be compacted to maximum dry density of soil. Check those are being done properly.

- Ensure that the excavation area is extended beyond the foundation of buildings for easy circulation of movement during work execution.

- Cleaning of foundation bed: Check that loose and displaced materials are cleaned from the foundation bed.


Construction process of reinforced concrete pad footings1. The position of footings are set out according to the plan dimensions2. Cement powder is then used to mark the size of footings3. The earth was excavated to the required depth and dimensions by using an excavator4. Hardcore was then placed on top of the excavated earth and it should be used in not less than 150mm thick but no greater than 600mm in selected aggregate. The hardcore is then compacted down in layers using a plate compactor5. A formwork is then placed according to the set dimensions6. Studs are then added to prevent the falling of the formwork.7. Bracing is then used to hold the formwork in position. This is to ensure that the formwork is able to withstand the horizontal forces of the concrete when it is poured.8. A lean concrete mixture is then added and levelled. Its purpose is to provide an even surface for the foundation concrete. It is also used to prevent direct contact of foundation concrete with soil9. Workers then start to arrange the reinforced concrete bars to form reinforced concrete cages10. After the reinforced concrete cages are completed, the workers place the reinforced concrete cage into the formwork11. The reinforced concrete cage is then placed on top of the spacer blocks. The spacer blocks are used to maintain the reinforcement in the proper position. Concrete spacers can help prevent corrosion, protect them from fire for a certain length of time and help to provide a proper transfer of stresses from concrete to steel rebars.12. After placing the rebar cages in the formwork, the reinforcements were erected for stump and add more ties to the formwork13. Eventhough concrete is durable and has a very good compression strength, it has a weak tension strength. As such, reinforcements are used to carry tensile load of structures14. A starter bar is tied to the reinforcement to allow the reinforcement of the column to be tied onto the reinforcement steel bars. 15. The position of starter bars were fixed before the concrete was poured into the formwork. 16. Concrete is poured into the formwork and adequate compaction is ensured by using vibrators or self-compacting concrete. The concrete is allowed to cure before proceeding to the next stage of construction 17. Set, curing and hardening and when the concrete gains sufficient strength, the formwork is dismantled, and thus the reinforced concrete pad footing is completed

Excavation Pour concrete Formwork Add spacer block

Reinforcement for stump

Add ties for formwork

Pour concreteSet, curing, hardening

Add Rebar

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4.2 Foundation type and construction process (reference)

4.2.1 Shallow foundation

i. Strip Footing

ii. Pad Footing

Types of pad foundation design

Types Of Strip FootingThe Foundation is the substructure and the bottommost section of a building. It is constructed halfway or completely below the surface of the ground.

- They spread the load over a larger area at an equal rate so that the burden on the foundation soil does not exceed the safe bearing capacity.

- Foundations shift the unequal load of the superstructure equally to the sub soil hence it minimizes the differential settlement that occurs.

- Foundations offer the stability against, voids formed by scouring underground water and the burrowing animals.

- Foundations prevent the structures from sliding above the sloping ground.

- Foundations offer a leveled and balanced surface for the construction of the superstructure.

- Transfer load directly on to the hard layer of soil.

- Maximum depth of shallow foundations is 3 meter.

- Provides support for light loads when the soil is in stable condition and with adequate bearing capacity

Uniformly distributes load (Load is distributed evenly along the entire structure)

Mass concrete for stell columns

Reinforced concrete with sloping upper suface

Point loads (Load is condense at individual points)

- Strip footing is the most common and widely used foundation; it is basically a strip of concrete placed in a long narrow ditch.

- It usually supports the load bearing structure or wall without columns and beams. (e.g.: Brick wall)

- The depth of the foundation is roughly 1 meter, while the width of the foundation depends on the condition of soil and the load. As an example, the weaker soil requires a wider strip foundation.

- The thickness of the strips must be at least 150mm.

- Pad footings are individual or isolated foundations to support the columns of the building.

- Pad footings are a form of disseminate foundation, which is made up by rectangular, square, or sometimes circular concrete pads that support localized single-point loads like structural columns, groups of columns or framed structures.

- Pad footings are usually used when the load of the building is carried by the columns.

- It uses concrete pad at the base with concrete columns or steel columns attach by captive bolts.

Mansonry or concrete wall

R e i n f o r c e d concrete strip footing

Function of foundation

P l a i n reinforced concrete

S t e p p e d reinforced concrete

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ii. Raft Footing iv. Cantilever/ Strap footing

Types Of Raft Footing

Types of cantilever (plan to elevation)

- Raft footing are similar to slab floating on top of the soil.

- It is usually used on soft natural ground

- It used to cover the whole base area of a building and extend beyond it; this is to prevent differential settlement which can cause foundation failure on a building.

- It supports the walls and acts as floor slab

- The detail of edge of the foundation is decided by the nature of the load applied on it.

- A form of concrete apron will extend from the edge of the foundation to act as protection from erosion

- Independent footings of two columns are connected by a beam.

- The beam is used to help transfer the weight of the loaded column footing to adjacent footing.

- The strap beam is not in contact with the soil, and thus does not transfer any pressure to the soil.

Light load and point loads

Adjoining wall

Column A

Column B

Column B

Column AFooting of wall

S t rap Beam

St rap Beam

Footing of Column A

1 2

4 5

3

6

Footing of Column B

Light loads

Heavy uniform load Heavy loads and heavy isolated point loads


i. Pier Foundation (Caisson)

ii. Pile Foundation

End Bearing Pile Friction Pile

- Deep foundations function to transfer the load of the building to a deeper layer of dense sand and gravel below the soil.

- The depth of the foundation is more than 3 meters

- Deep foundations are used for heavy load when the soil is unstable and inadequate bearing capacity.

- A pile is fundamentally a long piece of a strong material penetrating into the ground to act as a steady support for structures built above the ground.

- Piles are used when the soil strata could not handle the heavy load from the structure.

- Pile foundations may be classified as either End bearing or Friction piles, according to the manner in which the pile loads are resisted.

- The shafts of the piles act as columns carrying the loads through the covering inferior subsoils to firm strata into which the pile toe has penetrated.

- This can be rock strata or a layer of firm sand or crushed stone which has been compress by the displacement and vibration encountered during the driving.

- Any foundation imposed on the ground will form a pressure which spreads out to form a pressure bulb.

- If a suitable load bearing strata cannot be discover at a fitting level, especially in stiff clay soils, it is possible to use a pile to carry this pressure bulb to a bottom level where a higher bearing capacity is found.

- The friction or floating pile is mainly supported by adhesion or friction action of the soil around the perimeter of the pile shaft.

- Consists of a cylindrical column of large diameter to sustain and transmit large super-imposed loads to the firm strata below.

- Often used in the construction of bridge piers & other structures that requires foundation beneath rivers & other bodies of water.

- Preferred in a location where the top strata consists of decomposed rock overlying a strata of sound rock.

4.2.2 Deep Foundation

Axial load

Lateral load

Concrete- mis design can vary based on several factor

Diameter can vary widely

Reinforcing Steel (typically required by design)

Bell- May be used or amitted as desired

Depth can vary widely

Side resistance

Bell size varies- No larger than 3 times the shaft diameter at base

Base Resistance

End Bearing Pile Friction Pile

Weak soil

Strong soil or rock


Types of pile

Displacement piles

Large displacement pile

Precast reinforced concrete piles

The large displacement pile is the pile which is solid and with large x-section area and hence compress bigger amount of soil under the ground.

For non-displacement pile, a void is form on the ground by excavation. The void is then filled with concrete. The side of the void can be supported or unsupported depend on the situation.

Small displacement pile

non- displacement pile

The small displacement pile is the pile with less x-section area and compress or displaces less amount of soil under the ground.

Eg. RC pile Eg. Bore pile

Eg. H-pile

- The precast reinforced concrete piles are piles which were moulded in circular, square, triangular or octagonal form.

- They are casted and cured in a casting yard and then transported to the site for installation

- They provide high strength and resistance to decay.

- They are heavy, and because of their brittleness and low tensile strength, extra care in handling and driving is required.

- Cutting of the precast reinforced concrete piles requires the use of concrete cutter, pneumatic hammers, cutting torches, etc


Steel preformed piles

Composite piles

Driven in situ/ Cast-in-Place piles

Type of Steel preformed piles

Piling proccess

For non-displacement pile, a void is form on the ground by excavation. The void is then filled with concrete. The side of the void can be supported or unsupported depend on the situation.

- Driven in situ piles are those piles which are cast in place inside the ground.

- The pile shaft is formed by using a steel tube which is either top driven or driven with an internal drop hammer working on a plug of dry concrete/gravel as in Frankipiles.

- This method can be used to build the piles up to 610mm.

- Since the cast-in-situ piles is not subjected to handling or driving pressure, it is not essential to reinforce the pile in ordinary cases or in places where the pile is completely flooded in the soil. Reinforcements are only provided when the pile acts as a column and is subjected to inclined forces.

- Cast- in-situ piles can be differentiated into two types. In one the metal shell of the pile is permanently left in place lining the ground along with the core while in the other type, the outer shell is withdrawn.

- Composite piles are piles which are made from two different materials that are driven one over the other, so as to allow them to act together to perform the function of a single pile.

- One advantage of this type of pile is the ability to adopt of the fine qualities of both the materials

- They are economical as they utilize the great erosion resistance characteristics of one material with the cheapness or strength of the other.

H-piles pipe piles screw piles


Drop Weight

Bore Pile

Step 1 - The crane is used to transport the piles to a particular area that has been excavated.- The piles are all delivered cautiously as they are fragile.

Step 2- The pile is tied up to its lifting lug and is prepared for hammering.

Step 3 - Before the hammering procedure begins, they are all located accordingly to be driven into the ground

Step 4- Hammering process started- The drop hammer is used to drive the pile- The subsoil around the pile shaft is displaced- The pile driving to its maximum depth until it cannot be driven

- Bored pile is a cast in situ concrete pile which has to be casted on the construction site. Contrary to displacement piles, the soil has to be excavated and the resulting hole will be filled with concrete or a precast concrete pile which will be dropped into the hole and grouted in. As such, no displacement of soil will occur.

- Bored piling machine which was used to cast the bored pile has specifically designed drilling tools, buckets and grabs and the machines are used to remove the soil and rock.

- Casting of bored piles have to be done by specialised bored piling contractors

- The length, width, depth and style of bored pile foundations depends on the type of the project and the surrounding environment.

- It produces less vibration and reduces the noise level compare to other piling system.

- It causes less disruption to adjacent soil

- Bored piles are usually used for tall buildings or huge industrial complexes, in which a foundation that can carry thousand tons of loads is needed, most probably in unstable or difficult soil conditions.

1. Dropping weight2. Explosion3. Vibration4. Jacking

Pile driving methods (displacement piles) Non-displacement piles

Crane

Notes : 1. Installation of optional swivels convert fixed leads to Cardonic Leads.

2. Semi fixed leads have the ability to move in the up-down direction

Mat

Optional 3-ways swivel

HammerDrive cap

Lead

pile


4.0 Foundation4.1 Foundation type and construction process (from site visit)Residential houses constructed at Elmina Valley Phase EV1A are 2-storey terrace houses. After conducting our site visit, weve learnt that the type of foundation used to construct the houses are classified as reinforced concrete pad foundations. Pad foundations are individual or isolated foundations which are used to support localised loads such as columns.

Pad footings are one of the most simple and common types of foundations and they are used when the load of the building is carried by columns which sit on top of square or rectangular pads of concrete.

1. Photo shows shows the conditions of the earth after excavation and site formworks were placed according to the set dimensions

2. Photo indicates that the formwork is readily constructed and reinforced concrete cages can be inserted into it. Studs and bracings which were used to prevent the falling of the formwork and to hold the formwork in position can be seen.

3. Photo shows that the reinforced concrete cages are being inserted into the formworks.

4. Photo shows that a layer of lean concrete mixture is added and levelled underneath the reinforced con-crete cages. Spacer blocks are also visible under-neath the reinforced concrete cages. Reinforcements were added on top of the reinforced concrete cages to create stumps.

Photo shows that the position of the starter bars and reinforcements were maintained by connecting additional ties to the formwork.

Photo shows the conditions of the earth after excavation and site formworks were placed according to the set dimensions

Photo shows that the foundation is completed and the formwork is removed. The excavated earth is awaiting bed fill.

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5.0 Super Structure5.1 Super Structure (from site visit)5.1.1 Ground Beam

5.1.2 Slabs

- Ground beams are reinforced concrete beams which support walls, joists and other structures near ground level. - Ground beams are either standing directly upon the ground or supported at both ends by piers.

Ground floor slabs are reinforced concrete blockworks situated on the ground which supports walls. These concrete slabs are a common structural element of modern buildings. It is normally horizontal and has a smaller thickness if compared to its span. It is usually furnished using a flat and strong surface in reinforced concrete construction.

1. The props/supports are being erected. The soffit of beams are being fixed

1. Preparing the site 2. Improve the soil support system3. Building formwork4. Install reinforce bar

5. Pouring concrete6. Consolidation.7. Finishing.8. Curing

2. Formwork for the side of beam are being constructed

3. Steel reinforcements are placed into the formworks.

4. The formwork was erected to the side of the beam complete with struts

The photo shows the ground floor slabs present on site.

Construction process of ground beam on site

Construction process of ground floor slabs on site

Ground floor slab

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5.1.3 Beams and columns

Photos above shows the fisrt floor slab in our site

Similar to ground floor slabs, first floor slabs are reinforced concrete blockworks supporting walls of the first floor of the building. However, they are not constructed on the ground, but are supported by a series of columns and walls. The types of first floor slabs found at Elmina Valley Phase EV1A are two way slabs with beams.

Continuous beams are supported on more than two supports. It is more economical for any span lengths and they are several beam supports at the bottom.

Simply supported beams are supported freely at the two ends on walls / columns.

Most of the construction process of first floor slabs are the same as ground floor slabs, which include:

1. Building formwork.2. Install reinforce bar.3. Pouring concrete.4. Consolidation. (Process of uniting)5. Finishing.6. Curing

Beams are structures which are rectangular in cross-section that carry the weight of the floor slab or the roof slab and they transfer all the loads including its self-weight to the columns or walls.

There are two types of beams found on the 2-storey link houses of Elmina Valley Phase EV 1A, namely continuous beams and simply supported beams.

Most of the construction process of beams is similar to ground beams.1. The props/supports are erected.2. The soffit of beams are fixed.3. The formwork for the side of beams are constructed4. Steel reinforcements are placed inside the formworks. 5. The formwork, which is completed with struts, are constructed to the side of beams 6. The concrete was then poured into the formwork.

First floor slab i. Continuous beam

ii. Simply supported beam

The ffigureshows the simply supported beams located at the front faade of the terrace houses. The areas marked blue are the beams and the areas marked red indicate the location.

The image shows the continuous beam found on site. The horizontal beams (blue) are supported by a series of columns (red).

Construction process of beamsBeams


ColumnsA columns is a vertical structural member that functions to transmit the load from ceiling/roof slabs and beams, including its self-weight to the foundation. Columns situated on the ground floor are a continuation of foundations, and, in the case of Elmina Valley Phase EV 1A, the columns are a continuation of the reinforced concrete pad footings.

1. During the construction of the reinforced concrete pad footings, reinforcements were added on top of the reinforced concrete cages to create stumps. Concrete will be poured into the formwork and the formwork will be removed once the foundation is completed.

2. Once the ground beams and ground floor slabs are completed, the reinforcements will be extended to construct the columns.

3. The formworks for the concrete columns are then fixed and concrete will be poured into the formworks. The formworks will be removed after the concrete has cured.

5. Concrete will then be poured into the fixed formworks to construct the columns. Concrete buckets as well as triangular-shaped wooden planes were used to pour small volumes of concrete into the wooden frames when constructing the columns.

6. Once the concrete has cured, the formworks will be removed and the columns are completed.

4. A similar process will take place after the columns on the first floor is completed. The reinforcements will be extended, and after the beams and first floor slab are completed, formworks will then be fixed.

The image shows the columns found on site. Completed columns on the ground floor support the first floor slab, and the formwork of the columns on the first floor are also visible.

The image shows the completed ground floor slab, with the reinforcements before their extension.

The image shows the extended reinforcements for the construction of columns on the first floor. The ground floor columns, beams and first floor slab are completed.

The image shows the columns found on site. Completed columns on the ground floor support the first floor slab, and the formwork of the columns on the first floor are also visible.

The image shows workers using triangular-shaped wooden planes to pour concrete into the formworks.

The image shows the reinforcements after their extension.


Walls found in the 2-storey terrace houses of Elmina Valley Phase EV1A can be categorized as masonry walls, and in specific, brick walls. There are two types of bricks which are used for the construction of the houses in Elmina Valley Phase EV1A, namely red clay brick and cement sand bricks.

- Sime Darby Developments rules and regulations states that the party walls of residential houses are to be constructed out of red clay bricks. As such, party walls of the 2-storey terrace houses were built using red clay bricks.

- The bricks were laid using the English Bond method.

- Cement sand brick is used to construct both internal and external walls of the 2-storey terrace houses of Elmina Valley Phase EV 1A.

- Red clay bricks provide thermal & acoustic insulation .

- Red clay bricks do not require any maintenance cost.

- The high compressive strength of fired clay bricks has been exploited for millennia to build structures ranging from single-storey huts to massive public buildings and enormous bridges and viaducts.

- The cost of red clay bricks brick is higher compare to other bricks like cement sand brick or concrete brick.

The photo shows the red clay brick wall found on site.

The photo shows the cement sand brick wall found on site.

Advantages of Red clay brick wall

- The cost of cement sand bricks are lower compared to red clay bricks as they can be easily made in a short period of time.

- Cement sand bricks provide good sound insulation.

Advantages of Cement sand brick wall

Disadvantages of Red clay brick wall

- Cement sand bricks are not fire proof bricks and it cannot withstand high temperature. The bricks will crack if they come in contact with high temperature like fire.

- Cement sand bricks are also much heavier than red clay brick.

Disadvantages of Red clay brick wall

5.1.4 Wall

i. Red clay brick wall

ii. Cement sand brick wall


The staircase found at the 2-storey terrace houses of Elmina Valley Phase EV 1A can be classified as concrete straight staircase.

- The run of the steps was then measured by finding the distance between the frontmost and backmost part of the stairs.- The width of the stairs was measured by calculating the distance between the leftmost and rightmost bounds of the planned steps of the stairs.

2. Building and Assembling Formwork:- The formwork was made by using plywood or framing timber. The side forms are cut according to the tread and riser calculations.

3. Reinforcement- Reinforcement bars are carefully bent at the necessary height and length and positioned into the formwork.

4. Preparing Concrete:- Sufficient and well mixed mortar was prepared using portable cement mixer.

5. Pouring concrete: - The process started from the bottom and the concrete was poured one step at a time. The mortars are spreaded evenly and spade was used to remove the trapped air bubbles.

1. Measure the dimensions of your stairs:

- Firstly, the total rise of the stairs, which can be found by measuring the total height from the planned base to the higher level/floor, was measured.

The images above shows the timber formworks which were fixed for the construction of the staircase.

5.1.5 Staircase

Construction process of staircase on site

Joiats

Decking

Wall string

Riser board

Riser cleat


6. Add finishing: - A simple wood float was used to clean and smoothen the surface of the mortar.

7. Curing: - The steps were sprayed with curing compound and covered with burlap. Once the concrete has hardened for a week, the plywood formwork was then be removed.

1. Ground Beam 2. Ground Floor Slab

3. Column 4. First Floor Beam

5. First Floor Slab 6. First Floor Columns

7. Roof Beams 8. Walls

9. Staircase

8. Installing the handrails:

- The stair railings were positioned onto the staircase at the location in which they will be installed.

- The position of the railings were marked

- Pilot holes were drilled into the staircase on the marks made.

- The railings were placed into the pilot holes.

- Cement was then poured into the holes to fix the handrails.

The image shows the staircase handrails which were installed on site.

5.1.6 Process of superstructure construction on site:


5.2 Super Structure (References)5.2.2 Ground Beam

5.2.2 Slabs

- Ground beams are reinforced concrete beams which support walls, joists and other structures near ground level. - Ground beams are either standing directly upon the ground or supported at both ends by piers.

Concrete slabs are a common structural element of modern buildings. It is normally horizontal and has a smaller thickness if compared to its span. It is usually furnished using a flat and strong surface in reinforced concrete construction.

1. Erect the props/supports2. Fix the soffit of beam3. Construct formwork for the side of beam4. Place the steel reinforcement 5. Erect the formwork to side of beam complete with struts6. Pour the concrete into the formwork.

1. One-way slab with beams

Drop Panel

Column

ColumnCapital

2. Two-way slab with beams

The image shows the reinforcement bars used to construct ground beams

The image shows completed ground beams at a construction site

Types of concrete slabs

Flat plate slabs are basically slabs supported by the columns without the help of beams or capitals or drop panels.

Advantages of flat plate slabs- Can be constructed quickly.- It is flexible in arranging the columns and partitions.- Provide little obstruction to light.- High resistance of fire.- Use in multi-storey reinforced concrete

Classification of Two way slabs:1. Addition of beams between columns to make two way slabs stronger.2. Thickening the slabs around the columns.3. Flaring the columns under the slabs.

Construction process of slab: 1. Preparing the site.2. Improve the soil support system.3. Building formwork.4. Install reinforce bar.5. Pouring concrete.6. Consolidation.7. Finishing.8. Curing

Flat slab with column capital

Plain flat plate slab

Flat slab with column capital and drop panel

3. Flat Plate Slab

Flat plate slab with column capital and drop panel

5.2.3 Beams and columnsBeams

Types of beams

- Beam are the horizontal members of structure and they function to carry loads. - Beams are rectangular in cross-section. - Beams carry the floor slabs or the roof slabs and they transfer all the loads including its self-weight to the columns or walls.

Construction process of beam1. Fix the reinforcement bar for concrete beam.

i. Simply Supported Beam: It is supported freely at the two ends on walls / columns

i. Steel columns ii. Timber columns iii. Concrete columns

iv. Cantilever Beam: It is fixed in a wall or column at one end and the other end is free. It has tension zone at the top side and compression zone at the bottom side.

iii. Continuous Beam: It is supported on more than two supports. It is more economical for any span lengths

v. Overhanging Beam: Its end extends beyond the wall or column support

ii. Fixed Beam: Both ends of the beam are rigidly fixed into the supports

Wall

Wall

Wall Overhang

Cantilever Beam

Overhanging Beam

Tension Side

Compression Side

Wall

Wall

Stirrups

Fixed Beam

Effective Span

Continuous Beam

Clear Span

2. Fix the formwork for the concrete beam

3. Pour concrete and wait it to be cured then remove the formwork

ColumnsA vertical structural member that functions to transmit the load from ceiling/roof slabs and beams, including its self-weight to the foundation.

Types of fail modes of columns- A wall is a structure that defines an area, carries a load, or provides shelter or security.

- They are part of the 3 planes in architecture (along with 2 other planes, which are the overhead (roof) plane and the base (floor) plane that defines the 3 dimensional volume of mass and space.

- The purpose of walls in buildings are to support roofs, floors and ceilings, enclose a space as part of the building envelope, to give buildings their form along with roofs and to provide shelter and security.

Function of walls- Thermal Insulation - To provide protection from natural elements such as weather and animal threats - To divide and separate the areas within the building to create interior spaces.- Act as sound barriers- As fire walls to attenuate the spread of fire from one building unit to another.- To improve the building appearance.- To provide privacy

Strength and stability of wallsResistance to:- Stresses set up by its own weight- Superimposed loads- Lateral pressure (for example, wind)- Overturning by lateral force- Buckling caused by excessive slenderness

i. Long Column or Slender: Type of column that fails by elastic buckling, where it occurs at compressive stresses within the elastic ranges called long column.

ii. Short Column: A very stocky column which will not fail by elastic buckling. It will crush and squash due to general yielding and compressive stresses

Intermediate columns: It will fail by inelastic buckling when a localized yielding occurs. This will be initiated at some point of weakness and crookedness.

Construction process of concrete columns

1. Fix the reinforcement bar for the concrete column.

2. Fix the formwork for the concrete column.

3. Pour concrete and wait for it to be cured then remove the formwork.

5.2.3 Walls

Types of walls- Load bearing / Non Load Bearing- External / Internal

Materials of wallsA. Concrete Walls B. Masonry Walls C. Dry Walls D. Glass Walls E. Curtain Wall SystemLoad bearing walls carry and distribute the load of a building from roof and floor

from above (and lateral load) to the structures or foundations situated below the building.

A load bearing wall is part of the structure of the building as it holds the building up. They are usually made of concrete, brick or block, hard materials which have to stand the test of time and heavy weights.

- Pre Cast Concrete Wall- Retaining Wall- Masonry Wall- Pre Panelized Load Bearing Metal Stud Walls- Engineering Brick Wall (115mm, 225mm)- Stone Wall

As the height of the building increases, required thickness of walls and resulting stress on foundation will also increase and cause it to be uneconomical.

Buildings with cast-in-situ reinforced concrete shear walls are widespread in many earthquake-prone countries and regions. Shear wall buildings are usually regular in plan and in elevation and shear walls are the main vertical structural elements of the buildings with a dual role of resisting both the gravity and lateral loads. Wall thickness varies from 140 mm to 500 mm, depending on the number of stories, building age, and thermal insulation.

Reinforcement requirements are based on building code requirements specific for each country. In general, the wall reinforcement consists of two layers of distributed reinforce requirements.

Characteristics- Usually used as load bearing walls- Texture and appearance can be controlled by the use of formworks admixtures and additives formworks, admixtures and additives- Often used in high-rise buildings in Malaysia- Often used in government projects in Malaysia, as part of the industrialized building system (IBS)- Offers greater speed of construction and control of quality

i. Cast in-situ reinforced concrete shear wall systemsii. Pre-cast concrete wall systems

A non-load bearing wall is only a partition that divides the various spaces of a building to create rooms. These walls do not carry any structural load except for their self-weights and wind load which acts on the structure (for example, column, slab or beam).

- Hollow Concrete Block Wall- Faade Brick Wall- Hollow Brick Wall- Brick Wall (115mm, 225mm)

Load bearing wall

A. Concrete walls

i. Cast in-situ shear wall systemsNon-Load bearing wall

Load Bearing WallsLoad Bearing Walls

Non-Load Bearing Walls

Non-Load Bearing Walls

Precast concrete wall systems can be comprised of a variety of shapes, and wall types. Typically, precast concrete wall systems fall into three basic categories: solid, sandwich and thin-shell. These can be penalized and erected in either a horizontal or vertical position and used on all types of structures from residential to commercial, institutional to industrial. Wall panels can be designed as nonloadbearing or loadbearing, carrying floor and roof loads, as well as lateral loads.

Construction process of cast in-situ reinforced concrete shear wall systems using timber formworks

Advantage of using shear wall method of construction- Speed in erecting and dismantling forms- Good appearance- Greater control of accuracy and workmanship- Creates a smooth, high quality finish capable of receiving direct decoration with the minimum of preparation- Tornadoes, hurricanes and earthquake resistance

Solid Walls

Solid wall panel simply refers to walls being made of solid concrete as opposed to including integral insulation. These wall systems require some form of insulation and an interior wall/finishing system to complete the building enclosures.

Sandwich WallsInsulated sandwich wall panels can be strictly architectural, strictly structural, or a combination of both. The difference between typical panels and insulated sandwich wall panels is that the latter are cast with rigid insulation "sandwiched" between two layers, or wythes, of concrete. The insulation thickness can vary to create the desired thermal insulating property ("R" value) for the wall.

The structural behavior is either: - Composite in which the wythes are connected using ties through the insulation that fully transfer loads. The structural performance is then based on the full thickness of the panel

- Non-Composite in which the wythes are connected using ties through the insulation, which limits performance to the individual capacities of each wythe.

Thin-Shell and GFRCThin-shell wall panels consist of a thin, outer-wythe of concrete typically ranging between 1.5 and 3 inches in thickness. This is connected to a "back-up" system, usually constructed of steel framing or studs, or sometimes concrete. The back-up system is what connects the wall panel to the structural system of the building and often provides the furring for interior finishes, such as drywall to be attached. Many of these systems can also incorporate a layer of rigid insulation between the exterior wythe of concrete and the back-up system.

Benefits of Precast Concrete Wall Panels

- The sandwich construction technique used with the precast concrete walls provides increased stability and improved sound insulation, as well as greater protection from potential hazards such as fires.

- Precast concrete panels also provide energy-saving advantages. Because the concrete wall panels are separated by a layer of thermal insulation, the precast concrete wall panel system results in enhanced energy performance, which can help to lower overall costs.

- Superior strength and durability

- Provides excellent protection against impacts from explosions, vehicles and projectiles

- Ease of installation

1. Preparation of timber formwork

2. Completion of steel bars and erection of formwork to required size

3. Closing of formwork, concrete is poured and left to cure

4. Completion

ii. Pre-cast concrete wall systems

1. Weld PlatesThe most common method of attachment of precast members is by use of steel weld plates. Typically, the precast members have embedded plates that can be used as welding surfaces for loose connecting plates or angles

2. Rebar and Grout Used typically with slabs, reinforcing bars are spliced into slabs and grouted in place.

B. Mansory Walls- Stone masonry- Clay/cement brick walls- Concrete/ cement block walls

Characteristics- One of the oldest materials, and the most common material for walls construction in Malaysia

- Durable, good sound and fire insulation properties as well as thermal insulation

- Offers great flexibility in form and appearance.

Non- Modular bricks- actual dimensions

Modular bricks- Nominal dimensions

Common types of bricks/ blocks:

Types of bricks

Methods of Attachment of Precast Concrete Members:

Three-inch

Standard Modular Engineer

Double

Economy 12 orJumbo utility Triple SCR

6 Norwegian 6 Jumbo 8 Jumbo

Roman Norman Norwegian

Economy 8 orJumbo closure

Standard Oversize

Embedded plate

Embedded plateLoose plat field-welded to Em

Grout fillRebar

Precent Slab

Beam or Wall

Clay Brick Smooth surface facing brick Cement sand brick

Calcium silicate brick Concrete block

Autoclaved aerated concrete block

Terminology and bonds Brick jointings

Construction of bricks wall

Brick on edge (shiner, bull stretcher)Soldier- A brick laid vertically with the long narrow side of the brick exposed.Sailor- A brick laid vertically with the broad face of the brick exposed

Step 1: Preparing the Wall1. Purchase the right amount of bricks.

Step 2: Building The First Row1. Lay your first row of bricks in the foundation for a dry run

2. Dig out a trench for your foundation.

Flush Bucket Handle Weather Struck Recessed Weather Struck and cut

3. Drive level wooden stakes into your trench.

5. Make your guideposts, or gauging rods

2. Clamp a string on your first guideline.

4. Mix and pour concrete up to the top of the guideposts.

3. Lay the first 1/2 inch of mortar along the base of the foundation.

4. Press the first brick into the mortar 5. Lay mortar down for the next 2-3 bricks.

9. Keep adding bricks until the row is finished.

Step 3: Building Additional Rows1. Move your guideline up to the next marker.

Step 4: Finishing the Wall1. Fill in any missing patches of mortar along the wall.

2. Cut a brick in half with a firm tap from the pointed end of a hammer

3. Start the second row with 1/2 a brick on both ends.

4. Mortar and place one full brick on top of your ends.

8. Scrape away any excess mortar as your work

7. Press the brick lightly into the 1/2" of mortar you've laid down so that it is level with the first brick

6. Butter the end of the next brick with mortar and press it into place.

5. Fill in the entire bottom row. 6. Continue building your wall from the ends inward.

2. Use a brick jointer to indent the mortar professionally

Plaster and skim coat- Skim coating is the process of applying a layer of muddy plaster compound to rough or damaged ceilings and walls to either smooth or repair them.

- Plastering should be done after curing on the brick masonry.

- Cement and fine aggregate mix ratio should be 1:6 (1 Cement: 6 fine aggregate) for internal plastering,1:4 for externa lplastering.

- Never do a plastering beyond 12 or 15mm thickness on a brickwall.

Stiffeners- Stiffeners are used to provide lateral support to masonry walls.- Vertical stiffener- per 3 m height.- Horizontal stiffener- per 4m length/ width

phase 1

Diagonal view Cross walls

Measuring

T-square Keyhole saw

Sequential core filling with reinforcing

phase 2 phase 3

Stiffener can be connected to the floor above or stand alone

Wall stiffener- Open-ended blocks used to build around stiffener

C. Dry wall/ stud framing system

Partition board wall systemDrywall is a construction material used to create walls and ceilings. It's also used to create many design features, including eaves, arches and other architectural specialties. It's quick and easy to install, incredibly durable, and requires only simple repairs when damaged. In the commercial building world, drywall is used to wrap columns to conceal steel beams and is an easy and inexpensive way to top off masonry walls above ceilings. Drywall is also used to add fire resistance at walls and ceilings, containing the spread of fire so people can evacuate safely during an emergency.

Characteristics1. Non-load bearing2. Relatively simple and easy to be installed3. Good light and fire insulating properties as it is an ablative material4. Good sound and thermal insulation properties. The sound and thermal insulation properties can be improved by the addition of mineral fibre insulation5. Type of partition board and stud backing system can be varied to suit different requirements6. Susceptible to water damage and moulding7. Susceptible to damage by external forces as it is hollow

Installation process of drywall1. Estimate the number of drywall sheets required to cover the wall.2. Cutting

Screw

5. Wait for 24 hours for the mud to dry to begin sanding.

6. Use a pole sander and 120-grit sandpaper to lightly sand the mud you applied earlier. You've finished sanding when you can't see any tape or mud bulges on the walls' surface, and when a level applied to the wall shows it is smooth and even. Wear a mask and goggles while sanding to prevent damage to eyes and lungs.

3. Hanging

4. Finishing

Framing system of drywall

Start attaching your drywall sheets to the wood or metal studs used to frame your space. You should hang sheets horizontally when working with wood studs, while metal studs work better with vertical installations. This is because wood studs are more likely to warp and deflect over time. Hanging the sheet horizontally allows each sheet to be in contact with more studs and helps minimize deflection. Generally speaking, it can be more difficult to screw into metal studs. When using wood studs, you should also apply a drywall adhesive to the face of the studs before hanging your drywall in order to further minimize deflection. To attach the drywall to the studs, use a screw gun and drywall screws, making sure you hit the studs. Screws should be placed about every four inches.

Finally, you'll tape, sand and finish the drywall. This involves applying three layers of mud, one layer of drywall tape, and a whole lot of sandpaper. First, use a 6-inch finishing knife to spread joint compound along each seam. This first layer is called the tape coat, and should be about four inches wide, centered on the joints in your drywall sheets. Next, apply drywall tape along the joints. The mud you applied will hold it in place. Your second coat of mud is called your block coat. Use your 6-inch finish knife to apply a second coat of mud on top of your drywall tape. Use just enough to seal the drywall tape in place. The final coat is called the skim coat. A 10-or 12-inch knife should be used to apply a third coat of mud. Take your time on this coat to spread the mud thinly away from the seams to provide a smooth, level surface.

Field

Double or single op plate

Wood studs

Bottom plate

Vertical kneel

Horizontalkneel

Floor kneel

Roof kneel

Skirting line

Perimeter of gypsum boardHorizontally applied gypsum board shows paper bound edges at right angles to framing members. field, perimeter, edged, ends and joints are indicated

Insallation of partition

A structural glass wall is made up of tempered glass sheets suspended from special clamps, or spider fittings. These fittings are stabilized against wind pressure by perpendicular stiffeners and/ or cables and carry the loads of the glass. Structural glass walls overcome the restrictions of conventional frames to provide the ultimate all glass faade.

A structural glass wall is made up of tempered glass sheets suspended from special clamps, or spider fittings. These fittings are stabilized against wind pressure by perpendicular stiffeners and/ or cables and carry the loads of the glass. Structural glass walls overcome the restrictions of conventional frames to provide the ultimate all glass faade.

Structural Glass Walls

Unitized curtain wall systems

Spider fittings

Structural glass assemblies Glass Fin

D. Glass wall

Characteristics1. Allows transparency yet retains the strengths of typical walls2. Able to act as walls for large spans of faade areas3. High cost compared to other traditional materials4. Requires specialist consultants and contractors5. Durable to weathering conditions6. Strong but brittle surface

E. Glass curtain wallingCurtain walls are classified by their method of fabrication and installation in two categories: stick built and unitized systems.

Cantilever top and bottom

Movement due to wind load

Cantilever top only

P ropped Cantilever

Pinjointed stabalizer

Balance beam

Stick systems consist of the vertical curtain wall frame (mullions), horizontal curtain wall frames (transoms), glass or opaque panels that are installed and connected piece by piece. These parts are usually fabricated and shipped to the job site for installation. It has the advantage that it is economical and the construction sequence is flexible. Disadvantages are the lengthy installation time and high dependence on site workmanship to ensure acceptable quality.

Composite panel walling system

There are a wide range of possible infill panels for curtain wall systems, including:- Vision glass (which may be double or triple glazed, may include low-e coatings, reflective coatings and so on).- Spandrel (non-vision) glass.- Aluminium or other metals.- Stone veneer.- Fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP).- Louvres or vents.

Stick systems

1. Straight staircase

Composite panel walling system

Panels are often composites, with the facing materials bonded to, or 'sandwiching' insulation. Frame and panel designs are very complex, as they need to perform multiple functions, such as:

- Transferring loads back to the primary structure of the building.- Providing thermal insulation and avoiding cold bridging and condensation.- Providing fire, smoke and acoustic separation. This is particularly difficult at joints between the curtain wall system and interior walls and floors.- Creating a barrier to water penetration.- Accommodating differential movement and deflection.- Preventing panels from falling out of the frame.- Allowing for opening windows.- Preventing the accumulation of dirt.

Construction process of concrete straight staircase:

1. Measure the dimensions of your stairs: - Firstly, the total rise of the stairs, which can be found by measuring the total height from the planned base to the higher level/floor, has to be measured- The run of the steps was then measured by finding the distance between the frontmost and backmost part of the stairs.- The width of the stairs was measured by calculating the distance between the leftmost and rightmost bounds of the planned steps of the stairs.

Aluminium framing

Aluminium framing is used for the vast majority of curtain walling applications, primarily for its excellent strength to weight ratio and its ability to be extruded in complex shapes. Aluminium is 66% lighter than steel, as such, it is also far less susceptible to brittle fractures.

Types of staircase

A staircase is a system of steps by which people and objects may pass from one level of a building to another.

5.2.4 Staircase

4. Double quarter landing staircase

2. Quarter landing staircase 3. Half landing staircase

5. Winder landing staircase 6. Double winder landing staircase

7. Spiral sraircase 5. Circular staircase

2. Building and Assembling Formwork:- The formwork can be made by using plywood or framing timber. The side forms are cut according to the tread and riser calculations.

3. Reinforcement- Reinforcement bars are carefully bent at the necessary height and length and positioned into the formwork.

4. Preparing Concrete:- Produce sufficient and well mixed mortar with portable cement mixer.

5. Pouring concrete: Start from the bottom and pour one step at a time. Make sure the mortars are spreaded evenly. A spade should be used to remove the trapped air bubbles.

6. Add finishing: - Use a simple wood float to clean and smooth the surface of the mortar.

7. Curing: - Spray the steps with curing compound and cover it with burlap. Once the concrete has hardened for a week, the plywood formwork can then be removed.

8. Installing the handrails:

- The stair railings were positioned onto the staircase at the location in which they will be installed.

- The position of the railings were marked

- Pilot holes were drilled into the staircase on the marks made.

- The railings were placed into the pilot holes.

- Cement was then poured into the holes to fix the handrails.

6. Double winder landing staircase

Joiats

Decking

Wall string

Riser board

Riser cleat

6.0 Doors and Windows6.1 Doors- Doors and doorways provide access from the outside into the interior of a building as well as to act as a passage between interior spaces.

- Doorways should be large enough for ease of movement and to accommodate movement of furnishings and equipment.

- All doors should be evaluated for their ease of operation, durability under anticipated frequency of use, security provisions as well as light, ventilation and views that are offered by them.

- Door frames used in the construction of the 2-storey terrace houses of Elmina Valley Phase EV1A are generally aluminium door frames

The photo shows the aluminium door frames which were used during the construction of the 2-storey terrace houses of Elmina Valley Phase EV1A.

Types of doors

Trim/Casing

Jamb

Weather Strip

Lock Site

Mid Rail

Center Stile

Strike Plate

Lock Set

Threshold

Top RailSix Panels

Single Side PanelRight-Hand Swing

Single Side PanelLeft-Hand Swing Two Side Panels

Double Door One side Fixed

Flush Four PanelsHalf MoonTwo PanelsHalf Lite

Two Panel2/3 Lite Full Lite

Hinge Stile

Panel

Lock Rail

Bottom Rail

Sill

Door Bottom Shoe

Figure above shows components of door

Figure above shows components of door knob

Doorjamb

Door-jambShims

Shims

Frame

Weather SealLocker Rolleer

Receiver

Closing Side

Sash

Pane

Handle

Bottom Bead

Slider

Double Hung Twin Double Hung Picture with Double hung

Hinge

Hing Side

Glazing Gasket

Head

Advantages of aluminium door frames- Slim profile- Durable- Narrow sight lines- Low maintenance- Light yet strong- Compared with vinyl, fiberglass and wood frames, aluminium conducts heat and cold the least well

- Windows are key architectural elements that provide a bridge between the inside and the outside by:

i. Admitting lightii. Controlling ventilationiii. Influencing thermal comfort.

- As such, the form and position of windows are key aspects of internal design.

1. The location of the doors are measured and marked. A few layers of bricks are then placed beside the markings.

4. For timber door frame: The wall is plastered and the main frame is installed. For aluminum door frame: Mortar is filled in the space between the gap and masonry wall before the wall is plastered.

2. The door frame is inserted into the marked position. The jamb of the door is nailed into the masonry wall for support. Bricks are then continued to be laid.

3. Pre-cast concrete lintel is bind with mortar and placed on top of the door head. Lintel is constructed so that no extra vertical force is exerted on the door frame.

6. Casing is installed to ensure cracks and flaws in the joining are hidden.

Construction process of aluminium door frames

Trimmer stud

Trimmer stud

5. Shims are places on the hinges' side to form a continuous gap in between. The hinge is then nailed into the side door jamb.

6.2 Windows

Figure above shows components of Windows

Types of Windows

Bay Liftout Slider 2 Lite Casement

Casement

Fixed window over awning

Hopper Awning

Fixed Over Awning

i. Up hang windows

3 Liftout Slider with colonial Inserts

There are two types of windows available in the 2-storey terrace houses of Elmina Valley Phase EV 1A, namely up hang windows and casement windows.

- Up hang windows are hinged at the top and swing outward from the bottom. They glide open and shut with the turn of one easy-to-reach handle.

- Up hang windows are often placed above or below other windows to add architectural interest, light and ventilation to a room while keeping the rain out.

- Up hang windows are often used in combination with large stationary windows to provide a constant views and air flow.

Advantages of up hang windows:- Versatility: Due to the variety of styling options and the ability to be installed higher than other types of windows, up hang windows provide greater flexibility in designing the dcor of a building.

- Weather-proof: Up hang windows open out from the top and provide protection from the rain when opened. They allows little to no leakage from rain when the windows are opened, and as such the user can enjoy fresh air even when the weather is bad.

- Privacy: Up hang windows can be installed higher than various types of windows. As such, they are able to provide natural light and ventilation without compromising the users privacy.

Types of Windows

Bow

Garden

Eyebrow Circletop Quater Arch

Octagon Full Circle

1. Position the sub-frame using the aluminium plate

2. Check the alignment of the sub-frame

3. Anchor the sub-frame into the rough opening using nail

4. Seal the anchor head and the joints with the wall with protection tape on the frame

5. Placing main frame on the sub-frame. Use millet to knock the finishing frame

6. Finish the wall with sealant.

Construction process of windows

Casement windows are windows that are hinged on the side and the sash opens horizontally opposite the hinge. This type of window allows for full ventilation from top to bottom of the window opening and the extended sash can catch the breeze and direct it into the house for better air flow.

Advantages:- Wide openings: Casement windows open completely, allowing a nice breeze into your home - Superior Security: Locks on casement windows are embedded into the frame. This provides enhanced safety and security.-Easy operation: Casement windows open easily with a crank, making them ideal for hard to reach areas.

ii. Casement windows

Photo above shows the location of casement windows on siteFigure above show ilustration of casement windows

Summary In conclusion, this project really played its part in allowing students to experience, document and analyse the construction process through their own eyes. Through this project, students were able to conduct their own site visit to their chosen construction site and to fully understand the sequence and coordination of construction at site. The site visit conducted proved to be an important learning process for architecture students as practical site visits conducted were able to allow students to have a clearer understanding of the topics which were covered in lectures. The exposure of students to construction methods and technologies in relation to their respective site contexts were able to allow students to broaden their horizons and to demonstrate their understanding and knowledge of the construction process in a systematic and professional manner.

For our group, we conducted two site visits respectively. We conducted our first site visit to Elmina Valley Phase EV1A. Residential buildings built on site are 2-storey terrace houses and we were able to observe, experience and document several aspects of the construction process on site, namely site and safety, plants and machineries, site layout, foundation, superstructures, doors and windows as well as roofs. Through our site visit, weve learnt that site and safety plays a huge role in the construction site as every safety measures were carried out to ensure the workers safety on site at all times. Moreover, we were able to personally observe and document the different plants and machineries used to construct the 2 storey terrace houses on site. Plants and machineries were further divided into various categories, namely earthmoving and excavating equipment, lifting and erecting equipment, mixing and grading equipment, transporting vehicles, construction equipment and many more. Moreover, weve also learned that a well-planned site layout is able to increase the productivity of the construction process. A well planned and organised construction site like Elmina Valley Phase EV1A is able to ensure a smooth transition from one location to another within the site, avoiding unnecessary injuries and directing workers to their respective working zones efficiently. The type of foundation available on site is shallow foundation, and specifically reinforced concrete pad footings. In addition to that, after conducting our site visit, we were able to understand the complete construction process for the superstructures. After the foundations were constructed, the reinforcements will be extended for the construction of columns. Ground beams will be constructed on top of foundations and this process will be flowed by the construction of ground floor slabs. Columns and beams will later be constructed and after the framework of the entire building is completed, walls will be erected to enclose the spaces. The walls found on site are masonry walls, namely red clay brick walls and cement sand brick walls. Roofs present on site are generally gable roofs and they are easily recognized by their triangular shapes.

In addition to that, weve conducted our second site visit to Lot 120, Mukim Lunas, Daerah Kulim, Kedah Darulaman to obtain an understanding of the process of setting out and earth works. As Lot 120, Mukim Lunas, Daerah Kulim, Kedah Darulaman is a newly developed construction process, we had the privilege of accessing the site to document the process of setting out and earth works.

References:Books:Allen, E., & Allen, E. (1985). Instructor's manual and slide script to accompany Fundamentals of building construction: Materials and methods. New York: Wiley.Allen, E., & Iano, J. (1985). The professional handbook of building construction. New York: Wiley.Allen, E., & Iano, J. (2004). Fundamentals of building construction: Materials and methods. Hoboken, NJ: J. Wiley & Sons.Allen, E., Iano, J., & Allen, E. (2004). Exercises in building construction: Forty-five homework and laboratory assignments to accompany Fundamentals of building construction. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.Allen, E., Thallon, R., & Iano, J. (2002). Fundamentals of residential construction. New York: J. Wiley.Barry, R. (1970). The construction of buildings. Vol. 2. Crosby Lockwood.Barry, R. (1981). The construction of buildings Vol. 3: Single storey frames, shells and lightweight coverings. London: Granada.Barry, R. (1996). The Construction of buildings. Vol. 4. London: Blackwell.Barry, R. (n.d.). The construction of buildings: Volume 1. London : Granada, 1980.Best, R., & Valence, G. D. (2002). Design and construction: Building in value. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.Bisharat, K. A. (2004). Construction graphics: A practical guide to interpreting working drawings. Hoboken, NJ: J. Wiley & Sons.Bulkeley, B., & Hart, B. (2005). Basic building & construction skills. Frenchs Forest, N.S.W.: Pearson Education Australia.Chew, M. Y. (2001). Construction technology for tall buildings. Singapore: Singapore University Press, National University of Singapore.Ching, F. D., & Adams, C. (2001). Building construction illustrated. New York: Wiley.Chudley, R., & Greeno, R. (1999). Construction technology. Harlow: Longman.Chudley, R., & Greeno, R. (2001). Building construction handbook. Woburn, MA: Butterworth Architecture.Chudley, R., & Greeno, R. (2008). Building construction handbook. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.Chudley, R., Greeno, R., & Chudley, R. (1999). Advanced construction technology. Harlow: Longman.Construction technology. (1999). Alva: Northwest Technology Center.Cooke, B. (2011). Construction practice. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell.Cooke, R.

B CON REPORT

Education

Transcript of B CON REPORT