aws_wj

PUBLISHED BY THE AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY TO ADVANCE THE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND APPLICATION OF WELDINGAND ALLIED JOINING AND CUTTING PROCESSES WORLDWIDE, INCLUDING BRAZING, SOLDERING, AND THERMAL SPRAYING

February 2013

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3WELDING JOURNAL

CONTENTS32 Automobile Manufacturing Using Laser Beam Welding

Welding variables were investigated to produce a sound lapjoint between low-carbon steel and an aluminum alloyN. Cavusoglu and H. Özden

38 Mechanical and Technological Properties of Laser WeldedSteel Wheel RimsLaser technology shows its advantages in production welding in the automotive industryA. Ç. Önçağ and H. Özden

Welding Journal (ISSN 0043-2296) is publishedmonthly by the American Welding Society for$120.00 per year in the United States and posses-sions, $160 per year in foreign countries: $7.50per single issue for domestic AWS members and$10.00 per single issue for nonmembers and$14.00 single issue for international. AmericanWelding Society is located at 8669 Doral Blvd., Ste.130, Doral, FL 33166; telephone (305) 443-9353.Periodicals postage paid in Miami, Fla., and addi-tional mailing offices. POSTMASTER: Send addresschanges to Welding Journal, 8669 Doral Blvd.,Suite 130, Doral, FL 33166. Canada Post: Publi-cations Mail Agreement #40612608 Canada Re-turns to be sent to Bleuchip International, P.O. Box25542,London, ON N6C 6B2

Readers of Welding Journal may make copies ofarticles for personal, archival, educational or research purposes, and which are not for sale orresale. Permission is granted to quote from arti-cles, provided customary acknowledgment of authors and sources is made. Starred (*) items excluded from copyright.

Departments

Editorial ............................4Washington Watchword ..........6Press Time News ..................8News of the Industry ............10Book Review......................14Aluminum Q&A ..................22Brazing Q&A ......................26Product & Print Spotlight ......28Brazing & Soldering Today

Technology News ..............54Coming Events....................60Certification Schedule ..........64Welding Workbook ..............70Society News ....................73

Tech Topics ......................79Amendment #1

A5.8M/A5.8:2011Errata: AWS B2.1-8-013:2002Interpretation:

A5.36/A5.36M:2012Guide to AWS Services ........94

Personnel ........................96Classifieds ......................104Advertiser Index ................106

29-s GMA Brazing of Galvannealed Interstitial-Free SteelA unique process that combines gas metal arc welding and brazing was applied to joining a new generation of automotivesteelS. Basak et al.

36-s New Optical Filter Plate for Use as Eye Protection by WeldersGoggles that provide eye protection with greater generalvisibility were investigatedA. Langa-Moraga et al.

41-s Tool Design Effects for FSW of AA7039Experiments were conducted with threaded tool geometries to evaluate the mechanical properties of friction stir welded AA7039D. Venkateswarlu et al.

48-s Penetration Depth Monitoring and Control in Submerged Arc WeldingResearch was conducted to find a reliable way to control weld penetration to eliminate the backgouging step in two-sided welding in shipbuildingX. R. Li et al.

Features

Brazing & Soldering Today

Welding Research Supplement

32

48

February 2013 • Volume 92 • Number 2 AWS Web site www.aws.org

44 Controlled Atmosphere Brazing of Aluminum Heat ExchangersHigh-production rates were attained with brazing multichannel flat-tube heat exchangersH. Zhao et al.

48 Reflow of AuSn Solder Creates Strong JointsA fluxless soldering process produces strong joints in microelectronic applicationsI. Golosker and J. Florando

EDITORIAL

Since the two questions above are always the first ones manufacturers ask when weapproach them about joining our association, I thought I’d give you the answers.

The Welding Equipment Manufacturers Committee (WEMCO), a standing commit-tee of the American Welding Society (AWS), is a group of more than 80 welding equip-ment manufacturers that was formed 15 years ago so manufacturers could promote, dis-cuss, and improve the industry. Members meet annually in February for great network-ing and to hear first-rate speakers address pertinent topics affecting our industry. Theintrinsic value is in meeting with top executives of various-sized manufacturers involvedin the welding industry. Each member is given the opportunity to hear new ideas, sharebest practices, and network with some of the best minds in our industry. The highlight ofthe annual meeting is the economic forecast by renowned economist Alan Beaulieu ofIndustry Trends Research.

The value of membership cannot be overstated. Long-time WEMCO member DaveMarquard, CEO/owner of SuperFlash Compressed Gas Equipment, recently wrote, “Mytime and expenses have always been critical. Especially time. Time is really the onlyproduct and service that all of us have. If you are to be successful, or even just survive,you have to optimize every minute of it. WEMCO has helped me optimize it.”

Here’s what WEMCO members rely on: • Exposure to the best networking in the welding industry.• WEMCO’s annual meeting. Compelling topics, top-level presenters, and invaluable

information to your company. This year’s meeting will be held in conjunction with theResistance Welding Manufacturers Alliance (RWMA) at Saddlebrook Golf & TennisResort in Wesley Chapel, Fla. For more information, visit www.wemco.org.

• Participation in business forums and roundtables that provide workable options andbetter leveraging.

• Receiving quarterly newsletters, forecasting reports, and research from WEMCO’sleading economist.WEMCO membership benefits extend the bounds of the annual meeting. WEMCO,

along with the American Welding Society, continues to lead the way in promoting weld-ing as a career. AWS via its new Careers in Welding Committee has made a huge invest-ment in promoting the welding industry to high schools, Boy Scouts, and technical col-leges. Its “Careers in Welding” mobile trailer tours the country to provide students anopportunity to learn about welding with virtual welding machines. WEMCO is proud tosponsor the Image of Welding Awards given annually to outstanding contributors andleaders in the fields of education, promotion, and individual excellence in welding at theFABTECH show.

John Stropki, chairman of Lincoln Electric, recently said, “If we, as welding equip-ment manufacturers, don’t promote our industry, who will? And, if we don’t, who will wesell our products to?”

For more information about WEMCO, contactKeila DeMoraes at AWS at [email protected] or(800/305) 443-9353, ext. 444. Isn’t it time you join theleaders from such companies as 3M Speedglas, AbicorBinzel, ESAB, Harris Products, Hypertherm, JacksonSafety/Kimberly Clark, Lincoln Electric, MillerElectric, Victor Technologies, to name only a few, andenjoy the benefits of being a member of WEMCO?

FEBRUARY 20134

OfficersPresident Nancy C. Cole

NCC Engineering

Vice President Dean R. WilsonWell-Dean Enterprises

Vice President David J. LandonVermeer Mfg. Co.

Vice President David L. McQuaidD. L. McQuaid and Associates, Inc.

Treasurer Robert G. PaliJ. P. Nissen Co.

Executive Director Ray W. ShookAmerican Welding Society

DirectorsT. Anderson (At Large), ITW Global Welding Tech. Center

U. Aschemeier (Dist. 7), Miami Diver

J. R. Bray (Dist. 18), Affiliated Machinery, Inc.

R. E. Brenner (Dist. 10), CnD Industries, Inc.

G. Fairbanks (Dist. 9), Fairbanks Inspection & Testing Services

T. A. Ferri (Dist. 1), Victor Technologies

D. A. Flood (At Large), Tri Tool, Inc.

S. A. Harris (Dist. 4), Altech Industries

K. L. Johnson (Dist. 19), Vigor Shipyards

J. Jones (Dist. 17), Victor Technologies

W. A. Komlos (Dist. 20), ArcTech, LLC

T. J. Lienert (At Large), Los Alamos National Laboratory

J. Livesay (Dist. 8), Tennessee Technology Center

M. J. Lucas Jr. (At Large), Belcan Engineering

D. E. Lynnes (Dist. 15), Lynnes Welding Training

C. Matricardi (Dist. 5), Welding Solutions, Inc.

J. L. Mendoza (Past President), Lone Star Welding

S. P. Moran (At Large), Weir American Hydro

K. A. Phy (Dist. 6), KA Phy Services, Inc.

W. A. Rice (Past President), OKI Bering

R. L. Richwine (Dist. 14), Ivy Tech State College

D. J. Roland (Dist. 12), Marinette Marine Corp.

N. Saminich (Dist. 21), Desert Rose H.S. and Career Center

K. E. Shatell (Dist. 22), Pacific Gas & Electric Co.

T. A. Siewert (At Large), NIST (ret.)

H. W. Thompson (Dist. 2), Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.

R. P. Wilcox (Dist. 11), ACH Co.

J. A. Willard (Dist. 13), Kankakee Community College

M. R. Wiswesser (Dist. 3), Welder Training & Testing Institute

D. Wright (Dist. 16), Zephyr Products, Inc.

Founded in 1919 to Advance the Science,Technology and Application of Welding

What Is WEMCO and WhyShould I Join?

Robert E. Ranc Sr.Past Chair, WEMCO

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Executive Order Issued to BolsterExporting

President Obama has issued a new executive order (E.O.13630) to establish an Interagency Task Force on CommercialAdvocacy to enhance federal support for U.S. businesses com-peting for international contracts, coordinate the efforts of exec-utive branch leadership in engaging their foreign counterpartson commercial advocacy issues, and increase the availability ofinformation to the U.S. business community about the kinds ofexport opportunities available. Chaired by the Secretary of Com-merce, the task force will consist of senior-level officials from 15executive departments and agencies. The functions of the taskforce will include the following:• Developing strategies to raise the awareness of commercialadvocacy assistance within the U.S. business community in orderto increase the number of U.S. businesses utilizing commercialadvocacy services;• Instituting processes to obtain and distribute informationabout foreign procurement opportunities that may be of interestto U.S. businesses in order to expand awareness of opportunitiesfor them to sell their goods and services to foreign governments;and• Increasing the success of U.S. exporters competing for for-eign procurements.

The task force will submit a progress report to the Export Pro-motion Cabinet twice annually.

STEM Immigration Legislation MovesForward

Legislation has passed the House that would eliminate theDiversity Lottery Green Card Program and reallocate up to55,000 green cards a year to new programs for foreign graduatesof U.S. universities with advanced STEM (science, technology,engineering, or math) degrees. These green cards would first bemade available to foreign graduates with doctorates and any re-maining would then be made available for foreign graduates withmaster’s degrees.

According to advocates for the STEM Jobs Act, presently only5% of green cards are issued based on the skills and educationof the recipients. As a result, many foreign graduates of U.S. uni-versities in STEM fields, despite being in demand by Americanemployers, may end up on years-long green card waiting lists.The purpose of this legislation is to facilitate these graduates re-ceiving green cards so they remain in the United States to work.

OSHA Seeks Construction StandardsImprovement Recommendations

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)has issued a “Request for Information” soliciting recommenda-tions for revisions to existing construction standards and the ra-tionale for these recommendations. In particular, OSHA is seek-ing input regarding removing or revising requirements that areconfusing or outdated, or that duplicate or are inconsistent withother standards. Comments are due by Feb. 4, 2013.

New Cadmium Rule Compliance ToolIssued

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)

has released a new interactive online tool to assist employers incomplying with OSHA’s cadmium standard (29 CFR 1910.1027).OSHA’s Cadmium Biological Monitoring Advisor,www.dol.gov/elaws/cadmium.htm, analyzes biological monitoringresults provided by the user. These data, along with a series ofanswers to questions generated by the cadmium advisor, are usedto determine the biological monitoring and medical surveillancerequirements that must be met under the general industry cad-mium standard. These requirements include the frequency of ad-ditional monitoring and other mandatory components of the em-ployer’s medical surveillance program.

Cadmium is a soft, bluish metal used in many industries, in-cluding batteries, metal machining, plastics, ceramics, painting,and welding operations.

New Enforcement Initiative for FederalLobbying Registration Laws

The Department of Justice is initiating a new effort to pursueserial violators of the federal Lobbying Disclosure Act (LDA).The LDA generally requires persons who engage in lobbying ofCongress to comply with certain registration requirements, butit is widely assumed that the law is ignored by many lobbyists.Presently, there are approximately 12,000 registered lobbyists,representing just more than 17,000 clients. Lobbying registra-tions have been decreasing annually since 2008, when the execu-tive branch began barring registered lobbyists from certain gov-ernmental and quasi-governmental positions with the federalgovernment.

Economic Census Underway

The Commerce Department’s Census Bureau is mailing mil-lions of forms to American businesses, as the official twice-a-decade (every five years — in years ending in “2” and “7”) meas-ure of the economy rolls out. Most U.S. businesses with paid em-ployees will receive a form in the coming weeks, and the CensusBureau will collect responses until the February 12, 2013, dead-line.

The 2012 Economic Census covers more than 1000 industriesin all sectors of the private, nonfarm economy. To create a snap-shot of the American economy, the census asks businesses to pro-vide basic information on revenue, employment, and payroll, andindustry-specific topics such as the products and services theyprovide.

Normal Trade Relations with Russia MadePermanent

Legislation extending permanent normal trade relations toRussia has been passed by Congress and signed by the president.The effect is to give U.S. exporters the benefit of more favorabletreatment for exports of goods and services and stronger com-mitments on protection of intellectual property rights. Russiahad previously been prohibited from receiving unconditional andpermanent normal trade relations under a federal statute en-acted during the Cold War.◆

WASHINGTONWATCHWORD

BY HUGH K. WEBSTERAWS WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT AFFAIRS OFFICE

Contact the AWS Washington Government Affairs Office at 1747 Pennsylvania Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20006; e-mail [email protected]; FAX (202) 835-0243.

FEBRUARY 20136

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PRESS TIMENEWS

Ford Investing More than $773 Million acrossSoutheast Michigan Manufacturing Facilities

Ford Motor Co., Dearborn, Mich., is spending more than $773 million on new equip-ment and capacity expansions across six manufacturing facilities in southeast Michigan,delivering on a commitment to invest $6.2 billion in U.S. plants by 2015.

The investments will create 2350 new hourly jobs and allow the company to retain anadditional 3240 hourly jobs. Also, over the next few months, Ford will bring a new stamp-ing press on line at the Michigan Assembly Plant; install equipment for four new stamp-ing presses at the Dearborn Stamping Plant; and finish expanding the Flat Rock Assem-bly Plant to produce the new Fusion.

Lincoln Electric Acquires Tennessee Rand

Lincoln Electric Holdings, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio, recently acquired the privately heldautomated systems and tooling manufacturer, Tennessee Rand, Inc., Chattanooga, Tenn.,a designer and manufacturer of tooling and robotic systems.

“Tennessee Rand brings extensive tool design, system building, and machining capa-bilities that will enable Lincoln to further expand its welding automation business,” saidChristopher L. Mapes, chief executive officer.

AAR Partners with Wayne Community College toExpedite Welding Careers

Through a public-private partnership with Wayne Community College, Goldsboro,N.C., aerospace and defense company AAR designed an eight-week welding certificateprogram to address a shortage of welders at its mobility systems division, which manu-factures equipment used by the military to transport troops and supplies around theworld.

Under the curriculum, incumbent workers who complete the course can test for theirwelding certificate and increase their salaries by as much as $4.50/h. Wayne also addeddaytime classes to accommodate employees who work nights, so students earn a pay-check while they learn.

“The fast-track program is helping us to build a pipeline of talent and provides em-ployees in lower-skilled positions, such as grinders, a clear pathway to advancement tomid-skills jobs,” said Kevin Johnson, training specialist for AAR.

In addition, the fast-track welding curriculum is available to non-AAR employeesthrough Wayne Community College’s adult continuing education initiatives.

LA-CO Industries Acquires Tempil®

LA-CO Industries, Inc., Elk Grove Village, Ill., has acquired Tempil®, a division ofIllinois Tool Works, Inc. With this addition, the company and its Markal® industrialmarking and temperature-indication products are positioned for growth within the in-dustrial and welding channels. Tempil® business operations will also continue to func-tion independently of LA-CO Industries’ global business operations.

Sciaky Releases New Additive Manufacturing Video

Sciaky, Inc., Chicago, Ill., a subsidiary of Phillips Service Industries and provider ofadditive manufacturing systems, has launched a new Direct Manufacturing (DM) videoat http://sciaky.com/direct_manufacturing.html.

With the objective to save manufacturers time and money on the production of large,high-value metal parts and prototypes, Sciaky launched its DM process, based on addi-tive manufacturing principles, in 2009. According to the company, today this remainsthe only large-scale, fully programmable means of achieving near-net-shape parts madeof titanium, tantalum, Inconel®, and other high-value metals ranging up to 19 ft long, 4 ft wide, and 4 ft high. It combines computer-aided design, Sciaky’s electron beam weld-ing technology, and layer-additive processing. Deposition rates typically range from 7 to20 lb/h.◆

FEBRUARY 20138MEMBER

Publisher Andrew Cullison

Publisher Emeritus Jeff Weber

EditorialEditorial Director Andrew Cullison

Editor Mary Ruth JohnsenAssociate Editor Howard M. Woodward

Associate Editor Kristin CampbellEditorial Asst./Peer Review Coordinator Melissa Gomez

Design and ProductionProduction Manager Zaida Chavez

Senior Production Coordinator Brenda FloresManager of International Periodicals and

Electronic Media Carlos Guzman

AdvertisingNational Sales Director Rob Saltzstein

Advertising Sales Representative Lea PanecaAdvertising Sales Representative Sandra Jorgensen

Senior Advertising Production Manager Frank Wilson

SubscriptionsSubscriptions Representative Tabetha Moore

[email protected]

American Welding Society8669 Doral Blvd., Doral, FL 33166(305) 443-9353 or (800) 443-9353

Publications, Expositions, Marketing CommitteeD. L. Doench, ChairHobart Brothers Co.

S. Bartholomew, Vice ChairESAB Welding & Cutting Prod.

J. D. Weber, SecretaryAmerican Welding SocietyD. Brown, Weiler Brush

T. Coco, Victor Technologies InternationalL. Davis, ORS Nasco

J. Deckrow, HyperthermD. DeCorte, RoMan Mfg.

J. R. Franklin, Sellstrom Mfg. Co.F. H. Kasnick, Praxair

D. Levin, AirgasE. C. Lipphardt, Consultant

R. Madden, HyperthermD. Marquard, IBEDA Superflash

J. F. Saenger Jr., ConsultantS. Smith, Weld-Aid Products

D. Wilson, Well-Dean EnterprisesN. C. Cole, Ex Off., NCC Engineering

J. N. DuPont, Ex Off., Lehigh UniversityL. G. Kvidahl, Ex Off., Northrup Grumman Ship Systems

D. J. Landon, Ex Off., Vermeer Mfg.S. P. Moran, Ex Off., Weir American Hydro

E. Norman, Ex Off., Southwest Area Career CenterR. G. Pali, Ex Off., J. P. Nissen Co.

N. Scotchmer, Ex Off., Huys IndustriesR. W. Shook, Ex Off., American Welding Society

Copyright © 2013 by American Welding Society in both printed and elec-tronic formats. The Society is not responsible for any statement made oropinion expressed herein. Data and information developed by the authorsof specific articles are for informational purposes only and are not in-tended for use without independent, substantiating investigation on thepart of potential users.

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FEBRUARY 201310

NEWS OF THEINDUSTRY

Welded Tube to Build $50 Million Facility

Welded Tube USA, Inc., has finalized agreements to purchase45 acres in the Tecumseh Business Park on the former Bethle-hem Steel facility in Lackawanna, N.Y., according to ExecutiveChairman Barry Sonshine. The company plans to invest approxi-mately $50 million in constructing a facility that will house steelpipe mill equipment to supply pipe to the energy industry.

The investment will occur in three phases. Constructing the109,000-sq-ft manufacturing facility in phase one would be ex-panded by an additional 34,000 sq ft in phase two. The final phasewould call for the construction of a 30,000-sq-ft building. If mar-ket and economic conditions are favorable, the company couldhire as many as 121 employees by the completion of these phases.

The initial building construction is anticipated to be com-pleted this month with production scheduled to begin in August.

Terex Utilities Takes Top Honors inHumantech’s “Find It – Fix It” Challenge

Terex Utilities, Huron, S.D., is the winner of Humantech,Inc.’s, sixth annual Find It – Fix It Challenge that rewards sim-ple, effective workplace systems to increase productivity, improveworker morale, and reduce workplace injuries and illnesses.

The company earned top honors with its pedestal weld sta-tion that focused on improving a worker’s posture and comfortfor welding a vertical gusset and top plate to the metal shell of a

The Combined Arms Support Command, FortLee, Va., is helping to increase opportunities forsustainment soldiers by developing credentialingprograms for 27 of its 57 military occupational spe-cialties. One way, through the U.S. Army OrdnanceSchool’s Allied Trade Specialist course, is a 19-weeksession providing machining and welding training,two highly sought after trades in the civilian manu-facturing industry, according to Master Sgt. AlvinV. Beehler, Allied Trades chief instructor.

The machining portion is based on the NationalInstitute of Metalworking Skills (NIMS) curricu-lum. There are a total of five credentials servicemembers can earn by its end. After passing eachsection, students can take the NIMS written testonline.

“I enjoy what I do, and I plan to make the Armya career. This program will help me to advancethrough the ranks faster,” said Pfc. Jeremiah John-son, a 91E Advanced Individual Training student.

A future initiative is to also certify the training’swelding portion. Jack Peters, Metalworking Serv-ices Division chief, mentioned working to offer serv-ice members in all training levels opportunities toearn American Welding Society (AWS) Level 1 Welder qualifications. “Additionally, the Ordnance School is seeking to be-come an AWS Accredited Test Facility to help them earn welder certification,” he said.

Credentialing Program for Machining, Welding Helps Service Members Excel

Terex Utilities won the Find It – Fix It Challenge with a pedestalweld station entry. As shown, the newly fabricated welding tableholds the pedestal in an upright position. The redesigned pedestalalso allows the vertical gusset to be welded from the outside.

Students attending the Allied Trades Specialist course at the U.S. ArmyOrdnance School learn to machine parts on manual lathes. (Photo cour-tesy of Staff Sgt. Gregory N. Dunbar, U.S. Army Ordnance School.)

11WELDING JOURNAL

pedestal. It connects a boom to a truck chassis and houses thebearing that enables the boom to rotate while in operation.

Previously, a worker had to climb in and out of a metal shellup to eight times per unit. While lying horizontally, the welderhad to weld parts of the pedestal together. When one section wascomplete, the welder would get out of the pedestal, rotate it tothe next weld position, climb back into the unit, and weld thenext part. The improvement idea came from Jereme Kempf.

With a $300 budget, the team engineered and fabricated asteel welding table to hold the pedestal vertically. Work can nowbe done seated; the cycle time was reduced by 20 min; and thedesign engineering department redesigned the pedestal to elimi-nate the vertical gusset weld to a plug weld on the pedestal’s outside.

Behlen Mfg. Co. Expands to Texas

Behlen Mfg. Co. recently announced a long-term lease, sub-ject to final approval of local incentives, of the former SmeadMfg. plant in McGregor, Tex. The 180,000-sq-ft building will beused to manufacture farm and ranch equipment for its BehlenCountry® business unit. Employment is expected to exceed 50jobs by the end of 2013.

Manufacturing was expected to begin in January. The BehlenCountry product line includes stock tanks, dog kennels, and gates,all of which have welding play a primary part in the manufactur-ing operation.

Jobs will be filled through transfers of Behlen Partners inProgress from other locations, including Columbus and Omaha,Neb.; Baker City, Ore.; and Huntingdon, Tenn. Simultaneously,Behlen will be accepting applications in the McGregor area forskilled positions, including welding, operating machines, load-ing, maintenance, and general manufacturing.

In addition, Behlen plans to make an investment in the facil-ity to meet manufacturing requirements and move equipmentfrom its Huntingdon, Tenn., location, which has transitioned toa distribution center. The company projected it would start mak-ing deliveries from the plant in January.

For more information, visit www.behlenmfg.com.

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FEBRUARY 201312

Linde Engineers Developing Alternatives toHelium

Faced with a helium sourcing shortage, industry segmentsworking with Linde North America engineers (www.lindeus.com)are accepting new product developments leading to lower heliumrequirements, or replacing it, without sacrificing application quality.

“Helium has become the product of choice for many indus-trial processes, mostly because of its physical and thermal prop-erties. However, there are certain areas where we have success-fully substituted for helium, or reduced the amount of helium re-quired, with little or no adverse effect on quality, productivity, orprocess robustness,” said Joe Berkmanns, national technical man-ager for Linde Canada, Ltd.

Shielding gas mixtures for arc welding can also be modifiedto use less helium. Helium is added for its higher ionization en-ergy and thermal conductivity; more arc energy means deeperpenetration and faster welds, but these properties can make thearc unstable and less focused. Small additions of active compo-nents can stabilize the arc, concentrate heat input, and allow fora reduction of helium content.

Developments in nozzle and gas supply technology has al-lowed the substitution of nitrogen in thermal spray processes thatuse helium as a propellant. Shielding gases that use small nitricoxide additions can achieve higher heat input and stabilize thearc.

“It isn’t just a matter of changing the mix, however,” said Berk-manns. “Changes to process parameters, the equipment, andsometimes the parts may be necessary.”

Advanced High-Strength Steels ProvideCost-Effective Automotive Lightweighting

A recent National Highway Traffic Safety Administration(NHTSA) report — Mass Reduction for Light-Duty Vehicles forModel Years 2017–2025 — determined basic lightweighting costs$0.46/lb of weight saved using advanced high-strength steels vs.$1.55/lb with aluminum. It examined mid-size body, chassis, andinterior vehicle systems. EDAG, Inc., George Washington Uni-versity, and Electricore, Inc., prepared the report.

“Cost models have traditionally associated a significant costpenalty with alternative materials, and this NHTSA report con-firms this while demonstrating advanced high-strength steels pro-

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The Steel Market Development Institute’s Future Steel Vehicle uses97% high-strength and advanced high-strength steels of which nearly50% reach into GigaPascal strengths.

— continued on page 102

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BY DAVID BENETEAU

A Scientific, Systematic Approach MakesResistance Welding Book Understandable

Resistance Welding: Fundamentals andApplications, Second Edition, by HongyanZhang and Jacek Senkara, presents anoverview of the resistance spot weldingprocess. The book covers a broad rangeof topics from physics, metallurgy, andprocess modeling to practical applicationand troubleshooting. There are detaileddescriptions of how equipment mechan-ics and control methodologies influencethe resistance spot welding process andthe resultant weldment. Methods of eval-uating and determining quality are alsodescribed and illustrated.

The authors have a presentation stylethat demonstrates how to apply a scien-tific and systematic approach to solvepractical issues. This method makes thereview of the physics of resistance spotwelding understandable and relevant tostudents, researchers, shop floor techni-cians, and welding engineers alike.

The book is well organized and pre-sented, so it is a good read for those in-clined to review it from cover to cover, ora good reference for those who want tofollow the index to a specific topic.

The authors explain the concepts of re-sistance welding by drawing comparisonsthroughout the text between welding steeland aluminum. The low resistance, highthermal conductivity, ductile aluminum iscontrasted with welding steel, which gen-erally has higher electrical resistance aswell as lower thermal conductivity andductility. In most cases, the stark materialproperty differences highlight the weld-ing principles and result in an overview oftheoretical concepts that is easy to follow.

The authors have added magnesiumalloys to this second edition to reflect thecurrent industry interest. Adding this newmetal further serves to help readers applythe knowledge and principles to applica-tions or other materials they may be facedwith. As limited published information onwelding magnesium is otherwise available,the authors have made this an invaluableresource for anyone tackling this materialfor the first time.

The authors begin each chapter with adistillation of current industry knowledgeand description of applicable standards.Their synopsis of published and some-times conflicting opinions is supported bycitation of 364 document references. Thisis an increase of more than 100 references

over the 2006 first edition. The book con-tinues to be a great overview and distilla-tion of the recent works by leading expertsin the field of resistance welding. The ex-tensive linking of references allows thereader to continue exploring the subjectmatter beyond this book and seek out theexperts. In several cases, follow-up ismade even easier because the source In-ternet URL has been provided.

Where conflicting expert opinions ora knowledge gap exists, the authors pres-ent theoretical analysis or experimentalprocedures and results to add clarity andnew understanding. Their review of indus-try standard impact loading tests, for ex-ample, details issues affecting the resultsof industry standard tests. They then pro-pose a new form of impact tester substan-tiated with experimental data to show howthe issues are addressed and results im-proved. In another instance, the authorsdiscuss heat balance and the law of ther-mal similarity before proposing a modi-fied heat balance theory.

In addition to analysis and insight, theauthors have also identified the need foradditional work. This ranges from practi-cal issues related to the variation in weldspecimen sizes required by current indus-try (AWS, ISO, and military) standards to

more esoteric work on expulsion theoryto resolve models that will work for vari-ous materials and welding conditions.

The resistance welding machine is re-viewed in detail. For example, the effectof machine stiffness on expulsion, weldstrength, and electrode alignment are dis-cussed. The effect of machine friction onweld microstructure and tensile-shearstrength is presented. An overview of elec-trode follow-up theory is also provided.In addition to machine mechanics, thereis an extensive discussion of single-phaseAC, single-phase DC, three-phase DC,and MFDC control methodologies. Abroad range of process monitoring andcontrol systems is discussed. Informationon ultrasonic evaluation has been en-hanced, and illustrations of ultrasonicfeedback have been provided.

New front matter in this second edi-tion includes a preface and short authorbiography. Additional coverage of themetallurgical aspects of materials in-volved in resistance welding, such assteels, aluminum and magnesium alloys,zinc, and copper has been provided. Sev-eral figures have been made more under-standable with the inclusion of a new, full-color insert.

The second edition has made a greatbook even better. It remains a significant,practical aide to anyone interested in abetter understanding of the resistancewelding science, and it should be consid-ered for their library.◆

BOOKREVIEW

DAVID BENETEAU is is vice president ofCenterLine (Windsor) Ltd. He is an AWSCounselor and holds numerous positionson AWS Technical Committees, includingchair of the J1 Committee on ResistanceWelding Equipment.

FEBRUARY 201314

Resistance Welding: Fundamentals andApplications, Second Edition, byHongyan Zhang, University of Toledo,Ohio, and Jacek Senkara, Warsaw Univer-sity of Technology, Poland. ISBN 978-1-4398-5371-9 (hardback). Published De-cember 13, 2011, by CRC Press (www.crc-press.com), 456 pages. Price $167.95.

Change of Address?Moving?

Make sure delivery of your WeldingJournal is not interrupted. ContactMaria Trujillo in the Membership Department with your new address in-formation — (800) 443-9353, ext. 204; [email protected].

Friends and Colleagues:

The American Welding Society established the honor of Counselor to recognize individualmembers for a career of distinguished organizational leadership that has enhanced the image andimpact of the welding industry. Election as a Counselor shall be based on an individual’s career ofoutstanding accomplishment.

To be eligible for appointment, an individual shall have demonstrated his or her leadership in thewelding industry by one or more of the following:

• Leadership of or within an organization that has made a substantial contribution to the weldingindustry. The individual’s organization shall have shown an ongoing commitment to the industry, asevidenced by support of participation of its employees in industry activities.

• Leadership of or within an organization that has made a substantial contribution to training andvocational education in the welding industry. The individual’s organization shall have shown anongoing commitment to the industry, as evidenced by support of participation of its employee inindustry activities.

For specifics on the nomination requirements, please contact Wendy Sue Reeve at AWSheadquarters in Miami, or simply follow the instructions on the Counselor nomination form in thisissue of the Welding Journal. The deadline for submission is July 1, 2013. The committee looksforward to receiving these nominations for 2014 consideration.

Sincerely,

Lee KvidahlChair, Counselor Selection Committee

Nomination of AWS Counselor

I. HISTORY AND BACKGROUNDIn 1999, the American Welding Society established the honor of Counselor to recognize indi-

vidual members for a career of distinguished organizational leadership that has enhanced theimage and impact of the welding industry. Election as a Counselor shall be based on anindividual’s career of outstanding accomplishment.

To be eligible for appointment, an individual shall have demonstrated his or her leadership inthe welding industry by one or more of the following:

• Leadership of or within an organization that has made a substantial contribution to the welding industry. (The individual’s organization shall have shown an ongoing commitment to the industry, as evidenced by support of participation of its employeesin industry activities such as AWS, IIW, WRC, SkillsUSA, NEMA, NSRP SP7 or other similar groups.)

• Leadership of or within an organization that has made substantial contribution to trainingand vocational education in the welding industry. (The individual’s organization shall have shown an ongoing commitment to the industry, as evidenced by support of participation of its employees in industry activities such as AWS, IIW, WRC, SkillsUSA, NEMA,NSRP SP7 or other similar groups.)

II. RULESA. Candidates for Counselor shall have at least 10 years of membership in AWS.B. Each candidate for Counselor shall be nominated by at least five members of

the Society.C. Nominations shall be submitted on the official form available from AWS

headquarters.D. Nominations must be submitted to AWS headquarters no later than July 1

of the year prior to that in which the award is to be presented.E. Nominations shall remain valid for three years.F. All information on nominees will be held in strict confidence.G. Candidates who have been elected as Fellows of AWS shall not be eligible for

election as Counselors. Candidates may not be nominated for both of these awards at the same time.

III. NUMBER OF COUNSELORS TO BE SELECTEDMaximum of 10 Counselors selected each year.

Return completed Counselor nomination package to:

Wendy S. ReeveAmerican Welding SocietySenior ManagerAward Programs and Administrative Support

Telephone: 800-443-9353, extension 293

SUBMISSION DEADLINE: July 1, 201

8669 Doral Blvd., Suite 130Doral, FL 33166

3

(please type or print in black ink)

COUNSELOR NOMINATION FORM

DATE_________________NAME OF CANDIDATE________________________________________________________________________

AWS MEMBER NO.___________________________YEARS OF AWS MEMBERSHIP____________________________________________

HOME ADDRESS____________________________________________________________________________________________________

CITY_______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE________________________

PRESENT COMPANY/INSTITUTION AFFILIATION_______________________________________________________________________

TITLE/POSITION____________________________________________________________________________________________________

BUSINESS ADDRESS________________________________________________________________________________________________

CITY______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE_________________________

ACADEMIC BACKGROUND, AS APPLICABLE:

INSTITUTION______________________________________________________________________________________________________

MAJOR & MINOR__________________________________________________________________________________________________

DEGREES OR CERTIFICATES/YEAR____________________________________________________________________________________

LICENSED PROFESSIONAL ENGINEER: YES_________NO__________ STATE______________________________________________

SIGNIFICANT WORK EXPERIENCE:

COMPANY/CITY/STATE_____________________________________________________________________________________________

POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________


POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________

SUMMARIZE MAJOR CONTRIBUTIONS IN THESE POSITIONS:

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________IT IS MANDATORY THAT A CITATION (50 TO 100 WORDS, USE SEPARATE SHEET) INDICATING WHY THE NOMINEE SHOULD BESELECTED AS AN AWS COUNSELOR ACCOMPANY THE NOMINATION PACKET. IF NOMINEE IS SELECTED, THIS STATEMENT MAYBE INCORPORATED WITHIN THE CITATION CERTIFICATE.

**MOST IMPORTANT**The Counselor Selection Committee criteria are strongly based on and extracted from the categories identified below. All in-

formation and support material provided by the candidate’s Counselor Proposer, Nominating Members and peers are considered.

SUBMITTED BY: PROPOSER_______________________________________________AWS Member No.___________________The proposer will serve as the contact if the Selection Committee requires further information. The proposer is encouraged to include adetailed biography of the candidate and letters of recommendation from individuals describing the specific accomplishments of the can-didate. Signatures on this nominating form, or supporting letters from each nominator, are required from four AWS members in additionto the proposer. Signatures may be acquired by photocopying the original and transmitting to each nominating member. Once the sig-natures are secured, the total package should be submitted.

NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________Print Name___________________________________AWS Member No.______________




CLASS OF 2014

SUBMISSION DEADLINE JULY 1, 2013

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Automotive and Resistance Welding

Standards

RWMAResistanceWelding Manual, Revised FourthEditionThe latest and mostcomplete compilation ofbasic information onresistance weldingavailable anywhere. 468pages, 25 chapters, 2appendices (includingan index), 308 figures,85 tables. 83/4" x 111/4", (2003).RWM $125/$94

Resistance Welding Pocket Handbook Portable basic information and do’s and don’ts. Commondefects and their causes. Sample weld schedules. 33/4" by 6,spiral-bound, 48 pages, 12 tables, 16 figures (2011).Order Code: RWPH $20/$15

D8.1M:2007, Specification forAutomotive Weld Quality – ResistanceSpot Welding of SteelEstablishes acceptance criteria for resistance spot welds inautos fabricated from steels, including Advanced HighStrength Steels. 38 pages, 24 figures, 4 tables, (2007). D8.1 $56/$42

D8.6:2005, Specification for AutomotiveResistance Spot Welding ElectrodesSupplement to RWMA Bulletin 16, Resistance WeldingEquipment Standards. Specifies chemical composition,physical requirements, dimensions, and identification ofvarious shapes and nose configurations of electrodes, elec-trode caps, and cap-adaptor shanks used in the automotiveindustry. Annexes describe recommended electrode materialfor spot welding similar and dissimilar metals, and stan-dard gauges for confirmation of RWMA electrode tapers. 98pages, 8 annexes, 47 figures, 37 tables, (2006).D8.6 $80/$60

D8.7M:2005, Recommended Practicesfor Automotive Weld Quality – ResistanceSpot WeldingPresents recommended practices and criteria for evaluatingresistance spot welds typical of automotive sheet steel appli-cations. Contains weld characteristics, metrics, and testingmethods useful in evaluating spot welding quality on coatedand uncoated automotive sheet steels of all strength levelsand compositions. The test methods are designed to assessstatic and dynamic properties of automotive sheet steelwelds. 28 pages, 18 figures, 3 tables, (2005).D8.7 $52/$39

D8.8M:2007, Specification forAutomotive Weld Quality – Arc Weldingof SteelProvides the minimum quality requirements for arc weldingof various types of automotive and light truck components.Covers the arc and hybrid arc welding of coated and uncoatedsteels. 26 pages, 17 figures, (2007).D8.8 $52/$39

D8.9M:2012, Test Methods for Evaluatingthe Resistance Spot Welding Behavior ofAutomotive Sheet Steel MaterialsHelps predict performance of sheet steel that is resistance spotwelded for use in auto manufacturing. Also addresses equip-ment setup, electrode installation and dressing, electrodeendurance testing, current level and range assessment, weldproperty testing, current break-through testing, and design ofexperiments testing. 124 pages, 42 figures, 22 tables,(2012).D8.9 $92/$69

D8.14M:2008, Specification forAutomotive Weld Quality – Arc Welding ofAluminumCovers the arc welding of automotive and light truck compo-nents that are manufactured from aluminum alloys. 32pages, 18 figures, 3 tables, (2008).D8.14 $56/$42

D14.3/D14.3M:2010, Specification forWelding Earthmoving, Construction, andAgricultural EquipmentFor self-propelled, on- and off-highway machinery andagricultural equipment. Specifies requirements for structur-al welds used in the manufacture and repair of crawlers,tractors, graders, loaders, off-highway trucks, power shovels,backhoes, mobile cranes, draglines, and other heavy earth-moving, construction, and agricultural equipment. 94pages, 22 figures, 13 tables, (2010).D14.3 $80/$60

D17.2/D17.2M:2013, Specification forResistance Welding for AerospaceApplicationsRequirements for aerospace resistance spot and seam weld-ing of aluminum, magnesium, steel, nickel, cobalt, titani-um, and their alloys. Intended to replace MIL-W-6858Dand AMS-W-6858A. 56 pages, 11 figures, 13 tables(2013). Order Code: D17.2 $64/$48

RWMA Bulletin #5: Resistance WeldingControl Standard Discusses weld controls, timing diagrams, input/outputconnections, SCR sizing, and terminal markings. Explainsvoltage compensation and other critical performance stan-

dards, plus safety, construction, installation, and operationstandards. 62 pages, (1994).Order Code: RW5 $55/$42

RWMA Bulletin #14: MaintenanceManual for Resistance WeldingMachines Explains installation, maintenance, and operation of aresistance welding machine’s electrical, pneumatic,hydraulic and cooling systems. Includes a trouble-shootingsection. Useful for maintenance personnel and operators.(1996). Order Code: RW14 $38/$29

RWMA Bulletin #16: Resistance WeldingEquipment Standards RWMA standards for welding equipment, including electri-cal, electrode, and fluid-power standards. (1996).Order Code: RW16 $150/$115

RWMA Bulletin #34: Manufacturer’sCross Reference of Standard ResistanceWelding Electrode Numbers and Alloys An extensive cross-reference of standard resistance weldingelectrodes and alloys recognized by the RWMA. 13 pages,(1997).Order Code: RW34 $39/$30

A10.1M:2007, Specification forCalibration and Performance Testing ofSecondary Current Sensing Coils andWeld Current Monitors Used in Single-Phase AC Resistance WeldingMethods for testing performance of Rogowski-type air corecurrent sensing coils (CSC) and weld current monitors usedin the measurement of single-phase AC resistance weldingcurrents. Definitions relevant to this measurement areincluded. CSC and system tests and calibration methods aredetailed. Detailed information to available to the user is pre-scribed.54 pages, 15 figures, 5 tables, (2007).Order Code: A10.1 $64/$48

C1.1M/C1.1:2012, RecommendedPractices for Resistance Welding Covers spot, seam, projection, flash, and upset welding, aswell as weld bonding for uncoated and coated carbon andlow-alloy steels, aluminum alloys, stainless steels, nickel,nickel-base alloys, cobalt-base alloys, copper and alloys,and titanium and alloys. Details equipment and setup,welding variables, joint preparation, cleaning, weldingschedules and parameters, weld quality testing, safety, andhealth. 132 pages, 54 tables, 30 figures (2012).Order Code: C1.1 $96/$72.

AWS Automotive and Resistance Welding Standards

Lesser price shown is for AWS members. For a complete catalog, call 888-WELDING.

Preview and order any ofthese books and browse

dozens of others atpubs.aws.org

C1.4M/C1.4:2009, Specification forResistance Welding of Carbon and Low-Alloy SteelsProvides the shear strength and weld button diameterrequirements for carbon steel and low-alloy steel sheet resist-ance and projection welds. 30 pages, 5 figures, 6 tables(2009).Order Code: C1.4 $56/$42

C1.5:2009, Specification for theQualification of Resistance WeldingTechnicians Establishes requirements for qualification of resistance weld-ing technicians. Defines minimum experience, examination,application, qualification, and requalification requirementsand methods. Provides a method for technicians to establish arecord of their qualification and abilities, such as develop-ment of machine troubleshooting, processes controls, qualitystandards, and problem solving. 22 pages, 1 table (2009). Order Code: C1.5 $52/$39

C3.9M/C3.9:2009, Specification forResistance Brazing Minimum fabrication, equipment, material, and process pro-cedure requirements for resistance brazing of steels, copperand alloys, and heat- and corrosion-resistant materials, andother materials that can be resistance brazed. Criteria for clas-sifying resistance-brazed joints based on loading and conse-quences of failure, and quality assurance criteria. 24 pages(2009).Order Code: C3.9 $52/$39.

Ninth Edition, Volume 1, Welding Scienceand TechnologyPresents the latest developments in the basic science andtechnology of welding, and general descriptions of processes,continues with chapters on the physics of welding andcutting; heat flow; welding metallurgy; design; test methods;residual stress; welding symbols; tooling and positioning;monitoring and control; mechanized, automated, androbotic techniques; economics; weld quality; inspection;qualification and certification; welding codes and standards;and safe practices. 932 pages, 17 chapters, 2 appendices,530 illustrations, 168 tables, hardbound. 8" x 10",(2001).WHB-1.9 $192/$144

Ninth Edition, Volume 2, WeldingProcesses, Part 1Presents comprehensive information on welding and relatedprocesses. Contains detailed information on arc weldingpower sources; shielded metal arc, gas tungsten arc, gasmetal arc, flux cored arc, submerged arc, and plasma arcwelding processes. Includes chapters on electroslag welding,stud welding, oxyfuel gas welding, brazing, soldering,oxygen cutting, and arc cutting and gouging. 736 pages,15 chapters, 260 line drawings, 100 photographs, 148tables, hardbound. 8" x 10", (2004). WHB-2.9 $192/$144

Ninth Edition, Volume 3, WeldingProcesses, Part 2Over 600 pages of comprehensive information on solid-state and other welding and cutting processes. The book

includes chapters on resistance spot and seam welding,projection welding, flash and upset welding and high-frequency welding. In addition to a chapter on frictionwelding, a new chapter introduces friction stir welding.The most recent developments in beam technology arediscussed in the greatly expanded chapters on laser beamwelding and cutting and electron beam welding. Adiverse array of processes are presented in chapters on theultrasonic welding of metals, explosion welding,diffusion welding and diffusion brazing, adhesivebonding and thermal and cold spraying. The last chaptercovers various other welding and cutting processes,including modernized water jet cutting. 669 pages, 15chapters, 3 appendices, 438 illustrations, 59 tables;hardbound. 8" x 10", (2007)WHB-3.9 $192/$144

Ninth Edition, Volume 4, Materials andApplications, Part 1Extensively revised and updated from the eighth edition,this comprehensive volume had more than 50 experts inmaterials and materials applications assure its accuracyand the currency of its content. It is a great referencesource for engineers, educators, welding supervisors, andwelders. Covers carbon and low-alloy steels; high-alloysteels; coated steels; tool and die steels; stainless andheat-resisting steels; clad and dissimilar metals; surfac-ing; cast irons; maintenance and repair welding; andunderwater welding and cutting. Includes more than500 tables, charts, and photos. 779 pages, 10 chapters,hardbound, 8" x 10", (2011).WHB-4.9 $192/$144

Eighth Edition, Volume 3, Materials andApplications – Part 1 Covers nonferrous metals, plastics, composites, and ceramics;specialized topics on maintenance and repair welding; under-water welding and cutting. Includes applications of thespecific metals and processes, weldability, safe practices. Bestcopy available, 538 pages, 10 chapters, softbound. 81/2" x101/2", (1996). WHB-3.8 $160/$120

GET FIVE VOLUMES OF THECURRENT WELDING HANDBOOKSET AT SUBSTANTIAL SAVINGS• Vol. 1, 9th Edition: Welding Science & Technology• Vol. 2, 9th Edition: Welding Processes, Part 1• Vol. 3, 9th Edition: Welding Processes, Part 2• Vol. 4, 9th Edition: Materials & Applications, Part 1• Vol. 3, 8th Edition: Materials & Applications, Part 1WHB-ALL $762/$572

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DOWNLOAD SINGLE CHAPTERSChoose individual Welding Handbook chapters for PDFdownload, at an economical price.SEE PUBS.AWS.ORG $20/$15

Own the Entire Library of AWS Welding Handbooks!These are the must-have references for engineers, structural designers, technolo-gists, inspectors, welders, welding educators and others who need to understandthis dynamic and evolving industry. Put all the facts at your fingertips and makesure you’re on the cutting edge with new and updated material. Here are fivegood reasons you should add these valuable editions to your library. The booksrepresent:• The largest body of knowledge on welding available anywhere.• Practical, hands-on information that you can put to immediate use.• The most current information on best practices regarding safety, quality, andqualification issues.• Unparalleled authority—chapters are written by leading scientists, engineers,educators, and other technical and scientific experts. Everything is peer-reviewedfor accuracy and timeliness.• The most valuable resource on welding on the market today, covering theentire spectrum of welding from science and technology, history, weldingprocesses, and materials and applications.

Lesser price shown is for AWS members. For a complete catalog, call 888-WELDING.

FEBRUARY 201322

ALUMINUMQ&A BY TONY ANDERSON

Q: What aluminum filler metal is themost appropriate for welding the follow-ing base metals and applications, andwhy?

1. ApplicationI need to weld a handrail made of 6061-

T6 tubing that will be postweld anodizedand also requires a good color match between the base metal and weld after anodizing.

Filler Metal Choice

Tubing made from 6061-T6 can bewelded with either 4xxx or 5xxx series fillermetals. Filler metals 4043 and 5356 areoften used to weld this popular base alloy.However, this is an application that willbe postweld anodized and using the 4043filler will create a color match problemafter the weldment is anodized. The sili-con in the 4043 will cause the weld to be-come dark in contrast to the lighter col-ored base metal after anodizing.

The 5356 filler metal is the most ap-propriate choice because, after anodizing,it will provide a close color match. (Note:Anodizing is an electrochemical surfacetreatment that can be applied to alu-minum in order to increase aluminumoxide thickness and provide improved sur-face characteristics in some applications.)

2. ApplicationI need to weld an aluminum pipe made

from 6063 base material that is intendedto be postweld anodized, requires a goodcolor match after anodizing, and is in-tended to be used in an application witha sustained temperature of around 200°F.

Filler Metal Choice

Our choice is a little more complicated,as we now have two important criteria.First, we have anodized color-match re-quirements, and second, sustained serv-ice at elevated temperatures.

The definition of elevated temperaturefor aluminum is generally accepted to bea temperature above 150°F. Prolonged ex-posure to temperatures between 150° and350°F can have a detrimental effect onaluminum alloys that contain more than3% magnesium (Mg); it can promote acondition known as stress corrosion crack-

TOUGHNESS This rating applies to the ability of an aluminum weldment to deform plastically in the presence of stress raisers without low-energy initiation and propagation of cracks. The most useful test data is from tear resistance testing expressed in unit propagation energy of measured crack lengths. In structural design, notch toughness is becoming more emphasized by designers to facilitate the ability to inspect highly stressed structures and find cracks in weldments before catastrophic failure occurs. It may also be a design consideration if fatigue and impact loading are factors directly associated with a weldment.

POST WELD HEAT TREATMENT This rating applies to the ability of a weld to respond to post-weld heat treatment in the form of solution heat treatment and artificial aging. An “A” rating indicates that the filler metal is heat treatable and will therefore respond to post weld heat treatment even without dilution of the base metal. A “B” rating indicates that the filler metal is not heat treatable. However, it may be used for applications requiring post weld heat treatment but with the understanding that the weld may or may not acquire substantial increase in strength dependent on the joint design, welding procedure, and resultant amount of dilution of base metal obtained during welding. A “C” rating requires consultation with an expert. No rating indicates that the filler metal is not heat treatable and that it should not be used for applications requiring post weld heat treatment as it may result in substantial reduction in weld perfor-mance.

COLOR MATCH AFTER ANODIZING Base metal and filler metal color match after post-weld anodizing can be of major concern in cosmetic applications. Some filler metals closely match the base metal color after anodizing and others will react to the anodizing process by changing to a color very different to that of the base metal.

ELEVATED TEMPERATURE SERVICE This rating is based on the reaction of some filler metals when exposed to sustained elevated temperature: 150°F to 350°F (66°C to 180°C). If 5xxx series base metal or filler metal with more than 3% magnesium content are subjected to prolonged exposure to these temperatures, precipitate can form within them that is highly anodic to the aluminum-magnesium matrix. It is this continuous grain boundary network of precipitate that produces susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking (SCC) and the potential for premature component failure.

CORROSION RESISTANCE This variable may be a consideration for some environmental conditions. The rating is based on exposure to fresh and salt water environments and is not associated with a specific chemical exposure. It gives an indication as to the possibility of galvanic corrosion due to the difference in the electrode potential between the base metal and the filler metal. For consideration for other environmental and chemical exposures contact an expert.

DUCTILITY This characteristic of the completed weld may be of consideration if forming operations are to be used on a completed weldment during fabrication. Note: Testing procedure requirements for guided bend tests may need to be adjusted to accommodate the varying ductility of filler metals (AWS D1.2).

CRACK SENSITIVITY The Probability of Hot Cracking - this rating is established through use of crack sensitivity curves (Developed by Alcoa) and the consideration of filler metal and base metal chemistry combinations. There are levels of various alloying elements within aluminum that have been identified as seriously affecting hot cracking susceptibility during weld solidifi-cation. This rating is primarily based on the probability of producing a weld outside these crack sensitive chemistry ranges.

STRENGTH Ratings are for fillet weld and groove weld strength in the as welded condition.Groove welds – Any specified filler metal with a rating can provide minimum transverse tensile strength in groove welds that will meet the as-welded strength of the base material.Fillet welds – Ratings provided are for fillet weld shear strength.

WELD METAL PROPERTIES

Fig. 1 — An extract from an aluminum filler metal selection chart describing the weld metalproperty categories that can be rated on the chart and used to help with the selection of themost appropriate filler metal for a specific application.

For this column, I compiled a selection of questions asked on a regular basis. These are all associated with aluminum fillermetal selection for various applications using a variety of base metal types.

23WELDING JOURNAL

ing, which can lead to premature weld failure.

The 5356 filler metal, which we wouldgenerally choose to obtain a good colormatch after anodizing, contains more than3% Mg (4.7 to 5.5% Mg) and is thereforean unsuitable choice for this application.We cannot use the 4043 filler metal, whichis suitable for elevated temperature serv-ice, because it will provide a poor colormatch after anodizing. Filler metal 5554has a Mg content of 2.4 to 3.0% and issuitable for elevated temperature service.Filler metal 5554 is also an aluminummagnesium alloy and does not contain asignificant level of controlled silicon.

Therefore, 5554 will provide a reason-able color match after anodizing and isthe most appropriate choice to considerfor this application.

3. ApplicationI need to perform a complete joint pen-

etration groove-weld procedure qualifi-cation test using 5083 base metal, and Iam required to meet the minimum trans-verse tensile strength specified by theAWS D1.2, Structural Welding Code —Aluminum. Should I use 5356, 5183, or5556 filler metal?

Filler Metal Choice

When welding the 5xxx series base met-als and seeking to consistently meet min-imum tensile strength requirements, thereare a few facts worth understanding.

The minimum tensile strength, usedfor procedure qualification of groovewelds with these nonheat treatable alu-minum alloys, is based on the annealedstrength of the base alloy being welded. Ifthis were a fillet weld qualification testwith 5083 base metal and not a completejoint penetration groove weld, the smalldifferences in filler metal shear strengthvalues between these three filler metalsmay or may not be significant. Certainly,welding procedures for fillet welds madeon 5083 base metal could be easily quali-fied with all three of these filler metals.

However, when it comes to tensilestrength requirements for groove welds,there are differences between these fillermetals that can significantly affect test re-sults. In some cases the strength differ-ences between these filler metals, al-though quite small, can mean the differ-ence between passing and failing a tensiletest. Also, the strength of any one fillermetal classification can differ from onebatch to another based on the actual mag-

nesium content of the alloy and where itresides within the classification chemistryrange limits.

The 5356 filler metal was developedfor welding 5086 base metal and to match,or slightly exceed, its annealed tensilestrength, which is lower than 5083. The5356 filler metal was not intended to con-sistently match the higher tensile strengthrequirements on 5083 base metal. Thatbeing said, I have seen groove weld qual-ification test results that have obtainedthe minimum tensile requirements madeon 5083 base metal welded with 5356 fillermetal. My opinion is that consistently ob-taining acceptable tensile strength using5356 filler metal on 5083 base metal is nota practical expectation when consideringvariation in filler metal chemistry frombatch to batch, and variance in joint de-sign and welding procedures used. There-fore, I would not recommend the 5356filler metal for this application.

The 5556 filler metal was originally de-veloped for welding 5456 base alloy tomeet its tensile strength requirements,which are higher than 5083. The 5556 fillermetal will also meet the tensile strengthrequirements for 5083 base alloy. The5183 filler metal was produced specificallyto meet the tensile strength requirements

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metal and does so successfully when usedin its mid-range chemistry.

I recommend evaluation of 5183 fillermetal for this application.

4. ApplicationI need to weld an A356 aluminum cast-

ing to a 6061-T6 extruded section.

Filler Metal Choice

It is not uncommon to weld dissimilaraluminum base metals together. However,not all aluminum base metal combinationsare suitable for welding to each other. Themetal combinations to avoid are the high-silicon to the high-magnesium base alloys,and the high-copper to the high-magnesiumbase alloys. This particular combination,A356 to 6061, is not usually a problem.

However, we need to carefully con-sider the most appropriate filler metal touse. The 6061 base metal can be weldedto itself with 4xxx or 5xxx filler metal, withthe 4043 and 5356 filler metals the mostcommonly used. Nonetheless, the A356casting has high silicon content and there-fore should not be welded with a 5xxx series (high magnesium) filler metal.

The 4043 filler metal would be a goodfiller metal to evaluate for this application.

5. ApplicationI need to weld an aluminum frame

structure that will be used for materialhandling. This structure will be used inharsh conditions and must be able to with-stand strong impact. The base materialswill consist entirely of weldable 6xxx se-ries alloys in extruded sections of variousconfigurations. This structure will be usedat ambient temperature in the as-weldedcondition and not anodized after welding.

Filler Metal Choice

Again, the 6xxx series base alloys can bewelded with 4xxx or 5xxx series filler met-als. The criterion in this particular appli-cation, which may promote the selectionof one filler metal over the other, is the re-quirement for optimum toughness in thewelded joints. Silicon additions in the 4xxxseries aluminum filler metal provide manydesirable characteristics: low melting tem-perature, low shrinkage rate, high fluidity,and low hot-cracking sensitivity.

However, ductility and toughness arenegatively impacted by the addition of sil-icon. There are significant differences be-tween the 4xxx and 5xxx series filler met-als when we consider their ductility andtoughness characteristics. The 4xxx seriesfiller metals have lower ductility andtoughness characteristics when comparedto the 5xxx series.

Therefore, for this application, I rec-ommend the evaluation of the 5356 fillermetal and not the 4043.

6. Application

I need to weld an aluminum structuremade from 6061-T6 base metal that rangesbetween 1 and 2 in. in thickness. Thisstructure will be postweld heat treated andartificially aged to return the completedstructure to the 6061-T6 condition. Thefillet welds and complete joint penetra-tion groove welds must have optimumstrength after heat treatment.

Filler Metal Choice

The primary consideration here ispostweld heat treatment. This base metalcan often be welded with a 4xxx or 5xxxseries filler metal. However, in this appli-cation, we would not select a 5xxx seriesfiller metal such as 5356 as this type offiller metal is not suitable for postweldheat treatment. Therefore, we need toconsider a 4xxx series filler metal.

The 4043 filler metal could be used forsuch an application; however, the 4043 isnot a heat-treatable filler metal. That is,4043 will not produce adequate strengthto match the 6061-T6 unless sufficientamounts of magnesium are removed fromthe base metal and transferred into thefiller metal during the welding process. Inthick-section groove welds and filletwelds, it can be difficult to obtain substan-tial dilution of the base metal throughoutthe weld thickness. Without such dilutionof base metal, there is little chance of ac-quiring the optimum strength in the weldin order to meet the –T6 condition of thebase metal after postweld heat treatment.

The obvious choice for this applicationis a filler metal that will respond to post-weld heat treatment without the neces-sary base alloy dilution. Filler metal 4643was developed by Alcoa in the 1960sspecifically for this purpose. It is similarto 4043 but includes magnesium, whichprovides it with the ability to respond tostrengthening through this form of post-weld heat treatment. Welds made in 6xxxseries base alloys with 4643 will typicallyproduce strengths around 90% of the basealloy –T6 condition after postweld heattreatment.

A second option for this applicationwould be the more recently developed fillermetal 4943. The 4943 filler metal was pri-marily designed to provide higher strengthover 4043 in the as-welded condition, butit will also provide increased strength over4643 in the postweld heat treated condi-tion. Tests have shown that 4943 will pro-vide a 100% strength match of the 6061-T6after postweld heat treatment.

Summary

Filler metal selection is perhaps one ofthe most significant challenges betweenwelding aluminum and other metals.These six examples illustrate that not onlythe base metal chemistry, but also the ap-plication of the completed weldment canstrongly influence your choice in select-ing the most appropriate filler metal fora given base metal in a specific applica-tion.

Fortunately, there are a number of ex-cellent filler metal selection charts avail-able to help us choose the most appropri-ate filler metal for our particular applica-tions. A typical legend used in aluminumfiller metal selection charts is shown inFig. 1. Many of these charts provide rat-ings for filler metals on such characteris-tics as strength, crack sensitivity, ductil-ity, color match after anodizing, corrosionresistance, elevated temperature service,toughness, and postweld heat treatment.Contact me if you would like a filler metalselection chart, and I will send you onefree of charge.◆

FEBRUARY 201324

TONY ANDERSON is director ofaluminum technology, ITW WeldingNorth America. He is a Fellow of theBritish Welding Institute (TWI), a Regis-tered Chartered Engineer with the BritishEngineering Council, and holds numer-ous positions on AWS technical commit-tees. He is chairman of the AluminumAssociation Technical Advisory Commit-tee for Welding and author of the bookWelding Aluminum Questions and An-swers currently available from the AWS.Questions may be sent to Mr. Andersonc/o Welding Journal, 8669 Doral Blvd.,Ste. 130, Doral, FL 33166, or via e-mail [email protected].

Dear Readers:

The Welding Journal encouragesan exchange of ideas through letters to the editor. Please sendyour letters to the Welding JournalDept., 8669 Doral Blvd., Ste. 130Doral, FL 33166. You can also reachus by FAX at (305) 443-7404 or bysending an e-mail to Kristin Camp-bell at [email protected].

BRAZINGQ&A BY ALEXANDER E. SHAPIRO

Q: We are very interested in brazing tita-nium products. My question concernsbrazing titanium with steel. Basically, wewould like to join titanium Grade 5 platewith stainless steel 304 round bars (1 or 7⁄8in. in diameter) and require a strength of40 ksi at the joint. Please suggest a suit-able filler metal and a brazing process forus to try.

A: Technically, vacuum brazing of tita-nium Grade 5 (Ti-6Al-4V alloy) to stain-less steel is not a problem. The process ofjoining titanium to nickel-plated stainlesssteel using a silver-copper eutectic (AWSBAg-8) as a brazing filler metal has a longhistory of industrial application, and hasbeen studied rather thoroughly (Ref. 1).

The brazing is carried out over a widetemperature range from 820° to 920°C de-pending on design of joined parts and therequired joint strength.

BAg-8a — the lithium-modified BAg-8 filler metal — can also be used in thesame range of brazing temperatures. Thebrazed parts are shown in Fig. 1. BAg-8ais not suitable for vacuum brazing, unlessthe heating rate is so high that it takes only1 to 2 min. to reach the brazing tempera-ture. So, this braze is ideal for inductionbrazing or brazing by energy beam (elec-tron or laser).

Within the last two decades, newprocesses and material options have beenstudied and tested. The application of newtitanium flux RL3 A16 opened the oppor-tunity to join titanium to titanium and ti-tanium to steel in air using torch brazingor, preferably, induction brazing. Stan-dard silver-based filler metals such asBAg-24 or BAg-34 are successfully usedfor brazing in air. A key point of thisprocess is rapid and uniform heating of thejoint area, because titanium oxidizes veryfast and the protection ability of flux is lim-ited in time. Therefore, brazing in air issuccessful mostly for small-size parts.

Precoating the titanium part beforebrazing is recommended. This means thatyou should use a three-step process: 1)deposition of the silver braze alloy ontothe titanium surface by heating and melt-ing with the flux, 2) removing flux residuesfrom the surface using hot water and ametal brush, and 3) assembling with thesteel part and brazing them together withnew additions of flux and braze fillermetal.

The joint clearance between the partsto be brazed should be as small as possibledue to difference of coefficients of ther-mal expansion. With your design, thismeans that you should slightly compressthe parts during brazing and cooling.

Brazing titanium to steel can also bedone in air with the same flux and alu-minum-based filler metal TiBrazeAl-635(the Al-Cu-Mg system) or TiBrazeAl-655(the Al-Cu system) at a temperaturebelow 700°C — Fig. 2. The aluminum fillermetals can be used, when a low brazingtemperature is needed, while the strengthof joints is not a critical issue.

However, vacuum brazing with BAg-8is still the most often used process for join-ing titanium to stainless steel. In order toreach the maximum strength of the brazedjoint, the brazing should be done in com-pliance with the recommendations below.

First, the stainless steel should beplated with nickel 0.0004 to 0.0006 in. (10to 15 microns) thick. Nickel plating sig-nificantly improves the spreading of liq-uid filler metal along the steel surface.Sometimes, electroless nickel platingdoes not provide a stable quality of coat-ing. Then, silver plating 0.0006 ± 0.0001in. (12 to 15 microns) thick is used insteadof a nickel coating. The nickel or silverlayer serves as an effective barrier to pre-vent the formation of brittle Ti-Fe inter-metallics that are replaced by NiTi, AgTi,and CuNiTi phases.

Second, the brazing temperature inthe range of 830° to 850°C and dwell timefrom 3 to 6 min are optimal process pa-rameters to produce 25 to 30 ksi (170 to210 MPa) joint shear strength. Higherbrazing temperature and longer holdingtime result in uncontrolled growth of thebrittle TiCu2 intermetallic layer at the in-terface of the joint metal with titanium,and the strength of the joints goes downto 20 ksi (140 MPa) or even lower values.

If you want to increase the strength ofthe joints to 40 ksi (275 MPa) and higher,you will have to change the joint design.For example, use a tube-in-tube design in-stead of a simple overlapping, or provideso-called mechanical securing of brazedjoints, such as brazing of a threaded connection.◆

Acknowledgment

My thanks to Dr. Yury A. Flom ofNASA Goddard Space Flight Center forhis advice on this subject.

Reference

1. Shiue, R. K., Wu, S. K., Chan, C. H.,and Huang, C. S. 2006. Infrared brazing ofTi-6Al-4V and 17-4 PH stainless steel witha nickel barrier layer. Metallurgical andMaterials Transactions A, Vol. 37, No. 7:2207−2217.

This column is written sequentially byTIM P. HIRTHE, ALEXANDER E.SHAPIRO, and DAN KAY. Hirthe andShapiro are members of and Kay is an ad-visor to the C3 Committee on Brazing andSoldering. All three have contributed to the5th edition of AWS Brazing Handbook.

Hirthe ([email protected]) currentlyserves as a BSMC vice chair and owns hisown consulting business.

Shapiro ([email protected]) is brazing products manager at Ti-tanium Brazing, Inc., Columbus, Ohio.

Kay ([email protected]), with 40years of experience in the industry, operateshis own brazing training and consultingbusiness.

Readers are requested to post their ques-tions for use in this column on the BrazingForum section of the BSMC Web sitewww.brazingandsoldering.com.

Fig. 1 — Stainless steel and titanium tubesbrazed to titanium plate in vacuum usingBAg-8a filler metal in the form of 1⁄16-in.wire ring placed inside the tubes. (Photocourtesy of Dr. Yury Flom, NASA GoddardSpace Flight Center.)

Fig. 2 — Titanium Grade 5 brazed in airto stainless steel 304 using TiBrazeAl-655filler metal. The shear strength of thesebrazed joints is 17 to 19 ksi (118 to 130MPa).

FEBRUARY 201326

PRODUCT & PRINTSPOTLIGHT

Soldering Station FeaturesFast Heat-up Time

The WXD 2, a two-channel, 255-W sol-dering and desoldering station, featuresthe WXDP 120-W desoldering tool witha 35-s heat-up time, quick replacement fil-ter cartridge, and XDS nozzles with ex-tended shafts to minimize tip cleaning. Italso has a standby mode, which automat-ically sets the pencil to a lower tempera-ture when not in use. All WX tools havean integrated sensor system with commu-nications, signal processing, and memorybuilt into the handle. Removal of the toolfrom its safety rest switches it back to itsoperating temperature. A blue LED lightring on the tool handle gives visual indi-cation it is heating. The station’s high-speed microcontroller allows maximumtemperature precision and optimal dy-namic temperature performance in loadsituations.

Wellerwww.apexhandtools.com/weller(800) 548-8883

Abrasive Wheels RemoveBraze and Residual Oxides

The company’s Type 1 abrasive wheels,effective for mechanically removing braze,flux, and residual oxides from automobileroof joints and other large assemblies, arecomprised of multiple layers of nonwovencotton fiber with aluminum oxide or sili-con carbide abrasives that are laminated,pressed, and bonded together into a densewheel. The wheels, suitable for use in end-of-arm-tooling in robotic applications,come in several sizes from 3 to 12 in. O.D.

Rex-Cut Abrasiveswww.rexcut.com(800) 225-8182

Publication ReviewsCurrent Brazing Research

Advances in brazing: Science, technol-ogy and applications reviews current re-search on the subject. Part one explainsthe fundamentals of brazing, includingmolten wetting processes, strength andmargins of safety of brazed joints, andmodeling of associated physical phenom-ena. Part two discusses the materials thatuse brazing techniques, such as superal-loys, filler metals, diamonds and cubicboron nitride, and varied ceramics and in-termetallics. The book concludes withpart three that covers the main applica-tions, including solid-state electrochemi-cal devices, electrical, packaging, andstructural applications.

Research and Marketswww.researchandmarkets.com(800) 526-8630

A new line of low-temperature brazing filler metals eliminates cad-mium, which is used to reduce the liquidus temperature in filler met-als to improve production speed. The patent-pending, Planet Class1–7 filler metals Mars™#4, Earth™#7, and Neptune™#6 all haveliquidus temperatures lower than all of AWS Class 1–37 brazing fillermetals. Listed as follows are the planets, classes, liquidus, and tensilestrenths: Mars, 4, 1105°F, 64,642 lb/in.2; Neptune, 6, 1121°F, 48,926lb/in.2; Earth, 7, 1140°F, 56,428 lb/in.2; Venus, 3, 1224°F, 56,426 lb/in.2;Pluto, 5, 1274°F, 55,357 lb/in.2; Saturn, 2, 1338°F, 65,357 lb/in.2; andJupiter, 1, 1355°F, 53,392 lb/in.2. Pictured is an image comparingbrazed copper.

NetBraze™ LLCwww.netbraze.com(937) 444-1444

Special Emphasis on Brazing and Soldering

FEBRUARY 201328

New Line of Cadmium-Free Brazing Filler Metals Announced

29WELDING JOURNAL

Solder Alloy Offered inLead-Free Bar Form

SN100C solder alloy, used by manu-facturers to implement lead-free solder-ing for their production lines, is now ac-cessible in bar form. Comprised of tin-copper-nickel and germanium, and freeof silver or bismuth, it is environmentallyfriendly. The solder alloy is available as apaste and cored wire.

AIM, Inc.www.aimsolder.com(800) 225-5246

Laser Cut Braze PlugsFill Holes Left in Castings

Braze Plugs block the holes left in acasting, allowing access to the insidewhere additional machining is required.Brazed into the casting, they are subse-quently heat treated and finish machined.Supplied in any high-nickel-based super-alloy to precisely match the cast materi-als, the product is laser cut using nitrogento prevent a recast (oxide) layer. Cut tocustomer specification, typical plugs are0.180 ⨉ 0.080 ⨉ 0.080 in.

Advanced Laser Technologieswww.advancedlasertechnologies.net(781) 438-6374

Safety Equipment SupplierReleases New Catalogs

The supplier of machine safety equip-ment has released two new safety guide-books and product catalogs. The 564-page“Compendium” offers information onmachine safety subjects and the completeline of the company’s products. It providesguidelines on issues such as strategic ma-chine safety planning and how and where

to upgrade, explanations of commonsafety terminology, information on na-tional safety directives and standards, andthe primary safety standards organizationsand information sources. The “Switches”catalog contains technical information onthe company’s line of safety switches, in-cluding solenoid locking switches andnoncontact switches designed for a vari-ety of applications.

ABB Jokab Safetywww.jokabsafetyna.com(888) 282-2123

Soldering System OffersCompact Table Space

The Ultima series of selective solder-ing and fluxing systems offer a way for sol-

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FEBRUARY 201330

dering through-hole components as wellas connectors to surface mount and mixedtechnology PCBs. The TR2 has a high-precision X-, Y-, and Z-axis drive thatmoves the PCB, resulting in a lightweightconstruction that takes up 36 × 31 in. oftable space. The 35-lb solder pot andpump assembly features a nitrogen hoodwith a built-in micropreheater. Users canalso view live video of the solderingprocess. A universal PCB holder withquick-release cam-locks handles boardsup to 13 × 10 in. Point-to-point or dragsoldering functions are programmable, asare variable solder pump speed and waveheight control, with dip height and dwellparameter settings.

Manncorpwww.manncorp.com/selective-soldering/(800) 745-6266

Solder Fume ExtractorRemoves Lead, Tin Traces

A solder fume extraction device fea-tures an active carbon filter that removestraces of lead and tin (<0.0003 mg/m3)from soldering fumes. The unit is offeredas a bench-mounted unit or fixed to a flex-ible arm that provides 360 deg of rota-tional movement. It is useful for produc-tion facilities, labs, and lighter industrialapplications.

Gemini Integrated Electronicswww.geminiintegratedelectronics.com44 (0)118 969 2233

Microwelding AdaptiveControl Improves Quality

A multivariable, adaptive control forbench-top resistance welding applicationsoffers consistent weld performance anddocumented quality for electronic, med-ical, nuclear, and other applications. Use-ful for microwelding applications, it inter-faces to any low-power spot, seam, or pro-jection weld machine, and can operatewith any type of welding transformer. Italso employs switching technology thatdelivers good performance with conven-tional AC welding transformers. Theadaptive control makes hundreds of deci-sions every millisecond to reduce the oc-

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WeldComputer Corp.www.weldcomputer.com(800) 553-9353

Brochure Features WeldingProducts and Consumables

The company’s new 36-page cataloghelps customers select the proper toolsfor semiautomatic, automatic, or roboticwelding applications. Included are newup-to-date content, illustrations, and de-tailed product information on GMAWand GTAW products. The catalog featuresscannable tags for mobile product infor-mation. Highlights include new air-cooledand water-cooled products, plus informa-tion on semiautomatic GMAW guns; au-tomatic and robotic GMAW barrels; au-tomatic and robotic GTAW barrels; con-sumables; accessories; and barrel mount-ing options. The catalog may be requestedor downloaded from the Web site below.

D/F Machine Specialties, Inc.www.dfmachinespecialties.com(507) 625-6200

Robotic System Availablein a Stationary Pedestal

The Deltaspot® resistance spot weld-

ing pedestal system, 100% servo drivenand water cooled, includes all the bene-fits of the C300 robotic system in a sta-tionary format. It does not require com-pressed air and features an adjustable gunheight and intuitive user interface. Thegun can be disassembled from the frameand converted for use on a robot.

Fronius USA, LLCwww.fronius-usa.com(810) 220-4414

Profile Cutting MachineFeatures Extended Beam

The company’s profile cutting machinewith an integrated pipe cutting axis has anextended beam, which allows the plasmatorch (with its zero offset bevel head) togo outside the standard X/Y cutting area.In this area is a heavy-duty pipe rotatorsystem mounted on separate rails. It canbe used to index flat or round pipe. Addi-tionally, it cuts 3D bevels in pipe.

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Reels Upgraded for High-Pressure Applications

The HP 1125 series, an upgrade to the1125 line of hand-cranked and motorizedreels, offers an improved swivel for high-pressure applications on ½- and ¾-in.models. The new models offer operatingpressures up to 5000 lb/in.2, an external

31WELDING JOURNAL

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FEBRUARY 201332

Today, continuing ecological pres-sure, energy and fuel problems,and global competition have led

companies to search for new automobiledesigns.

One of the main targets in studies foroptimizing fuel-efficient and environ-mentally friendly automobile designs isto save material and weight without sac-rificing quality and safety.

Reliable, lightweight materials for au-tomotive design and automobile bodies,which are not possible to use with theconventional manufacturing processesdue to economic and technical reasons,can easily and economically be used withcurrent laser manufacturing methods.

In this study, variation of the weldseams depending on laser power andheat input are investigated in laser lapjoint welding of low-carbon steel (DC04)and AlMgSiCu (6061-T6) aluminumalloy materials. In the attempt to controlthe fragile intermetallic phase formation,which causes problems in laser lap joint welding of materials with different properties, and the intermetallic phase

layer thickness, laser parameters weremodulated.

Selected Processes forLaser Manufacturing

There has been increasing and wide-spread multipurpose use of better qual-ity, high power, and efficient, long-last-ing lasers in industry in parallel with lasertechnology developments (Refs. 1–3).

The preferred laser manufacturingprocesses in industry are as follows:

• Laser welding, soldering, andbonding

• Laser cutting, drilling, and marking• Laser surface treatments.

Benefits of Laser Lap JointWelding

In the automotive industry, laser lapjoint welding is preferred due to its pro-duction rate and ease in joining thin anddifferent materials compared to buttjoint welding.

One of the biggest advantages in usingdifferent materials is to reduce the con-struction weight as much as possible. Theeasiest and most economical solution tomanufacture such constructions is to uselighter-weight materials.

In the automotive industry, there hasbeen an increasing use of light metals,such as aluminum, magnesium, and com-posite materials. The different materialscan be welded by using the laser process,which is not possible with conventionalmanufacturing processes.

AutomobileManufacturing UsingLaser Beam Welding

NIYAZI CAVUSOGLU ([email protected]) and HUSEYIN OZDEN are with the Mechanical Engineering Department, Ege University, Bornova-İzmir, Turkey.

This study explores laser lap joint welding of low-carbon steel(DC04) and AlMgSiCu (6061-T6) aluminum alloy materials

BY NIYAZI CAVUSOGLU AND HUSEYIN OZDEN

Fig. 1 — Lap welding of steel on topof aluminum and the specimen dimensions.

33WELDING JOURNAL

Metallurgical problems due to differ-ences between the melting temperatures,thermal conductivity, thermal expansionsof the materials lapped, and the forma-tion of fragile intermetallic phases (Fex-Aly compounds), reduces the joint’sstrength and constitutes major problems.These can be prevented since the heatinput to the material is low during thelaser welding process.

There are many factors (laser power,welding speed, laser beam quality, focaldistance, etc.) affecting the laser weldingprocess. Therefore, there is only limitedinformation in literature regarding theeffects of numerous factors on laser beamwelding and related subjects for theprocess (Refs. 4–7).

Research on Laser WeldingDifferent Materials —Formation of IntermetallicPhases

Sierra et al. researched laser weldingand gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) ofgalvanized steel to an aluminum alloy(Ref. 8). Bouayad et al. studied the in-teraction between molten aluminum andsolid iron to improve the metallurgicalbond between ferrous inserts and alu-minum matrix in castings using immer-sion tests (Ref. 9).

In addition, Kreimeyer et al. studiedhybrid structures of titanium and alu-minum alloys; their main goal was thecontrol of intermetallic phase formation(Ref. 10). Liu and Zhao chose a laser-GTA hybrid welding technique to studythe lap welding of dissimilar alloysAZ31B Mg and 304 steel (Ref. 11).

Reports HighlightingMicrostructures of LaserWelding Dissimilar Materials

Phanikumar et al. studied the mi-crostructure evolution during continu-ous laser welding of dissimilar metals fora binary Cu-Ni couple by investigatingthe effects of laser beam scan speed andlaser power on various factors (Ref. 12).

Taşkın and Çaligülü investigated theeffect of welding power on the laser weld-ing of steels AISI 430, ferritic stainlesssteel, and AISI 1010 low-carbon steel(Ref. 13).

Sharma and Molian also presentedthe results of laser welding two AHSSsteels, TRIP780 and DP980, using aYb:YAG laser machine including opticalmetallography, microhardness, tensile,and fatigue tests (Ref. 14).

Material Choice andPreparation of WeldedSamples

The materials used in this study werelow-carbon steel (DC04) in accordancewith EN 10130 with 1.2-mm thickness,which is widely used in the automotiveindustry; and AlMgSiCu (6061-T6) alu-minum alloy with 2-mm thickness, alsowidely used in the aerospace and auto-motive industries. The chemical and me-chanical properties of the materials usedare shown in Tables 1 and 2.

DC 04 steel and 6061 aluminum plateswere cut to 100 mm length and 50 mmwidth. Lap welding joints were made withsteel on top of aluminum — Fig. 1.

Before the welding process occurred,the aluminum plates were polished withemery (1200 SiC), and surface cleaningwas performed by wiping the surfaceswith acetone. Steel materials were onlycleaned with acetone.

As in butt joint welding, special prepa-rations are also required to obtain nec-essary conditions for laser lap weldingprocedures such as the quality of jointfaces and an extreme sensitivity to theroot opening tolerance of the joint. Metalplates were compressed with a speciallymanufactured fixture with the steel ontop of the aluminum to prevent rootopenings at the joint faces.

A view of the clamping device usedfor the laser lap welding sample is pre-sented in Fig. 2.

A continuous wave Nd:YAG laser de-vice with a maximum laser power of 3 kW,focal distance f = 200 mm, was used whenpreparing the laser lap welding sample.A picture of the Nd:YAG laser beamsource is shown — Fig. 3. A 1-mm-diam-eter fiber cable was used for transmittingthe laser beam. Welding the materialswas done by using a 6-axis robot arm witha laser welding head attached to it — Fig.4. Beams from the laser welding headwere applied to the surface perpendicu-larly. Argon gas with 20 L/min flow ratewas attached to the welding area with a

Table 1 — Chemical Properties of Materials (%)

Standard C P S MnDIN-EN 10130(DC04 Steel) 0.08 0.03 0.03 0.40

Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Ni Zn Ti Ga VAlMgSiCu(6061-T6 0.54 0.21 0.24 0.07 0.98 0.1 0.006 0.1 0.012 0.014 0.014Aluminum)

Table 2 — Mechanical Properties of Materials

Yield Tensile % StrainStrength Strength (in 80 mm)(MPa) (MPa)

DC04 210 280 386061-T6 240 290 12

Fig. 2 — A view of the clamping device used for lap welding and the joint.

FEBRUARY 201334

side jet working as a shielding gas. Thefocal plane was adjusted to be coincidentwith the surface of the upper part in thewelded lap joints.

Results of ChangingParameters

According to macro images of thewelded seams, laser welding parameters,especially laser power, welding speed,and heat input, were effective on the weldseam quality.

Upper surface and macro views of thewelded specimens were investigated atdifferent laser powers with a fixed laserwelding speed. The laser parameter ef-fects on geometrical shape, dimensions,and especially welding penetration andwelding seam width, were evaluated. Ex-ternal appearance, quality, and strengthof the welded joints help to understandthe process stability.

It is highly possible a weld seam thatis smooth, crack free, without sagging,and without crater external appearanceis also free from internal defects.

Welding Seam Surfaces

The external top view of a steel-aluminum lap joint welded with a laseris presented in Fig. 5 along with the laserwelding parameters. Welding was doneat a speed of 1.9 m/min at various powerlevels. Cracks and spatter were observedat some laser power levels. Transversecracks occurred during the weldingprocess with P = 2800 W laser power.When P = 2800 W laser power was ex-ceeded, the transverse crack formationincreased, and spatter occurred from the

melt. At P = 3000 W laser power, cratercracks also began to form as well as trans-verse cracks and spatter — Fig. 6.

Disorders in the width of the top sur-face may be due to keyhole instability orvariable root openings between the steeland aluminum plates. Some transverse

cracks seen in the samples can be consid-ered as a result of residual stress.

The spatter formation seen in Fig. 6can be explained with assumptions basedon a high laser power and material prop-erties. In low speeds or high laser pow-ers (high laser welding heat input), ma-

Fig. 3 — Example of a Nd:YAG laser beam source. Fig. 4 — A 6-axis robot arm is featured.

Fig. 5 — Views of the external top surface of the weld seams with laser lapwelding (V = 1.9 m/min). Laser power is as follows: A — 2500 W; B — 2600 W;C — 2700 W; D — 2800 W; E — 2900 W; F — 3000 W.

A

B

C

D

E

F

terial vapor increases on seams, thus pen-etration of the laser beam into the mate-rial weakens.

Therefore, this causes faulty weldseam formation. Elements in the meltwith a low evaporation temperaturecause the spatter formation to increaseexplosively with high laser powers. Lackof material in the weld metal is also seendue to increasing spatter when the laserpower increases.

Macro Images of WeldedSeams, Penetration

There have been difficulties in obtain-ing macro images of laser lap joint weld-ing. Different processes and etching flu-ids (acids) are needed depending on themetal properties. Narrow but deep pen-etration is obtained at the weld joint.There have been differences in macro im-ages depending on the position of thefocal point on the given part. In general,laser welding seams are narrow and deeppenetrated compared to conventionalweld seams.

In laser lap welding, factors affectingthe form and dimension of the macrowelding seam are the laser parameters,material properties, and root openingsbetween parts. Macro images showingwelded seams are presented in Fig. 7.

As seen in Fig. 7, penetration of the

welded samplesdoes not show asignificant changewith varying laserwelding power. Weobserved that pen-etration depths in-

creased as laser power increased. We ob-served a crack in the aluminum side ofthe welded joint when welding is per-formed with a 2700-W laser power. A big-ger crack and tear occurred when thewelding was performed with a 2900-Wlaser power.

Upon examining the penetrationdepths with an optical microscope, it wasfound that if laser power P = 2500 W (A),2600 W (B), 2700 W (C), 2800 W (D),and 2900 W (E) are applied, the pene-tration depths were 390, 640, 880, 1160,and 1300 μm, respectively.

At a constant welding speed, whenwelding power is increased, the increasedheat input (J/mm) in the weld causescracks. Residual stresses due to the ther-mal factors on the parts with differentthicknesses and physical properties causebreaking in the form of decompositionand cracks. Steel residual stresses causebreaking of the connection from a weakspot or intermediate transverse spot.

In Fig. 8, penetration depths depend-ing on the heat input applied to the weld-ing are presented. As seen from the fig-ure, penetration depths increases as heatinput applied to the welding increases.

Intermetallic Phase Formation

Due to differences in the physical and

chemical properties of the materialsused, such as melting and boiling tem-perature, thermal conductivity, density,and thermal expansion coefficient, majorproblems such as fragile intermetallicphase formations may occur in weldingdifferent materials.

In the welding of steel-aluminum ma-terials, FexAly (such as FeAl3, Fe2Al5),intermetallic phases form in the weld-aluminum interface. The thickness com-bined with the intermetallic phase in thisinterface greatly affects the weld dura-bility. However, reducing the thicknessof the formed intermetallic phase layer,improves the weld durability.

When images of the welded samplestaken by optical microscope were inves-tigated, it was observed that the moltenmetal solidification in the melt occurredin the form of columnar grains orientedtoward the center of the weld seam fromthe steel-weld interface — Fig. 9.

The melt region in the welding jointsof aluminum and steel are rich in iron(Fe). An intermetallic layer formed alongthe irregular border between the weld

35WELDING JOURNAL

Fig. 6 — Cracks, spatter, and a crater in laser lap weld-ing. Laser power is as follows: A — 2800 W; B and C —3000 W.

Fig. 7 — Macro images of the welded seam (aluminumside). Laser power is as follows: A — 2500 W; B — 2600W; C — 2700 W; D — 2800 W; E — 2900 W.

⇐

⇑

Fig. 8 — Changes in penetrationdepths depending on the heat input.

A

A

BB

C

C

D

E

metal and aluminum melt region. It wasobserved that this interface layer is grayand quite distinct from the other regions.

In the aluminum side of the weld re-gion, white colored areas formed abovethe columnar grains. In the deep pene-tration laser welding method, turbulentmotion occurred in the vapor groove.This led to the formation of white solutebands that showed a pattern parallel tothe interface layer between the alu-minum and weld metal. These solutebands were formed by the encapsulationof molten aluminum in the weld metal.With the help of EDX analysis resultsand using the Fe-Al equilibrium diagram,it is thought that the white solute bandsare composed of Fe3Al or FeAl com-pounds. But it is also possible that alu-minum may have solidified as pure alu-minum. These white solute bands and in-termetallic phase can be seen in Fig. 10.

Conclusions

In this study, a low-carbon steel(DC04) and AlMgSi aluminum alloy(6061-T6) were joined with lap joint laserwelding. The effects of laser power andheat input on the welding seams were ex-amined. The analysis and results withinthe given experimental conditions can beenumerated in the order of importanceas follows:

• Width of the top view of weldingseams are regular for 2500-, 2600-, and2700-W laser power.

• An increase in penetration depthfor steel-aluminum (steel on top of thealuminum) laser lap welding joints when

heat input, which depends on the laserparameters, is increased.

• It was found that when the laserpower was 2500, 2600, 2700, 2800, and2900 W, then the penetration depths wasas 390, 640, 880, 1160, and 1300 μm, respectively.

• The maximum penetration depthfor the welded metal was measured as1300 μm for 2900 W laser power. How-ever, a crack was observed through thealuminum thickness in the heat-affectedzone (HAZ) and base metal border.

• Visible cracks are observed in thetop view of weld seams when a 2800-Wlaser power is applied.

• Crater formation and spatter beginto occur from the molten material when2900- and 3000-W laser power is applied.

• To obtain a crack-free weld seam,one needs to work with 2500–2600 Wlaser power and 1.9 m/min welding speed.It was observed that the aluminum andsteel used in this study can give a qualityweld joint around 80 J/mm heat input.

• Saw blade-shaped formations wereobserved to the aluminum side from theintermetallic phase.

• Reducing the thickness of theformed fragile intermetallic phase layerimproves the joint durability.

• The reduced durability brought onlyintermetallic phase formation may beprevented by the choice of laser param-eters such as laser power, shielding gas,and additional material for the steel-aluminum laser welding process.◆

References

1. Bunte, J. 2003. Laser-based joiningprocesses in the automotive engineering.International ETG-Congress. LZH. LaserCenter Hannover.

2. Özden, H. 2007. Investigating fiberlasers for shipbuilding and marine con-struction. Welding Journal 86(5): 26–28.

3. Önçağ, A. Ç., and Özden, H. 2011.

FEBRUARY 201336

Fig. 10 — The solute bands and intermetallic phase in weld metal.

Fig. 9 — Columnar grains in the weld region oriented toward the center of theweld seam from the steel-weld interface.

Production of laser welded steel rim inautomobile industry. TMMOB Chamberof Mechanical Engineers. 12. Automo-tive and Manufacturing Technology Symposium.

4. Katayama, S., Joo, S., Mizutani, M.,and Bang, H. 2005. Laser weldability ofaluminum alloy and steel. Trans TechPublications, Materials Science Forum502: 481–486. Switzerland.

5. Potesser, M., Schoeberl, T.,Antrekowitsch, H., and Bruckner, J.2006. The characterization of the inter-metallic Fe-Al layer of steel-aluminumweldings. EPD Congress 2006, The Min-erals, Metals & Materials Society.

6. Sierra, G., Peyre, P., Beaume, F. D.,Stuart, D., and Fras, G. 2007. Steel to alu-minum key-hole laser welding. Elsevier.Materials Science and Engineering A447:197–208.

7. Theron, M., Rooyen, C., andIvanchev, L. H. 2007. CW Nd:YAG laserwelding of dissimilar sheet metals. Na-tional Laser Centre. South Africa.

8. Sierra, G., Peyre, P., Deschaux, B.F., Stuart, D., and Fras, G. 2008. Gal-

vanised steel to aluminum joining bylaser and GTAW processes. MaterialsCharacterization 59(12): 1705–1715.

9. Bouayad, A., Geromettaa, C.,Belkebir, A., and Ambari, A. 2003. Ki-netic interactions between solid iron andmolten aluminum. Materials Science andEngineering A363(1-2): 53–61.

10. Kreimeyer, M., Wagner, F., andVollertsen, F. 2005. Laser processing ofaluminum-titanium tailored blanks. Op-tics and Lasers in Engineering 43(9):1021–1035.

11. Liu, L. M., and Zhao, X. 2008.Study on the weld joint of Mg alloy andsteel by laser-GTA hybrid welding. Ma-terials Characterization 59(9): 1279–1284.

12. Phanikumar, G., Dutta, P., andChattopadhyay, K. 2005. Continuouswelding of Cu-Ni dissimilar couple usingCO2 laser. Science and Technology ofWelding and Joining 10(2): 158–166.

13. Taşkın, M., and Çaligülü, U. 2009.The effect of laser power on laser weld-ing joint of the pair of AISI 430-1010steel. Firat Üniversity. Journal of Engi-neering Sciences 21(1): 11–22.

14. Sharma, R. S., and Molian, P. 2009.Yb:YAG laser welding of TRIP780 steelwith dual phase and mild steels for usein tailor welded blanks. Materials & De-sign 30(10): 4146–4155.

15. Çavuşoğlu, N. 2012. The effect ofwelding parameters on the mechanicaland metallurgical characteristics ofwelded joint in the laser lap welding ofDC04 steel and 6061-T6 aluminum alloysheets. PhD dissertation. İzmir, Turkey,Ege University.

16. Ready, J. F. 2001. LIA Handbookof Laser Materials Processing. Laser In-stitute of America.

17. Tienhoven, V., Pathiraj, J., andMeijer, J. 2006. Laser joining of steel-aluminum joints in T-configuration. Pro-ceedings of 25th International Congress onApplications of Lasers and Electro-Optics.

18. Borrisutthekul, R., Miyashita, Y.,and Mutoh, Y. 2005. Dissimilar materiallaser welding between magnesium alloyAZ31B and aluminum alloy A5052-O.Elsevier, Science and Technology of Ad-vanced Materials (6): 199–204.

37WELDING JOURNAL


FEBRUARY 201338

The use of lasers has increased andbecome widespread in many manu-facturing operations, such as mate-

rial processing, measuring, quality con-trol processing, and automation. It is acompetitive, energy-saving process withhigh user satisfaction.

Due to its many advantages, laser pro-cessing has replaced more conventionalmethods and techniques in the industry.Laser technology has become widelyused in Germany where it has been im-plemented into its automotive industries.It offers reduced labor costs, taxes, andmaterial costs as well as energy savings.Lighter, safer, and better-quality designshave been put on the market and newparts created as a result of laser process-ing. The common advantages of lasers inautomotive industrial operations includethe following (Refs. 1−10):• High-speed operation;• High reliability and repeatable quality;• Multipurposes, includes welding, cut-ting, and marking;• Processing using noncontact tools(since tool wear does not occur there isno need to change the tool); • Automation;• Enables the creation of new designs,

operations, and measurements that werepreviously deemed impossible;• High-density energy transportation toa narrow point;• Deep, narrow, and controllable penetration;• Suitability for joining numerous mate-

rials with different characteristics;• A decrease in or no need for physicalor chemical operations before and afterthe processing.

For these reasons, manufacturers inthe wheel rim industry have implementedlaser processing.

ALI Ç. ÖNÇAĞ and H. ÖZDEN([email protected]) are withEge University, MechanicalEngineering, Izmir, Turkey.

The properties of laser-welded wheel rimswere considered good enough for the processto be used in production in the auto industry

BY ALI Ç. ÖNÇAĞAND H. ÖZDEN

LaserWelding Laser

Soldering

Laser SurfaceModification

Laser Marking

Laser QualityControl

Laser MonitoringMeasuring

Laser Drilling

Laser Forming

Laser Cutting

Fig. 1 — Laser processing used in themanufacturing of wheel rims.

Lasers Offer Advantages forWelding Steel Wheel Rims

39WELDING JOURNAL

Fabricating Wheel RimsConventional Manufacturing ofSteel Wheel Rims.

Since steel wheel rims are a basicproduct of the automotive industry, man-ufacturers look for new ways to designthe rims to better compete in the mar-ketplace (Refs. 4, 5). In particular, themanufacture of steel wheel rims entailsmuch processing in production lines, andthis is a disadvantage in terms of cost. So,the use of laser welding in the manufac-turing of steel wheel rims is now beingconsidered to reduce costs.

Figure 1 shows schematically the laserprocessing used to manufacture steelwheel rims. Wheel rims consist of twobasic parts: the rim and the disk — Fig. 2.The manufacturing methods and assem-bling techniques are based on cold form-ing and welding methods. Steel sheetswith good welding characteristics areused in manufacturing.

The first step in the manufacturingprocess is to obtain blanks with theproper specifications and surface quality.The prepared blanks for producing therims are rounded using a rounding ma-chine, then the ends of the materials arebanded and flattened using a press beforethe butt joining process. The flattenedends are joined with flash welding orupset butt joint welding — Fig. 3. Afterthe welding operation, fins present on thesurface and at the corners of the weldsare removed with a scarfing and edge-trimming machine — Fig. 4. When theseoperations are completed, the rims arererounded with a press and formed intotheir final shape with cold roller ma-chines and presses.

The disk materials, which are cut ascircular blanks, are formed with flowforming machines or presses. The centerholes, ventilation holes, and bolt holesare punched out with presses, then lathedand countersinked to precise dimensions.

The rims and disks, which are formedlast, are pressed against each other thenwelded using the submerged arc or gasmetal arc welding processes. After theseoperations, to eliminate the distortionsdue to the welding process, the wheelrims are pressed again. At the end of as-sembly, the wheel rims are painted.

Wheel Rim Manufacturing UsingLaser Welding.

There are few publications aboutusing laser processing in the manufactur-ing of wheel rims. In addition, using thelaser welding method is more commonwhen compared with other methods. Forinstance, Caprioglio developed andpatented a system to assemble rim to diskwith laser welding (Ref. 4). BBS Interna-tional GmbH uses laser welding in itswheel rim designs (Ref. 5). Dawes in hislaser welding book illustrates a laser buttjoint welded steel rim, and it is seen thatthe ductility is enough for cold forming(Ref. 6).

Laser Advantages and Disadvantages

Laser welding offers a number of ad-vantages and disadvantages compared toconventional methods, such as flash andbutt resistance welding, submerged arcwelding, and gas metal arc welding inwheel rim manufacturing.

Laser Advantages Include the Following:• Since the laser head has no direct con-tact with the material, it is not necessaryto change the tools routinely; however, inflash and upset butt welding, the elec-trodes should be changed periodically.• Since no flash occurs in the applica-tion of the laser welding, there is no dam-age to the machine and there is no pollu-tion in the vicinity of the operation.• Because the surface of the laserwelded material is quite smooth, it is notnecessary to implement finishing opera-tions after the welding process. This savesthe added expense of these operationsnormally required after flash and butt re-sistance welding. • Laser welding speed is as fast as thatfor upset butt resistance welding andfaster than submerged arc welding andgas metal arc welding.• Laser welding consumes much lesselectrical power than the flash and buttresistance welding processes. For exam-ple, the butt joint welding machine usedin the Hayes Lemmerz Jantaş wheel rimfactory is 960 kW, but a 50-kW fiber laser(its wall-plug efficiency is more than25%) consumes only 200 kW.• Lasers produce narrower weld zonescompared with the other weldingprocesses.• Generally, there is no need for fillermaterial in laser welding.• It is possible to apply a lap joint withlaser welding during the rim to disk weld-ing operation.• Lower thermal distortions occur usinglaser welding when compared with sub-merged arc and gas metal arc welding.• By using laser welding and tailored

Rim

Disk

Fig. 2 — A steel wheel rim and the basicparts, rim and disk.

Fig. 3 — Rim manufactur-ing process. A — Bend andflattening process; B —upset butt welding.

Fig. 4 — Rim manufactur-ing process, weld joint withfin surface after scarfingprocess.

⇐

⇐A B

FEBRUARY 201340

blanks, it is possible to manufacture therims with different wall thicknesses anddifferent local mechanical properties indifferent regions in accordance with theload distributions in service conditions.The weight of the parts can be reduced bythese means.

Laser Disadvantages Include theFollowing:• The edges to be joined with laserwelding should have a smooth shearedzone. Before and during the weldingprocess there must be almost a zero rootopening between the abutting edges,otherwise good quality joints cannot beobtained.• A fixing or clamping apparatus or aspecial construction is required in laserwelding, as is required in flash and resist-ance butt welding.• Environmental conditions (dust, hu-midity, etc.) must be appropriate for thelaser.

Tests and Results

To determine whether laser welding isa practical method to use, steel wheel rim

materials were welded using laser andupset butt welding. The specimens fortesting were removed from the weldedmaterials. These specimens were sub-jected to tension and bending tests, and their Vickers hardness values weremeasured.

The material used in the experimentswas 6-mm-thick (RSt 44-2) S275J2G3(DIN EN1002) steel, the same materialused in steel wheel rim manufacturing.The mechanical and chemical propertiesof the material are shown in Tables 1 and2, respectively.

The dimensions of the welded materi-als are shown in Fig. 5. The materialwelded with butt resistance welding wassubjected to a scarfing and edge trimmingprocess after the welding operation inquestion. Welded material was cut fromthe flattened region and test sampleswere removed from the part.

The material welded with the laserwas taken from the line after the bendand flattening operations then inter-rupted from the smoothed region. Beforewelding, the material edges were milledto avoid any defects during welding dueto cutting with blades and the slitting

process. In the mechanical cuttingprocess, full flat edges could not be ob-tained and sometimes curvature oc-curred at the edges due to the force of theblades or the tools.

The prepared material was weldedwith a Trumpf HD 4006 Nd:YAG 4000-Wand Arcmate120i Fanuc robot — Fig. 6.The welding process was applied double-sided. The reason for this is although thelaser has enough power for one-sidedwelding, the apparatus clamping theparts for the operation was not appropri-ate for it. A proper apparatus for buttjoints is shown in Fig. 7. During the laserwelding operation, laser power P = 2500W, focus length f = 150 mm, weldingspeed V = 8 mm/s, and Ar gas flow = 7.5L/min, BPP: 25 mm*mrad parameterswere used for the sample tests.

Weld Properties

After the laser welding process, theappearance of the weld joints was evalu-ated. No cracks were observed on the sur-face of the material due to the weldingprocess, and quite regular and smoothweld joints were obtained that required

Fig. 5 — Dimensions of thewelded samples and speci-mens after laser butt jointwelding.

Fig. 6 — Nd:YAG 4000-Wlaser machine and robotwelding mechanism.

⇒

⇒Fig. 7 — Clamping apertures for butt join-ing of the materials with laser.

Table 1 — Mechanical Properties of (RSt 44-2) S275J2G3 Steel

Yield Strength Re (N/mm2) Tensile Strength Rm (N/mm2) Elongation-% A

min. min. maks min.275 410 510 28

Table 2 — Chemical Properties of (RSt 44-2) S275J2G3 Steel

% C % Si % Mn % S ppm N % Al % Cu+Cr+Nimaks. 0.18 0–1.150 maks. 0.020 maks. 0.008 maks. 90 0.02 maks. 0.30

no additional processing. The width ofthe joint was 2 to 2.5 mm. The appear-ance of the laser weld is shown in Fig. 8.There is no undercut on the surface of theweld joints. A line occurred in the middleof the joint. The reason for this was theinflux of the molten metal into the keyhole, which is formed as long as the laserhead moved forward during the weldingprocess. The line is regular and continu-ous and shows that good quality jointscan be achieved. As a matter of fact, themacro view verified these assumptions.

No defects were determined in the macrosection of the weld such as porosity andincomplete fusion. A narrow HAZ wasobtained as expected. The comparison ofthe laser and butt resistance weld jointappearance is shown in Fig. 9.

Our study of the properties of thewelds started with the microhardnesstest. The fusion zone and base metal wereexamined. A 19.64 N load (F) was appliedfor 10 s in all hardness tests. When thehardness of the laser weld was comparedwith the upset butt resistance weld, the

hardness of the laser weld was approxi-mately 25 Vickers greater in the center ofthe fusion zone — Fig. 10.

It had been thought that the reasonfor the higher hardness values is the ef-fect of a faster cooling rate of the fusionzone with laser welding.

The tension tests were applied in ac-cordance with 287 EN 895, 1996 standard.At the end of the tension tests, diagramshaving close properties to the base mate-rial were obtained — Fig. 11. The frac-tures occurred quite far from the fusion

41WELDING JOURNAL

Fig. 8 — Surface of the laser butt weld joint.

Fig. 10 — Hardness profile of laser butt joint welding. WM =weld metal, HAZ = heat-affected zone, BM = base material.

Fig. 11 — Force elongation diagram of the laser butt weldingjoint.

Fig. 9 — A comparison of the butt resistance and laser weldedsamples.

Table 3 — Tension Test Values

Tension Test Yield Tensile Elongation-% A Reduction inSpecimens No.: Strength Re Strength Area (% Z)

(N/mm2) Rm (N/mm2)1 364.58 441.14 30.01 63.02 372.16 464.09 26.2 68.23 352.3 419.24 31.06 62.5

Means 363.01 441.49 29.09 64.6

zones — Fig. 12. This situation shows thatthe joints have sufficient strength. Thetest values are shown in Table 3. In orderto test the ductility of the weld specimens,three-point bending tests were carriedout according to EN 910.

The dimensions of the specimenswere 6 × 24 × 180 mm. At the end of thebending test, no cracks were observed onthe specimens as shown in Fig. 13. It hasbeen determined that there was no wors-ening of the mechanical and technologi-cal properties of the laser welded steelwheel materials after the three-pointbending tests.

Conclusion

• After evaluation by tension tests, three-point bending tests, hardness tests, andmacro views, the properties of laserwelded wheel rims were considered goodenough to use this process in productionin the auto industry.• Test results gave no disadvantage forthe laser welds when compared with theflash and butt resistance welds in terms ofmechanical and technological properties,and the laser welded steel wheel rimswere of good quality. The fractures oc-curred quite far from the fusion zones,and the hardness of the laser weld wasgreater in the center of the fusion zone;however, no high values were obtained.No crack was observed at the end of thebending test and the ductility was good.• On account of the lower energy con-sumption, laser welding has great advan-tages. In addition, there is no need for theextra finishing process required afterflash and upset butt welding with thescarfing process, which may lead

to notching during the cold forming operation.• It is possible to create new, lighter andrigid designs and optimization for wheelrims with the use of laser welding.◆

References

1. Özden, H. 2007. Investigating fiberlasers for shipbuilding and marine con-struction. Welding Journal 86(5): 26−28.

2. Özden, H. 2009. Multi-laser pro-duction in the automotive industry, lasermanufacturing, laser measure, laser test-11. Automotive Symposium, TÜYAP-Bursa, Turkey.

3. Özden, H. 2008. State of the lasertechnology and laser applications in theindustry, Cukurova University Sympo-sium, CÜ. Faculty of Engineering andArchitecture, Adana, Turkey.

4. Caprioglio, L. 2008. Method anddevice for laser welding of a rim to disk ofa wheel for motor vehicle. U.S. PatentApplication Pub. No: US 2008/0190901A1, Rivoli (Torino).

5. BBS International GmbH,www.bbs.com. Erişim tarihi: 01.09.2009.BBS 2009 catalog.

6. Dawes, C. 1992. Laser Welding — APractical Guide. Abington Publishing,UK.

7. Kleiner, M., Geiger, M., and KlausA. 2003. Manufacturing of lightweightcomponents by metal forming. CIRP An-nals — Manufacturing Technology 52(3):521−542.

8. Longfield, N., Lieshout, T., De Wit,I., Veldt, T. V. D., and Stam, W. 2007. Im-proving laser welding efficiency. WeldingJournal 86(5): 52−54.

9. A state-of-the-art survey — The

auto/steel partnership tailor weldedblank project team. June 2001. TailorWelded Blank Applications and Manufac-turing, p. 27.

10. Schlueter, H. 2007. Laser beamwelding. Welding Journal 86(5): 37−39.

FEBRUARY 201342

Fig. 13 — Laser welded specimens to which bending testswere applied.

Fig. 12 — Tension test specimens after the test. As seen,fractures occurred at the base metal region.

⇐

⇑

or [email protected]

Call 866.879.9144

or [email protected]

Call 866.879.9144

This three day event, in conjunction with the D16 committee, will feature industry leaders in manufacturing presenting real-world innovations used to make their automation projects successful. This event will benefit the company researching automation in a new application, and those using automation successfully and working to stay current with new technologies, or working to overcome challenges in automation. This conference will include a tour of Joy Global’s nontraditional robotic application, as well as a tour of Mayville Engineering’s many robotic installations operating within a Lean Manufacturing environment. Professional Development Hours (PDHs) will be given. Proceeds go to the John F. Hinrichs Memorial Endowment, which provides scholarships for students in welding and engineering.

Take this opportunity to tour Joy Global and Mayville Engineering Company, and learn more about the tools for success that work with nontraditional and traditional applications.

AWS National Robotic Arc Welding Conference & Exhibition

June 4 and 5, 2013

People Make the DifferenceRecipes for Robotic Arc Welding Success

With a Bonus Tour of Miller Automation on June 3

American Welding Society

Sponsored by the American Welding Society D16 Committee, AWS Milwaukee Section, FMA, Joy Global, Mayville Engineering Company and MATC. If you are interested in exhibiting, registering or learning more about this event,

please email: [email protected], Phone: 262-613-3790, Or visit: http://sections.aws.org/milwaukee/


BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAY

FEBRUARY 201344

Heat exchangers play an importantrole in renewable energy utiliza-tion. The development of brazed

aluminum microchannel heat exchangersfor automotive applications requiredhigh thermal performance, compact size,and low material cost.

Aluminum was only successfully ex-tracted as a pure metal less than 200 yearsago. Although its history is short, theabundance of aluminum in the earth’scrust and advances in extraction technol-ogy by the end of 19th century made themass production of aluminum possibleand the price affordable. The relativelylow cost and many attractive propertiessuch as light weight, high thermal conductivity, and good corrosion resistance make aluminum and its alloysgood candidates for heat transfer devices.

The development in joining technol-ogy, especially controlled atmospherebrazing of aluminum (CAB) promotesthe high production rate of compact alu-minum heat exchangers.

Characteristics of AlMicrochannel HeatExchangers

Aluminum microchannel heat ex-changers use multichannel flat tubes asrefrigerant passages and multilouveredfins as air side heat transfer augmenta-tion. Figure 1 illustrates examples of mul-tiport extruded tubes and louvered finsthat are typically used for compact heatexchangers. The arrangement of parallelchannels (typical hydraulic diameters areless than 1 mm) in flat tubes has many ad-vantages when compared to conventionalround tubes. The increased internal sur-face-to-volume ratio improves refriger-ant side heat transfer performance andprovides means for refrigerant charge re-duction. The flat tube design not onlyprovides convenience in parts assembly

and fixturing processes for brazing, butalso offers better flexibility on tube cir-cuit design and lower fan power con-sumption due to the reduction of drag coefficients. On the air side of mi-crochannel heat exchangers, multilou-vered fins that are brazed with the tubesoffer highly effective heat transfer en-hancement. The louvered designs areguided by the concept of air flow disrup-tions based on boundary layer theory influid dynamics. An optimized design of fin geometries is essential for fully uti-lizing the potential of the structures(Ref. 1).

CAB Brazing of AlMicrochannel HeatExchangers

The manufacturing of microchannel

Controlled Atmosphere Brazing ofAluminum Heat Exchangers

HUI ZHAO, STEFAN ELBEL, and PEGAHRNJAK are with Creative Thermal

Solutions, Inc., Urbana, Ill.

Multichannel flat tube heat exchangers areproving efficient heat transfer devices suitablefor the automotive and HVAC&R industries

BY HUI ZHAO, STEFAN ELBEL,AND PEGA HRNJAK

Fig. 1 — Multiport extruded tubesand multilouvered fins.


45WELDING JOURNAL

heat exchangers requires joining of vari-ous components including tubes, fins,and header manifolds. Brazing is the pre-ferred method for joining multiple parts.Historically, vacuum furnace brazing anddip brazing were used for manufacturingof aluminum heat exchangers. In the pasttwo decades, the controlled atmospherebrazing (CAB) has become the state-of-the-art technology in manufacturing au-tomotive aluminum heat exchangers. Thedevelopment of highly efficient CABtechnology enables high production ratesof brazed aluminum heat exchangers.The process involves the usage of No-colok® (a registered trademark of SolvayFluor GmbH, Germany) flux under pro-tective inert gas atmosphere (Ref. 2). Theflux containing potassium fluoroalumi-nate compounds was developed in the1970s and replaced the corrosive chlo-ride-based fluxes for furnace brazing.The fact that Nocolok® flux is noncorro-sive under normal conditions both beforeand after brazing eliminates the need fora postbrazing cleaning process of thebrazed parts. Mass production of brazedheat exchangers is accomplished by man-ufacturing lines that include continuousequipment such as degreaser, fluxer, dry-off oven, brazing furnace, and coolingsections.

For CAB-brazed aluminum heat ex-changers, AA3xxx series alloys are widelyused as core materials, which offer goodmechanical strength and brazability. TheAmerican Welding Society (AWS) BAlSiseries filler metals (Al and Si as majorcomponents) are commonly used for alu-minum brazing. These filler metals have

good wettability on many Al alloys, andthe brazed joints have good mechanicalstrength and corrosion resistance in gen-eral. Some heat exchanger componentsto be brazed can be made of a compositesheet of core alloy and filler metalcladding, also called brazing sheet. Theprebrazing assembling process becomesless time and labor consuming.

Figure 2 illustrates the formation ofjoints between fins and an AA3003 plateat 577°–600°C during a CAB brazingprocess in a transparent lab furnace. Thefin material is AA3003 alloy clad withthin layers of AA4343 filler metal on bothsides.

Clad brazing sheets are used for fabri-cation of various heat exchanger compo-nents such as fins, tubes, and headers.Using “long-life” brazing sheet alloy asheat exchanger tube material offers cor-rosion protection to the heat exchangercore due to the interdiffusion of alloy el-ements (such as Si) between the clad andbase materials and the precipitation ofintermetallics during brazing. The subse-

quently formed thin interlayer serves as asacrificial subsurface band to protect thetube core alloy from corrosion attack(Ref. 3). This protection mechanism hasbeen successfully applied to brazed alu-minum heat exchangers such as automo-tive radiators. In the case of microchan-nel heat exchangers, the multichanneltubes usually do not have the filler metalclad layers because the tubes are manu-factured by extrusion from alloy ingots.Louvered fins are usually made fromcladded brazing sheets to provide fillermetal for bonding. A Zn coating or theuse of Nocolok® Zn flux are often seenin practice to enhance the corrosion re-sistance of the microchannel tubes.

New Opportunities for CABBrazed Microchannel HeatExchangers

The superior heat transfer perform-ance combined with other advantagessuch as size and refrigerant charge re-duction create new opportunities for mi-crochannel heat exchangers. Figure 3 il-lustrates a miniature personal coolingsystem that utilizes a CAB brazed ser-pentine type microchannel heat ex-

Fig. 2 — CAB brazing of clad louver finwith tube plate. A — Liquid fillermetal fills the clearance between finand plate; B — cross section of brazedjoint.

Fig. 3 — Application of a microchannel condenser in a personal coolingsystem.

A B


FEBRUARY 201346

changer as condenser. The novel coolingsystem uses refrigerant R134a as coolingmedium and requires a very small chargeamount. A significant weight reductioncan be achieved when compared to achilled water-based cooling system. Ex-perimental studies have shown that thebrazed serpentine microchannel con-densers provide effective heat rejectioncapacity during the operation of the cool-ing system (Ref. 4). The application ofsuch a mini-cooling system can be readilyextended to other fields such as heat dis-sipation of electronic devices.

A recent trend observed in the heat-ing, ventilating, air-conditioning, and re-frigeration (HVAC&R) industry is to re-place the mechanically assembled roundcopper tube/Al fin heat exchanger withCAB brazed all-aluminum microchannelheat exchangers. In addition to the ad-vantage of material cost savings, the im-proved system performance of a station-ary air conditioner using a microchannelheat exchanger as the condenser has beenexperimentally demonstrated (Ref. 5).As illustrated in Fig. 4, a copper tube con-denser and an aluminum microchannelcondenser of identical dimensions withrespect to coil volume, air flow face area,and fin density were separately installedin an air-conditioning system and experi-mentally tested to compare their per-formances. It was concluded that underthe same air side operating conditions,the system with the microchannel con-denser showed improved cooling capac-ity (average increase of 4%) and coeffi-cient of performance (COP) (averageincrease of 17%), as well as reduced over-all refrigerant charge (average reductionof 9%).

The reliability issue, in particular, thecorrosion resistance of microchannel heatexchangers, is one of the key factors thatinfluence the transition from copper toaluminum heat exchangers in commercialHVAC systems. Both the brazing processand service conditions have significant in-fluences on the corrosion resistance of

brazed heat exchangers. The existing dataand corrosion testing methods from auto-motive microchannel condensers may notreadily apply to the new applications. Forexample, the working environments andsystem operating cycles are very differentbetween automotive and stationary air-conditioning systems. There are very lim-ited corrosion data for Al microchannelheat exchangers used in stationary air-conditioning systems due to the relativeshort period of the application. Acceler-ated lab testing methods are needed forcorrosion behavior evaluations. TheAmerican Society of Heating, Refrigerat-ing and Air-conditioning Engineers(ASHRAE) has recently proposed a co-operative research project between aca-demia and industry on developing aproper corrosion test method that canreasonably predict corrosion behaviors ofmicrochannel aluminum heat exchangersin HVAC&R systems.

SummaryAluminum microchannel heat ex-

changers show great potentials for manyapplications in the HVAC&R industry.Controlled atmosphere brazing technol-ogy provides a cost-effective and envi-ronmentally friendly manufacturingmethod for these advanced heat transferdevices. Novel heat exchanger design andcontinuous development of new materi-als, as well as stringent requirements interms of device reliability, impose newchallenges on the manufacturing process.

The industry is continuously seeking improvements on CAB brazing technol-ogy for sustainable manufacturing of a new generation of Al compact heat exchangers.◆

References

1. Hrnjak, P. 2011. New opportunitiesfor Al microchannel heat exchangers.2nd International Congress AluminumBrazing Technologies for HVAC&R Alu-minum-Verlag, Düsseldorf/Germany.

2. Garcia, J., Swidersky, H-W,Schwarze, T., and Eicher, J. 2010. Inor-ganic fluoride materials from SolvayFluor and their industrial applications.Functionalized Inorganic Fluorides: Syn-thesis, Characterization & Properties ofNanostructured Solids. A. Tressaud, ed.,Chichester, UK, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

3. Melander, M., and Woods, R. A.2010. Corrosion study of brazed alu-minum radiators retrieved from carsafter field service. Corrosion, 66, 015005-1-015005-14.

4. Elbel, S., Bowers, C. D., Zhao, H.,Park, S., and Hrnjak, P. 2011. Develop-ment and analysis of miniature vaporcompression cooling technology. 23rdIIR International Congress of Refrigera-tion, Prague, Czech Republic, Paper 244,August 22–26.

5. Park, C. Y., and Hrnjak, P. 2002. R-410A air-conditioning system with mi-crochannel condenser. Proceedings of the9th Purdue Refrigeration Conference. Uni-versity of Purdue.

Fig. 4 — Copper tube and microchannel condensers for an airconditioning system. (Courtesy of the AirConditioning and Refrigeration Center,University of Illinois.)

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Modern microchips, sensors, andmicroelectromechanical systems(MEMS) have precipitated the

development of soldering processes thatavoid the use of corrosive flux. Varioussolutions have been developed for thischallenge, and a fluxless solderingprocess must optimize joint strengthwhile minimizing temperature effectsduring reflow. Furthermore, performingsolder joints in atmospheric conditions isdesirable because it alleviates complica-tions inherent to processing in an inertgas environment. Systems with sensitivepolymers must remain below certaintemperatures and time thresholds whilethe hard solder reaches extreme reflowtemperatures. Understanding how heat-ing recipes affect the strength,microstructure, and composition of afluxless solder is valuable in optimizingproduction processes.

The use of hard solder has several ad-vantages in microelectronics applica-tions, including high thermal stability

Reflow of AuSn Solder CreatesStrong Joints

ILYA GOLOSKER([email protected]) is a

mechanical engineer and JEFFREY FLORANDO is amaterials scientist, Lawrence

Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, Calif.

Local heating of AuSn solder creates reliablebonds, but small changes in the heat scheduleresult in significant changes to joint strengthand microstructure

BY ILYA GOLOSKER AND JEFFREY FLORANDO

Fig. 1 — A schematic of the layers in asoldering sample with the thermode usedto reflow the solder. A thermode is heatedby passing current from point A to B, anda thermocouple is attached to the bottomof the thermode for feedback control tothe power supply. The thermode assem-bly lowers with a force P to make contactwith the chip and solder assembly.


49WELDING JOURNAL

(Ref. 1) and good thermal conductivityfor heat dissipation (Ref. 2). The pricefor these advantages is a high reflow tem-perature that may damage polymers andother temperature-sensitive compo-nents. Localized heating can be opti-mized to create high-temperature gradi-ents that limit the flow of the solder to thespecified joint (Ref. 3) and control thetemperature distribution. A maximizedtemperature gradient was found to bestsatisfy these parameters. Overall, the de-cision to utilize hard solders must takeinto account their high strength and goodfatigue resistance (Ref. 6), in exchange

for the transmission of stresses not seenin soft solders.

Fluxless 78Au22Sn solder joints weresuccessfully created using a thermode inatmosphere. The samples were sheartested to determine the joint strength.Electron microscopy with energy-disper-sive X-ray spectroscopy (EDAX) wasperformed to inspect microstructure andthe formation of intermetallic phases,and nanoindentation was used to deter-mine material properties. Small changesin thermode hold time and temperaturewere found to influence the microstruc-ture and strength of the solder.

Materials and Methods

Preformed pieces of 0.038-mm-thick,homogenous 78Au22Sn (wt-%) fluxlesssolder (AIM, Cranston, R.I.) were usedto join a Cu stripline and alumina chip.The Cu stripline, used to carry current tothe desired component, was metalizedfor soldering with an electroless nickelimmersion gold (ENIG) finish of 4 μm ofNi and 0.5 μm of gold. The chip layer con-sisted of 0.5-mm-thick alumina with de-posited layers of Ti, Au, Ni, and Au. Thechip and stripline were placed on a work-ing surface of either machined copper or

Fig. 2 — A — Diagram of the meshed regions of the FlexPDE finite el-ement simulation of the soldering. The working surface domain wasvaried from a Cu heat sink to an insulating phenolic material to de-termine the optimal surface for solder reflow; B — solder temperaturevs. time plot for a finite element simulation of a 600°C heating recipe.A heating recipe driving the temperature of the thermode simulatesthe heating and cooling cycles of the solder.

Fig. 3 — A schematic of the mechanicaltesting of a solder sample. An Al block isused to support the substrate and is at-tached to the stripline layer. The setupminimizes bending and produces a shearforce at the solder layer.

BA


FEBRUARY 201350

fiberglass-reinforced phenolic resin sub-strate during soldering. A schematic ofthe metallization is presented in Fig. 1.

Soldering

Reflow of the solder was achievedusing a thermode to send a thermal pulseinto the chip assembly, as seen in Fig. 1.A Miyachi-Unitek ThinLine 87-A ther-mode head with a Uniflow 2 power sup-ply allowed for control of the solderingrecipe and load on the thermode. Thethermode was fabricated from molybde-num and customized to conform to theshape of the triangular solder preforms,also seen in Fig. 1. An electric current waspassed from point A to B in Fig. 1 forJoule heating of the thermode, resultingin a temperature gradient going down-ward to the stripline. A K-type thermo-couple was attached near the bottom ofthe thermode for feedback control to thepower supply. As per the schematic inFig. 1, the alumina chip was placed on thebottom with the Cu stripline on top incontact with the thermode. Hardwarewas machined to align the sample under-neath the thermode. Heating recipes forall samples had a rise time of 1 s, whilehold times and thermode temperatureswere varied.

Finite element simulations with aFlexPDE partial differential equationsolver (Ver. 6.15, www.pdesolutions.com)were used to investigate the processingsurface on which the samples were sol-dered. The simulations were modeled ina mesh with 29,160 nodes in cylindricalcoordinates, solving the heat equation indiscrete time steps. The meshed domainscan be seen in Fig. 2A. The effects of a Cuheat-sink surface (k = 386 W/m-K, Ref.8) and insulating Bakelite phenolic resinsurface (k = 0.52 W/m-K, Ref. 9) werecompared by inspecting time profiles ofheating recipes. While a Cu heat sinklayer lowered the temperature of thefront of the package, a correspondingdrop was found in the solder tempera-ture, necessitating increased tempera-tures and hold times to achieve reflow. Asseen in Fig. 3B, the solder temperatureprofile corresponding to a 600°C peaktemperature at the thermode is50°–100°C lower with a Cu heat sink. Toreduce the temperature of the front ofthe package while achieving reflow of the

solder, a Bakelite bottom layer was usedfor all tests. The model was used to esti-mate a heating profile to produce peaktemperatures up to 200°C above themelting point of the solder to achieveproper reflow.

Shear Testing

Solder joint strength was tested usingan MTS 0.5-kN electromechanical loadframe and MTS TestWorks software ac-quiring data at 50 Hz. Fixtures for thetensile test machine supported the sam-ple and constrained motion to minimizebending and ensure a shear stress state.The Cu stripline was bonded to an Al barwith 3M DP420 epoxy. The bar was at-tached to the lower fixture using a clamp,as shown in Fig. 3. The substrate was sup-ported from the bottom by an Al cutoutand bending was minimized with a sup-porting bracket near the top of the sam-ple. The displacement rate of the test fix-ture was controlled to 0.05 in./min torepresent quasi-static loading. After fail-ure, the wetted area of the solder wasable to be observed, and its area was cal-culated using image analysis software.The quotient of the maximum machineload and wetted area was used to calcu-late shear stress.

Characterization

Intermetallic compounds were identi-fied using the EDAX system(www.edax.com) for energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. The system uses a 1.3-

Fig. 4 — Fixtures for mechanical testingof a solder sample in a tensile testingmachine. The bracket and clamp in theimage are used to counteract bending ofthe sample.

Fig. 5 — Phase diagram for Au-Sn solder (Ref. 7). The arrow notes the 78/22 wt-% com-position of the AuSn solder.


51WELDING JOURNAL

μm Parylene window to detect the re-sponse to an X-ray excitation. Calibra-tion was performed with a manganesetarget and a Fe55 radioisotope as an X-ray source to detect MnKα and MnKβ ex-citation signals.

Nanoindentation

Nanoindentation measurements weremade on solder cross sections after sheartesting. The samples were cross sectionedacross the reflow zone and mounted in615 Light Blue epoxy (Dexter Corp.). Di-amond powder was used to first polishthe alumina substrate, but not overpolishthe solder joint. Then 1-μm colloidal alu-mina was used to finish the polish to min-imize scratching and smearing of the softmetallization layers.

Measurements of hardness and mod-ulus of elasticity were achieved with an

Agilent Nanoindenter G200 with an XPhead. A diamond Berkovich indenter wasused to a depth of 2000 nm. Modulus andhardness values were obtained as a func-tion of indentation depth, and datadeeper than 1 μm were considered tominimize the surface effects at smalldepths. The strain rate target of the in-dentation was set to 0.05/s for all tests.Multiple indentations were made alongeach solder cross section, allowing forstatistical analysis of the data. A fused sil-ica standard with known modulus andhardness was used for calibration and determination of the indenter tip areafunction.

What Was Learned

The first sample was soldered with a575°C thermode temperature held for 1.5s — Fig. 5. Thermode temperatures well

above the 282°C melting point of thealloy are necessary for adequate heat totransfer through the metallization layersin the short hold time. The sample wasmechanically tested, and the bond failedin the solder layer at a shear stress of 13.8MPa. A lamellar eutectic structure of al-ternating phases of eutectic Au5Sn (ζ´)and AuSn (δ) phases formed, which is ex-pected based on the phase diagramshown in Fig. 6. The solder and metal-lization layers can be seen in Fig. 6A. Thehigh-magnification SEM micrograph(Fig. 6B) shows δ-phase intermetallics in-terspersed throughout the solder thick-ness, which is consistent with the Sn-richhypereutectic 78/22 wt-% AuSn composi-tion. Rapid cooling of the sample whenthe thermode lifted from the chip assem-bly resulted in a fine eutectic lamellarstructure with a spacing of 0.25 μm.Nanoindentation measurements showed

Fig. 6 — A — A low-magnification scanning electron micro-graph of the solder, nickel, gold, and alumina layers of the chipassembly heated to 575°C and held for 1.5 s; B — a high-mag-nification image of the gold and nickel layers as well as theeutectic phases and δ phases formed in the solder.

Fig. 7 — A — Photograph of the failed solder joint on the ENIGlayer of first sample; B — the reflow area of the solder isclearly visible on the bottom half of the sample.

BB

A A


FEBRUARY 201352

a modulus of 73.1 ± 6.0 GPa and hard-ness of 2.56 ± 0.40 GPa. The solder pre-forms and reflow area can be seen in Fig.7A, B, which are visually similar to theother samples.

The second sample was heated to575°C and held for a longer time of 2 s.Mechanical testing resulted in a shearstress of 20.0 MPa at failure. A low-magnification SEM image can be seen inFig. 8A. Figure 8B shows similar mi-crostructural features with a ζ´ and δ-phase eutectic with δ-phase inter-metallics in the solder. The δ primarysolidification phase also emanates fromthe Au layer at the bottom 2–5 μm of thesolder layer. A higher shear stress of 20MPa measured from mechanical testingis an indication of a stronger joint.Nanoindentation testing resulted in amodulus measurement of 74.0 ± 3.0 GPa

and hardness of 2.68 ± 0.1 GPa. Whilethe mechanical properties were not sta-tistically different from the sampleheated for less time, the shear stress atfailure was higher. The δ intermetallicphase and eutectic microstructure at theinterface of the bottom Au and AuSn sol-der indicate increased dissolution of Auinto the solder during reflow.

The third sample was heated to 600°Cand held for 4 s, providing the most se-vere heating cycle of the three tests. Thehighest shear strength of 24.9 MPa re-sulted from the sample breaking throughthe epoxy layer and tearing the Custripline while the solder stayed intact.The calculated shear strength is in goodagreement with the manufacturer’s doc-umented room-temperature overlapshear strength of 24.1 MPa (3500 lb/in.2)for epoxy bonded to aluminum that had

not been etched (Ref. 10). The eutecticζ´ and δ lamellar structure was observed,but now (AuNi)3Sn2 intermetallics werealso present in the solder based onEDAX analysis. Micrographs of the sam-ple are shown in Fig. 9A, B. Nanoinden-tation resulted in a modulus measure-ment of 83 ± 5 GPa and hardness of 2.69± 0.10 GPa. During heating, the goldcompletely dissolved in the solder andthe higher temperature allowed for thenickel layer to react and form Ni-rich in-termetallics. The (AuNi)3Sn2 intermetal-lic compounds may be responsible for thesignificant increase in shear strength.

Table 1 summarizes the mechanicalproperties measured with nanoindenta-tion as well as the shear stress at failure.The hardness did not differ between sam-ples, but the modulus of the sample withthe (AuNi)3Sn2 intermetallics is higher

Fig. 9 — A — A scanning electron micrograph of the solder as-sembly cross section heated to 600 for 4 s. Triangular inden-tation marks are visible from the nanoindentation measure-ments; B — a high-magnification micrograph of the gold,nickel, and solder layers. Nickel-rich intermetallic phases are visible due to the gold layer completely dissolving in thesolder.

A A

B B

Fig. 8 — A — A scanning electron micrograph of the solder as-sembly cross section heated to 575°C and held for 2 s. The alu-mina chip and deposited gold and nickel layers underneath thesolder are visible; B — a high-magnification micrographshowing the nickel layer and solder. The gold layer is not dis-cernable, and gold-rich, δ-phase intermetallics emanatefrom the interface.


53WELDING JOURNAL

than the other samples. The modulus val-ues for the first two samples are consis-tent with Chromik’s results on the eutec-tic composition, as seen in Table 2. Thefiner lamellar structure (0.25 μm vs. 10μm in Chromik) is responsible for thecomparably higher hardness values in allthree samples. The stiffness of the(AuNi)3Sn2 phase in the third samplemay be responsible for the higher modu-lus value. Similar intermetallics werefound in other studies where the sampleswere annealed and thermally aged, butwere found to decrease the toughness ofthe joint (Ref. 5).

Conclusion

Fluxless AuSn solder was successfullyreflowed in atmosphere using a ther-mode. The Au layers contacting the sol-der preform prevented the formation ofoxides that would hinder the reflowprocess. The ability to join componentswithout an inert gas environment allowsfor greater freedom in designing experi-ments and production processes withpredictable localized reflow without un-necessarily heating the entire assembly inan oven.

Changes in hold time from 1.5 to 4 sand thermode temperatures rangingfrom 575° to 600°C were found to nearlydouble the strength of the solder joint.The growth of δ-phase intermetallics can

be correlated to a 50% increase in bondstrength with a 0.5-s longer hold time,and Ni-rich intermetallics result in bondstrength of at least 24.8 MPa. Local heat-ing to achieve reflow of hard solders hasthe potential to control the reflow areaand temperature distribution, resultingin strong solder joints. ◆

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank BarryOlsen for his help in soldering, and MaryLeBlanc and Victor Hepa for their workin bond testing. We would also like tothank John W. Elmer for helpful feed-back and commentary throughout thewriting of the article, and Chris Waltonfor the development of the FEA model.

This work was performed under theauspices of the U.S. Department of En-ergy by Lawrence Livermore NationalLaboratory under Contract DE-AC52-07NA27344.

References

1. Aasmundtveit, K. E., Wang, K.,Hoivik, N., Graff, J. M., and Elfving, A.2009. Au–Sn SLID bonding: Fluxlessbonding with high temperature stabilityto above 350°C. Microelectronics andPackaging Conference, EMPC 2009. Euro-pean, pp. 1–6, June 15–18.

2. Yoon, J. W., Chun, H. S., Koo, J. M.,and Jung, S. B. 2007. Au–Sn flip-chip sol-der bump for microelectronic and opto-electronic applications. MicrosystemTechnologies, Vol. 13, No. 11,pp.1463–1469, June, Doi:10.1007/s00542-006-0330-9.

3. Humpston, G., and Jacobson, D. M.1993. Principles of Soldering and Brazing.Materials Park, Ohio: ASM Interna-tional. ISBN: 0-87170-462-5.

4. Chromik, R. R., Wang, D.-N.,Shugar, A., Limata, L., Notis, M. R., andVinci, R. P. 2005. Mechanical propertiesof intermetallic compounds in the Au-Snsystem. Journal of Materials Research 20,2161.

5. Zribi, A., Chromik, R. R., Presthus,R., Teed, K., Zavalij, L., DeVita, J., Tova,J., Cotts, E. J., Clum, J. A., Erich, R., Pri-mavera, A., Westby, G., Coyle, R. J., andWenger, G. M. 2000. Solder metallizationinterdiffusion in microelectronic inter-connects. IEEE Transactions on Compo-nents and Packaging Technologies, Vol. 23,No. 2, pp. 383–387, June, doi:10.1109/6144.846778.

6. Lee, C. C., and Kim, J. 2005. Fun-damentals of fluxless soldering technol-ogy. Proceedings International Sympo-sium on Advanced Packaging Materials:Processes, Properties and Interfaces, pp.33–38, 16–18, March doi:10.1109/ISAPM.2005.1432041.

7. Massalski, B. Binary Alloy Phase Di-agrams. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM In-ternational. 2nd Ed., Vol. 1, p. 434.

8. Holman, J. P. Heat Transfer. Mc-Graw Hill, 9th Ed. Table A-2. “Propertyvalues for metals.”

9. Sumitomo Bakelite North AmericaRX® 790 Fiberglass Reinforced Pheno-lic Novolac.

10. Scotch-Weld™ Epoxy AdhesivesDP-469 Off-White, DP-420 Off-WhiteData Sheet, Sept. 1997, www.3m.com.

Table 1 — Summary of Nanoindentation and Shear Testing Results

Sample Thermode Temperature (°C) Hold Time (s) Modulus (GPa) Hardness (GPa) Shear Stress (MPa)

1 575 1.5 73.1 ± 6.0 2.56 ± 0.4 13.12 575 2 74 ± 3.0 2.68 ± 0.1 20.03 600 4 83 ± 5.0 2.69 ± 0.1 24.9(a)

(a) Failure in epoxy layer.

Table 2 — Summary of Results from Chromik et al. (Ref. 4)

Phase Modulus (GPa) Hardness (GPa)

Eutectic 76 ± 5 1.3 ± 0.2Au5Sn (ζ ’) 74 ± 5 2.5 ± 0.2AuSn (δ ) 87 ± 9 1.4 ± 0.1(Eutectic spacing ~10 μm)


FEBRUARY 201354

TECHNOLOGY NEWSActive Solder Joining CopperBuss on Silicon PhotovoltaicCells

A new active solder, Sn-3Ag-2.5Ti-0.1Ce-0.1Ga, was proposed and testedby S-Bond Technologies Corp.,Lansdale, Pa., and Villanova University,Pa., for direct bonding photovoltaic cellsaluminized rear contact to reduce cost aswell as increase the performance andreliability of PV cells and modules.

Active soldering would eliminate theneed for the silver contact layer and flux,lowering cost, and then with direct alu-minum/silicon contact, lower contactresistance to decrease electrical lossesand increase cell/module power efficien-cy (Ref. 1). Active soldering eliminatesthe need for the silver contact layer andflux, lowering cost, and then with directaluminum/silicon contact, lower con-tact resistance to decrease electrical losses and increase cell/module powerefficiency.

In the thermal-sonic process, ultra-sonic (acoustic) waves disrupt the oxideson the molten solder strips as the ther-mal-sonic soldering tip heats the sur-rounding area to enable melted solder towet the area. The bulk panel was heatedto 180°C, while the probe tip operated at350°C to heat the surrounding back con-tact and copper buss. When the solder-precoated buss was heated, the solderlayer was remelted, flowed, and wettedthe surrounding contact area as theoxides on the surfaces were disrupted viaultrasonic energy.

The mechanical strength of solderedjoints was tested to peel the Cu-bussstrips from the silicon cell back contact.The active solder samples began to peelat an average load of 7.2 N where theconventionally flux soldered samplesbegan to peel at an average load of 5 N.The initial starting peel load failure ishigher and as the peel propagates, theload drops and has an irregular patternas the peel failure progresses to final

failure. Both solder joints exhibited thesame post initial peel irregular loadbehavior.

Oxidation-Resistant BrazeMaterials for Brazing SealHoneycombs

In modern gas turbine engines, thereis a trend toward higher operating tem-peratures as increasing the cycle peaktemperature helps improve engine effi-ciency and thereby reduces fuel con-sumption and CO2 emissions. In turbinemodules, in particular, the increasedtemperatures challenge the oxidationresistance of brazed seal assembles.

High-temperature failure mecha-nisms of honeycomb seals were reviewedand evaluated by Sulzer Metco, Inc.,Troy, Mich., one being braze alloy oxida-tion induced fatigue, which highlightsthe need for braze filler materials withimproved high-temperature oxidation/hot gas corrosion resistance. Other

TECHNOLOGY NEWS



55WELDING JOURNAL

TECHNOLOGY NEWSrequirements for optimized joining ofseal honeycombs include precise meter-ing the amount of braze filler metal andthe need for high-temperature resistantfiller metals with improved wetting andlow penetration of base metal for honey-combs made from ferritic alloy foils withhigh aluminum concentration (Ref. 2).

Conventional Ni-based and Co-basedbrazing filler metals in the form of pow-ders or amorphous foils are character-ized by wetting, oxidation in the honey-comb nodes, fatigue cracking, and basemetal erosion. The global market growthfor braze filler materials for brazing seal-type honeycombs was estimated for largecivil turbofan engines from 2011 to 2018to be 13% or 1.7% compounded annualgrowth rate (CAGR) for new enginebuild (OEM) and maintenance repairand overhaul (MRO) combined. In thesame period, the market for braze fillermetals for brazing OEM seal honeycombwill grow by 38% or 4.8% CAGR com-pared to 3% or 0.5% CAGR for MRO.

Brazing Explosively Bonded Nb-Cu Discs to Alumina CeramicUsing 35Au-62Cu-2Ti-1Ni ActiveFiller Metal

Niobium is difficult to attach usingsoldering processes without first platingwith nickel-gold, nickel-tin, or similarmaterials that are directly solderable.

Cladded, explosively bonded niobi-um-copper material was manufacturedby Sandia National Laboratories,Albuquerque, N. Mex., to avoid expen-sive plating steps. A solder-dippingprocess is then used to pre-tin theexposed copper surfaces, preparingthem for next-assembly soldering steps(Ref. 3).

To simulate the component braze-ment geometry, explosively bonded nio-bium and copper metal sheets wereactively brazed to 94% alumina ceramictest specimens. ASTM F19 tensile but-tons were fabricated using the explosive-ly bonded niobium-copper material asthe interlayers. The test samples wereactive brazed using a commercially avail-able gold-based active brazing fillermetal with the composition 35Au-62Cu-2Ti-1Ni (wt-%). Tensile strength of thejoints brazed at 1055°C is 41–82 MPa,while brazed at 1025°C is only 9–28 MPa.

Increasing the joint preload or forceon the tensile button assemblies wasdemonstrated as a viable method todeform the Nb-Cu interlayers sufficient-ly during the brazing procedure to makehermetic and strong brazements.

Induction Brazing of Aluminaand Zirconia with StainlessSteel, Fe-Ni, and Fe-Ni-Co Alloys

Most metal-ceramic brazed joints areproduced in vacuum furnaces. Since fur-nace brazing is characterized by low pro-

ductivity, the induction brazing was stud-ied by the Technical University ofChemnitz, Germany, as an energy-efficient alternative for brazing metalsand ceramics (Ref. 4).

A commercially available active fillermetal (Ag-26.5Cu-3Ti) was used for

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FEBRUARY 201356

TECHNOLOGY NEWSinduction brazing alumina and zirconiato stainless steel 304, FeNi42, andFeNiCo29 18 alloys. Microstructure andmechanical strength (4-point bendingtest) of the joints are compared for bothprocesses.

Depending on the type of ceramic,the bending strengths can be influencedby different process parameters.Adjusting these leads to equivalentbending strengths of induction-brazedjoints compared to furnace-brazed ones.Since induction brazing allows a preciseprocess control, the microstructure for-mation and, in particular, the thicknessof the reaction zone can be adjusted.Therefore, higher mechanical strengthsare expected with induction brazingwhen using real components.

A slow cooling rate after inductionbrazing significantly improves thestrength of brazed joints — Al2O3 from50 MPa at 90 K/min to 95 MPa at 15K/min. Longer holding at the brazingtemperature also increases the bending

strength of brazed joints ZrO2 fromabout 370 MPa at 3 min of holding timeto about 450 MPa at 7 min of holdingtime.

Reaction Brazing C/SiCComposites to Nb Using Ti-NiComposite Foils as Filler Metals

C/SiC composites and Nb were suc-cessfully brazed with Ti-50Ni (at.-%)composite foils in vacuum by the HarbinInstitute of Technology and ZhejiangSeleno Science and Technology Co.,P.R., China.

The microstructure and shearstrength of the brazing joints, as well asthe reaction path during brazing, wereall studied (Ref. 5). The results indicatedthat multistage reactions occurred dur-ing brazing, including reactions betweenTi and Ni foils, reactions between Ti-Niliquid and C/SiC during infiltration ofTi-Ni liquid to C/SiC pores, reactionsbetween TiNi and Nb, plus reactions

between TiNi-Nb eutectic liquid andC/SiC during infiltration of TiNi-Nb liq-uid to C/SiC pores.

Microstructures of the brazed jointsat the dense part of C/SiC and pore partof C/SiC were different. The microstruc-ture of a typical brazed joint at the densepart of C/SiC can be expressed as:(C/SiC)/discontinuous TiC + continuous(Ti,Nb)C/(Ti,Nb)2Ni/(Ti,Nb)2Ni parti-cles + Ti-Ni-Nb-Si compound + TiNi-(Nb,Ti) eutectic/Nb.

The microstructure of the joint at theC/SiC part with open pores is the sameas that of the dense part, whereas thejoint at the distal pore of C/SiC is com-posed of TiNi, Ti2Ni, and TiC phases.The C/SiC and Nb brazed joints exhibit-ed a high shear strength of 188 MPa atroom temperature and 128 MPa at800°C due to high strength of the TiNi-(Nb,Ti) eutectic alloy in the joint metal,high interfacial strength of C/SiC andfiller metal, and contribution of fillermetals that infiltrated the C/SiC pores.

TECHNOLOGY NEWS

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57WELDING JOURNAL

BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAYTECHNOLOGY NEWS

Erosion Control of BrazedStainless Steel Heat Exchangers

Brazing filler metals affect the metalsto be joined through erosion or diffusionto a larger or lesser extent. If this erosionis not controlled, it will destroy the prop-erties of the stainless steel component byweakening it or burning through thin-walled sections. This can cause immedi-ate leakage or decreased functionality,especially in heat exchangers. Erosionsof stainless steel with four nickel-basedbrazing alloys (BNi-2, BNi-5, BNi-7, andNi613) and one iron-based brazing alloy(F300) were studied by Höganäs AB,Sweden, after brazing in a vacuum fur-nace (Ref. 6).

It has been demonstrated that thereare two different types of erosion — pri-mary and secondary. The primary ero-sion takes place during melting of thebrazing alloy. Primary erosion was there-fore examined at the initial location ofthe brazing alloy. The secondary erosionhappens when the brazing filler metal isfully molten and has reached the gap.

Both primary and secondary erosionshave to be dealt with in an industrialsetup. To control erosion, both the braz-ing cycle and joint design needs to beused. The most effective method is todesign the filler metal, which has mini-mum reaction with the substrate. For thestainless steel base metal, this is moredifficult as all brazing alloys comprisemelting point depressants such as Si andB responsible for erosion, which reached300 microns in depth. However, themodified BrazeLet 613 brazing alloyexhibited low primary erosion (only 70microns in depth) that is barely visibleon stainless steel plates.

Influence of Fatigue Stressesand Operating Environment onMechanical Properties ofStainless Steel Brazed Joints forAutomotive Applications

The mechanical behavior of stainlesssteel (AISI 304 and AISI 1213) brazedjoints under a variable load and differentenvironmental conditions (at tempera-tures up to 200°C and after beingexposed in a chamber with a changingaggressive atmosphere) were investigat-ed at Aachen University and TUDortmund, Germany. Both the statictensile and fatigue properties of jointsmade with the AWS BCu-1b copperfiller metal were tested (Ref. 7).

Fatigue tests were carried out at room

temperature, at 200°C, and after a corro-sion cyclic test to verify the influence ofthermal and corrosive exposure on thedynamic strength of brazed joints. Theexperiments demonstrated that the qua-sistatic strength decreases already at atest temperature of 200°C. On the otherhand, the results of the fatigue test donot show any temperature dependenceup to the same temperature due torecrystallization phenomena in the cop-per alloy. Dynamic tests can better rep-resent the mechanical behavior of theinvestigated brazed components underservice conditions to fit the requirementof automotive applications, namely aconstant strength up to the maximumservice temperature.

Corrosion detrimentally affectedmechanical behavior (approximately50% decrease of the strength). This phe-nomenon can be explained by the disso-lution of the brazing alloy at the edge ofthe brazed joint, which caused a hugeincrease of the notching effect, and as aconsequence, a premature failure of thespecimens.

Chromium-ContainingAmorphous Brazing Foils andTheir Resistance to AutomotiveExhaust Gas Condensate

Brazed stainless steel fin-plate heatexchangers are well established andextensively used for exhaust gas recircu-lation in the automotive industry toreduce emission levels. This applicationrequires materials with an enhanced cor-rosion resistance because the higher sul-fur content within the low-quality fuelsleads to an increased risk of failure dueto corrosive damage of the base andjoint metals.

Different Ni-Cr and Fe-Ni-Cr baseamorphous brazing foils (ABFs), as wellas the recently developed Ni-Cr-Si-Pfoils, were investigated byVacuumschmelze, Hanau, Germany,with a range of different test conden-sates that were used for evaluating cor-rosion resistance of stainless steel 316brazed joints (Ref. 8).

The ABFs of the (Ni,Fe)-(Cr,Mo,Cu)-Si-B system VZ2150 and


VZ2106 exhibited good corrosion resist-ance against high-sulfur containing con-densates, even if chloride concentrationreach excessive values of 1000 ppm. Thefoil VZ2106 is a good example that addi-tions of iron, molybdenum, and copperin an Ni-Cr matrix significantly improvecorrosion resistance even if the chromi-um content is on a relatively low level(11.5% of VZ2106 vs. 18% of VZ2150).These results confirm the fact that mod-ern amorphous brazing foils are benefi-cial over traditional alloys to withstandthe high corrosive load of a harsh auto-motive exhaust gas environment, even ifthe fuel quality is low.

New Brazing Filler Metals forReactive Air Brazing Fuel CellComponents

The reactive air brazing (RAB)process is an economic and technicallyinteresting joining technology, especiallyfor electrochemical devices such as solidoxide fuel cells (SOFCs) or membranes.

The brazing process takes place in amuffle furnace in air atmosphere. Newprocess procedures and filler metalswere developed by RWTH AachenUniversity, Germany, to solve problemsoccurring due to the chemical reactionsbetween the filler metals and base mate-rials (Ref. 9). A brittle reaction layerbetween the currently most used brazingfiller metal Ag8Cu and steel, and theinfiltration of brazing filler into theceramic, lead to failure in the joint.Mechanisms of both reactions wereinvestigated by differential scanningcalorimetric tests.

Depending on the material of joinpartners, different alloying elementsshaped up as alternatives to copper.Cobalt, aluminum, molybdenum, andvanadium are promising additives tobrazing alloys for joining membranes(Ba0.5Sr0.5Co0.8Fe0.2O3–δ/X15CrNiSi25-20 steel). Aluminum, nickel, iron, silicon, and titanium oxide reached good results for SOFCs (YSZ/X1CrWNbTiLa22). The problem of

reactions between the filler metal andSOFC steels was solved by using anAg2Fe2Si2Al (wt-%) filler metal and thetwo step RAB approach using Ag4Ni2Tior Ag0.5Al0.5Ti (wt-%) filler metals. Inthis approach, different temperaturesare used in every step to control thereactions of the filler metal with the steeland ceramic independently of eachother. Additionally, bonding strengthbetween filler metal and SOFC ceramicshas been improved.

The strong infiltration and degrada-tion of BSCF ceramics, which are usedfor membrane technologies, can beavoided by brazing with the new devel-oped filler metal Ag3Mo (wt-%). Even agood compatibility with the steel hasbeen observed.

Joining Oxygen TransportMembranes by Reactive AirBrazing

In recent years, oxygen transportmembranes (OTM) became importantfor a number of technological applica-tions, especially for oxygen supply inemission-free oxyfuel power plants.Suitable OTM materials are perovskite-type ceramics such as Ba0.5Sr0.5Co0.8Fe0.2O3–Gr.d (BSCF) with mixedionic and electronic conductivity. Activebrazing in vacuum is not possible, due toa decomposition of perovskite at lowoxygen partial pressures.

Reactive air brazing (RAB) of per-ovskite OTM was investigated byRWTH-Aachen, Germany, using the Ag-CuO brazing composition at the CuOcontents varied in the range of 3–16 mol-% (Ref. 10).

BSCF is a reactive material, and bybrazing to a austenitic stainless steel(AISI 314), brittle reaction layers occurat the braze-steel interface. The thick-ness of the reaction layer depends on thebrazing temperature, brazing time, andCuO content. Moreover, it can beexpected that these reaction layers growup at working conditions, because thejoints are exposed to elevated tempera-tures over a long period of time.

The reaction layers in the brazedjoint is a brittle compound, because thehigh porosity and some cracks werefound. High oxygen contents in the reac-tion zone, detected by EDX analysis,suggest that this compound consists ofoxides of elements from the steel andBSCF in combination with the CuOfrom the braze alloy. Formed reactionlayers found in the specimen brazed with


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59WELDING JOURNAL

TECHNOLOGY NEWS

Ag-16CuO grow further from the thick-ness of ~40 microns to a thickness up to330 microns when annealed at 850°C for1000 h. The reaction layer of theannealed specimen is still porous andshows cracks.

High CuO content (16 mol-%) in thebraze alloy creates an exothermal reac-tion subsequent to the melting of thebraze alloy. This exothermal reactiondoes not appear in case of a CuO concentration of 3 mol-%. Explanationof this phenomenon needs further investigations.

Mechanical Behavior ofAdvanced Reactive Air BrazedJoints Made with Ag-0.5AlBrazing Alloy

The Ag-CuO system has been exten-sively investigated for reactive air braz-ing (RAB) due to good wettability andcan nowadays be considered as a stan-dard filler metal system for joining com-ponents of solid oxide fuel cells(SOFCs). However, during high-temper-ature operation, Cu-oxides are reducedto Cu in the Ag-CuO joints releasing O2leading to subsequent alloying of Cu inthe Ag matrix. This process leads to asignificant strength loss of the joint andto a degraded interfacial adhesion dur-ing continuous operation.

A new Ag-0.5Al (mol-%) braze fillermetal manufactured by PVD coating ofaluminum, or arc melting an Ag-Al alloywith subsequent rolling (IOT), was test-ed by Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH,Jülich, Germany, to develop a materialsystem with less aging susceptibility.Fracture mechanics experiments are car-ried out to characterize delaminationresistance at ambient temperature andshear-strength at operating temperaturecompared to pure Ag and Ag8Cu brazes(Ref. 11). Joints were investigated bothin the as-brazed state and after 500 h ofisothermal aging in air at 800°C.

Microstructural analysis exhibitedthat both the Ag0.5Al (IOT) andAg0.5Al (PVD) braze variant showreduced interfacial reaction layer forma-tion at the braze/steel interface. Disc-

shaped (Cr, Al)2O3-precipitates distrib-uted all over the matrix of the Ag0.5Al(IOT) braze are believed to be the causeof the enhanced shear strength of thisjoining variant. This means that theadvanced Ag0.5Al (IOT) braze com-bines excellent mechanical behavior,promising microstructural stability, andenhanced processing properties.

Brazing C/C Composites toNickel Alloys with Fe-Based and Ag-Cu-Ti Filler Metals

Carbon/carbon composites havinghigh specific strength and heat resis-tance were brazed to Inconel® 600,Hastelloy® C-276, and austenitic stain-less steel, SUS304, using new Fe-basedand traditional Cusil-ABA® active fillermetals by Tokyo Institute of Technology,Japan.

The Fe-based brazing filler alloy wasTB-2720 having the composition Fe-20Cr-42Ni-12(Si+P). To relieve theresidual stress induced by the mismatchin the coefficients of thermal expansion(CTE), a Ni or Cu foil interlayer wasadded to some of the specimens at thebrazing interface (Ref. 12). The sampleswere brazed in a vacuum furnace at830°C for the Ag-Cu-Ti filler metal and1070°C for the Fe-based filler metal.

The microstructure of the brazedinterface was observed, and it was foundthat quality brazed joints were obtainedfor the combinations of C/C compos-ites/Cu foil/Inconel® 600 and C/C com-posites/Cu foil/Hastelloy C-276, both ofwhich were brazed with the Ag-Cu-Tibrazing filler alloy.

The brazed joints made with the Fe-based filler metal formed a bondbetween the C/C composites and fillerlayer, but later cracked during the cool-ing. The residual stresses induced by thelarge discrepancy in the coefficient ofthermal expansion (CTE) might havecaused the cracking.◆

References

All these references are from IBSC-2012: Proceedings from the 5th

International Brazing and SolderingConference, April 22–25, 2012, Las Vegas,Nev., editors R. Gourley and C. Walker.

1. Smith, R. W., Darwell, C., Singh, P.,Jen, K-P., and Santhaman, S. Active sol-der joining electrical buss on photovolta-ic cells. pp. 21–26.

2. Sporer, D., and Fortuna, D. Brazematerials for brazing seal honeycomb:Trends, challenges and a market out-look. pp. 51–58.

3. Walker, C., Bishop, G., Stokes, R.,and De Smet, D. Active-brazing explo-sively-bonded niobium-copper to alumi-na ceramic. pp. 71–74.

4. Wielage, B., Hoyer, I., andHausner, S. Induction brazing of alumi-na and zirconia with various metals. pp.101–108.

5. Liu, Y., Feng, J., Zhang, L., Dong,X., and Zhang, L. Reaction brazing ofC/SiC composites to Nb with equiatomicTi-Ni composite foils. pp. 119–124.

6. Mars, O., Stroiczek, M., andPersson, U. Erosion control of stainlesssteel brazing alloys. pp. 169–173.

7. Bobzin, K., Bagcivan, N., Kopp, N.,Puidokas, S. M., Tillmann, W., Wojarski,L., Liu, C., and Manka, M. Influence ofdynamic stresses and operating environ-ment on the mechanical properties ofcopper-based braze joints. pp. 327–331.

8. Hartmann, T., and Nuetzel, D.Chromium containing amorphous braz-ing foils and their resistance to automo-tive exhaust gas condensate. pp.394–401.

9. Bobzin, K., Bagcivan, N., Kopp, N.,and Weiler, C. Development of newbrazing fillers and process variants forreactive air brazing (RAB) of electro-chemical devices. pp. 433–436.

10. Kaletsch, A., Hummes, J., Bezold,A., Pfaff, E. M., and Broeckmann, C.Joining oxygen transport membranes byreactive air brazing. pp. 437–443.

11. Li, C., Kuhn, B., Brandenberg, J.,Beck, T., and Singheiser, L. Mechanicalbehavior of advanced reactive air brazedjoints. pp. 444–449.

12. Ikeshoji, T-T., Amanuma, T.,Suzumura, A., and Yamazaki, T. Brazingof C/C composites and Ni base alloyswith Ag-Cu-Ti and Fe-based braze filleralloys. pp. 465–469.

Information provided by ALEXANDERE. SHAPIRO (ashapiro@titanium-

brazing.com) and LEO A. SHAPIRO, Titanium Brazing, Inc., Columbus, Ohio.

A new Ag-0.5Al (mol-%) braze filler metal manufactured by PVD coating of aluminum, or arc meltingan Ag-Al alloy with subsequent rolling (IOT), was tested to

develop a material system with less aging susceptibility

COMINGEVENTS

♦LAM — 5th Annual Laser Additive Manufacturing Workshop.Feb. 12, 13. Hilton Houston North Hotel, Houston, Tex. Ameri-can Welding Society is a cooperating society in this event. AWSmembers receive discounted registration. www.lia.org/confer-ences/lam.

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[MC]2 2013 MTConnect: Connecting Manufacturing Conf. April10, 11. Hyatt Regency, Cincinnati, Ohio. MTConnect® Institute.www.mtconnectconference.org.

GAWDA 2013 Spring Management Conf. April 15–17. GrandHyatt Hotel and Convention Center, River Walk, San Antonio,Tex. Gases and Welding Distributors Assn. www.gawda.org.

North American Steel Construction Conf. April 17–19. St. Louis,Mo. www.aisc.org/content.aspx?id=31134.

Society of Vacuum Coaters SVC TechCon 2013. April 20–25.Rhode Island Convention Center, Providence, R.I. www.svc.org.

♦ JOM-17, Int’l Conf. on Joining Materials. May 5–8. Konven-tum Lo Skolen, Helsingør, Denmark. Institute for the Joining ofMaterials (JOM) in association with the IIW. Cosponsored byAWS, TWI, Danish Welding Society, Welding Technology Insti-tute of Australia, University of Liverpool, Cranfield University,Force Technology, and ABS (Brazilian Welding Assn.). E-mailOsama Al-Erhayem at [email protected]; www.jominsti-tute.com/side6.html.

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Int’l Thermal Spray Conf. and Expo. May 13–15. Busan, Repub-lic of Korea. Sponsored by ASM International. www.asminterna-tional.org/content/Events/itsc/.

IIE Annual Conf. and Expo. May 18–22. Caribe Hilton, San Juan,Puerto Rico. www.iienet2.org/annual2.

44th Steelmaking Seminar — Int’l. May 19–22. Tauá GrandeHotel Termas & Convention Araxá, Estância Parque do Barreiro,s/nº Araxá - Minas Gerais, Brazil. Held by Brazilian Metallurgi-cal, Materials, and Mining Assn. www.abmbrasil.com.br.

Educational OpportunitiesLaser Vision Seminars. Feb. 20, 21; March 20, 21; April 24, 25;May 22, 23; June 19, 20; Aug. 28, 29; Oct. 2, 3; Nov. 6, 7; Dec. 4,5. Servo-Robot, Inc. www.servorobot.com.

Introduction to Ultrasonic Joining. Feb. 7. EWI, Columbus,Ohio. Call (614) 688-5049, e-mail [email protected].

ASM Int’l Courses. Numerous classes on welding, corrosion, fail-ure analysis, metallography, heat treating, etc., presented inMaterials Park, Ohio, online, webinars, on-site, videos, andDVDs; www.asminternational.org, search for “courses.”

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Basic and Advanced Welding Courses. Cleveland, Ohio. TheLincoln Electric Co.; www.lincolnelectric.com.

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Join us in New Orleans for an exciting look into the world of shipbuilding! Our featured speakers will cover a multitude of topics including robotics and mechanized welding for shipbuilding applications, aluminum applications, advanced welding processes and much more.

AWS Conferences & Exhibitions:

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For the latest conference information and registration visit our web site at

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CERTIFICATIONSCHEDULE

Certified Welding Inspector (CWI)LOCATION SEMINAR DATES EXAM DATE

Birmingham, AL March 10–15 March 16Indianapolis, IN March 10–15 March 16Portland, OR March 10–15 March 16Miami, FL March 17–22 March 23Chicago, IL March 17–22 March 23Boston, MA March 17–22 March 23Mobile, AL Exam only March 23Rochester, NY Exam only March 23York, PA Exam only March 23Corpus Christi, TX Exam only April 6Springfield, MO April 7–12 April 13Dallas, TX April 7–12 April 13Miami, FL Exam only April 18Minneapolis, MN April 14–19 April 20Las Vegas, NV April 14–19 April 20Syracuse, NY April 14–19 April 20San Francisco, CA April 21–26 April 27New Orleans, LA April 21–26 April 27Nashville, TN April 21–26 April 27Annapolis, MD April 28–May 3 May 4Detroit, MI April 28–May 3 May 4St. Louis, MO Exam only May 4Fresno, CA May 5–10 May 11Miami, FL May 5–10 May 11Albuquerque, NM May 5–10 May 11Oklahoma City, OK May 5–10 May 11Corpus Christi, TX May 5–10 May 11Knoxville, TN Exam only May 18 Birmingham, AL June 2–7 June 8Hutchinson, KS June 2–7 June 8Spokane, WA June 2–7 June 8Miami, FL Exam only June 13Bakersfield, CA June 9–14 June 15Pittsburgh, PA June 9–14 June 15Beaumont, TX June 9–14 June 15Corpus Christi Exam only June 29Hartford, CT June 23–28 June 29Orlando, FL June 23–28 June 29Memphis, TN June 23–28 June 29

9-Year Recertification Seminar for CWI/SCWI (No examsgiven) For current CWIs and SCWIs needing to meet educationrequirements without taking the exam. The exam can be taken atany site listed under Certified Welding Inspector.LOCATION SEMINAR DATES

Dallas, TX March 10–15Miami, FL April 7–12Sacramento, CA April 28–May 3Charlotte, NC May 5–10 Pittsburgh, PA June 2–7San Diego, CA July 7–12Miami, FL July 21–26Orlando, FL Aug. 18–23

Certified Welding Supervisor (CWS)LOCATION SEMINAR DATES EXAM DATE

New Orleans, LA April 15–19 April 20Minneapolis, MN July 15–19 July 20CWS exams are also given at all CWI exam sites.

Certified Radiographic Interpreter (CRI)LOCATION SEMINAR DATES EXAM DATE

Houston, TX April 15–19 April 20Las Vegas, NV May 6–10 May 11Miami, FL June 3–7 June 8Dallas, TX Aug. 19–23 Aug. 24The CRI certification can be a stand-alone credential or canexempt you from your next 9-Year Recertification.

Certified Welding Sales Representative (CWSR)CWSR exams will be given at CWI exam sites.

Certified Welding Educator (CWE)Seminar and exam are given at all sites listed under CertifiedWelding Inspector. Seminar attendees will not attend the CodeClinic portion of the seminar (usually the first two days).

Certified Robotic Arc Welding (CRAW)The course dates are followed by the location and phone number

June 17–21, Dec. 9–13 atABB, Inc., Auburn Hills, MI; (248) 391–8421

Feb. 25–March 1; May 20–24, Aug. 19–23, Dec. 2–6 atGenesis-Systems Group, Davenport, IA; (563) 445-5688

March 4, Oct. 14 at Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, OH; (216) 383-8542

April 22–26, July 15–19, Oct. 21–25 atOTC Daihen, Inc., Tipp City, OH; (937) 667-0800

March 25, May 20, July 22, Sept. 23, Nov. 18 atWolf Robotics, Fort Collins, CO; (970) 225-7736

On request at: MATC, Milwaukee, WI; (414) 297-6996

Certified Welding Engineer; Senior Certified WeldingInspector Exams can be taken at any site listed under CertifiedWelding Inspector. No preparatory seminar is offered.

International CWI Courses and Exams SchedulesPlease visit www.aws.org/certification/inter_contact.html.

Certification Seminars, Code Clinics, and Examinations

IMPORTANT: This schedule is subject to change without notice. Applications are to be received at least six weeks prior to the sem-inar/exam or exam. Applications received after that time will be assessed a $250 Fast Track fee. Please verify application deadlinedates by visiting our Web site www.aws.org/certification/docs/schedules.html. Verify your event dates with the Certification Dept. toconfirm your course status before making travel plans. For information on AWS seminars and certification programs, or to registeronline, visit www.aws.org/certification or call (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 273, for Certification; or ext. 455 for Seminars. Apply early toavoid paying the $250 Fast Track fee.

FEBRUARY 201364


AWS invites you to join us in Las Vegas to expand your weld cracking knowledge! Our featured presenters will explore the many causes of weld cracking as well as provide information on preventive measures.

Gain practical knowledge on the types and causes of weld cracking.


AWS Conference attendees are awarded 1 PDH (Professional Development Hour) for each hour of conference attendance. These PDHs can be applied toward AWS recertifications and renewals.

Weld Cracking ConferenceMarch 26-27, 2013 / Las Vegas

For the latest conference information and registration visit our web site at www.aws.org/conferences or call 800-443-9353, ext. 264.

cracking as well as provide information on preventive measures. knowledge! Our featured presenters will explore the many causes of weld

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recertifications and renewals.

for each hour of conference attendance. WS ConfAAW



recertifications and renewals.

for each hour of conference attendance. WS Conference attendees are awarded 1 PDH (Professional Development Hour)



These PDHs can be applied toward for each hour of conference attendance. WS Conference attendees are awarded 1 PDH (Professional Development Hour)



AThese PDHs can be applied toward WS Conference attendees are awarded 1 PDH (Professional Development Hour)



WSAAWWS Conference attendees are awarded 1 PDH (Professional Development Hour)


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.800-443-9353, ext. 264ation visit our web site

Friends and Colleagues:

I want to encourage you to submit nomination packages for those individuals whom you feelhave a history of accomplishments and contributions to our profession consistent with the standardsset by the existing Fellows. In particular, I would make a special request that you look to the mostsenior members of your Section or District in considering members for nomination. In many cases,the colleagues and peers of these individuals who are the most familiar with their contributions, andwho would normally nominate the candidate, are no longer with us. I want to be sure that we takethe extra effort required to make sure that those truly worthy are not overlooked because no obviousindividual was available to start the nomination process.

For specifics on the nomination requirements, please contact Wendy Sue Reeve at AWSheadquarters in Miami, or simply follow the instructions on the Fellow nomination form in this issueof the Welding Journal. Please remember, we all benefit in the honoring of those who have mademajor contributions to our chosen profession and livelihood. The deadline for submission is July 1,2013. The Committee looks forward to receiving numerous Fellow nominations for 2014consideration.

Sincerely,

Thomas M. MustaleskiChair, AWS Fellows Selection Committee

Fellow Description

DEFINITION AND HISTORYThe American Welding Society, in 1990, established the honor of Fellow of the Society to recognize members for

distinguished contributions to the field of welding science and technology, and for promoting and sustaining the professionalstature of the field. Election as a Fellow of the Society is based on the outstanding accomplishments and technical impact of theindividual. Such accomplishments will have advanced the science, technology and application of welding, as evidenced by:

∗ Sustained service and performance in the advancement of welding science and technology∗ Publication of papers, articles and books which enhance knowledge of welding∗ Innovative development of welding technology∗ Society and chapter contributions∗ Professional recognition

RULES1. Candidates shall have 10 years of membership in AWS2. Candidates shall be nominated by any five members of the Society3. Nominations shall be submitted on the official form available from AWS Headquarters4. Nominations must be submitted to AWS Headquarters no later than July 1 of the year prior to that in

which the award is to be presented5. Nominations will remain valid for three years6. All information on nominees will be held in strict confidence7. No more than two posthumous Fellows may be elected each year

NUMBER OF FELLOWSMaximum of 10 Fellows selected each year.

AWS Fellow Application Guidelines

Nomination packages for AWS Fellow should clearly demonstrate the candidates outstanding contributions to the advance-ment of welding science and technology. In order for the Fellows Selection Committee to fairly assess the candidates qualifica-tions, the nomination package must list and clearly describe the candidates specific technical accomplishments, how they con-tributed to the advancement of welding technology, and that these contributions were sustained. Essential in demonstrating thecandidates impact are the following (in approximate order of importance).

1. Description of significant technical advancements. This should be a brief summary of the candidates mostsignificant contributions to the advancement of welding science and technology.

2. Publications of books, papers, articles or other significant scholarly works that demonstrate the contributions cited in (1). Where possible, papers and articles should be designated as to whether they were published inpeer-reviewed journals.

3. Inventions and patents.4. Professional recognition including awards and honors from AWS and other professional societies.5. Meaningful participation in technical committees. Indicate the number of years served on these committees and

any leadership roles (chair, vice-chair, subcommittee responsibilities, etc.).6. Contributions to handbooks and standards.7. Presentations made at technical conferences and section meetings.8. Consultancy — particularly as it impacts technology advancement.9. Leadership at the technical society or corporate level, particularly as it impacts advancement of welding technology.

10. Participation on organizing committees for technical programming.11. Advocacy — support of the society and its technical advancement through institutional, political or other means.

Note: Application packages that do not support the candidate using the metrics listed abovewill have a very low probability of success.

Supporting LettersLetters of support from individuals knowledgeable of the candidate and his/her contributions are encouraged. These

letters should address the metrics listed above and provide personal insight into the contributions and stature of thecandidate. Letters of support that simply endorse the candidate will have little impact on the selection process.

Return completed Fellow nomination package to:

Wendy S. ReeveAmerican Welding SocietySenior ManagerAward Programs and Administrative Support

Telephone: 800-443-9353, extension 293

SUBMISSION DEADLINE: July 1, 2013

8669 Doral Blvd., Suite 130Doral, FL 33166

(please type or print in black ink)

FELLOW NOMINATION FORM

DATE_________________NAME OF CANDIDATE________________________________________________________________________

AWS MEMBER NO.___________________________YEARS OF AWS MEMBERSHIP____________________________________________

HOME ADDRESS____________________________________________________________________________________________________

CITY_______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE________________________

PRESENT COMPANY/INSTITUTION AFFILIATION_______________________________________________________________________

TITLE/POSITION____________________________________________________________________________________________________

BUSINESS ADDRESS________________________________________________________________________________________________

CITY______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE_________________________

ACADEMIC BACKGROUND, AS APPLICABLE:

INSTITUTION______________________________________________________________________________________________________

MAJOR & MINOR__________________________________________________________________________________________________

DEGREES OR CERTIFICATES/YEAR____________________________________________________________________________________

LICENSED PROFESSIONAL ENGINEER: YES_________NO__________ STATE______________________________________________

SIGNIFICANT WORK EXPERIENCE:


POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________


POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________

SUMMARIZE MAJOR CONTRIBUTIONS IN THESE POSITIONS:

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________IT IS MANDATORY THAT A CITATION (50 TO 100 WORDS, USE SEPARATE SHEET) INDICATING WHY THE NOMINEE SHOULD BESELECTED AS AN AWS FELLOW ACCOMPANY NOMINATION PACKET. IF NOMINEE IS SELECTED, THIS STATEMENT MAY BE IN-CORPORATED WITHIN THE CITATION CERTIFICATE.

SEE GUIDELINES ON REVERSE SIDESUBMITTED BY: PROPOSER_______________________________________________AWS Member No.___________________

Print Name___________________________________The Proposer will serve as the contact if the Selection Committee requires further information. Signatures on this nominating form, orsupporting letters from each nominator, are required from four AWS members in addition to the Proposer. Signatures may be acquiredby photocopying the original and transmitting to each nominating member. Once the signatures are secured, the total package shouldbe submitted.

NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________Print Name___________________________________ Print Name___________________________________

AWS Member No.______________ AWS Member No.______________

NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________Print Name___________________________________ Print Name___________________________________

AWS Member No.______________ AWS Member No.______________

CLASS OF 201

SUBMISSION DEADLINE July 1, 201

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Join us in Houston for the debut of the AWS Pipeline Welding Conference! Our featured speakers will cover a multitude of topics including the welding of high strength X80 pipe steels, orbital processes used in pipeline construction throughout the world, the new FRIEX system from Belgium and many other exciting topics.


Pipelines ConferenceJune 4th – 5th / Houston, TX

For the latest conference information and registration visit our web site at

www.aws.org/conferences or call 800-443-9353, ext. 224.

Highlights

Learn about the progress of new and innovative developments in pipeline welding.

Network with industry peers to find the best solutions for business growth.

AWS Conference attendees are awarded 1 PDH (Professional Development Hour) for each hour of conference attendance. These PDH's can be applied toward AWS recertifications and renewals.

WELDINGWORKBOOK

Numerous factors occur during production of resistance weldsthat influence end weld quality. An understanding of these factorsand their effect on quality is important to individuals concernedwith production, maintenance, manufacturing engineering, andquality control.

Pressure and Force Systems

The welding equipment pressure systems are normally eitherhydraulic or pneumatic. With either type of system, the electrodeforce, or welding force, is generated by the pressure of the mediaacting over the area of the piston of the cylinder to which the mov-able electrode is attached. The effect of an improper electrode forcecan be illustrated relative to the basic heat equation used in resist-ance welding, H=I2Rt. Low electrode force will increase the re-sistance factor R of this equation.

A high resistance (caused by a low force) will generate moreheat, the negative effects of metal expulsion, porous welds, surfacewhiskers of sharp metal spikes, sticking electrodes, poor electrodelife, and low-strength welds will be encountered.

Electrode Condition and Geometry

A complete weld schedule must include a recommended elec-trode shape or geometry. The loss of this shape, either throughmushroomed electrodes or a change in electrode shape, can havedisastrous effects on weld quality. When electrode tips are allowedto mushroom, the pressure and current density decreases in an ex-ponential fashion, since area is proportional to the diametersquared.

Primary Voltage Drops

Primary line voltages are seldom constant in large manufactur-ing facilities. Weld quality problems arise when these fluctuationsexceed normal limits. In small manufacturing operations, the volt-age drop in a buss bar system of minimal size may affect quality.Initiating a large number of welding machines at the same time canproduce large voltage drops. This condition can sometimes beavoided by the use of sequence firing circuits. Modern welding con-trols can compensate for some degree of small primary voltage fluctuations.

Resistance and Reactance Increases in SecondaryCurrent

Current-carrying members of the secondary circuit must be keptin good condition to minimize their respective individual voltagedrops. Any rise in the operating temperature of the secondary cur-rent members will increase the resistance. This will result in lowerwelding current at the electrode tips.

Operator

The welding machine operator is another great factor in qualitycontrol of resistance welding. Regardless of the condition of themachine, establishment of settings, inspection surveillance, and as-sembly of parts, it is the operator alone who makes the weld. Oneof the best ways to minimize weld quality problems is to have thor-oughly trained personnel who have a complete knowledge of the

resistance welding process and equipment, as well as any particularproblems that may be inherent to the manufacturing facility doingthe welding.

Following are some types of resistance weld defects and possible causes.

Expulsion at Weld Interface1. Dirty, scaly material.2. Poor fitup.3. “Squeeze time” too short.4. Weld force too low.5. Weld current too high or “weld time” too long.6. Poor follow-up.

Surface Expulsion, Electrode Sticking1. Squeeze time too short.2. Weld force too low.3. Dirty, scaly material.4. Tips dirty (requiring dressing).5. Weld current too high or “weld time” too long.

Electrode Mushrooming1. Weld time too long.2. Weld force too high.3. Weld current high.4. Insufficient cooling.5. Electrode area too small.6. Electrode alloy too soft.

Excessive Weld Indentation1. Weld time too long.2. Weld force too high.3. Poor fitup.4. Weld current too high.

Little or No Weld Nugget1. Weld time too short.2. Weld force too high.3. Weld current too low.4. Electrode face too large.5. Poor heat balance.6. Welds too close together.7. Machine not turned to “weld.”8. Dirty or coated material.9. Tap switch off.10. Control malfunction.

Cracks in Weld Nugget1. “Hold time” too short.2. Weld force too low.3. Dirty, scaly material.4. Poor follow-up.

Displaced Weld Nugget1. Electrode misaligned.2. Poor heat balance.3. Poor fitup.

Weld Not Holding1. Weld force too high.2. Weld force too low.3. Poor fitup of parts.4. Poor follow-up.5. Incorrect weld projections (projection welding only).6. Weld current too low.7. Poor setup of tooling.8. Weld time too short. ◆

FEBRUARY 201370

Datasheet 255a

Excerpted from the Resistance Welding Manual, fourth edition.

Resistance Weld Defects and Possible Causes

NOVEMBER 18-21, 2013MCCORMICK PLACE CHICAGO, ILLINOIS USA

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CHICAGOSAVE THE DATE

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SOCIETYNEWSSOCIETYNEWS

73WELDING JOURNAL

AWS Fellow Zhili Feng has made sig-nificant contributions to the advancementof computational welding mechanics, pio-neering an approach that accurately pre-dicts the mechanical driving forces for weldsolidification cracking. He has also madeoutstanding contributions in friction stirwelding (FSW) and processing, characteri-zation of welds by advanced neutron andsynchrotron scattering, and a novel solid-state process for joining dissimilar metals.Dr. Feng was among the first to develop aheat flow model to assist the development

of FSW of aluminum alloys and steels, andother metals. His research and develop-ment programs are sponsored by automo-tive, aerospace, nuclear, petrochemical.and power-generation industries, as well asby government agencies such as DOE,DOD, NASA, NST, and NIST. He has pub-lished more than 97 research and reviewpapers and submitted six invention disclo-sures and patent applications related tomultipass FSW, fracture testing of welds,and inspection of welds.

AWS Fellow Thomas L. Lienert is a

technical staff member and acting teamleader for the Welding and Joining Teamat Los Alamos National Laboratory. AtEWI, he produced the first defect-free fric-tion stir welds (FSWs) on a Ti-6Al-4V alloyand a 1018 steel alloy. He continued thiswork under both Cooperative ResearchProgram (CRP) and International Re-search and Development programs at EWI.After leaving EWI, Dr. Lienert continuedhis studies of FSW of high-temperature ma-terials at USC. His work focused on the Ti-15-3-3-3 alloy for U.S. Air Force applica-

Industry Leaders Recognized at FABTECH

AWS Fellows and Counselors Tapped in Las Vegas

The AWS 2013 board of directors are shown at FABTECH in Las Vegas, Nev.

Shown (from left) are incoming AWS Fellows Thomas L. Lienert and Zhili Feng and incoming AWS Counselors John M. Stropki, Johnnie J.DeLoach, and Victor Y. Matthews, a past AWS president. Counselor William H. Kielhorn was cited prior to his death last year.

FEBRUARY 201374

tions; and the Al-6XN superausteniticstainless steel alloy, and the DH-36 steelalloy for U.S. Navy applications. He is amember of the editorial board of Scienceand Technology of Welding and Joining, aprincipal reviewer of the Welding Journal,an AWS director-at-large, and serves onseveral technical committees.

AWS Counselor Johnnie J. DeLoachhas worked in the structural welding in-dustry for 28 years where he has led pro-grams to develop high-strength steel weld-ing and consumables, and friction stirwelding techniques for applications in theshipbuilding industry that have resultedin significant performance and fabrica-

tion benefits withoutadding cost. De-Loach has been rec-ognized with numer-ous awards for his ex-pertise.

AWS CounselorWilliam H. Kielhorndevoted more than50 years to teachingand promoting weld-ing technology. He

served on the LeTourneau University fac-ulty since 1966 where he instructed hun-dreds of welding students. He completed45 years of teaching service without miss-ing a single class. He published two engi-neering textbooks and made numerouscontributions to technical journals and theAWS Welding Handbook. His AWSawards include the Adams MemorialMembership, Member Proposer, and thePlummer Memorial Education LectureAward in 1999. He served on the AWSboard of directors as District 17 directorfrom1989 to 1995, and remained active inthe AWS East Texas Section and severalAWS committees until his death last year.

AWS Counselor Victor Y. Matthews, apast AWS president, has served as Dis-trict 10 director, chair of the AWS Cleve-land Section, and delegate and chair ofIIW Commission XIV, Education andTraining. He worked in the welding equip-ment and consumables manufacturing in-dustry for 46 years. At The Lincoln Elec-tric Co., he served as production welder,lab technician, plant welding engineer,and global customer service specialist,president of the Employees Association,

and was named Employee of the Year in1995. Matthews also serves as a firefighterand EMT Level I for Russell Fire Depart-ment, HAZMAT technician for ChagrinSoutheast, and EMS instructor for TheLincoln Electric Co.

AWS Counselor John M. Stropkijoined The Lincoln Electric Co. as a salestrainee after receiving his master’s degreein industrial engineering. He rose throughthe ranks to serve as national sales man-ager for Canada, senior vice president ofsales for United States and Canadian ac-counts, and executive vice president andpresident, North America. Currently, heis chairman, president, and CEO of Lin-coln Electric Holdings, Inc., and serveson the corporate boards of National Man-ufacturers Association, National ElectricManufacturers Association, GreaterCleveland Partnership, and others. He re-ceived the AWS Honorary MembershipAward in 2001. He is active with the Gasesand Welding Distributors Association(GAWDA), American Lung Association,Harvest for Hunger, Boy Scouts of Amer-ica, and Juvenile Diabetes ResearchFoundation.

Comfort A. Adams Lecture Award

Fluid flow and solidification in welding:Three decades of fundamental research at

the University of WisconsinSindo Kou, an AWS Fellow and a Fel-

low of ASM International, holds a PhDin materials science and engineering. Heworked at General Motors Research Lab-oratory, and as an associate professor atCarnegie-Mellon University. In 1983, hejoined the University of Wisconsin-Madi-son where he became a full professor in1985. He is currently chair of the Depart-ment of Materials Science and Engineer-ing. He has authored two texts: WeldingMetallurgy and Transport Phenomena andMaterials Processing. Kou’s citations in-clude the John Chipman Award from Ironand Steel Society of AIME, and theCharles H. Jennings Memorial, Warren F.Savage Memorial, William Spraragen Me-morial, and Adams Memorial Member-ship Awards from AWS.

Adams Memorial Membership Award

Sudarsanam Suresh Babu, an AWSFellow, holds a PhD in materials scienceand metallurgy. He worked as a researchassociate at Tohoku University, Japan,then served on the technical staff at OakRidge National Laboratory from 1993 to2005. Later, he became technology leaderat Edison Welding Institute before join-ing the engineering faculty at The OhioState University. Babu specializes inphase transformations, welding metal-lurgy of steels and nickel-based superal-loys, computational weld modeling, andfriction stir welding. He is director of theNSF I/UCRC center for integrative ma-terials joining science for energy applica-tions in collaboration with ColoradoSchool of Mines, Lehigh University, andthe University of Wisconsin. His citationsinclude the AWS Professor Koichi Ma-subuchi Award and the Lidstone MedalAward from The Welding Institute.

Howard E. Adkins MemorialInstructor Membership Award

Timothy L. Gill, a Certified WeldingInspector and a Certified Welding Edu-cator, began his career in education in1979, then gained experience in industryfor five years. In 1994, he implementedthe AWS SENSE program with great suc-cess at a vocational school in Missouri. In2010, he developed new welding courses,based on SENSE, that offered trainingcertificates and a two-year associate’s de-gree. Gill also serves as an officer in theAWS Kansas City Section.

Scott H. Sutherland taught for severalyears then gained experience as a welderat Oilfield Pipe and Supply and later atJohn Zink where he served for ten years.After receiving his master’s degree, hetaught welding at a high school thenjoined Tri County Technology Centerwhere his students have a 92% coursecompletion rate and a 100% job place-ment rate.

Achievement Awards Presented at FABTECH

Sindo Kou S. S. Babu Timothy Gill Scott Sutherland David Fink Rich Samanich

William Kielhorn

75WELDING JOURNAL

Craig Tichelar Jenord Alston Elizabeth Drexler Philippe Darcis C. McCowan Jeffrey Sowards

Kenneth L. Brown MemorialSafety and Health Award

David A. Fink, an AWS Counselor,joined The Lincoln Electric Co. in 1971where he serves as manager, ComplianceEngineering (Consumables). He holdspatents for ultralow-hydrogen metalcored electrodes. Fink has chaired the A5Committee on Filler Metals and AlliedMaterials and several of its subcommit-tees for many years, and served as a chap-ter chair for the Welding Handbook. Hecontributes to the AWS Technical Activi-ties Committee as an at-large memberand to the AWS Safety & Health Com-mittee and its subcommittees. Fink is ac-tive with developing international weld-ing standards and chairs the US TAG toISO TC 44 SC3 for Filler Metals.

Robert J. Conkling Memorial Award2012 SkillsUSA Championships

Gold Medalist SchoolsFIRST PLACE — HIGH SCHOOL

Pioneer Technology CenterPonca City, Okla.

FIRST PLACE — POSTSECONDARY

Eastern Wyoming CollegeTorrington, Wyo.

A. F. Davis Silver Medal AwardMAINTENANCE AND SURFACING

Laser Engineered Net Shaping® for Repair and Hydrogen CompatibilityPaul S. Korinko is a senior fellow sci-

entist at Savannah River National Labo-ratory. His research focuses on solid-stateresistance welding, improving weldmentsfor plutonium containment, and corro-sion-resistant coatings for gas turbines.

Thad M. Adams is a research managerat Materials Science & Technology, Sa-vannah River National Laboratory. Hiscurrent focus is on new materials andtechnologies for use in hydrogen service.

Stephen H. Malene is with the MixedOxide Fuel Fabrication facility of B. F.Shaw Co., Inc.

S. C. D. Gill and John Smugereskyare with Sandia National Laboratory.

Distinguished Welder AwardRich Samanich is a Senior Certified

Welding Inspector and an AWS Certifi-cation Test Supervisor. He is experienced

on a wide variety of welding projects in-cluding military aircraft, cross-countrypipelines, and water-treatment and powerplants. Currently, he is a welder withComputer Science Corp. and assists withwelder training at a local high school.

Craig Tichelar is with the Chicago Zo-ological Society where he established theWelding Dept. at the Brookfield Zoo. Hisfather taught him how to weld and brazeas a boy, and he continued his educationat Hobart Institute of Welding Technol-ogy and Moraine Valley C. C., where hetaught welding for nine years. Since 2002,he has been teaching welding at Collegeof DuPage. Tichelar, 2012 chair of theChicago Section, holds patents on a vari-ety of inventions.

Dalton E. Hamilton MemorialCWI of the Year Award

Jenord Alston, chair of the TidewaterSection, is a Certified Welding Inspectorand Certified Welding Educator. Afterworking as a welder in shipyards andpower plants, he joined the staff atThomas Jefferson National AcceleratorFacility. He serves as a judge for the Vir-ginia SkillsUSA welding competitions,mentor for CWI seminar applicants, andsits on the welding advisory boards forseveral schools and community colleges.

W. H. Hobart Memorial AwardDuctile-Fracture Resistance in X100Pipeline Welds Measured with CTOAElizabeth Drexler is a materials re-

search engineer at the National Instituteof Standards and Technology where shestudies fracture properties of pipelinesteels exposed to pressurized hydrogen.

Philippe P. Darcis is currently Tenarisline pipe product leader based inDalmine, Italy. His research includeshigh-strength steel pipeline fatigue,welded joints, and ductile fracture.

Christopher N. McCowan has workedas a materials research engineer at theNational Institute of Standards and Tech-nology since 1984. His studies include me-chanical properties of high-strength andstainless steels, aluminum, copper, in-dium, and other metals.

Jeffrey W. Sowards is a materials re-search engineer at National Institute ofStandards and Technology where he stud-

ies the welding metallurgy and weldabilityof nickel-based alloys, ferrous alloys, anddissimilar metal welds.

J. David McColskey is a physical scien-tist for Protiro, Inc., at National Instituteof Standards and Technology where hemanages the fracture-mechanics labora-tory in Boulder, Colo.

Thomas A. Siewert, an AWS Fellow, di-rector-at-large, Distinguished Member,and Life Member, retired after 25 years ofservice from National Institute of Stan-dards and Technology. Currently, he is aconsultant for welding, metallurgy, andnondestructive evaluation issues.

Honorary Membership AwardEmily Stover DeRocco heads a consult-

ing firm focused on education reform andworkforce and economic development.Earlier she was president of The Manu-facturing Institute and senior vice presi-dent of the National Association of Man-ufacturers. In 2001, she was appointed as-sistant secretary of labor by PresidentGeorge W. Bush where she chaired severalworkforce and education committees. De-Rocco, who holds a juris doctorate, cur-rently sits on the advisory boards of threecolleges and two technology companies.

Jennifer M. McNelly is president of The

David McColskey Thomas Siewert

Emily DeRocco Jennifer McNelly

FEBRUARY 201376

Manufacturing Institute. Earlier, sheserved as administrator for the U.S. De-partment of Labor Office of Regional In-novation and Transformation and direc-tor of the Business Relations group. Shealso served as senior vice president ofStrategic Partnership, LLC, an interna-tional consulting firm assisting Fortune500 companies in building strategic part-nerships with government agencies in sup-port of workforce development.

International Meritorious Certificate Award

Warren Miglietti has 24 years’ experi-ence in welding, brazing, and heat treat-ment of metals, focusing on developingrepair techniques for aircraft, gas turbineengines, and industrial components. Since2008, Dr. Miglietti has served as principalengineer in the Reconditioning Depart-ment at PSM, a wholly owned subsidiaryof Alstrom. Previously he worked fiveyears at General Electric Co.

Klaus Middeldorf is general managerof DVS, the German Welding Society,where he is involved with welding researchtechnology, standardization, training, andsupporting conferences and trade showsworldwide. His research has focused onthe mechanical and fatigue behavior ofsteels, Al alloys, and powder forged ma-terials. Earlier, Dr. Middeldorf served asa project manager for manufacturing pulpand paper products at the Proctor & Gam-ble facility in Germany.

William Irrgang Memorial AwardKenneth R. Stockton, a Certified

Welding Inspector, Certified Welding Ed-ucator, and past AWS District 2 director,joined Public Service Electric and Gas in1984. Starting as a welder mechanic, hecurrently develops and implements train-ing programs in support of fossil-fueled

power plants in New Jersey, New York,and Connecticut. Since 1985, he hasserved on the Middlesex County Voca-tional High Schools Welding AdvisoryCommittee and, since 1995, has served asa judge for the New Jersey SkillsUSAwelding competitions.

Charles H. Jennings Memorial Award

Laser-Enhanced Metal Transfer — Part IPart II — Analysis and Influence Factors

Yi Huang worked as a research assis-tant in the Welding Research Laboratoryat the University of Kentucky until he re-ceived his PhD in 2011. Currently, he is awelding engineer at RoMan EngineeringServices in Livonia, Mich.

YuMing Zhang, an AWS Fellow, holdsthe James R. Boyd Professorship in Elec-trical Engineering at the University ofKentucky. He is also founder and presi-dent of Adaptive Intelligent Systems,LLC, a developer of welding technologies.

Prof. Koichi Masubuchi AwardSeung Hwan C. Park recently joined

Hitachi Research and Development Corp.in Shanghai, China, where he performswelding and materials processing re-search. In 2005, after receiving his PhD inmaterials engineering, he joined HitachiResearch Laboratory Japan where he de-veloped tools for friction stir welding.

Samuel Wylie Miller Memorial Medal Award

Edwin R. Szumachowski, as a researchengineer, developed products for weldingsteels and nickel-based alloys and hard-facing applications at Teledyne-McKay for34 years until his retirement in 1986. Ear-lier, at Battelle Memorial Institute, heworked with Admiral Hyman Rickover todevelop the first atomic submarine.

National Meritorious AwardDonald B. DeCorte, an AWS member

for 32 years and a past director-at-large,has been affiliated with the Detroit andWest Michigan Sections. DeCorte hashelped AWS develop international mar-keting and sales initiatives. Currently, heis vice president of RoMan Mfg., COO ofRoMan Engineering Services, and activewith various AWS and Resistance Weld-ing Manufacturing Alliance committees.

Jenny McCall has 20 years’ experiencein the industry. Since 2003, she has servedas president and COO of WESCO Gas &Welding Supply, Inc. McCall has servedon several boards, including AssociatedBuilders and Contractors, Gases andWelding Distributors Association(GAWDA), Women of Gases and Weld-ing, and Distributor Council for MillerElectric Co. In 2010, McCall becameGAWDA’s first female president.

Robert L. Peaslee MemorialBrazing Award

Microstructure and Properties of LaserBrazed Magnesium to Coated Steel

Ali Nasiri is doing his doctoral researchon laser brazing of magnesium alloys atthe University of Waterloo, Canada.

Liqun Li is a professor at the HarbinInstitute of Technology, China, where shereceived her PhD in material processingengineering.

Sookhwan Kim is a welding researchengineer at Research Institute of Scienceand Technology, South Korea, where hehas worked for 28 years.

Y. (Norman) Zhou, a Canada ResearchChair, is a professor and director of theCentre for Advanced Materials Joining atthe University of Waterloo, Canada.

David C. Weckman has served on thefaculty of the University of Waterloo De-partment of Mechanical & Mechatronics

Warren Miglietti Klaus Middeldorf Ken Stockton Yi Huang YuMing Zhang Seung Hwan Park

E. Szumachowski Donald DeCorte Jenny McCall Ali Nasiri Liqun Li Sookhwan Kim

Engineering since he received his PhDthere in 1983.

Tam C. Nguyen has served on the fac-ulty of the Mechanical Systems Engi-neering program at Conestoga Collegesince receiving his PhD there in 2005.

Plummer Memorial EducationLecture Award

Welding Engineering Education and Training — National and

International PerspectivesConfessions of a PhD Who

Can Actually WeldYoni Adonyi worked eight years in the

pressure vessel, shipbuilding, and aero-space industries before earning his PhDin welding engineering. Following sevenyears at U.S. Steel Technical Center andteaching at Carnegie Mellon University,he became a professor of welding engi-neering at LeTourneau University wherehe became the first to hold the endowedOmer W. Blodgett Chair in Welding andMaterials Joining Engineering.

Private Sector InstructorMembership Award

Mark Trevithick, a Certified WeldingInspector and Certified Welding Educa-tor, is the lead welding instructor for theGTAW-AC nonferrous pipe weldingcourse at UA Pipefitters Local Union No.208, Denver, Colo., a course he co-founded. He has trained more than 500apprentices and 400 instructors at the UAInstructor Training Program. Trevithickis also president of Compfab, Inc., spe-cializing in precision weldments.

Warren F. Savage Memorial AwardOscillatory Marangoni Flow:

A Fundamental Study by Conduction-Mode Laser Spot Welding

Sindo Kou. See notice under ComfortA. Adams Lecture Award.

Chaowalit Limmaneevichitr is an as-sociate professor at King Mongkut’s Uni-versity of Technology, Thailand.

Peng-Sheng Wei is the Xi-Wan ChairProfessor at National Sun Yat-Sen Uni-versity in Taiwan, China.

William Spraragen Memorial AwardA New Chromium-Free Welding Consum-able for Joining Austenitic Stainless Steels

Jeffrey W. Sowards. See notice underW. H. Hobart Memorial Award.

Dong Liang is a corrosion and mate-rials engineer with the Pressure Equip-ment and Integrity Group, Shell/Motica,in Norco, La.

Boian T. Alexandrow is a research sci-entist in the Welding Engineering Pro-gram at The Ohio State University.

Gerald S. Frankel is a professor of ma-terials science and engineering, and di-rector of the Fontana Corrosion Centerat The Ohio State University.

John C. Lippold, an AWS Fellow, is aprofessor at The Ohio State University.

R. D. Thomas Memorial AwardJohn W. Elmer, an AWS Fellow and

Honorary Member, is group leader formaterials processes at Livermore Na-tional Laboratory involved with brazing,soldering, and laser and electron beamwelding. He was presented the YoshiakiArata Award from the International In-stitute of Welding for his “extraordinaryachievements in fundamental research inwelding science and technology.”

Elihu Thomson Resistance Welding Award

Muralidhar Tumuluru is with U. S.Steel Research and Technology Centerwhere his studies center on joining ad-vanced high-strength steels for automo-tive applications. An AWS member since1980, he is a principal reviewer for theWelding Journal and serves on severalAWS technical committees and theAmerican Council of the IIW.

George E. Willis AwardBryan A. Chin, an AWS Fellow, is a

professor and chair of materials engi-neering at Auburn University. He is a for-eign member of the Russian Academy ofEngineering Sciences, McWane endowedchair of the Samuel Ginn College of En-gineering, and served on the Departmentof Energy’s Foreign Exchange Teams onAdvanced Materials with Russia, UnitedKingdom, Germany, Japan, and France.

77WELDING JOURNAL

Y. Norman Zhou David Weckman Tam Nguyen Yoni Adonyi Mark Trevithick C. Limmaneevichitr

Peng-Sheng Wei Dong Liang

Boian Alexandrow Gerald Frankel

M. Tumuluru Bryan Chin

John Lippold John Elmer

FEBRUARY 201378

AWS Membership AwardsPresented at FABTECH

Barry Lawrence and Vern Sutter re-ceived AWS Gold Member Certificatesfor 50 years of service.

Cited to receive Life Member Certifi-cates for 35 years of service were RobertBitzky, Kenneth Chorniak, Paul Cun-ningham, Theodore Day, Gina Gadpaille,David Hudson, Charles Keibler, GeraldKnorovsky, Firdosh Mehta, Girard Mir-gain, Calvin Pepper, Stephen Pollard,Satyanarayana Segu, Jerome Siko,Daniel Spackman, Jeffrey Thyssen, GilTrigo, and Art Varvoutis.

Presented Silver Member Certificatesfor 25 years of service were ChristopherAnderson, Warren Arata, Don Bobyk, PatClark, James Crook, David Diaz, ImtiazEdoo, Deger Elove, David Faas, GregoryFrederick, Christopher Hobson, HarleyJacobson, Grant Lilley, Ashok Mahesh-warri, Scott Malkasian, Stephen Proch-now, John Sisson, Larry Thomas, andCarlos Vasquez Rojas.

Named Scholarships Announced atSection Awards Luncheon

This year, 19 Sections established orenhanced existing Named Scholarships.

Announcing new scholarships were theConnecticut and Central Massachu-setts/Rhode Island Sections in District 1; Cumberland Valley and Lancaster Sec-tions in District 3; South Florida Section(H. D. Riviere named scholarship) in Dis-trict 5; Dayton Section and Les VeseyDayton Section named scholarships inDistrict 7; Mobile Section (two scholar-ships) in District 9; Cleveland Section Dr.John Gerken named scholarship in Dis-trict 10; Detroit Section for several namedscholarships and a West Michigan Sec-tion named scholarship in District 11; andIdaho/Montana Section named scholar-ship in District 20.

Life Members display their certificates at the FABTECH awards-presentation luncheon.

Bill Rice (far left), AWS president, is shown with the Silver Member Certificate awardees at the FABTECH program.

The Section representatives display their named scholarship banners at the FABTECH event.

Vern Sutter (left) and Barry Lawrence displaytheir Gold Member Certificates for 50 yearsof service to the Society.

Service Anniversaries and New Scholarships Announced at FABTECH

79WELDING JOURNAL

New Standards ProjectsDevelopment work has begun on the

following standards. Affected individualsare invited to contribute to their develop-ment. E-mail the committee secretarylisted with the document. Participation onAWS Technical Committees and Subcom-mittees is open to all persons.

D14.3/D14.3M:2010-AMD1, Specifica-tion for Welding Earthmoving, Construc-tion, and Agricultural Equipment. This doc-ument provides specifications for produc-ing structural welds used in the manufac-ture and repair of earthmoving, construc-tion, and agricultural equipment. Pre-sented are welding practices that havebeen proven to be successful in the indus-try. Basic dimensional weld details are de-fined and interpreted for applicationthroughout the document. Provisions aremade to identify base metals used in theseweldments. Stakeholders: machinery andequipment communities. E-mail EframAbrams, [email protected].

D15.1/D15.1M:2012-AMD1, RailroadWelding Specification for Cars and Loco-motives. This specification establishesminimum standards for the manufactureand maintenance of railroad equipment.Clauses 4−17 cover the general require-ments for welding in the railroad indus-try. Clauses 18−24 cover specific require-ments for the welding of base metals thin-ner than 1⁄8 in. (3 mm). Stakeholders in-clude all manufacturers and repair facili-ties of railroad rolling stock. E-mailStephen Borrero, [email protected].

Amendment Standard Approved

A5.8M/A5.8:2011-AMD1, Specificationfor Filler Metals for Brazing and Braze Weld-ing. ANSI approved 11/30/12.

Technical Committee MeetingsNote: All meetings scheduled for

Doral, Fla., will be held at AWS WorldHeadquarters, 8669 Doral Blvd.

Feb. 4. B4 Committee on MechanicalTesting of Welds. Doral, Fla., contact B.McGrath, [email protected].

Feb. 6. International Standards Activi-ties Committee, Doral, Fla., contact A.Davis, [email protected].

Feb. 6, 7. Technical Activities Commit-tee. Doral, Fla. Contact A. Alonso,[email protected].

Feb. 26−March 1. D1 Committees,Doral, Fla. For detailed meeting informa-tion, visit www.aws.org/WPZD8B; or con-tact B. McGrath, [email protected].

Feb. 26, 27. C3 Committee and Sub-committees on Brazing and Soldering.Doral, Fla. Contact S. Borrero, [email protected].

Feb. 28. B2F Subcommittee on PlasticWelding Qualifications. St. Petersburg,Fla., contact S. Hedrick, [email protected].

Feb. 28. G1A Subcommittee on HotGas Welding and Extrusion Welding, St.Petersburg, Fla., contact S. Hedrick,[email protected].

March 12, 13. D16 Committee on Ro-botic and Automatic Welding. Tanner,Ala., contact P. Henry, [email protected].

Tech Topics

Amendment #1 A5.8M/A5.8:2011Specification for Filler Metals for

Brazing and Braze WeldingThe following Amendment has

been identified and will be incorpo-rated into the next reprinting of thisdocument.Subject: In Table 5 — Chemical Com-position Requirements for Nickel andCobalt Brazing Filler Metals; Theboron (B) weight percentages for AWSclassifications BNi-5a and BNi-5b

Replace:AWS Classification B

BNi-5a 1.3−1.6BNi-5b 1.3−1.6

With data from AWSA5.8/A5.8M:2004:

AWS Classification BBNi-5a 1.0−1.5BNi-5b 1.1−1.6

Interpretation A5.36/A5.36M:2012Specification for Carbon and

Low-Alloy Steel Flux Cored Electrodesfor Flux Cored Arc Welding and

Metal Cored Electrodes for Gas Metal Arc Welding

Inquiry No.: A5.36-12-INT1Inquiry: Does Table 5 of AWS A5.36/A5.36M:2012 allow the use of gasblends different from the listed “nom-inal” composition within a listedshielding gas composition range whenconducting classification tests for gasshielded electrodes to AWSA5.36/A5.36M?Response: Yes.

Errata AWS B2.1-8-013:2002Standard Welding Procedure Specifica-

tion (SWPS) for Shielded Metal ArcWelding of Austenitic Stainless Steel

(M-8/P-8/S-8, Group 1) 10 through 18Gauge, in the As-Welded Condition,

with or without BackingPage 6, Metric ConversionsCorrect “12350°F” to “120°F”.

ISO Standards for WeldingIn the United States, if you wish to par-

ticipate in the development of Interna-tional Standards for welding, contact An-drew Davis, [email protected], otherwise,contact your national standards body.

A5K Subcommittee on Titanium and Zirconium Filler Metals.To update specifica-tions for welding electrodes and rods of titanium, zirconium, and their alloys. A. Diaz,[email protected].

A5L Subcommittee on Magnesium Alloy Filler Metals. R. Gupta, [email protected] Committee on Thermal Spraying, C4 Committee on Oxyfuel Gas Welding and

Cutting, and D8 Committee on Automotive Welding seek educators, general interest,and users to update its documents. E. Abrams, [email protected].

D10P Subcommittee for Local Heat Treating of Pipe. B. McGrath, [email protected] Committee on Machinery and Equipment and D14H Subcommittee on Surfac-

ing and Reconditioning of Industrial Mill Rolls seek professionals in design, production,engineering, testing, and safe operation of machinery and equipment to prepare recom-mended practices for surfacing and reconditioning of industrial mill rolls. E. Abrams,[email protected].

D16 Committee on Robotic and Automatic Welding seeks general interest and edu-cators to help revise its documents. B. McGrath, [email protected].

D17J Subcommittee to update specification for friction stir welding of aluminum al-loys for aerospace applications. A. Diaz, [email protected].

G2D Subcommittee on Reactive Alloys to update guides for the fusion welding of ti-tanium and titanium alloys, and fusion welding of zirconium and zirconium alloys. A.Diaz, [email protected].

J1 Committee on Resistance Welding Equipment seeks educators, general interest,and users to help develop its documents on controls, installation and maintenance, cali-bration, and resistance welding fact sheets. E. Abrams, [email protected].

Members Sought for Technical Committees visit www.aws.org/technical/jointechcomm.html

FEBRUARY 201380

Member-Get-A-Member Campaign

Listed are the members participating inthe 2012−2013 campaign. Standings as of12/16/12. See page 85 of this Welding Journalfor campaign rules and prize list or visitwww.aws.org/mgm. For information, call theMembership Department (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 480.

Winner’s CircleSponsored 20 or more new Individual Membersper year since June 1, 1999. The superscript de-notes the number of times the member achievedWinner’s Circle status if more than once.E. Ezell, Mobile10

J. Compton, San Fernando Valley7

J. Merzthal, Peru2

G. Taylor, Pascagoula2

L. Taylor, Pascagoula2

B. Chin, AuburnS. Esders, DetroitM. Haggard, Inland EmpireM. Karagoulis, DetroitS. McGill, NE TennesseeB. Mikeska, HoustonW. Shreve, Fox ValleyT. Weaver, Johnstown/AltoonaG. Woomer, Johnstown/AltoonaR. Wray, Nebraska

President’s RoundtableSponsored 9−19 new Individual Members M. Pelegrino, Chicago — 16E. Ezell, Mobile — 12R. Fulmer, Twin Tiers — 10W. Blamire, Atlanta — 9A. Tous, Costa Rica — 9P. Strother, New Orleans — 9

President’s ClubSponsored 3−8 new Individual Members D. Galiher, Detroit — 7W. Komlos, Utah — 7J. Smith, San Antonio — 6C. Becker, Northwest — 5L. Webb, Lexington — 4A. Bernard, Sabine — 3P. Brown, New Orleans — 3D. Buster, Eastern Iowa — 3

C. Daon, Israel — 3G. Gammill, NE Mississippi — 3D. Jessop, Mahoning Valley — 3A. Winkle, Kansas City — 3D. Wright, Kansas City — 3R. Wright, San Antonio — 3

President’s Honor RollSponsored 2 new Individual MembersG. Cornell, St. LouisP. Host, ChicagoH. Hughes, Mahoning ValleyL. Kvidahl, PascagoulaW. Larry, Southern ColoradoG. Lawrence, North CentralJ. Mansfield, Philadelphia E. Norman, OzarkA. Sam, TrinidadD. Saunders, LakeshoreC. Shepherd — HoustonA. Sumal — British Columbia J. Vincent, Kansas CityA. Vogt — New Jersey J. Vorstenbosch — International M. Wheeler, ClevelandL. William, Western CarolinaW. Wilson, New OrleansR. Zabel, SE Nebraska

Student Member SponsorsSponsored 3 or more new AWS StudentMembersH. Hughes, Mahoning Valley — 73B. Scherer, Cincinnati — 39 W. England, West Michigan — 33R. Hammond, Greater Huntsville — 28 S. Siviski, Maine — 24B. Cheatham, Columbia — 23T. Geisler, Pittsburgh — 23C. Kochersperger, Philadelphia — 23M. Arand, Louisville — 22G. Gammill, NE Mississippi — 21 J. Falgout, Baton Rouge — 18R. Munns, Utah — 18S. Lindsey, San Diego — 17E. Norman, Ozark — 16R. Hutchinson, Long Bch./Or. Cty. — 14

D. Pickering, Central Arkansas — 13R. Zabel, SE Nebraska — 13J. Daugherty, Louisville — 12C. Morris, Sacramento — 12R. Richwine, Indiana — 12S. Robeson, Cumberland Valley — 12D. Saunders, Lakeshore — 11A. Theriot, New Orleans — 10A. Duron, Cumberland Valley — 10J. Boyer, Lancaster — 9G. Seese, Johnstown-Altoona — 8C. Schiner, Wyoming — 8C. Gilbertson, Northern Plains — 8J. Dawson, Pittsburgh — 7R. Udy, Utah — 7R. Vann, South Carolina — 7T. Buckley, Columbus — 6R. Fuller, Green & White Mts. — 6T. Shirk, Tidewater — 6A. Badeaux , Washington, D.C. — 5P. Host, Chicago — 5K. Temme, Philadelphia — 5W. Wilson, New Orleans — 5C. Chifici, New Orleans — 4J. Reed, Ozark — 4G. Siepert, Kansas — 4P. Strother, New Orleans — 4R. Zadroga, Philadelphia — 4S. Liu, Colorado — 3G. Lunen, Kansas City — 3

AWS Member CountsJan. 1, 2013

Sustaining ......................................556Supporting .....................................344Educational ...................................622Affiliate..........................................494Welding Distributor........................50Total Corporate ..........................2,066 Individual .................................58,394Student + Transitional ...............10,044Total Members .........................68,438

November 1, 2013, is the deadline for submitting nominations for the 2014 Prof. Koichi Masubuchi Award. This award includes a$5000 honorarium. It is presented each year to one person, 40 years old or younger, who has made significant contributions to the ad-vancement of materials joining through research and development. Nominations should include a description of the candidate’s expe-rience, list of publications, honors, and awards, and at least three letters of recommendation from fellow researchers. The award issponsored by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Dept. of Ocean Engineering. E-mail your nomination package to Todd A.Palmer, assistant professor, The Pennsylvania State University, [email protected].

Candidates Sought for Welding-Related Awards

William Irrgang Memorial AwardThis award is given to the individual who has done the most

over the past five years to enhance the Society’s goal of advanc-ing the science and technology of welding. It includes a $2500honorarium and a certificate.

Honorary Membership AwardThis award acknowledges eminence in the welding profession,

or one who is credited with exceptional accomplishments in thedevelopment of the welding art. Honorary Members have fullrights of membership.

Nat. Meritorious Certificate AwardThis award recognizes the recipient’s counsel, loyalty, and

dedication to AWS affairs, assistance in promoting cordial rela-

tions with industry and other organizations, and for contribu-tions of time and effort on behalf of the Society.

George E. Willis AwardThis award is given to an individual who promoted the ad-

vancement of welding internationally by fostering coopera-tive participation in technology transfer, standards rationali-zation, and promotion of industrial goodwill. It includes a$2500 honorarium.

International Meritorious Certificate AwardThis honor recognizes recipients’ significant contributions to

the welding industry for service to the international welding com-munity in the broadest terms. The award consists of a certificateand a one-year AWS membership.

The deadline for nominating candidates for the following awards is December 31 prior to the year of the awards presentations.Contact Wendy Sue Reeve, [email protected]; (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 293.

81WELDING JOURNAL

SECTIONNEWSSECTIONNEWSDistrict 1Thomas Ferri, director(508) [email protected]

Speaker Jim Reid (center) poses with BostonSection Secretary Rick Moody (left) andChair Dave Paquin.

Paul Iannotta (right) received his CWIaward from Harland Thompson, District 2director, at the Long Island Section program.

Jim Reid (far right) discussed welding Grade 91 steel for Boston Section members.

Shown at the Connecticut Section meeting are (from left) Walter Chonacki, District 1 Di-rector Tom Ferri, Rick Monroe, Chair Steve Goodrow, and Carole DelVecchio.

Working a CWI exam presented by the Maine Section are (from left) Teila, Russ, and NissaNorris and John Rayburn.

BOSTONDECEMBER 3Speaker: Jim ReidAffiliation: Reid ConsultingTopic: Welding Grade 91 steelsActivity: The meeting was hosted by Arti-san Industries at its facility in Waltham,Mass.

CONNECTICUTDECEMBER 13Activity: The Section held an executiveboard meeting at Taste of Maine Restau-rant in East Windsor, Conn. Attendingwere District 1 Director Tom Ferri, ChairSteve Goodrow, Treasurer WalterChonacki, Certification Chair Rick Mon-roe, and Vice Chair Carole DelVecchio.

MAINEAUGUST 25Activity: The Section members conducteda CWI and CWE test at Clarion Hotel inPortland, Maine. Russ Norris served asthe CWI test administrator, assisted byTeila and Nissa Norris and John Rayburn.

LONG ISLANDDECEMBER 4Activity: The Section held an industry ap-preciation luncheon at BOCES of NassauCounty, N.Y. Paul Iannotta received theSection Dalton E. Hamilton MemorialCWI of the Year Award from HarlandThompson, District 2 Director, and Mr.Clark, school principal.

NEW JERSEYNOVEMBER 20Speaker: Robert F. Waite, P.E, CWITopic: Responsibilities of the CWIActivity: Robert Waite received the Sec-tion’s August F. Manz Speaker of the YearAward from Chair Bob Petrone. The meet-ing was held in Scotch Plains, N.J.

District 2Harland W. Thompson, director(631) [email protected]

FEBRUARY 201382

District 4Stewart A. Harris, director(919) [email protected]

District 3Michael Wiswesser, director(610) [email protected]

Robert Waite (left) is shown with BobPetrone, New Jersey Section chair.

The Triangle Section welding merit badge class included (from left) Owen Stoddard, JoshuaMoss, Merit Badge Counselor Russell Wahrman, Mason Poole, and Cameron Burns.

Some of the Lancaster Section meeting attendees are shown at the November event.

Lancaster Section Chair Justin Heistand(left) is shown with John Ganoe.

Brian Gross (left) displays his award pre-sented by Justin Heistand, Lancaster Sec-tion chair.

Carl Matricardi (left), District 5 director, Jim Blackburn (center), and David Ennis, AtlantaSection chair, are shown during the tour of Syncroflo in October.

LANCASTERNOVEMBER 7Activity: Fifty-four attendees, includingwelding students from Harrisburg Area C.C., participated in a hands-on demonstra-tion of the VRTEX®360 virtual arc weld-ing training system. Dave Watson, LincolnElectric sales engineer, conducted the pro-gram. Everyone had a chance to try themachine. Jonathan Fink received a weld-ing helmet for achieving the highest score.Brian Gross received the Section Merito-rious Award and John Ganoe received theSection Educator Award.

TRIANGLEDECEMBER 1Activity: Russell Wahrman, vice presidentof inspections at Inspectology, Inc., trainedand tested scouts Owen Stoddard, JoshuaMoss, Mason Poole, and Cameron Burnsfrom Troop 11, Occoneechee Council,Raleigh, N.C., to earn their welding meritbadges.

83WELDING JOURNAL

District 5Carl Matricardi, director(770) [email protected]

District 7Uwe Aschemeier, director(786) [email protected]

District 6Kenneth Phy, director(315) [email protected]

ATLANTAOCTOBER 25Activity: The Section members visited Syn-croflo in Norcross, Ga., to study its opera-tions. Jim Blackburn, owner, presented ahistory of the company and guided the tourof the plant. Carl Matricardi, District 5director, attended the event.

NORTHERN NEW YORKDECEMBER 4Speaker: Warren G. Alexander, P.E.Affiliation: Structural metals consultantTopic: Design of the self-anchored SanFrancisco-Oakland Bay BridgeActivity: The meeting was held at ShakerRidge Country Club in Albany, N.Y.

CHATTANOOGANOVEMBER 27Activity: The Section members visited Ko-matsu America Corp. manufacturing fa-cility in Chattanooga, Tenn., to study itswelding processes and testing procedures.Andrew Miller, production manager andwelding engineer, discussed the operationsthen conducted the plant tour. Joe Livesay,District 8 director, attended the program.

GREATER HUNTSVILLEOCTOBER 25Activity: The Section held its meeting atBlount County Center of Technologywhere Welding Instructor Randy Ham-mond discussed the need for welders andwhat it takes to keep a job. Joe Smith, awelding instructor at Marshall TechnicalCollege, discussed the need for welders atIngalls Shipyard, job pay scales, and incen-tives.

NOVEMBER 15Activity: Representatives from IngallsShipbuilding David Cobb, trade manager,and Russell Bosarge, recruiter, explainedthe need for welders at the facility. Theypresented a film depicting the reconstruc-tion of the USS Cole. The meeting fol-lowed a cookout in the welding shop atMarshall Technical School in Huntsville,Ala.

HOLSTON VALLEYNOVEMBER 13Activity: The Section members visitedAngus-Palm, Inc., in Greeneville, Tenn.Tim Gary presented a tour of the facilityand offered an in-depth view of the fabri-cation and welding processes involved withthe production of ROPS (roll over protec-tion services). The dinner and meetingwere held at Ryan’s Restaurant inGreeneville.

Bob Christoffel (left) is shown with speakerWarren G. Alexander at the Northern NewYork Section program.

Andrew Miller conducted the ChattanoogaSection members on a tour of Komatsu.

Joe Livesay, District 8 director, is shown dur-ing the Chattanooga Section tour.

District 8Joe Livesay, director(931) 484-7502, ext. [email protected]

Holston Valley Section members are shown during their tour of Angus-Palm, Inc.

FEBRUARY 201384

Shown during the Northeast Tennessee Section tour are (from left) Caleb Anderson, Lucas Hicks, Charles Leopper, John Folk, PatrickWerner, Bruce Lowery, Brent Shattles, Chair Joshua Burgess, David Hoff, Philip Bodanza, Lloyd Cadd, District 8 Director Joe Livesay, Dar-ren Nail, Jim Werner, Chris Hayes, Paul Pipkin, Daniel Conner, and Jonaaron Jones.

Shown at the completion of their bridge-building project are (from left) Jerry Breeding, Tristen Staggs, Austin Branner, Branden Blanken-ship, Allen Gillpin, Lucas Matthews, David Abbott, Holden Tuddle, Malachi Summers, Austin Matthews, Jesse Warner, Wyatt Sullivan, andDavid Porter, advisor, Tennessee Technology Center at Red Boiling Springs Student Chapter.

NORTHEAST TENNESSEEOCTOBER 23Activity: The Section members visited Ma-terials Engineering & Testing Corp. in OakRidge, Tenn., for demonstrations and atour of its fabrication, welding, and mate-rials testing shop. Attendees includedmembers from other local Sections andwelding students from Tennessee Technol-ogy Center at Crossville and the Univer-sity of Tennessee. District 8 Director JoeLivesay attended the program.

Tennessee Tech. Center atRed Boiling Springs S.C.NOVEMBER 19Activity: The Student Chapter membersproudly displayed the foot bridge theywelded in cooperation with the Tech Cen-ter’s drafting class and machine shop stu-dents. Organizing the project was AdvisorDavid Porter, welding instructor, and amember of the Nashville Section.

Speaker Robert Ellig (left) is shown with MiltKemp, Lakeshore Section chair.

Speaker Robert Shaw (left) is shown withJeff Stanczak at the Chicago Section event.

District 9George Fairbanks Jr., director(225) [email protected]

District 10Robert E. Brenner, director(330) [email protected]

District 11Robert P. Wilcox, director(734) [email protected]

NORTHWEST OHIONOVEMBER 29Activity: The Section held an awards pres-entation program hosted by Chair RichardWest. Timothy Klement and Juan Huertareceived their Silver Member certificatesfor 25 years of service to the Society. Theevent was held at Tony Packo’s Cafe in EastToledo, Ohio.

District 12Daniel J. Roland, director(715) 735-9341, ext. [email protected]

BLIN

D P

ER

F

q Mr. q Ms. q Mrs. q Dr. Please print • Duplicate this page as needed

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87WELDING JOURNAL

LAKESHORENOVEMBER 8Speaker: Robert Ellig, presidentAffiliation: Bluco Modular FixturingTopic: Applications for Bluco productsActivity: The program was present atMachut’s Supper Club in Two Rivers, Wis.

CHICAGONOVEMBER 7Speaker: Robert E. Shaw, presidentAffiliation: Steel Structures Tech CenterTopic: New CWI requirements for makingbolting inspectionsActivity: The program was held at MamaLuigi’s Restaurant in Chicago, Ill.

NOVEMBER 30Activity: The Chicago Section membersheld its annual holiday outing at Brook-field Zoo.

LEXINGTONNOVEMBER 15Speaker: Tripp Tuggle, district sales man-agerAffiliation: HyperthermTopic: Plasma cutting

Activity: Bradly Rucker and Stephen Rotheach received a $500 Woodrow Scott Me-morial Scholarship, presented by weldinginstructors Shawn Gannon and Bobby Cof-fee and Chair Frank McKinley. Fifty-fivemembers and guests attended the event.

INDIANADECEMBER 8Activity: The Section held its Christmasparty at Holiday Inn Express in Anderson,Ind., for about 50 attendees.

Ivy Tech C. C. Student ChapterDECEMBER 8Activity: Advisor Robert Richwine, Dis-trict 14 director, joined eleven Chaptermembers to wrap presents they purchasedfor needy children in the area as part ofthe Ivy Tech C. C. Wish Tree Program.

Shown at the November Chicago Section program are (from left) George Novac, EricPurkey, Eric Krauss, Marty Vondra, and Chair Craig Tichelar.

Chicago Section Chair Craig Tichelar (far left, wearing a necktie) poses with BrookfieldZoo restaurant staff during the Section’s holiday outing.

Some of the Indiana Section members and guests are shown at the December program.

Shown at the Lexington Section program are (from left) Shawn Gannon, Bradly Rucker,Chair Frank McKinley, Stephen Roth, and Bobby Coffee.

District 13John Willard, director(815) [email protected]

Bethann Neal wraps a present at the Ivy TechC. C. Student Chapter event.

District 14Robert L. Richwine, director(765) [email protected]

FEBRUARY 201388

District 16Dennis Wright, director(913) [email protected]

Louisville Section members and guests are shown at Churchill Downs in November.

Curt Wilsoncroft demonstrated automated carbon arc gouging for the East Texas Sectionmembers and guests.

Shown at the East Texas Section program in October are (from left) Chair Bryan Baker,speaker Joel Armstrong, and J. Jones, District 17 director.

District 15David Lynnes, director(701) [email protected]

LOUISVILLENOVEMBER 25Activity: The Section members and guestsenjoyed a day of horse racing at ChurchillDowns in Louisville, Ky.

SANGAMON VALLEYNOVEMBER 15Activity: The Section held a students’ nightprogram featuring a welding competitionusing virtual reality welding machines. EricGleason, a recruiter for Midwest Techni-cal Institute, participated in the program.The event was held at Heartland Techni-cal Academy in Decatur, Ill.

NORTHERN PLAINSDECEMBER 1Activity: The Section held its first BoyScout welding merit badge training eventat Lynnes Welding Training, Inc., in Fargo,N.Dak., for 28 scouts from the NorthernLights Council. The welding instructors in-cluded District 15 Director Dave Lynnes,Jerod Tengesdal, Carl Tengesdal, and Kale

Burkey. Assisting were Wendi Stachler,Nathan Stachler, Tamra Maddock, ChuckChoate, Jeff Schneider, Thomas Springer,Adam Patterson, Cody Flynn, David Wills,Vinay Gopinath, Armon Myrick, MaceHarris, and Kurt Goltz. Donations werereceived from Mace Harris, Lincoln Elec-tric, Praxair, and American Welding andGas.

EAST TEXASAPRIL 26Activity: The Section members and weld-ing students met at Kilgore Jr. College inKilgore, Tex., for a demonstration of theArcair® Matic N7500 automated carbonarc gouging system. Curt Wilsoncroft fromVictor Technologies™ conducted the pro-gram.

OCTOBER 25Speaker: Joel ArmstrongAffiliation: Red Ball OxygenTopic: The responsibilities of CertifiedWelding InspectorsActivity: The program was held at Pa-pacita’s in Longview, Tex. District 17 Di-rector J. Jones attended the program.

NOVEMBER 15Speaker: Rachel BuchananAffiliation: Buchanan Insurance ServicesTopic: Insurance protection for weldersActivity: The meeting was held at Pa-pacita’s in Longview, Tex.

DECEMBER 11Activity: The East Texas Section hosted itsholiday party at Papacita’s Restaurant inLongview, Tex. Featured was a Toys forTots gift program urging attendees to bringan unwrapped toy to the party to benefitlocal needy children.

NORTH TEXASNOVEMBER 20Activity: The Section members toured theRed Ball Oxygen plant in Grand Prairie,Tex. Attending were Student Chaptermembers from Lincoln Tech and Hill Col-lege Cleburne campus. The tour was con-ducted by Jason Kirby, manager and a Sec-tion board member, who explained thequality control system. Charles Jones dis-cussed the refill rack system.

District 17J. Jones, director(940) [email protected]

89WELDING JOURNAL

Birds-eye view of the East Texas Section carbon arc gouging demonstration in April.

Instructor Ron Theiss (far right) is shown with the attendees at the Houston Section’s CWI training seminar.

Shown at the November Tulsa Section program are (from left) District 17 Director J. Jones,Jerry Knapp, Barry Lawrence, Todd Fradd, Scott Sutherland, and Ralph Johnson.

Charles Jones (left) and Jason Kirby led the North Texas Section tour of Red Ball Oxygen.

TULSAOCTOBER 23Activity: The Section members touredBLM Equipment and Mfg., Inc., inCatoosa, Okla. Eddie Michels, presidentand owner, described the methods used tomake storm shelters and pressure vessels.A highlight was a demonstration using anair canon to propel a 2 × 4 through a ply-wood wall simulating the destructivepower of tornadic winds.

NOVEMBER 27Speaker: Scott SutherlandAffiliation: Tri County Vocational SchoolTopic: How I became a welding instructorActivity: Scott Sutherland received theHoward E. Adkins Educator of the YearAward. District 17 Director J. Jones pre-sented AWS membership anniversary cer-tificates to Barry Lawrence (50 years),Ralph Johnson and Jerry Knapp (35years), and Todd Fradd (25 years). Theevent was held at Shiloh’s Restaurant inTulsa, Okla.

HOUSTONDECEMBER 1Activity: The Section held its annual so-cial event with a Casino Night theme atBrady’s Landing in Houston, Tex.

DECEMBER 3−7Activity: The Section hosted a three-dayCertified Welding Inspector seminar atEmbassy Suites Hotel in Houston, Tex., for48 attendees. Ron Theiss was the instruc-tor. John Bray, District 18 director, madea presentation about the Houston Sectionevents.

SABINEOCTOBER 16Speaker: Nev Aras, manager

District 18John Bray, director(281) [email protected]

FEBRUARY 201390

Shown at the Houston Section’s Casino Night event are (from left) Indumathi Segu, SatySegu, Luanne Bray, John Theiss, and Mike Young.

Alaska Section members are shown at the November program.

Affiliation: Industrial Thermal ServicesTopic: The importance of stress relievingusing heat treatingActivity: Among the 38 attendees werewelding students from Lamar TechnicalCollege. This Sabine Section program washeld at Catfish Kitchen in Beaumont, Tex.

ALASKANOVEMBER 28Speaker: Vince TuckerAffiliation: HyperthermTopic: Automated plasma cutting and fiberlaser systemsActivity: The program was held in Anchor-age, Alaska.

BRITISH COLUMBIANOVEMBER 20Speakers: David and Adam StasukAffiliation: Stasuk Testing & Inspection

Topic: Inspecting the tunnel liners on theSeymour-Capilano Twin Tunnel ProjectActivity: The program was held at the UAPiping Industry College of British Colum-bia in Delta, B.C., Canada.

OLYMPICDECEMBER 6Speaker: Chair Sjon DelmoreAffiliation: CK Worldwide, sales managerTopic: Cold wire GTAW applicationsActivity: Following the talk, Delmore pre-sented a hands-on demonstration of theprocess for the 35 attendees. The meetingwas held at Bates C. C. in Tacoma, Wash.

PUGET SOUNDDECEMBER 6Speaker: Mel Clifford, national strategicsales managerAffiliation: OTC-DaihenTopic: Advancements in digitally con-trolled GMAW power suppliesActivity: The Section presented $500scholarships to Art Schnitzer and RyanMcGuire. Welding students and staff fromRenton Technical College, South SeattleC. C., Lake Washington Technical College,and Everett C. C. attended the event.Chair Dan Sheets announced his plans forconducting a shielding gas workshop atEverett C. C.

Speaker Nev Aras (left) is shown with JohnMcKeehan, Sabine Section chair.

Pat Newhouse poses with speakers Adam (left) and David Stasuk at the British ColumbiaSection program.

District 19Ken Johnson, director(425) [email protected]

91WELDING JOURNAL

Olympic Section Chair Sjon Delmoredemonstrated GTA welding fundamentalsat the December program.

Welding students are shown at the Puget Sound Section program.

Shown at the Puget Sound Section program are (from left) Steve Pollard, Ryan McGuire,Art Schnitzer, and Steve Nielson.

The Idaho/Montana Section joined other local engineering societies for a holiday social in December.

Kirk Webb demonstrated the use of metalcore wires at the Idaho/Montana Section’sstudent program held Dec. 7.

Speaker Mel Clifford is shown with KenJohnson, District 19 director, at the PugetSound Section program.

District 20William A. Komlos, director(801) [email protected]

IDAHO/MONTANADECEMBER 6Activity: The Section members partici-pated in the Eastern Idaho EngineeringCouncil’s Christmas social held at ShiloInn in Idaho Falls, Idaho. John Buttles re-ceived the Section Meritorious Award. At-tending the event were members of thelocal chapters of ANS, ASCE, ASME,AlChE, IEEE, IAS, IWIN, ISA, ISPE,ACS, and TBP. The sponsors includedBasic American Foods, Idaho NationalLaboratory, Premier Technology, Inc., andWalker Engineering P.C.

DECEMBER 7Activity: Brigham Young University weld-ing students met for a technical presenta-tion and meal at the welding departmentfacilities. Kirk Webb of Hobart Brothers,assisted by Dan Cox of Norco Idaho Falls,discussed and demonstrated the use ofmetal core wires and pulsed spray trans-fer technology. The BYU welding studentsare working to recharter their StudentChapter by early this year.

FEBRUARY 201392

Attendees are shown at the New Mexico Section program in November.

District 21 board members and guests are (from left) Robert Doiron, Sam Lindsey, Holley Lindsey, Carolyn Compton, Ryan Compton, JackCompton, Connie Compton, Evelyn Schinder, Rich Samanich, District 21 Director Nanette Samanich, Mariana Ludmer, George Rolla,and Kenny Reid.

Scouts helped each other earn their BoyScout welding merit badges at the Sacra-mento Valley Section-sponsored event.

NEW MEXICONOVEMBER 30Speaker: Justin Forni, assistant coordina-tor, welding directorAffiliation: UA Plummers & PipefittersTopic: Application of the tip GTAWprocess for pipe weldingActivity: About 50 people attended theprogram, including members of the Cen-tral New Mexico C. C. Student Chapter.The program was held at J B HendersonConstruction Company in Albuquerque,N.Mex.

District 21Board Members MeetingNOVEMBER 12Activity: Members of the District 21 boardheld a meeting during FABTECH in LasVegas, Nev., headed by Nanette Samanich,District 21 director.

SACRAMENTO VALLEYAUGUST 18Activity: The Section sponsored a boyscout welding merit badge training andtesting program for 31 scouts and theirfamilies. Participating in the training wereScout Master Eric Wright of Wright Weld-ing, Thomas and Zachary Larsson of Lars-son Welding, Mike McGeehan of McGee-han Welding, Jesse Wood of J. W. Weld-ing, Doug Kyle of Kyles Portable Welding,Don Crossley of Croz Custom Metal Fab-rication, Mike Heidt of Heidt’s PortableWelding, Del Kovach of Kovach Welding,and Marvin, Jay, and Daniel Martinezfrom Advanced Welding Service.

District 22Kerry E. Shatell, director(925) [email protected]

District 21Nanette Samanich, director(702) [email protected]

93WELDING JOURNAL

New AWS Supporters

New Sustaining MembersAdvantech Industries, Inc.

3850 Buffalo Rd.Rochester, NY 14624

Representative: Jess P. Bedardwww.advantechindustries.com

Horizon Metals, Inc.8059 Lewis Rd.

Berea, OH 44017Representative: Paul Froehlich

www.horizonmetals.com

Smith Welding Products, Inc.109 Rickman Industrial Dr.

Holly Springs, GA 30142Representative: Wayne M. Blamire

www.smithwelding.comSmith Welding Products supplies a

complete line of products and servicesfor the welding and cutting industry. Inaddition to providing filler metals, indus-trial and specialty gases, and safety prod-ucts, it offers welder training and certifi-cation and procedure certifications.

Affiliate Companies Advanced Flow Systems

PO Box 709, STN WhonnockMaple Ridge BC V2W0C9

Canada

D & D Mechanical, Inc.2563 Bellwood Rd.

Richmond, VA 23237

Clarkdale Metals Corp.PO Box 910, 500 Luke Ln.

Clarkdale, AZ 86324

Element Fabricating, Inc.10703 N. Government Way

Hayden, ID 83835

Feinstein Iron Works, Inc.12683 Willets Point Blvd

Flushing, NY 11368

FindWelders.com9 Dalamar Ct.

Latham, NY 12110

KW Industries, Inc.909 Industrial Blvd.

Sugar Land, TX 77478

Mid Atlantic Contracting7749 Woodbine Rd.

Woodbine, MD 21797

Pioneer Power, Inc.570 Hatch Ave.

St. Paul, MN 55117

Robbins Mfg., Inc.200 Steel Rd., POB 87Fall River, WI 53932

Rus Industrial, LLC16030 Bear Bayou Dr.

Channelview, TX 77530

Total Marine Technology Pty. Ltd.1 Ambitious Link, Bibra Lake

Perth, WA6163, Australia

Supporting CompaniesHauck Mfg. Co.100 N. Harris St.Cleona, PA 17042

Mohammed Areef Arafat Construction and Metal Industries

PO Box 355850Riyadh, 11383, Saudi Arabia

Welding DistributorsCondo Welding Depot, Inc.

2950 W. 84th St., Bay #1Hialeah, FL 33018

ILMO Products Co.2728 S. 2nd St.

St. Louis, MO 63118

Educational InstitutionsCollege of the Sequoias

915 S. Mooney Blvd.Visalia, CA 93277

Catawba Valley C. C.2550 Hwy. 70 SE

Hickory, NC 28602

La Feria High School901 N. Canal St.

La Feria, TX 78559

Michigan State UniversityPhysical Plant

1147 Chestnut Rd.East Lansing, MI 48824

Mitchell Technical Institute1800 E. Spruce St.Mitchell, SD 57301

Ocean County Vo Tech1299 Old Freehold Rd.Toms River, NJ 08753

River Valley Technical Center307 South St.

Springfield, VT 05156

Supreme Institute of Technical Education

37/2236, A2, 1st Fl.r, Angel Te Duem,N. Palathuruthi Rd., Kathrikadavu

Cochin-Ernakulam, Kerala 682017

India

Vatterott College Kansas City4131 N. Corrington Ave.Kansas City, MO 64117

Virginia Military InstitutePreston Library345 Letcher Ave.

Lexington, VA 24450

American Welding Society memberswill receive a discounted fee to attend theLaser Institute of America (LIA) 5th An-nual Laser Additive Manufacturing Work-

shop to be held Feb. 12 at Hilton HoustonNorth Hotel in Houston, Tex. The two so-cieties have signed a cooperating societyagreement wherein AWS is listed as a Co-

operating Society for the event and AWSmembers receive the LIA member dis-count. For complete information, visitwww.lia.org/conferences/lam.

Laser Additive Manufacturing Workshop Offers Discounted Fee to AWS Members

FEBRUARY 201394

Guide to AWS ServicesAmerican Welding Society

8669 Doral Blvd., Ste. 130, Doral, FL 33166(800/305) 443-9353; FAX (305) 443-7559; www.aws.org

Staff phone extensions are shown in parentheses.

AWS PRESIDENTNancy C. Cole

[email protected] Engineering

2735 Robert Oliver Ave.Fernandina Beach, FL 32034

ADMINISTRATIONExecutive Director

Ray W. Shook.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . . .(210)

Sr. Associate Executive DirectorCassie R. Burrell.. [email protected] . . . . . .(253)

Chief Financial OfficerGesana Villegas.. [email protected] . . . . . .(252)

VP Sales and MarketingBill [email protected] . . . . . . . . . . . . .(211)

VP Technology and Business DevelopmentDennis [email protected] . . . . . . . . .(213)

Executive Assistant for Board ServicesGricelda Manalich.. [email protected] . . . . .(294)

Administrative ServicesManaging Director

Jim Lankford.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . . . . . .(214)

IT Network DirectorArmando [email protected] . .(296)

DirectorHidail Nuñ[email protected] . . . . . . . . . . . .(287)

Director of IT OperationsNatalia [email protected] . . . . . . . . . .(245)

Human ResourcesDirector, Compensation and Benefits

Luisa Hernandez.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . .(266)

Director, Human Resources Dora A. Shade.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . .(235)

International Institute of WeldingSenior Coordinator

Sissibeth Lopez . . [email protected] . . . . . . . . .(319)Liaison services with other national and internationalsocieties and standards organizations.

GOVERNMENT LIAISON SERVICESHugh K. Webster . . . . . . . . [email protected], Chamberlain & Bean, Washington, D.C.,(202) 785-9500; FAX (202) 835-0243. Monitors fed-eral issues of importance to the industry.

CONVENTION and EXPOSITIONSDirector, Convention and Meeting Services

Matthew [email protected] . . . . . . .(239)

ITSA — International Thermal Spray Association

Senior Manager and EditorKathy [email protected] . . .(232)

RWMA — Resistance Welding Manufacturing Alliance

Management SpecialistKeila [email protected] . . . .(444)

WEMCO — Association of Welding Manufacturers

Management SpecialistKeila [email protected] . . . .(444)

Brazing and Soldering Manufacturers’ Committee

Jeff Weber.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . . . . . .(246)

GAWDA — Gases and Welding Distributors Association

Executive DirectorJohn Ospina.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . . .(462)

Operations ManagerNatasha Alexis.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . .(401)

INTERNATIONAL SALESManaging Director, Global Exposition Sales

Joe [email protected] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(297)

Corporate Director, International SalesJeff P. [email protected] . . . . . . .(233)Oversees international business activities involvingcertification, publication, and membership.

PUBLICATION SERVICESDepartment Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(275)

Managing DirectorAndrew Cullison.. [email protected] . . . . . .(249)

Welding JournalPublisher

Andrew Cullison.. [email protected] . . . . . .(249)

EditorMary Ruth Johnsen.. [email protected] . .(238)

National Sales DirectorRob Saltzstein.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . . . .(243)

Society and Section News EditorHoward [email protected] . .(244)

Welding HandbookEditor

Annette O’Brien.. [email protected] . . . . . . .(303)

MARKETING COMMUNICATIONSDirector

Ross Hancock.. [email protected] . . . . . . .(226)

Public Relations ManagerCindy [email protected] . . . . . . . . . . . .(416)

WebmasterJose [email protected] . . . . . . . . .(456)

Section Web EditorHenry [email protected] . . . . . . . . .(452)

MEMBER SERVICESDepartment Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(480)

Sr. Associate Executive DirectorCassie R. Burrell.. [email protected] . . . . . .(253)

DirectorRhenda A. Kenny... [email protected] . . . . . .(260) Serves as a liaison between Section members and AWSheadquarters.

CERTIFICATION SERVICESDepartment Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(273)

Managing DirectorJohn L. Gayler.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . . .(472)Oversees all certification activities including all inter-national certification programs.

Director, Certification OperationsTerry [email protected] . . . . . . . . . . . . .(470)Oversees application processing, renewals, and examscoring.

Director, Certification ProgramsLinda [email protected] . . . . . . .(298)Oversees the development of new certification pro-grams, as well as AWS-Accredited Test Facilities, andAWS Certified Welding Fabricators.

EDUCATION SERVICES Director, Operations

Martica Ventura.. [email protected] . . . . . .(224)

Director, Education DevelopmentDavid Hernandez.. [email protected] . . .(219)

AWS AWARDS, FELLOWS, COUNSELORSSenior Manager

Wendy S. Reeve.. [email protected] . . . . . . . .(293)Coordinates AWS awards, Fellow, Counselor nom-inees.

TECHNICAL SERVICESDepartment Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(340)

Managing DirectorAndrew R. Davis.. [email protected] . . . . . . .(466)International Standards Activities, American Coun-cil of the International Institute of Welding (IIW)

Director, National Standards ActivitiesAnnette Alonso.. [email protected] . . . . . . .(299)

Manager, Safety and HealthStephen P. Hedrick.. [email protected] . . . . . .(305)Metric Practice, Safety and Health, Joining of Plas-tics and Composites, Welding Iron Castings, Per-sonnel and Facilities Qualification

Managing Engineer, StandardsBrian McGrath .... [email protected] . . . . .(311)Structural Welding, Methods of Inspection, Me-chanical Testing of Welds, Welding in Marine Con-struction, Piping and Tubing

Senior Staff EngineerRakesh Gupta.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . . .(301)Filler Metals and Allied Materials, InternationalFiller Metals, UNS Numbers Assignment, ArcWelding and Cutting Processes

Standards Program ManagersEfram Abrams.. [email protected] . . . . . . . .(307)Thermal Spray, Automotive, Resistance Welding,Machinery and Equipment

Stephen Borrero... [email protected] . . . . .(334)Brazing and Soldering, Brazing Filler Metals andFluxes, Brazing Handbook, Soldering Handbook,Railroad Welding, Definitions and Symbols

Alex Diaz.... [email protected] . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(304)Welding Qualification, Sheet Metal Welding, Air-craft and Aerospace, Joining of Metals and Alloys

Patrick Henry.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . . .(215)Friction Welding, Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cut-ting, High-Energy Beam Welding, Robotics Weld-ing, Welding in Sanitary Applications

Senior Manager, Technical PublicationsRosalinda O’Neill.. [email protected] . . . . . . .(451)AWS publishes about 200 documents widely usedthroughout the welding industry

Note: Official interpretations of AWS standardsmay be obtained only by sending a request in writ-ing to Andrew R. Davis, managing director, Tech-nical Services, [email protected].

Oral opinions on AWS standards may be ren-dered, however, oral opinions do not constitute of-ficial or unofficial opinions or interpretations ofAWS. In addition, oral opinions are informal andshould not be used as a substitute for an officialinterpretation.

AWS FOUNDATION, Inc.www.aws.org/w/a/foundation

General Information(800/305) 443-9353, ext. 212, [email protected]

Chairman, Board of TrusteesGerald D. Uttrachi

Executive Director, FoundationSam Gentry.. [email protected]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (331)

Corporate Director, Workforce Development Monica Pfarr.. [email protected]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (461)

The AWS Foundation is a not-for-profit corpora-tion established to provide support for the educa-tional and scientific endeavors of the American Weld-ing Society.

Promote the Foundation’s work with your financialsupport. Call (800) 443-9353, ext. 212, for completeinformation.

Airgas Names West RegionPresident

Airgas, Inc., Radnor, Pa., has namedDavid Shedd president of the Airgas West

region. He succeedsSamuel Thompsonwho has left the com-pany. Shedd most re-cently worked forOldcastle Precastwhere he was presi-dent of the nationalmanufacturing divi-sion and its centralregion.

SIFCO Names CFO

SIFCO Industries, Inc., Cleveland,Ohio, a supplier of forged products andheat-treating, coating, welding, and ma-chining services for the aerospace andother industries, has named Catherine(Kate) Kramer CFO, succeeding FrankCappello who has left the company. Previ-

ously, Kramer served the company as di-rector of financial planning and analysis.

GH Induction HiresMidwest Sales Manager

GH Induction Atmospheres,Rochester, N.Y., has hired MichaelMaiorino as its midwest regional salesmanager, serving customers in Michigan,Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. Maiorino hasmany years of sales experience with aprocess heating and controls manufactur-ing company.

Gateway Hires Product Development Manager

Gateway Safety, Cleveland, Ohio, hasappointed Greg Schmidt to the newly cre-ated position of product developmentmanager for all of the company’s productcategories including eye, face, head, hear-ing, and respiratory protection. Previ-ously, Schmidt served as a product man-

ager for Applied Industrial Technologiesand earlier as a design engineer and prod-uct manager for Rockwell Automation.

Wall Colmonoy (UK) MakesStaff Changes

Wall Colmonoy Ltd. (UK), Pontar-dawe Swansea, UK, has promoted NickClark to machine shop business unit man-ager for the UK facility and named MarkHarrison continuous improvement man-ager. Clark joined the company last yearas a process engineer in the Alloy ProductsGroup. Previously, he served four years asan intelligence officer with the rank ofcaptain in the U.S. Marine Corps. Harri-son has 18 years of experience in Six Sigmaand Lean methodologies he acquiredwhile working for Honeywell, PowerPart-ners, and Masco UK Windows Group.

Intelligrated® AppointsSales Account Manager

Intelligrated®, Cincinnati, Ohio, an au-tomated material-handling productprovider, has appointed Mike McCarthy a

sales account man-ager, responsible forsupporting clientswithin the company’sdistribution and fulfill-ment business. Priorto joining the com-pany, McCarthyserved as a sales exec-utive for GE Health-care and worked onthe installation teamfor The Buschman Co.

Noble Gas Hires Three

Noble Gas Solutions, Albany, N.Y., asupplier of welding equipment and gases,

PERSONNEL

FEBRUARY 201396

David Shedd

Nick Clark Mark Harrison

Mike McCarthy


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has named AndrewCarnevale secondshift high-pressurecylinder technician,Frank Gazeley a storesales trainee, andThaddeus Mil-czewski second shiftcylinder handler.Carnevale has experi-ence in landscaping,Gazeley previously

served as manager of a local golf course,and Milczewski has experience in thetransportation industry.

Caster Concepts AppointsSales Representative

Caster Concepts, Inc., Albion, Mich., asupplier of heavy-duty industrial castersand wheels, has appointed Kurtis Myers aterritory sales representative for the EastCoast region. Myers previously served thecompany for five years as purchasing andinventory manager.

Matheson Changes UpperManagement Assignments

Matheson, Basking Ridge, N.J., a sup-plier of industrial gases and associatedequipment, has announced its currentchairman and CEO William J. Kroll hasassumed the role of executive chairman ofthe board of directors, and current presi-dent and COO Scott Kallman will transi-tion to president and CEO. Kroll hasserved as chairman and CEO for the pastnine years and will continue to serve as amember of the board of directors of TaiyoNippon Sanso Corp., the company’s par-ent company. Kallman assumes responsi-bility for corporate administration, legalservices, human resources, business de-velopment, information technology,R&D, marketing, and finance.

Andrew Carnevale Frank Gazeley

T. Milczewski

PERSONNEL— continued from page 96

FEBRUARY 201398

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Filler Metals Approved forCommercial Applications

The company’s patent-pending 4943aluminum filler metals, including

GMAW wire and GTAW cut-lengths, fea-ture AWS A5.10 classification and ASMEF23 allocation. Developed in response to

industry demands for a higher-strengthaluminum welding product that offers theadvantage of using a 4043 aluminum fillermetal, the filler metals are suitable for el-evated-temperature applications. Bothfiller metals can be used for welding au-tomotive and motorcycle frames, wheels,furniture, ladders and frames, ship decks,pleasure boats, bicycles, and aerospaceapplications, as well as A356.0 casting repairs.

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Obituaries

John D. Miller

John D. Miller, 73, died Dec. 17 in Her-shey, Pa. A CWI and an AWS Life Mem-ber, he was active for nearly 40 years with

the Reading Sectionwhere he served aschair for three terms.He served a tour ofduty in the U.S.Army, and for 29years, was a produc-tion manager forPRL Industries inCornwall, Pa. Millerwas a member of theLiberty MarchingClub, Rexmont Fire

Co., Newmanstown Athletic Association,AmVets, and the Lebanon American Le-gion and Veterans of Foreign Wars. Hishobbies included playing bluegrass music,hunting, and fishing. He is survived by hiswife, Betty, four children, seven grand-children, and two brothers.

Glenn W. Oyler

Glenn W. Oyler, 89, an AWS Coun-selor, died Dec. 29 in Albuquerque,N.Mex. An AWS member since 1952,

Oyler servedas a District 1director, direc-tor-at- large,and AWS tech-nical director(1977−1981).He also servedas executive di-rector andpresident ofthe WeldingR e s e a r c hCouncil, a del-egate to 20 IIWWorld Assem-

blies, and chaired Commission VII Re-search and Development. In 1941, heworked as a welder for Fairchild AircraftCorp. and as a welder in the Army AirCorps (1942−1945). He received his bach-elor’s, master’s, and doctorate degreesfrom Penn State University, University ofPittsburgh, and Lehigh University, respec-tively. He worked for ALCOA while get-ting his master’s degree. He worked seven

years for the Linde Division of Union Car-bide in New Jersey where he helped de-velop the plasma arc cutting process. In1960, he became the chief welding engi-neer of the Nuclear Division of Texas In-struments in Massachusetts, and workedwith Adm. Rickover in the fabrication ofnuclear reactor fuel cores for the NavalNuclear Reactor Program. In 1963, he be-came director of applied research and de-velopment for ACF Industries in Albu-querque. Oyler next worked in the SpaceProgram, first for Lockheed Corp. thenMartin Marietta Corp. In 1973, he trans-ferred to the Martin Marietta’s MichoudPlant as chief welding engineer in chargeof building the first Space Shuttle externalfuel tank. Oyler was a Fellow of ASM In-ternational, the National Space Society,and the British Welding Institute. Heserved as a member of the ASME PressureVessel and Boiler Code Committee. Hereceived numerous awards and publishedmany papers and lectured widely aboutspace exploration. Following his retire-ment in 1989, he worked on cruise shipsfor 20 years as a dance host. Oyler is sur-vived by three children, three grandchil-dren, two great-grandchildren, and abrother.◆

101WELDING JOURNAL

Glenn W. Oyler

John D. Miller

PERSONNEL— continued from page 98

PRODUCT & PRINTSPOTLIGHT

— continued from page 31

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vide significant mass reduction at the lowest possible cost,” saidLawrence W. Kavanagh, president, Steel Market DevelopmentInstitute. “This is significant, as automakers have the challeng-ing task of developing affordable vehicles that meet new andtightening regulations.”

In addition to its cost advantage, steel’s ability to provide crashperformance for safety was also confirmed in this report.

PFERD Training Academy Debuts

The PFERD Training Academy has been opened at the com-pany’s manufacturing facility in Milwaukee, Wis. This space is asafe, controlled working environment equipped with a broad se-lection of power tools and product samples. It is also staffed byan experienced team of technical experts trained at the com-pany’s worldwide headquarters in Marienheide, Germany.

Courses include classroom sessions and practical lab applica-tions covering its line of abrasives, TC burs, files, mounted points,specialty abrasive products, brushes, and power tools. Trainingschedules consist of two-and-a-half day sessions with meals, lodg-ing, and ground transportation to and from the airport providedfor attendees. All training manuals and materials are providedas well, and completion certificates are awarded.

National Technical Manager, Sam Lombardo, has a broadbackground in the metalworking industry. Phil Benincaso,PFERD training manager, has been with the company for morethan twenty years. Other staff members include trainers ImreKaretka and Kevin Kolb.

Airgas Supports Operation Homefront;Acquires Four Businesses

Airgas, Inc., Radnor, Pa., has reaffirmed its Operation Home-front commitment, a charity that supports America’s troops byproviding emergency assistance/moral support to the family mem-bers left behind when they are deployed.

Airgas Executive Chairman Peter McCausland along with Air-gas President and CEO Mike Molinini recently presented Oper-ation Homefront President and CEO Jim Knotts with a $100,000donation. An other $100,000 donation will be made during 2013.

In related company news, Airgas acquired the assets and op-erations of four businesses, including U.S. Welding & Safety Sup-ply Co., Miami, Fla.; Rebel Welding & Industrial Supply, Inc.,with operations in Vicksburg, Miss., and Tallulah, La.; SadlerWelding Products, LLC, with facilities in Dothan, Eufaula, andTroy, Ala., plus Panama City, Fla.; and Rochester Welding Sup-ply Corp., with locations in Rochester and Manchester, N.Y.

Steel Dynamics Structural and Rail Divisionto Expand Production

Steel Dynamics, Inc., plans to install a heat-treating system atits Columbia City, Ind., structural and rail division. When opera-tional, the system will be capable of producing up to 350,000 tonsof standard strength and head-hardened plain, carbon steel railsfor North America’s railroad industry.

Capital investments are estimated to be slightly less than $27million. Site preparation will start immediately with constructionexpected to begin in the first quarter of 2013. The company an-ticipates it will commission the system before the end of 2013.Production ramp-up is expected to continue through 2015, reach-ing full production of 350,000 tons in early 2016. This expansionis expected to create nearly 40 new, full-time jobs.

In addition, the company’s new process will involve a mod-ern, universal mill capable of rolling 320-ft-long rails.

Caster Concepts Starts New Addition

Caster Concepts, Inc., a manufacturer of heavy-duty indus-trial casters and wheels, recently broke ground on a 21,000-sq-ftaddition to its current headquarters in Albion, Mich.

Site work will begin immediately, and as spring breaks, con-struction will begin on the footings and steel structure with com-pletion expected in mid-summer. This addition will bring thecompany’s facility to approximately 65,000 sq ft.

The official name of the existing building is The Richard H.Dobbins Building for Manufacturing. “My father would be veryexcited about this announcement as he loved manufacturing andwas very proud of this business,” said William Dobbins, president.

Industry Notes• Global research and development spending is forecast to grow

by 3.7%, or $53.7 billion, in 2013 to $1.5 trillion, accordingto the forecast by Battelle and R&D Magazine. The full re-port can be found through www.battelle.org.

• Workers at NASA earned a U.S. Patent (#8,290,006) for de-vising a dynamically variable spot size system, incorporatinga plurality of lenses, to use in laser welding and brazing metalcomponents.

• Osborn, Cleveland, Ohio, recently celebrated its 125th an-niversary. Founded by John J. Osborn in 1887, the companynow offers more than 10,000 standard finishing products, andis publishing its history in a coffee-table book.

• GM recently announced the next-generation Chevrolet Ca-maro will be assembled at the Lansing Grand River Assem-bly Plant, Lansing, Mich., as building it there consolidatesthe rear-wheel drive assembly with the Cadillac CTS and ATS.

FEBRUARY 2013102

NEWS OF THE INDUSTRY— continued from page 12

Attendees receive hands-on experience at PFERD’s Training Acad-emy that represents an upgrade in product training for distributors.

• Lynnes Welding Training, Inc., Fargo, N.Dak., owned by AWSDistrict 15 Director Dave Lynnes, attained accreditation bythe Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges.Also, the school offered its first of what is expected to bemany Boy Scout Welding Merit Badge Days to 28 of the BoyScouts of the Northern Lights Council (Northern District).

• Progress Rail Services, Albertville, Ala., purchased the mo-bile welding assets from RibbonWeld LLC, Springfield, Mo.,a rail welding company. They will become part of its rail weld-ing subsidiary, Chemetron Railway Products, Inc.

• At a dedication ceremony, Norfolk Southern, Atlanta, Ga.,named its rail welding facility after the late Hubert L. Rose,who retired from the company after a 43-year career.

• Penn Stainless Products, Quakertown, Pa., installed two newKoike Aronson Versagraph Millennium Series plasma cuttingsystems (model 3100) with Hypertherm HPR800XD HyPer-formance® technology.

• Allan Hancock College, Santa Maria, Calif., has been awardeda $300,000 Industry Driven Regional Collaborative Grantfrom the California Community College Chancellor’s Office.It will fund purchasing robotic welding and CNC machinery.

• Coherent, Inc., Santa Clara, Calif., acquired Lumera LaserGmbH, Kaiserslautern, Germany, a producer of fast lasersfor microelectronics and precision materials processing.

• Joining Technologies, Inc., East Granby, Conn., an industriallaser applications company, is celebrating its 20th anniver-sary. Founded in 1992 by Michael Francoeur, it provides nu-merous services, including laser welding and cladding.

• Solar Atmospheres of California recently added low pressurevacuum carburizing to its vacuum heat treating, air temper-ing, and cryogenic services.

• The AWS Schools Excelling through National Skill Stan-dards Education Level I and National Center for Construc-tion Education and Research Level I and II curriculums arenow incorporated into Mohave Community College’s weld-ing program at the Neal Campus-Kingman, Ariz.

• Arc Energy Resources, Gloucestershire, U.K., invested in aFaro portable coordinate measuring arm, advancing inspec-tion facilities for its weld overlay cladding services.

• Norton Abrasives, Worcester, Mass., introduced a new globalbrand standards program that will unify branding effortsworldwide and includes its parallelogram logo.

• SparkFun Electronics is included in a new initiative betweenVermont and For Inspiration and Recognition of Science andTechnology (FIRST) Robotics. The pilot program, in place at10 career and technical education institutions, offers a $3000grant.◆

103WELDING JOURNAL

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It is the premier welding fabrication and machining company in N.W. Pa. serving anumber of Fortune 500 companies. It has an immediate opening for a Quality Management/Weld Engineering position. Successful candidate must possess atechnical degree or equivalent; must have a working knowledge of ASME Section IXand AWS D 1.1 standards and procedures. Extensive welding experience is required,ASME Pressure Vessel Code knowledge a plus. Management/supervisoryexperience required.

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Introduction

Interstitial-free (IF) steel has been re-garded as an important class of new-gener-ation steel where the content of interstitialsolute (carbon and nitrogen) is broughtdown below 50 ppm in order to avoid dis-continuous yielding and strain aging (whichincreases strength at the expense of ductil-ity). This steel, therefore, possesses excel-lent formability and finds an extensiveapplication in thin-sheet galvannealed (zinc-coated) form in automotive industries formaking car bodies (Ref. 1). In general, thejoining of zinc-coated thin steel sheets byconventional arc welding processes, such asgas metal arc welding (GMAW), gas tung-sten arc welding (GTAW), and others, en-

counters several difficulties. The main diffi-culty of arc welding arises due to high arcenergy that causes vaporization of the zinccoating. This occurs not only at the joint re-gion but also at a relatively large areaaround the joint (Refs. 2, 3). Other issueswith arc welding include a wider heat-af-fected zone (HAZ), generation of spatter,risk of melt through, potential contamina-tion, and relatively large residual stress gen-eration and associated distortion (Refs. 3,4). On the other hand, in automotive indus-tries, the bare steel sheets are efficientlyjoined by resistance spot welding using acopper electrode. However, for zinc-coatedsteel sheets, copper electrodes deterioratequickly through alloying with Zn (Refs.5–9). This requires frequent replacement ofelectrodes in resistance spot welding for

joining zinc-coated steel sheets. In recentyears, in order to overcome such problems anovel combination of GMAW and brazingprocesses (called GMA brazing) has beenproposed where the consumable electrode(usually a copper-based alloy) itself acts asthe filler metal that melts and fills the jointclearance between thin steel sheets throughcapillary action (following the principle ofbrazing), while the steel sheets remain atsolid state since the process is carried out atmuch lower heat input (Refs. 2, 3). In theprocess, the zinc coating only vaporizes lo-cally at the joint region. While the joint re-gion is being filled by the copper-basedbraze alloy, the corrosion resistance andaesthetic appearance are maintained. Melt-through risk, generation of spatter, residualstress, and distortion are reduced due tolower heat input requirements, which alsoaccount for energy savings. The main chal-lenge of this process is to achieve adequatejoint strength (100% joint efficiency) withthe use of a copper-based (nonferrous) fillermetal. While joining DP 600 and TRIP 700steel sheets by GMA brazing process withcopper-based filler metals containing Al-Niand Mn-Al, Chovet and Guiheux (Ref. 3)reported difficulty in obtaining 100% jointefficiency. Moreover, only a few researchworks have been carried out with regard tothe application of this novel process on zinc-coated common steel sheets, which mainlydeal with mechanical parameters (Refs.2–4). The influence of shielding gases andprocess parameters on metal transfer andbead shape in GMA brazed joints of zinc-coated steel plates has been investigated byIordachescu et al. (Ref. 4). The short-circuitmode of metal transfer with argon-basedgas mixture containing H2 and He was re-ported to provide acceptable bead shapeand adequate arc stability. However, the in-depth microstructural study with regard tothe joining process (phase evolution, ther-modynamic stability of phases, etc.) is stillpending. Moreover, the application ofGMA brazing particularly on IF steel inorder to achieve 100% joint efficiency is not

SUPPLEMENT TO THE WELDING JOURNAL, FEBRUARY 2013Sponsored by the American Welding Society and the Welding Research Council

GMA Brazing of Galvannealed Interstitial-Free Steel

A unique process that combines brazing and gas metal arc welding has displayedan ability to reach 100% joint efficiency in thin zinc-coated steel

BY S. BASAK, T. K. PAL, M. SHOME, AND J. MAITY

KEYWORDS

IF SteelBrazing Diffusion α1 Interface Dispersed Fe5Si3

S. BASAK ([email protected]) is sen-ior research fellow and T. K. PAL ([email protected]) is professor, Metallurgical & MaterialEngineering Department, Jadavpur University,Kolkata, West Bengal, India. M. SHOME([email protected]) is head, MaterialCharacterization and Joining Research Group, R& D, Tata Steel Ltd., Jamshedpur, Jharkhand,India. J. MAITY ([email protected])is Associate Professor, Department of Metallurgi-cal and Materials Engineering, National Instituteof Technology Durgapur, Durgapur, West Bengal,India.

ABSTRACT

The gas metal arc (GMA) brazing process (a novel approach that combines GMAwelding and brazing) was applied for joining a new-generation automotive steel (in-terstitial-free steel) using silicon-containing copper-based filler metal. During this join-ing process, an interface region of very high hardness was developed through thediffusion of the silicon present in the molten braze metal into the solid steel. The in-terface microstructure consisted of silicon-enriched, iron-based intermediate phaseα1 for lower heat input and dispersed submicroscopic Fe5Si3 particles in α1 matrix

for higher heat input. The calculated diffusion distance of silicon was in excellentagreement with the measured interface width, which envisaged the diffusion of siliconin iron matrix as the controlling factor for evolution of the interface region. The ther-modynamic calculations exhibited the lowest Gibbs free-energy change for Fe5Si3 ascompared to other compounds of Fe and Si to justify the stability of Fe5Si3 in the mi-crostructure. Accordingly, during tensile shear tests, the failure occurred in the basemetal region, i.e., not at the harder and stronger joint interface. These results sug-gested a successful joining with 100% joint efficiency.

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readily available as a research report. In the present research work, the GMA

brazing process is applied for joining gal-vannealed IF steel sheets using silicon- con-taining copper-based braze alloy to achieve100% joint efficiency. The detailed processmechanism in view of atomic diffusion andthermodynamic phase stability is analyzedin correlation with phase evolution typicallycharacterized by optical metallography,field emission scanning electron microscopy(FESEM), FESEM-based energy dispersiveX-ray spectroscopy (EDS), high resolutiontransmission electron microscopy (TEM),and TEM-based selected area electron dif-fraction.

Experimental Procedure

The material for the present investiga-tion is zinc-coated (galvannealed) sheets

of interstitial-freesteel (Grade:HIF-GA) of 1mm thickness.The chemicalcomposition ofthis steel is shownin Table 1. Theas-received steelsheets were degreased with acetone andsuitably clamped together to form a lapjoint. Thereafter, GMA brazing of the lapjoint was performed using a pulsed-syner-gic machine of 270-A capacity (Trans PulseSynergic 2700 4R/E, Fronius, Austria) withcopper-based filler metal (consumableelectrode) containing 3.7 wt-% silicon. Aschematic experimental setup is shown inFig. 1. The GMA brazing was carried outat two different heat inputs (considering70% machine efficiency) with varying cur-

rent and welding speed as given in Table 2.The torch was traversed automaticallyalong the edge of the upper sheet. The lapjoint with a forehand travel angle of about70 deg and a working angle of 20 deg wasmaintained. Pure argon was used as theshielding gas at a flow rate of 12 L min−1.During GMA brazing, the temperatureprofile of the joint region near the inter-face for the two different heat inputs(specimens P1 and P2) was measured withan R-type (platinum-rhodium) thermo-couple of 1.5 mm diameter using a digitaltemperature recorder (MV1000, Yoko-gawa, Japan).

After GMA brazing, the small sampleswere cut from the joint region along thetransverse section of the welded sheet formetallographic evaluation. These speci-mens were polished with successive gradesof emery papers up to 1000-grit size fol-lowed by cloth polishing with 1-μm diamondpaste and thereafter etched with a 2% Nitalsolution. The metallographic specimenswere examined under optical microscope(Zeiss, Imager A1m, Germany), and aFESEM (Zeiss, SUPRA25, Germany)equipped with EDS detector (INCA Penta

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Fig. 1 — Schematic diagram of the GMA brazing process. A — Experimen-tal setup; B — GMA brazing procedure with forehand travel angle; C — withworking angle.

A

B C

Fig. 2— Schematic diagram of tensile test specimen.

Fig. 4 — Optical microstructure of the unaffected base metal.

Fig. 3 — Typical macrophotograph of the IF steel sheets joined by GMA braz-ing process (higher heat input).

Table 1 — Chemical Composition of the IF Steel Sheet (wt-%)

C Si Mn P Ti Fe

0.0024 0.094 0.470 0.027 0.035 balance

Table 2 — GMA Brazing Parameters

Specimen Mean Mean Wire Feed Welding HeatCode Current Voltage Speed Speed Input

(A) (V) (mm s–1) (mm s–1) (J mm–1)

P1 44 16.6 60.00 8.33 61.38P2 60 18.0 81.67 6.67 113.34

FET, Oxford, UK). Grain size of ferrite inrelevant optical images was measured interms of average grain diameter as perASTM E112 standard (Ref. 10). The areafractions occupied by relevant phases weremeasured by standard point count analysis(Ref. 10). In order to identify the differentphases present as a whole in the joint re-gion, specimens were subjected to X-ray dif-fraction (XRD) analysis with slow scan rate(1 deg min–1) in a high-resolution X-ray dif-fractometer (X’ Pert Pro, PANalytical In-struments, Netherlands). Subsequently, thinfoils of the specimens were studied under ahigh-resolution TEM (CM-70, Philips Ltd.,Netherlands) equipped with selected areaelectron diffraction.

Cross sections of the specimens from thejoint region were also mounted for micro-hardness testing. Microhardness measure-ments were taken at a load of 50 gf along aline perpendicular to the joint interfaceusing a standard microhardness testing ma-chine (AMH43, LECO, U.S.A.). Finally,the lap joint samples were machined to pre-pare standard tensile-shear test specimensfollowing DIN EN 10002-1 standard (Ref.11). A schematic diagram of the tensileshear test specimen is shown in Fig. 2. Ten-sile shear tests were carried out in a 100-kNcapacity universal testing machine (Instron-8862, UK) at a crosshead speed of 0.5 mmmin−1. The loading direction for tensileshear test is indicated on the macrophoto-graph of the lap joint — Fig. 3.

Results and Discussion

Microstructural Evolution at the Joint Region

A typical macrophotograph of the IFsteel sheets joined by GMA brazingprocess is shown in Fig. 3. The region ofthe joint selected for metallographic studyis clearly highlighted on the figure. Withregard to the microstructural areas of in-terest, the joint region after GMA brazingof the IF steel have been classified as: 1)unaffected base metal, 2) heat-affectedzone (HAZ), 3) interface region, and 4)braze metal. The typical optical mi-crostructure of the unaffected base metalin etched condition is shown in Fig. 4,which is comprised of equiaxed polygonalferrite grains. The measured grain size ofpolygonal ferrite is 34 µm.

The FESEM backscattered electronimages along with EDS elemental map-ping of the joint region are presented inFigs. 5, 6. They depict the overall view ofthe different significant parts for both thespecimens (P1 with lower heat input andP2 with higher heat input) in as-polished(unetched) condition. Furthermore, theEDS line scans of the joint region for P1and P2 are shown in Fig. 7. The optical mi-crostructures of the HAZ region of the

specimens in etched condition are pre-sented in Fig. 8A and B. These mi-crostructures of HAZ exhibit destroyedpolygonal ferrite grains and the presenceof acicular ferrite. The equiaxed polygonalgrain morphology is mostly destroyed dueto thermal cycle experienced by this re-gion. The thermal cycle (temperature-timehistory) of the joint region during theGMA brazing process is shown in Fig. 9.According to Cu-Si phase diagram (Ref.12), the solidification range of Cu-3.7 wt-% Si alloy (filler metal) is 940°–1010°C.

During brazing, the joint regions of thespecimens, P1 (lower heat input) and P2(higher heat input), were heated to themaximum recorded temperatures of 1017°and 1184°C, respectively — Fig. 9. These

temperatures are higher than the liquidustemperature (1010°C) of the fillermetal/electrode and below the solidustemperature of the IF steel (which is closeto the melting point of the pure iron,1539°C, carbon content being very low).Accordingly, the brazing filler metal meltsand fills the joint to form braze metal;whereas, the IF steel sheets remain at solidstate as per the concept of GMA brazing.However, these maximum temperaturesare relatively high and close to the solidustemperature of the IF steel. Furthermore,the average cooling rates calculated fromFig. 9 in the solidification range(940°–1010°C) for P1 and P2 are 108°C s−1

and 82°C s−1, respectively. Besides, be-tween 910° and 723°C (expected austen-

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Fig. 5 — EDS elemental mapping of the as-polished joint region of P1. A — FESEM backscattered elec-tron image; B — distribution of iron (Fe Kα); C — distribution of silicon (Si Kα); D — distribution ofcopper (Cu Kα ).

Fig . 6 — EDS elemental mapping of the as-polished joint region of P2. A — FESEM back sscatteredelectron image; B — distribution of iron (Fe Kα); C — distribution of silicon (Si Kα); D — distributionof copper (Cu Kα ).

A

A

B

B

C

C

D

D

ite-to-ferrite transformation regime inHAZ), the calculated average coolingrates for P1 and P2 are 228°C s−1 and133°C s−1, respectively. Therefore, the re-gion of the steel just adjacent to the jointinterface (HAZ region) is heated to a hightemperature and subsequently subjectedto nonequilibrium fast rate of cooling(133°–228°C s−1). The fast rate of coolingis attributed to heat transfer through adja-cent base metal that possesses relativelyhigh thermal conductivity. Accordingly,the HAZ region exhibits destroyed polyg-onal ferrite grains and the presence of aci-cular ferrite. A rapid cooling from hightemperature would result in displacivetransformation to generate needlelike aci-cular ferrite involving para-equilibriumnucleation and diffusionless growth, asalso reported elsewhere in low-carbonsteel systems (Ref. 13).

The FESEM backscattered electronimages and corresponding EDS elementalmapping (Figs. 5, 6) and EDS line scans(Fig. 7) indicate that the interface regionis comprised of Fe and Si in both speci-mens (P1 and P2). The FESEM-basedEDS spot analysis carried out within the

interface region indicated that the compo-sition range of Si was 9.96–12.47 wt-% inan iron matrix considering both specimens(P1 and P2). According to Fe-Si phase di-agram (Fig. 10), at this composition rangeof silicon, the α1 phase is stable at roomtemperature. The α1 possesses a body-centered cubic (BCC) crystal structure(Ref. 12). The high-resolution bright fieldTEM images along with selected area dif-fraction pattern (SADP) of the interfaceregion are presented in Fig. 11A and B.The specimen with low-heat input (P1) ex-hibits only the presence of BCC α1 phaseat the interface — Fig. 11A. However, thespecimen with high heat input (P2) showsthe presence of fine round-shaped hexag-onal Fe5Si3 phase dispersed in BCC α1matrix — Fig. 11B. The presence of Fe5Si3could only be properly revealed and iden-tified by selected area diffraction in TEM(about 338 nm in average diameter).

Both specimens (P1 and P2) also con-tain the hexagonal Fe5Si3 phase in theform of patches in the braze metal distrib-uted in the copper-enriched matrix. Thisis identified by the FESEM backscatteredelectron images and corresponding EDS

elemental mapping (Figs. 5, 6), and thehigh-resolution TEM images along withSADP analysis — Fig. 12A, B. TheFESEM-based EDS spot analysis indi-cates that the copper-based alloy matrixcontained 2.35–3.13 wt-% Si, 0.77–0.89 wt-% Mn, and 3.06–3.29 wt-% Fe for bothspecimens (P1 and P2). According tographical point count analysis of theFESEM images, the area fractions occu-pied by Fe5Si3 in braze metal region forlow (specimen P1) and high (specimen P2)heat inputs are 4.30% and 14.17%, re-spectively. Also, the size of the patches ofFe5Si3 appears to be larger for the higherheat input braze joint. The result of X-raydiffraction analysis (Fig. 13) of the entirejoint region for both specimens (P1 andP2) further confirms the presence of allthe phases previously identified, viz. α-iron matrix (in HAZ and base metal),BCC α1 intermediate phase (at interfaceregion), Fe5Si3 (at braze metal for boththe heat inputs and at interface region forhigher heat input), and copper-based solidsolution (at braze metal). The peaks ofBCC iron represent the presence of α-ironmatrix and α1 intermediate phase; while


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A

A

B

B

Fig. 7 — EDS line scans at the joint region. A — P1; B — P2.

Fig. 8 — Optical microstructures of HAZ: A — P1; B — P2.

the peaks of copper indicate the existenceof copper-based solid solution.

The existence of silicon-enriched, iron-based intermediate phase α1 at the interfaceregion, and Fe5Si3 at the braze metal and atthe interface region for higher heat input in-dicates the diffusion of Fe and Si across theinterface of the molten copper-based brazemetal (containing Si) and the solid IF steelsubstrate (containing Fe) at the brazingtemperature. Once the molten braze metal(filler metal) fills the joint under capillaryaction, the silicon present in the moltenbraze metal diffuses into solid steel gener-ating Si-enriched, ironbased intermediatephase α1 that forms the interface region. Ata higher heat input (specimen P2), the braz-ing temperature is also higher (1184°C).This accounts for faster diffusion of Si insteel causing the formation of more silicon-enriched phase Fe5Si3 of submicron size ina matrix of α1. Also, the average width ofthe interface (as measured from FESEMimages, Figs. 5, 6) is larger for higher heatinput (6.13 µm) than that of the lower heatinput (2.15 µm).

According to Batz et al. (Ref. 14), thediffusivity (D in cm2 s−1) of silicon in α-iron as a function of absolute temperature(T in K) is given as

D = 0.44 e –48000/RT (1)

In this relationship,the activation energy(Q) and the frequencyfactor (D0) are 48000Cal mol−1 and 0.44cm2 s−1, respectively.Taking the value ofuniversal gas constant(R) as 1.986 Cal mol−1 K−1, the diffusivi-ties of Si at two brazing temperatures, viz.1290 K (1017°C) and 1457 K (1184°C)were calculated as 3.21 × 10–9 cm2 s−1

(namely, D1) and 27.49 × 10–9 cm2 s−1

(namely, D2), respectively. The diffusiondistance (x) is known to be proportional to(Dt)1/2 (Ref. 15). By inspection of the heat-ing and cooling cycles for the two heat in-puts employed and shown in Fig. 9, thediffusion time (t) may be assumed to besimilar in the two cases. Then, the ratio of

the diffusion distance (x2) at 1184°C to thediffusion distance (x1) at 1017°C would beequal to (D2/D1)1/2, i.e., 2.93. This valueclosely matches with the ratio (2.85) of themeasured interface width (6.13 µm) atGMA brazing temperature of 1184°C(higher heat input) to the interface width(2.15 µm) at GMA brazing temperature of1017°C (lower heat input). This clearly in-dicates that the generation of the thin in-terface region was a process controlled bythe diffusion of silicon in α-iron.

On the other hand, at the brazing tem-

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Table 3 — Result of Tensile Shear Test

Sample No. Maximum Load (kN) Extension (mm) Location of Failure

P1 7.13 29.46 Base metalP2 7.19 28.93 Base metal

Fig. 9 — The thermal cycle (temperature-time history) of the joint region dur-ing GMA brazing process.

Fig.11 — The high-resolution TEM images along with selected area diffrac-tion pattern (SADP) of the interface region. A — P1; B — P2.

Fig. 10 — Fe-Si phase diagram (Ref. 12).

A B

perature, iron diffuses into the moltenbraze metal and mixes under the arc. Dur-ing cooling to room temperature, as thecopper-based braze metal solidified, ironcombined with silicon to form Fe5Si3,which comes out as a precipitate in thecopper-based matrix.

The relative thermodynamic stability ofdifferent compounds of iron and silicon wasstudied by Zhi-shui et al. (Ref. 16). In thepresent research work, the data points (Ref.16) of Gibbs free-energy change (ΔG in kJmol−1) vs. absolute temperature (T in K)were curve-fitted (using Microsoft Excelsoftware), generating the following rela-tionships:

For FeSi: ΔG = 0.0699T – 156.98, with R2

= 0.99 (2)For FeSi2: ΔG = – 0.0117T – 25.901, withR2 = 0.98 (3)For Fe2Si: ΔG = 0.0177T – 109.99, with

R2 = 0.97 (4)

For Fe5Si3: ΔG = 0.0303T –294.29, with R2 = 0.98 (5)

The values of coefficient ofdetermination (R2) very closeto 1 represent an excellent ac-curacy of these equations.Using these equations, the ΔGvalues at room temperature(300 K) for FeSi, FeSi2, Fe2Si,and Fe5Si3 were calculated as–136.01, −29.41, −104.68,and −285.20 kJ mol−1, respec-tively. The most negative valueof ΔG for Fe5Si3 formation ascompared to other compoundsof Fe and Si justifies the stabil-ity of Fe5Si3 in the microstruc-ture. The larger volumetricfraction and size of Fe5Si3 pre-cipitates in the braze metal athigher heat input (higher braz-ing temperature) as comparedto that at lower heat input(lower brazing temperature) isdue to the greater diffusion ofFe in the molten braze metal ata higher brazing temperature(1184°C).

It is important to note thatthe GMA brazing temperatures (1017°and 1184°C) of the present study exceededthe boiling point of pure zinc (907°C), thecoating metal originally present on the gal-vannealed steel sheets. Therefore, the zinccoating was vaporized locally at the jointregion during the GMA brazing process.Subsequently, there was no trace of zincfound in the joint region.

Joint Properties and Joint Efficiency

The microhardness traverse curves forboth the specimens (P1 and P2) are shownin Fig. 14. In both the cases, relativelylower hardness is exhibited by the brazemetal, as expected for a soft copper-basedmatrix. At the interface, there is a sharprise in hardness due to the presence ofhard α1-based matrix. Thereafter, the

hardness decreases sharply in the HAZand base metal. The HAZ region pos-sesses relatively higher hardness than thebase metal. The microstructure of the-HAZ consists of destroyed polygonal fer-rite grains and acicular ferrite. Thedestroyed polygonal ferrite grain regionsappear to be coarser than the ferrite grainsof the base metal, though the actual grainsize could not be measured due to lack ofgrain boundary clarity. However, the nee-dle-shaped acicular ferrite possesses a verysmall crystal size (crystal width in therange of 4–8 µm). Besides, as a displacivetransformation product generated throughpara-equilibrium nucleation and diffu-sionless growth, acicular ferrite contains adense substructure of dislocations (Refs.17–19). However, the polygonal ferrite (asobserved in the base metal) is reported topossess significantly lower dislocation con-tent (Ref. 17).

Therefore, due to such morphologicaland microstructural features, acicular fer-rite has been shown to provide not onlybetter hardness and strength, but alsohigher resistance to crack propagation(Ref. 20). Also, the hardness of the brazemetal is marginally higher than the basemetal. This is attributed to the presence ofuniformly distributed Fe5Si3 in the copper-based matrix of the braze metal. While thehardness of the interface region is muchhigher than the braze metal, HAZ, andbase metal in both the specimens, thespecimen (P2) with higher heat input ex-hibits relatively higher hardness (291 HV)of the interface region than the specimen(P1) with lower heat input (268 HV). Theinterface microstructure of the specimenP1 consists only the α1 phase. However,the specimen P2 possesses the submicronsized Fe5Si3 dispersed in α1 as the mi-crostructure of the interface region. Ac-cordingly, the additional factor ofdispersion hardening contributes to thehigher hardness of the interface in speci-men P2. In concurrence with the micro-hardness test results, during tensile sheartests, the failure occurs in the base metalregion, the softer and less strong part, in-dicating 100% joint efficiency. The occur-rence of failure from the base metal region


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area diffraction pattern (SADP) of the braze metal region. A —P1; B — P2.

Fig. 13 — X-ray diffraction pattern of the entire joint region.

A

B

in the specimens subjected to tensile shearloading is shown in Fig. 15. Accordingly,the tensile shear test result (Table 3) ex-hibits similar maximum load and extensionin both specimens (P1 and P2) correspon-ding to the failure at the base metal regionin both the cases. This reflects the muchhigher hardness (as exhibited in the mi-crohardness test result) and strength ofthe joint interface than the base metal.

Conclusions

1) The novel method of GMA brazingwith Cu-based electrode (filler metal) con-taining Si produces a hard and strong jointin a galvannealed IF steel through the de-velopment of Fe-based, Si-enriched α1 in-terface (for lower heat input) orsubmicron sized Fe5Si3 dispersed α1 inter-face (for higher heat input).

2) During GMA brazing process, oncethe molten braze metal (filler metal) fillsthe joint under capillary action, the siliconpresent in the molten braze metal diffusesinto solid steel forming Si-enriched, iron-based intermediate phase α1 for lowerheat input and dispersed submicroscopicFe5Si3 particles in α1 matrix for higherheat input that form the interface region.

3) The calculated diffusion distance ofSi into the base metal is in excellent agree-ment with the measured interface widthindicating the diffusion of Si in the ironmatrix as the controlling factor for evolu-tion of the interface region.

4) At the brazing temperature, iron mi-grates into the molten braze metal andmixes under the brazing arc. During coolingto the room temperature, as the copper-based braze metal solidifies, iron combineswith silicon to form Fe5Si3, which comes outas precipitate in the copper-based matrix.The calculated lowest Gibbs free-energychange for the formation of Fe5Si3 as com-pared to other phases of Fe and Si justifiesits stability in the microstructure.

5) The presence of acicular ferrite inHAZ and the typical microstructure ofFe5Si3 precipitates distributed in copper-

based matrix in braze metal provide rela-tively higher hardness than the base metal.Most importantly, as compared to otherregions (base metal, HAZ, and brazemetal), a sharp rise in hardness is observedat the interface region that contains α1 atlower heat input. Still higher hardness ofthe interface is obtained for higher heatinput where submicron-sized Fe5Si3 is dis-persed in the α1 matrix. Accordingly, dur-ing tensile shear test, failure occurs at theweaker base metal region for both heat in-puts, indicating 100% joint efficiency.Therefore, even with a nonferrous copper-based braze alloy (filler metal), it is possi-ble to join IF steel to itself.

Acknowledgment

The authors are thankful to ProfessorB. S. Murty and Ms. Kanchanamala ofMetallurgical & Materials EngineeringDepartment, Indian Institute of Technol-ogy Madras, for providing necessary ex-perimental support in transmissionelectron microscopy.

References

1. Mathis, K., Krajnak, T., Kuzel, R., andGubicza, J. 2011. Structure and mechanical be-haviour of interstitial-free steel processed byequal-channel angular pressing. Journal of Al-loys and Compounds 509: 3522–3525.

2. Guimaraes, A. S., Mendes, M. T., Costa,H. R. M., Machado, J. D. S., and Kuromoto, N.K. 2007. An evaluation of the behavior of a zinclayer on a galvanized sheet, joined by MIGbrazing. Welding International 21: 271–278.

3. Chovet, C., and Guiheux, S. 2006. Possi-bilities offered by MIG and TIG brazing of gal-vanized ultra high strength steels forautomotive applications. La Metallurgia Italiana7–8: 47–54.

4. Iordachescu, D., Quintino, L., Miranda,R., and Pimenta, G. 2006. Influence of shieldinggases and process parameters on metal transferand bead shape in MIG brazed joints of the thinzinc-coated steel plates. Materials and Design27: 381–390.

5. Freytag, N. A. 1965. A comprehensivestudy of spot welding galvanized steel. WeldingJournal 44(4): 145-s to 156-s.

6. Howe, P., and Kelley, S. C. 1988. A com-parison of the resistance spot weldability ofbare, hot-dipped, galvannealed, and electrogal-

vanized DQSK sheet steels. SAE paper 880280.7. Upthegrove, W. R., and Key, J. F. 1972. A

high-speed photographic analysis of spot weld-ing galvanized steel. Welding Journal 51(5): 233-s to 244-s.

8. Gedeon, S. A., and Eagar, T. W. 1986. Re-sistance spot welding of galvanized steel: PartII, Mechanisms of spot weld nugget formation.Metallurgical Transactions B 17B(12): 887–901.

9. Parker, J. D., Williams, N. T., and Holli-day, R. J. 1998. Mechanisms of electrode degra-dation when spot welding coated steels. Scienceand Technology of Welding and Joining 3(2):65–74.

10. X. Xie. 1997. Steel Heat Treatment Hand-book, G. E. Totten, M. A. H. Howes (eds.),Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 986–995.

11. Quintino, L., Pimenta, G., Iordachescu,D., Miranda, R. M., and Pépe, N. V. 2006. MIGbrazing of galvanized thin sheet joints for auto-motive industry. Materials and ManufacturingProcesses 21: 63–73.

12. Baker, H. (ed.) 1992. Alloy Phase Dia-grams. ASM Handbook, vol 3. ASM Interna-tional, Materials Park, Ohio, p. 860.

13. Chandrasekharaiah, M. N., Dubben, G.,and Kolster, B. H. 1992. An atom probe studyof retained austenite in ferritic weld metal.Welding Journal 71(7): 247-s to 252-s.

14. Batz, W., Mead, H. W., and Birchenall,C. E. 1952. Diffusion of silicon in iron. Trans.AIME 194: 1070.

15. Shewmon, P. G. 1963. Diffusion in Solids.McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, p.13.

16. Zhi-shui, Y. U., Rui-feng, L. I., and Kai,Q. I. 2006. Growth behavior of interfacial com-pounds in galvanized steel joints with CuSi3filler under arc brazing. Transactions of Nonfer-rous Metals Society of China 16: 1391–1396.

17. Tang, Z. 2006. Optimizing the transfor-mation and yield to ultimate strength ratio ofNb-Ti micro-alloyed low carbon line pipe steelsthrough alloy and microstructural control.PhD thesis, University of Pretoria, RepublicSouth Africa, pp. 32–182.

18. Zhao, M. C., Yang, K., Xiao, F. R., Shan,Y. Y. 2003. Continuous cooling transformationof undeformed and deformed low carbonpipeline steels. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 355: 126–136.

19. Thompson, S. W., Colvin, D. J., andKrauss, G. 1990. Continuous cooling transfor-mations and microstructures in a low-carbon,high-strength low-alloy plate steel. Metallurgi-cal Transactions A 21A: 1493–1507.

20. Komizo, Y., and Fukada, Y. 1990. In:Advances in welding metallurgy. Proceedingsfrom the First United States-Japan Symposium,American Welding Society, Japan Welding So-ciety, and The Japan Welding Engineering So-ciety, San Francisco, Calif., Yokohama, Japan,pp. 227–250.

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Fig. 15 — The failure location in the GMA brazed specimens subjected to tensile shear loading.

Fig.14 — The microhardness traverse curves of thejoint.


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Introduction

Oxyfuel welding is a process that usesfuel gases and oxygen to weld or cut met-als. The flame produced by an oxyacety-lene torch reaches a temperature ofaround 3500°C and emits radiation span-ning a wide portion of the electromagneticspectrum including ultraviolet, infrared,and visible radiation. In fact, the oxyacety-lene torch emits double the radiation lev-els of short wavelengths compared to theremaining bands of the spectrum — Fig.1.

Ultraviolet B (UVB) and ultraviolet C(UVC) radiation produce acute but re-versible injuries such as photokeratitis andphotoconjunctivitis, which cause eyeswelling, tearing, intense pain, foreignbody feeling, photophobia, etc. However,bright light or short-wavelength visible ra-diation can penetrate through to the retinacausing irreversible heat and/or photo-chemical lesions that may lead to partial

or total vision loss (Ref. 1). The oxyacetylene flame also produces

ocular damage and irreversible loss of vi-sual function; however, the phototoxicdamage of this welding flame is not wellstudied because there are not mechanicalelements affecting the ocular surface dur-ing the welding process.

The first documented reports of reti-nal damage induced by welding are theworks by Terrien published in 1902 (Ref.2). According to the literature available todate, it seems that any welding process in-volves risks that may lead to several formsof ocular damage and diseases (Refs. 3–8).

Photochemical retinal damage was firstdescribed in 1966 by Noell, who inadver-tently noted that the retinae of experi-mental animals could incur irreversibledamage by exposure for several hours ordays to ambient light within the intensity

range of natural light. Since this discovery,several studies have tried to identify thebands of the spectrum that cause mostretinal damage. Thus, Noell et al. reportedthat retinal tissue is detrimentally affectedby exposure to short wavelengths (Ref. 9).In similar studies such as the one byOkuno et al. (Ref. 5), it was concludedthat the sun and arc welding, plasma cut-ting, and discharge lamps show effectivelyhigh radiances and that permissible expo-sure times are only 0.6 to 40 s, indicatingthat visualization of these light sources isextremely harmful to the retina (Ref. 10).

Conventional protection goggles and-screens available to workers, besides ab-sorbing the noxious bands ofelectromagnetic radiation, also block out99% of the entire visible spectrum, so vis-ibility is greatly reduced.

In the search for a device that is bothprotective and fails to reduce visibility, wehave developed several optical filters in-corporated in safety glasses to selectivelyblock harmful light while preserving opti-mal vision and luminosity. The filter pro-posed here (UCM-AET) is composed ofthe plastic polymer CR-39 (allyl diglycolcarbonate) with a refraction index of 1.50(HS Monark, Spain) treated by immersionin the dyes Yellow and Gray sun (BrainPower, Inc., Florida, U.S., patent:12/027679) (Ref. 11). The transmittancecurve of the new filter illustrates how itfully absorbs the short wavelengths emit-ted by a welding torch (transmittance 0 inthe range 400–450 nm), and attenuates therest of the wavelengths in comparison withtwo conventional filters used in weldingequipment — Fig. 2. This study focuses onthe ocular damage induced by visible light(380–780 nm), taking for granted that allprotective filters block UV and IR radia-tion. This study was designed to comparethe visual performance using the newUCM-AET selective-absorbance filter anda conventional filter used for eye protec-tion by welders.

Experimental Procedure

New Optical Filter Plate for Use as EyeProtection by Welders

A new protective optical filter plate was designed to improve visibility

BY A. LANGA-MORAGA, C. BONNIN-ARIAS, E. CHAMORRO, J. PÉREZ-CARRASCO, AND C. SÁNCHEZ-RAMOS

KEYWORDS

Welding Protective Filters Visual Acuity Stereoacuity Contrast Sensitivity Light Damage

A. LANGA-MORAGA, J. PÉREZ-CAR-RASCO, and C. SÁNCHEZ-RAMOS are withDepartment of Optics, School of Optometry,Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid,Spain. C. BONNIN-ARIAS, E. CHAMORRO,and C. SÁNCHEZ-RAMOS are with Col.Neuro-Computing and Neuro-Robotics Re-search Group, Universidad Complutense deMadrid, Madrid, Spain.

ABSTRACT

People whose work tasks involve the use of welding torches are at special risk of suf-fering eye injuries due to the emission of visible, short-wavelength radiation. Currentlegislation requires that a company provide its employees with protection against theharmful radiation produced by welding equipment. Often, however, a worker will be re-luctant to use protective goggles since these markedly cut visibility and can consequentlylead to errors or even burns. This practice of avoiding the use of protection makes themsusceptible to suffer irreversible severe retinal damage leading to partial or completeloss of vision. In this paper, we propose the use of a new photoprotective filter in theform of safety goggles that seeks to improve the compromised vision produced by con-ventional filters. We compare a series of visual function variables in 36 adults, aged 30to 58 years, using the new optical filter and a conventional filter used for welding pro-tection. Our findings suggest that the filter proposed provides optimal protectionagainst the harmful effects of short-wavelength radiation while minimizing the reducedvision effects of conventional filters used for this purpose.

Materials and Equipment

Study participants. A prospective obser-vational cross-sectional study was per-formed on 36 adults aged 30 to 58 years.All participants provided their written in-formed consent, and all experiments wereapproved by the Ethics Committee ofHospital Clínico San Carlos. We includedworking-age subjects of both sexes. Theonly exclusion criterion was an unwilling-ness to provide informed consent.

Experimental procedure. All partici-pants completed a series of tests designedto assess binocular vision and monocularvisual field under three treatment condi-tions: 1) without a protective filter, 2) witha conventional protective filter used bywelders, and 3) with the new absorbance-selective AET-UCM filter. All tests wereperformed under normal work photopicluminance conditions. This meant thatmeasurements were made with best-correction for near distance tasks ifneeded. The variables determined werebinocular visual acuity, contrast sensitivity,stereoacuity, color discrimination, andcentral and paracentral contrast threshold. The tests described below (Fig. 3) wereperformed randomly, with or without theuse of a filter, which was also random.

Traditional Runge near vision pocketcard (Precision Vision, U.S.). This test was

used to determinenear-distance (40 cm)visual acuity. The testcard comprises 16 let-ter sizes that measurevisual acuities of20/500 to 20/16. As thesubject reads the letters, the examinerrecords the smallest sized letter the indi-vidual is able to read.

Titmus. Stereoacuity or depth percep-tion was assessed using the Titmus test,which consists of two slightly different im-ages, or anaglyphs, dissociated by meansof polarized filters, that stimulate eachretina. The variable assessed was the in-verse of binocular disparity measured inradians. Each eye selects the image corre-sponding to its filter and as these are fusedthe visual system perceives the depth sim-ulated. The test was developed by StereoOptical Co. and is performed in threesteps. In the first step, a fly is presented tothe subject to measure the inverse ofstereoscopic visual acuity (SVA) of 3000”of arc–1. The subject puts on the polarizedspectacles and the card is viewed at a 40-cm distance. The subject should be able totouch the wings of the fly in an elevatedplane. If the subject’s finger reaches theanaglyph, this means there is insufficientstereoacuity for good binocular vision. Inthe second step, three rows of animals that

measure 400-200-100” of arc–1, respec-tively, are presented to the individual whois instructed to indicate which row appearsto stand out above the rest. Finally, nineseries of circles are presented in which anelevation is only perceived in one circle.The subject should indicate which circle inthe series is different. The scale for thesecircles ranges from 800” to 40” of arc–1.

VCTS (Vistech Consultans, Inc.,Stereo Optical Co.). This test estimatescontrast sensitivity during near vision (40cm) and is composed of circular discsarranged in 5 rows and 9 columns. Eachdisc contains a section of a sinusoidal grat-ing and for each row 5 spatial frequencies(vertical) are presented corresponding to1.5, 3, 6, 12, and 18 cycles/deg. From leftto right in each row, contrast gradually de-creases in 0.25-log unit steps. For each fre-quency level, contrast (horizontal)diminishes from left to right in 0.25-logunit steps on average. The bands are rep-resented as different inclinations, 15 degto the left and right and vertical. The sub-ject is instructed to indicate the inclination

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Fig. 1 — Emission spectrum of an oxyacetylene welding torch. Fig. 2 — Transmittance curves of the new (green line) and two conven-tional protective filters for welding (red and black lines).

Fig. 3 — Tests used to assess vision.

Fig. 4 — Mean visual acuity recorded with/without the use of a protectivefilter.

of these bands and the examiner recordsthe minimum contrast the individual isable to perceive for each spatial frequency.This test is considered reliable to deter-mine contrast sensitivity (Ref. 12).

Farnsworth-Munsell D-28 Hue. This testof color vision is an abridged version of theFarnsworth D-100 Hue color discrimina-tion test. It is comprised of 28 caps (in-cluding a reference cap) that are coloredaccording to the Munsell scale showing in-cremental hue variations while maintain-ing luminance and saturation at a givenMunsell value. These hues occupy posi-tions in the uniform color space ofFarnsworth, hence, the test’s name. Thesubject is instructed to order the caps ac-cording to hue. The caps cover differentzones of color space and are numberedsuch that the order indicated by the sub-

ject can be recorded on a response sheet.The response order is translated to ascore, which serves to detect color visionabnormalities and aptitude.

Frequency-doubling technology (FDT)perimetry. This test uses an automated in-strument for visual field testing based onfrequency-doubling technology. The fre-quency-doubling effect is achieved by alow-frequency spatial sinusoidal grating(<1 cycle/deg) undergoing counterphasedflickering at a temporal frequency of 15Hz. This determines that the number ofdark and light bars appear to be twice theactual number. The test consists of takingmeasurements of contrast sensitivity (indecibels, dB) to detect the frequency-doubling stimulus. The FDT perimetry in-strument (Humphrey Systems, Dublin,Calif., and Welch Allyn, Skaneateles,

N.Y.) determines the contrast sensitivityneeded to detect the stimulus at 17 or 19locations in the central visual field. Thesubject fixes on the black dot in the centerof the screen and presses the instrumentresponse button when vertical bars flickerin different areas of the screen. For thisstudy, we used the C-20 threshold presen-tation pattern with 17 stimulus locations.After entering the age of the subject, apreliminary familiarization test was per-formed on the left eye (these results werediscarded) and then the contrast thresholdwas assessed in the right eye under thethree treatment conditions.

Statistical analysis. Data were com-pared among the three treatment condi-tions to assess the effects of the filters onthe different measures of visual perform-ance. All comparisons were pairwise and


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Table 1 — Values Recorded for the Different Vision Performance Variables Determined with and without a Protective Filter Designed for Use byWelders

Without a Filter UCM-AET Filter Conventional FilterMean p-value Mean p-value Mean p-value

Visual acuityLogMAR (40 cm) 0.1 ± 0.49 0.49 ± 0.22 0.999 –0.03 ± 0.07 0.000*

Stereoacuity“ of arc –1 97 ± 95 89 ± 78 0.999 279 ± 531 0.000*

Color DiscriminationN° de errors 5 ± 4 6 ± 4 0.006* 17 ± 3 0.000*

Contrast sensitivity1.5 cpd 4.89 ± 0.32 4.81 ± 0.47 0.999 2.58 ± 1.36 0.000*3 cpd 5.42 ± 0.77 5.08 ± 1 0.417 247 ± 1.56 0.000*6 cpd 4.17 ± 1.3 3.58 ± 1.38 0.028* 1.5 ± 1.18 0.000*12 cpd 3.44 ± 1.87 2.94 ± 1.91 0.316 0.58 ± 0.81 0.000*18 cpd 2.81 ± 2.29 1.92 ± 1.71 0.022* 0.19 ± 0.52 0.000*

FDT PerimetryCentral 29.49 ± 5.36 25.51 ± 4.2 0.000* 1.84 ± 2.39 0.000*Fovea 31.36 ± 5.94 25.89 ± 3.98 0.000* 2.19 ± 3.51 0.000*

Fig. 5 — Mean stereoacuity recorded with/without the use of a protectivefilter.

Fig. 6 — Mean color vision errors recorded with/without the use of a protectivefilter.

significance was set at a p< 0.05 and sta-tistical power at 0.8. All statistical testswere performed using Statgraphics Plus 5.0software (Professional Edition).

Results

Sample characteristics. The study par-ticipants were 36 subjects of mean age44±14 years: 22 men (47±14 years) and14 women (39±14 years).

Visual acuity and stereoacuity. Mean VAand stereoacuity in absence of a protectivefilter were 0.1±0.49 logMAR and 97±95”arc–1, respectively, considered normal forthis age range. Corresponding values were0.49±0.22 logMAR and 89±78” arc–1 forthe UCM-AET filter and –0.03±0.07 log-MAR and 279±531 arco–1 for the conven-tional filter. It was observed that the lowerthe VA and stereoacuity, the lower was theresolution capacity of the subjects exam-ined. These results show no significant ef-fects induced by the new filter on nearvisual acuity and depth perception(stereoacuity). In contrast, these measureswere significantly reduced when the con-ventional filter was used (Table 1) — Figs.4, 5.

Color discrimination. This ability wasdetermined as the number of errors pro-duced when ordering the different hues inthe Farnsworth-Munsell test. Our resultsshow that both filters significantly com-promise color discrimination — Fig. 6.The number of errors was high at around43% for the conventional filter and muchlower for the new filter with only a 5% lossof color discrimination detected (Table 1).

Contrast sensitivity. Using the UCM-AET filter, contrast sensitivity for near vi-

sion was significantly reduced for the spa-tial frequencies of 6 and 18 cpd, while agreater reduction was observed with theconventional filter for all the spatial fre-quencies tested. Thus, contrast sensitivi-ties recorded for the new filter werecloser to those obtained without a filterthan the values recorded for the conven-tional filter — Fig. 7.

FDT perimetry. Our visual field datashowed significantly reduced contrastthresholds for all zones examined usingboth filters although this reduction wasmore marked for the conventional filter.Thus, the UCM-AET filter achieved a9–19% reduction in the contrast thresholdwhile this was 91–99% for the conven-tional filter. This means that with the newfilter, the contrast threshold is 76–85% im-proved over the normal working condi-tions of welders — Fig. 8.

Discussion

Some jobs involve a particular risk ofeye damage due to the simultaneous pres-ence of photothermal, photomechanical,and photochemical factors. Several stud-ies addressing the topic have indicated aneed for safety goggles or screens forwelding tasks since high UV radiation lev-els can cause severe eye damage (Refs.3–8). Such devices need to provide suffi-cient protection for the worker to under-take his/her routine work withoutexceeding the maximum permissible ex-posure (MPE) threshold. To verify thateye protection devices were able to satisfythis requirement, in 1997, Tenkate (Ref. 4)determined levels of exposure to UV radi-ation in a group of welders using a photo-

sensitive polymer film to line the inner andouter surfaces of the eye protection usedby the welders. The results of this study in-dicated that mean ocular exposure (insidethe helmet) was four to fivefold the MPE,suggesting a need for additional eye pro-tection to that provided by conventionalwelder’s helmets (Ref. 5). Subsequent tothis, Maier et al. (Ref. 13) in 2005 andPeng et al. (Ref. 7) in 2007 examined sev-eral protective filters and concluded thatthese protected workers from exposure tothe harmful radiation emitted by weldingtools. In addition, Maier et al. admittedthat macular damage in welders was a con-sequence of negligence in complying withsafety regulations.

In another landmark study conductedby Chou et al. in 1996 at a car assemblyplant, the factors described as the mainrisks related to welding work, besides ra-diation from the blow torch, were the par-ticles of melted metal emitted in alldirections (Ref. 14). This means thatworkers in such an environment shouldwear some form of eye protection that in-corporates an ocular filter. However,welders often have to work in dark, re-stricted environments and this compro-mises their vision such that they frequentlytake off their safety goggles to completethe work (Ref. 6).

However, rather than being negligent,it seems that a welder will remove his/hersafety goggles to avoid burns on handsand arms, since as shown by our results,visual acuity is reduced by up to 58%using a conventional filter. Consideringthat the flame from an oxyacetylene weld-ing torch can exceed a temperature of3500°C, optimal vision in the work field

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Fig. 7 — Mean contrast sensitivity recorded with/without the use of a pro-tective filter.

Fig. 8 — Mean FDT visual field results recorded with/without the use of a pro-tective filter.

Con

tras

t Sen

sitiv

ity


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is essential to avoid burns or errors.The filters currently used for this pur-

pose are attenuating rather than selectivefilters and thus considerably impair visionto the extent that they may not be regu-larly used by some welders. The IndustrialSafety Equipment Association (ISEA) andCompliance Magazine state that 68% of allemployees who should use protective eye-wear do not do so (Ref. 16). This is prob-ably why an estimated 400,000 eye injuriesoccur on the job every year according tothe American Society to Prevent Blindness(Ref. 15).

To avoid this loss of visibility whileusing eye protection, in this study we pro-pose the use of a band-selective filter thatonly absorbs the short wavelengths in largemeasure and attenuates the remainingwave lengths of the visible spectrum, whileblocking UV and IR radiation. This filterwill therefore protect the worker from theharmful radiation and, by allowing thepassage of the lower-energy wavelengths,will also improve the wearer’s visionthrough the eye protective material.

We observed that standard approvedprotective optical filters incorporated insafety glasses reduce most aspects of visionby 50 to 70%. The optical filter proposed(UCM-AET) induces a reduction in visualperception of 15 to 35%, so its use can im-prove near vision by around 40% com-pared to conventional filters, providing thesame level of ocular protection. Due to theincrease in the visibility of the working sce-nario, the use of safety glasses will go and,consequently, there will be a better pre-vention of occupational risks of oculardamage in agreement to Maier (Ref. 13).

In general terms, a high percentage ofworkers routinely exposed to the photo-toxic effects of light will eventually have togive up their work due to health impacts.The benefits of such a solution are there-fore crucial. The new filter will protect theretinae of welders while enabling them to

see sufficiently well to perform any de-tailed task and avoid the risk of burns. Thefilter proposed also has the benefit that itis an easy and economical solution to theproblem addressed.

Conclusions

1) To promote the regular use of eyeprotection in the welding environment, aprotective component is required that willnot reduce the visual acuity of the worker.The absorbance-selective UCM-AET fil-ter does not affect the visual acuity, whilea standard filter reduces the resolution ca-pacity of the wearer by more than half.

2) The new filter is recommended toavoid work accidents involving skin burnsproduced by poor visibility in the work environment.

3) The new filter is also recommendedfor detailed welding work since, unlike thesituation with the conventional filtertested, depth perception is unaffected.

4) Although both the new filter and thestandard filter diminish the user’s abilityto discriminate colors, this effect was moremarked for the conventional filter.

5) The UCM-AET filter absorbs shortwavelengths of light but transmitsmedium and long wavelengths. This al-lows for improved visibility in the workfield since practically normal contrastthresholds are maintained. Conversely,contrast thresholds were reduced fourfold compared to the values recordedwithout a filter, thus increasing the risk ofaccidents or of a worker not using the re-quired eye protection.

6) The different aspects of vision weredramatically reduced when the conven-tional filter was used. In contrast, the newfilter was able to avoid or minimize theseeffects emerging as a good protection sys-tem for welders along with their habitualspectacle correction used for work activ-ities.

References

1. Margrain, T. H., et al. 2004. Do blue lightfilters confer protection against age-relatedmacular degeneration? Prog Retin Eye Res23(5): 523–531.

1. Terrien. F. 1902. Du pronostic des trou-bles visuels d’origine électrique. Arch Ophthal-mol (Paris) 22:692–738.

3. Arend, O., et al. 1996. Welders macu-lopathy despite using protective lenses. Retina16(3): 257–259.

4. Tenkate, T. D., and Collins, M. J. 1997.Personal ultraviolet radiation exposure of work-ers in a welding environment. Am Ind Hyg.Assoc. J. 58(1): 33–38.

5. Okuno, T., Ojima, J., and Saito, H. 2001.Ultraviolet radiation emitted by CO2 arc weld-ing. Ann Occup Hyg 45(7): 597–601.

6. Kim, E. A., et al. 2007. Macular degener-ation in an arc welder. Ind Health 45(2):371–373.

7. Peng, C. Y., et al. 2007. Evaluation andmonitoring of UVR in shield metal arc weldingprocessing. Health Phys 93(2): 101–108.

8. Okuno, T. Ojima, J., and Saito, H. 2010.Blue-light hazard from CO2 arc welding of mildsteel. Ann Occup Hyg 54(3): 293–298.

9. Noell, W. K., et al. 1966. Retinal damageby light in rats. Invest Ophthalmol 5(5):450–473.

10. Okuno, T., Saito, H., and Ojima, J. 2002.Evaluation of blue-light hazards from variouslight sources. Dev Ophthalmol 35: 104–112.

11. Sánchez-Ramos, C., ed. 2011. Lightingdevice with prophylactic and therapeutic filterfor healthy eyes, pseudoaphakic eyes and/oreyes suffering neurodegeneration, UniversidadComplutense de Madrid, pp. 18–10.

12. Ginsburg, A. P. 1984. A new contrastsensitivity vision test chart. Am J Optom PhysiolOpt 61(6): 403–407.

13. Maier, R., et al. 2005. Welder’s macu-lopathy? International Archives of Occupationaland Environmental Health 78(8): 681–685.

14. Chou, B. R., and Cullen, A. P. 1996. Oc-ular hazards of industrial spot welding. OptomVis Sci 73(6): 424–427.

15. Olsson, I. H. 2001. Heads up on safety:Use proper head and eye protection. WeldingJournal 80(2): 43–45.

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Introduction

The inherent problems related to thefusion welding of aluminum alloys are ofgreat concern. Even if much care is taken,hydrogen embrittlement and liquationcracking may not be fully avoided for mostof the fusion welded aluminum joints.Hence solid-state welding of aluminum ispreferred because the alloy is not meltedduring such welding process. Friction stirwelding (FSW) is one such solid-statewelding process and is considered to bemuch better for joining aluminum alloysthan fusion welding processes. The FSWprocess utilizes a rotating tool with a pro-truding pin as shown in Fig. 1. Friction stirwelding can also be used to join high-strength aerospace and marine-grade alu-minum alloys and other metallic alloysthat are difficult to weld by conventionalfusion welding. It uses the frictional heatof the rotating shoulder and the stirring ef-fect of the tool pin for solid-state joining.The process was invented at The WeldingInstitute (TWI) in Cambridge in early1990 (Refs. 1, 2).

Several previous studies reported theeffects of the FSW shoulder and pin pro-files (Ref. 3) and feasibility of the process.The usefulness of the FSW process forproducing 2519 T-stiffeners was investi-gated with grooved shoulder for combatvehicle construction by Colligan et al.(Ref. 4). Tool pins such as column screw,tapered screw, column pin, and taper pinwere investigated for welding of 2014 alu-minum alloy by Zhao et al. (Ref. 5). It wasreported that the tensile strength of theweld reached 75% of the base materialwith tapered screw pin tools. It was also re-ported that tools without any threads pro-duced inferior and defective welds (Ref.5). The effect of threaded FSW tools onweldability of 1050-H24 and 6061-T6 alu-minum welds were investigated byHidetoshi and the benefits of threadedtools were emphasized (Ref. 6).

Friction stir welding as a process forspot welding of 6061-T4 aluminum alloy

was investigated by Tozaki et al. Threadedtools were used for the purpose. Properpin length and process parameters pro-duced welds with adequate tensile andcross-tensile strength (Ref. 7). Scilapi etal. investigated the effects of FSW toolshoulder geometry on 1.5-mm-thick 6082T6 aluminum alloy. They advocated theuse of FSW tool with fillet and cavity forjoining thin aluminum sheets (Ref. 8).Friction stir welding tool pins like straightcylindrical, cylindrical taper, threadedcylindrical, square, and triangular withcombinations of 15-, 18-, and 21-mmshoulders were used by Elangovan andBalasubramanian to join 6061 aluminumalloy. In their investigation, square pinsprovided superior tensile properties withleast number of defects (Ref. 9). VariousFSW tool pins like straight cylindrical,cylindrical taper, cylindrical threaded,square, and triangular with combinationof 15-, 18-, and 21-mm shoulder diameterswere used in an investigation for joiningAZ31B magnesium alloy (Ref. 10).

For tapered and straight cylindricaltools, a higher possibility for tunnel de-fects were reported, and threaded pintools provided the best results (Ref. 10).Palanivel et al. studied the effect of toolpin profiles on mechanical and metallur-gical properties of dissimilar 6351-5083H111 aluminum alloy welds (Ref. 11).Tool pin profiles such as straight cylindri-cal, threaded cylindrical, square, taperedsquare, and tapered octagon were used forthe purpose and the square straight toolprovided the best result (Ref. 11).Vijayand Murugan investigated the effects ofFSW tool pin profiles such as square,hexagon, and octagon, and concentric cir-cular grooved shoulders on stir cast Al-10wt-% TiB2 metal matrix composite welds(Ref. 12). It was reported in their studythat the tapered pin produced narrowerstir zones with coarser grains compared tothat of the straight pin tools (Ref. 12).

Threaded tool geometries were also in-vestigated by Rajakumar et al. for the op-timization of the FSW process for maxi-mizing the tensile strength of 7075-T6aluminum alloy (Ref. 13). An empiricalequation was also developed for predict-ing the tensile strength of the joints basedon the process parameters and tool geo-metrical parameters (Ref. 13). Blignault et

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Tool Design Effects for FSW of AA7039

The usefulness of tool designs and modeling methodology were demonstrated forpredicting friction stir weld characteristics based on tool geometrical parameters

BY D. VENKATESWARLU, N. R. MANDAL, M. M. MAHAPATRA, and S. P. HARSH

ABSTRACT

The present investigation discusses the effects of threaded friction stir welding(FSW) tool geometries on AA7039 welds. It is thought that for harder materialslike AA7039, threaded FSW tools are useful. However, the tool shoulder geome-try and concavity of the shoulder surface also play important roles in defining thequality characteristics of friction stir welds. The effect of threaded FSW tools on7039 aluminum alloys were investigated using different shoulder diameters, pindiameters, and levels of shoulder surface concavity. A full factorial design matrixwas utilized to manufacture 27 FSW tools having different levels of threaded pindiameter, shoulder diameter, and shoulder surface concavity. Experiments wereconducted to study the effect of these tools on AA7039 welds with respect to weldtensile strength, cross-sectional area, and % elongation. A mathematical modelwas developed to predict the effects of the tool geometries on the welds using re-sponse surface regression analysis. The interaction effects of the control factors(tool geometrical parameters) on the responses such as weld strength, weld crosssection, and % elongation were studied. The modeling methodology developed inthis investigation was found to be adequate for predicting the effects of FSW toolgeometrical factors on the weld.

KEYWORDS

Friction Stir WeldingTool GeometriesTensile StrengthPercent ElongationSurface Response

D. VENKATESWARLU is research scholar, andM. M. MAHAPATRA and S. P. HARSH are as-sistant professors, Mechanical & Industrial Engi-neering Dept., IIT, Roorkee, India. N. R. MAN-DAL ([email protected]) is professor,Dept. of Ocean Engineering & Naval Architec-ture, IIT, Kharagpur, India.

al. used a number of combinations of toolgeometries and predicted the ultimatetensile strength of the FSW joint using re-sponse surface methodology (RSM) (Ref.14). They also indicated a wide range oftool geometries can produce acceptableweld performance such as tensile strengthwithin the specified window of inputprocess parameters. Rajakumar et al. in-vestigated the effect of welding processparameters of a number of threaded toolson AA7075-T6 and observed that pin di-ameter of 5 mm and shoulder diameter of15 mm yielded higher joint tensile proper-ties (Ref. 15).

It is observed from the literature re-view that investigators have used differenttypes of tool shoulder and pin geometriesfor FSW of aluminum alloys. The use of athreaded pin-based tool was emphasizedmany times. The effect of tool shoulderand shoulder concavity are also importantalong with the dimensions of the shoulder.There is, therefore, a need to develop a

model that would encompass the tool di-mensional features such as tool pin diam-eter, extent of shoulder flat surface, andshoulder diameter to determine the re-sponses such as weld strength and weldcross-sectional area and ductility in termsof % elongation. The present investiga-tion is a step in this regard wherein exten-sive experiments were carried out to fi-nally develop surface response regressionequations for predicting the effect of toolgeometries on the welds.

Experimental Details

A vertical milling machine with an in-house developed FSW setup was used inthe present study for joining 6-mm-thickAA7039 aluminum sheets. The tool mate-rial was stainless steel grade 310. The alloycomposition of the tool material and phys-ical properties are given, respectively, inTables 1 and 2. The chemical compositionof the AA7039 used in the present study isgiven in Table 3. The mechanical proper-ties of AA7039 obtained from the labora-tory test is presented in Table 4.

The cross-sectional area of a frictionstir weld depends on the tool geometries.The nature and shape of the weld cross-section zones are different for each type oftool. A schematic representation of thefriction stir welded cross section is shown

in Fig. 2 along with a welded cross-sectionmacrostructure.

The stir zone is where the material hasbeen intermixed due to the action of thetool pin. Grain refinement generally takesplace in this zone. The thermomechani-cally affected zone (TMAZ) is next to theweld zone, which is thermally affected,and most of it is partially deformed as in-dicated in Fig. 2. The heat-affected zone isnext to the TMAZ.

The rotational speed settings availableon the machine used for the welding were500, 710, 1000, 1400, and 2000 rev/min.During the trial experimental runs, goodresults were obtained with 710 rev/min.Welding with a higher rotational speed ofthe FSW tool in excess of 710 rev/minmostly resulted in groove defects in thejoints. Hence, experiments were con-ducted with a constant tool speed of 710rev/min and tool traverse speed of 20mm/min. The plate edges were machinedfor a square butt joint configuration. Theywere positioned and clamped rigidly to themachine bed with zero root opening andcleaned with acetone before welding fordegreasing. A general full factorial designof experiment technique was used for se-lecting tool geometrical parameters suchas the shoulder diameter, pin diameter,and shoulder surface concavity as the con-trol factors. Each factor had three levels asgiven in Table 5. The high, medium, andlow levels of shoulder diameters were 22,19, and 16 mm, respectively. The pin di-ameter levels were 8, 7, and 6 mm. Theshoulder flat surface levels are shown inFig. 3. Each experiment was conductedthree times to ascertain the repeatabilityof the procedure for each of the 27 toolsas indicated in Table 6.

The schematic of the designed andmanufactured tools is given in Fig. 3 indi-cating the shoulder flat surface (SFS) lev-els, as full flat shoulder surface (level 1), 2-mm flat shoulder surface (level 2), and1-mm flat shoulder surface (level 3) fromthe shoulder periphery.

The tensile strength, % elongation,


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Fig. 1 — Schematic of the FSW process. Fig. 2 — A — Etched cross sections of FS AA 7039 welds; B — schematic of friction stir weld cross-section macrostructure.

Table 1 — Composition of FSW Tool Material by Percentage

Fe C Cr Mn Ni P S Si48–53 0.25 24–26 2 19–22 0.045 0.03 1.5

Table 2 — FSW Tool Material Physical Properties

Hardness, Brinell 160Tensile strength, ultimate (MPa) 655Tensile strength, yield (MPa) 275

Table 4 — Mechanical Properties of AA7039

Tensile strength (MPa) 347Yield strength (MPa) 261% Elongation 12.54Vickers hardness (HV) 115

Table 3 — Chemical Compositions (wt-%) ofBase Materials

Element Mg Zn AlAA 7039 0.98 3.54 95.48

and weld cross section of each samplewere then measured experimentally andaverage values of each sample are shownfor 27 tools in Table 6. Tensile test speci-mens were prepared and tested using acomputerized universal testing machine.The schematic of a tensile test specimen is

shown in Fig. 4. The tensile strength, %elongation, and weld cross-sectional areawith respect to varying tool geometrieswere observed and recorded. These datawere then further utilized in multiple re-sponse surface regression analyses.

Results and Discussion

The experimentally measured data ofeach sample, i.e., tensile strength, % elon-gation, and weld cross section were notedand utilized further for analysis of vari-ance (ANOVA) (Ref. 16). The responsecontrol factors for the analysis were shoul-der diameter, pin diameter, and shouldersurface concavity levels, and the responseparameters were tensile strength, % elon-gation, and weld cross-sectional area.These factors and parameters were usedto build up the mathematical model thatcould be used for prediction of responsesof varying tool geometries.

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Fig. 3 — Schematic of threaded tools used in the experiments showing shoulder flatsurface levels: A — Full flat shoulder surface (level 1); B — 2-mm flat shouldersurface (level 2); C — 1-mm flat shoulder surface (level 3) from the periphery.

Fig. 4 — Tensile test specimen.

A B C

Table 6 — Experimental Data of Friction Stir Weldment Characteristics

Sl. No. Shoulder diameter Pin diameter Shoulder surface Tensile strength % Elongation Weld crosslevel level level (MPa) section (mm2)

1 1 –1 1 146.58 2.12 46.762 1 –1 0 158.06 2.51 47.253 1 –1 –1 150.33 1.91 46.264 0 –1 1 180.32 3.03 46.905 0 –1 0 181.39 3.50 46.226 0 –1 –1 166.70 3.13 44.377 –1 –1 1 136.78 2.11 46.938 –1 –1 0 180.66 3.40 45.239 –1 –1 –1 151.22 3.02 45.8110 1 0 1 212.00 5.16 48.9811 1 0 0 258.13 6.09 52.8812 1 0 –1 208.52 4.51 50.5213 0 0 1 243.06 5.67 52.2214 0 0 0 290.12 7.02 52.0715 0 0 –1 238.71 5.67 52.2216 –1 0 1 242.95 4.58 49.1317 –1 0 0 238.54 5.60 49.2718 –1 0 –1 241.00 6.05 51.9919 1 1 1 190.94 3.34 45.9120 1 1 0 175.20 3.30 46.7021 1 1 –1 165.77 2.23 48.8022 0 1 1 219.13 3.76 47.2623 0 1 0 225.55 4.33 48.5524 0 1 –1 170.67 2.80 48.2525 –1 1 1 168.58 2.59 45.4226 –1 1 0 174.55 3.10 49.1027 –1 1 –1 168.73 2.99 48.33

Table 5 — Tool Pin and Friction Surface Design Matrix

Variables LevelHigh Medium Low(+1) (0) (–1)

Shoulder diameter (mm) 22 19 16Pin diameter (mm) 8 7 6Shoulder surface concavity levels 3 2 1

Regression Modeling of Tool GeometryEffects

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) wasused to investigate the full factorial designof experimentally measured data.MINITAB software (Ref. 17) was used tocarry out ANOVA. The results of ANOVA

are given in Table 7. The ANOVA of re-sponse parameters as shown in Table 7also gives the coefficient of determination(R2). It gives the proportion of variabilityin a data sample. This coefficient of deter-mination is a statistical measure that indi-cates how well the regression equation ap-proximates the data sample. The ANOVA

also gives a parameter given as adjustedR2. In multiple regression models, ad-justed R2 (Adj R2) is a measure of the pro-portion of the variation in the dependentvariables. The adjusted R2 allows the de-grees of freedom to be associated with thesum of squares.

The ANOVA as given in Table 7 also


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Table 7 — Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for FSW Response Parameters

Analysis of Variance for Tensile Strength: (Response Surface Regression: R2 = 91.7%; Adj R2 = 87.3%)

Source DF Seq SS Adj SS Adj MS F P

Regression 9 38162.3 38162.3 4240.3 20.86 0.000Linear 3 2804.9 2804.9 935.0 4.60 0.016Square 3 34637.6 34637.6 11545.9 56.81 0.000Interaction 3 719.8 719.8 239.9 1.18 0.347

Residual Error 17 3454.9 3454.9 203.2 Total 26 41617.2

Analysis of Variance for % Elongation: (Response Surface Regression: R2 = 97.3%; Adj R2 = 95.9%)




Analysis of Variance for Weld Cross Section: (Response Surface Regression: R2 = 85.2%; Adj R2 = 77.4%)




Fig. 5 — A — Main effect plots; B — interaction plots for tensile strength of welds. Fig. 6 — A — Main effect plots; B — interaction plots for % elongation ofwelds.

A

B

A

B

provides sequential sum of squares (SeqSS), adjusted sum of squares (Adj SS), andadjusted mean squares (Adj MS). For gen-eral regression analysis, MINITAB usesadjusted sum of squares (Adj SS). The ad-justed sum of squares (Adj SS) is the ad-ditional sums of squares determined byadding each particular term to a regres-sion model given that other terms are alsoin the model. The sequential sums ofsquares (Seq SS) are the sums of squaresadded by a term with previous terms al-ready entered in the model (Ref. 17).

Analysis of variance is useful to inves-tigate the significance of factors and theinteractions on the responses. In the

ANOVA table, MS indicates the meansquare and is given as

The degrees of freedom in ANOVAare used to calculate the mean square(MS). In the ANOVA table, the F value in-dicates variance ratio or Fisher’s ratio,which is defined as

The probability of significance (Pvalue) is then calculated based on the vari-ance ratio (F value). If the probability ofsignificance value (P value) is less than0.05, then generally it can be stated thatthe effect of control factors is significant.Results of ANOVA for FSW response pa-rameters are shown in Table 7. Consider-ing the cases where the probability of sig-nificance, i.e., P in Table 7, is less than 0.05,the following were concluded for the rela-tional effect on response parameters.

Analysis of variance for tensilestrength for both linear and square rela-tions resulted in P values less than 0.05.This indicates the linear and square rela-

F MS for a term

MS for the error term=

MSSS Sum of square deviation

DF Degree of f=

( )rreedom( )

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A A B

CB

Fig. 7 — A — Main effect plots; B — interaction plots for cross-sectionalarea of welds.

Fig. 8 — Surface plots of the following with respect to shoulder and pin diameter: A — Tensile strength; B — % elongation; C — weld cross section.

Table 8 — Response Surface Regression Relation for Outputs: Tensile Strength (TS), % Elongation (EL), and Weld Cross Section (WCS), and Inputs: Tool Shoulder Diameter (SDM), Pin Diameter (TPD), and Shoulder Surface (SS)

Sl.No. Responses R2 (%) Adjusted R2 (%) Regression equation

1 Tensile Strength(TS) 91.7 87.3 TS =(272.01) + (–2.08*SD) + (11.51*TPD)

+ (4.37*SFS) + (–25.71*SD*SD) + (–68.61*TPD*TPD) + (–20.13*SFS*SFS) + (2.81*SD*TPD) + (3.13*SD*SFS) + (6.50*TPD*SFS)

2 %Elongation

(EL) 97.3 95.9 EL =(6.566) + (–0.126*SD) + (0.205*TPD) + (0.003*SFS) + (–0.733*SD*SD) + (–2.640*TPD*TPD) + (–0.724*SFS*SFS) + (0.181*SD*TPD) + (0.395*SD*SFS) + (0.207*TPD*SFS)

3 Weld Cross Section(WCS) 85.2 77.4 WCS =(51.570) + (0.157*SD) + (0.699*TPD)

+ (–0.391*SFS) + (–0.601*SD*SD) + (–4.142*TPD*TPD) + (–0.470*SFS*SFS) + (–0.310*SD*TPD) + (0.059*SD*SFS) + (–0.911*TPD*SFS)

tions between the response control factorsand response parameters are significant.In case of % elongation, ANOVA showedthe interactions of the response controlfactors as well as both linear and squarerelations between the response controlfactors and response parameters to be sig-nificant. However, for the weld cross-sectional area, ANOVA showed the quad-ratic response surface equations to bemore appropriate for capturing the effectof tool geometries.

Surface Response and Interaction Effects

The main and interaction effect plotsfor the response parameters are shown inFigs. 5–7. Figure 5A indicates the pin di-ameter seems to be the most dominatingfactor as compared to that of shoulder di-ameter and shoulder surface concavity forthe tensile strength. The 19-mm shoulderdiameter and concavity level 2 (2 mm flatsurface and concavity at 7 deg) seem to bemost effective for achieving better tensilestrength as indicated in Fig. 5A.

The interaction effect plot for % elon-gation indicated that pin diameter had sig-nificant impact on % elongation as shownin Fig. 6A, B. Out of the three control fac-tors, shoulder surface seems to be least af-

fecting % elongation as indicated in Fig.6A, B. Apart from the pin diameter, the19-mm shoulder diameter seems to bemore dominant for achieving better %elongation, as can be seen in Fig. 6B.

The main effects plot on the weld cross-sectional area with respect to control factorsis shown in Fig. 7A. It shows least effect ofthe shoulder diameter, significant effect ofpin diameter, and some effect of shouldersurface concavity on the weld cross section.It is also observed in Fig. 7A that shouldersurface level 3 (1 mm flat surface from theoutside perimeter of the tool shoulder and7 deg inside tapered) resulted in less weldcross-sectional area. The interaction plotsin Fig. 7B also showed that the shoulder di-ameter and shoulder surface concavity havealmost a similar effect in the formation ofthe weld cross-sectional area.

Role of Pin Diameter in Weld Characteristics

The pin diameter was found to be themost significant factor that affects theweld tensile strength and weld cross-sectional area. This is because the stirringin the weld is mainly caused by the pin ac-tion. A 7-mm-diameter threaded pin wasfound to be the most effective in this in-

vestigation. Pin diameters exceeding 7 mmdid not improve the weld tensile proper-ties, which might be due to improperbonding/mixing of the material by thelarger-diameter pin. An interesting obser-vation was noted with regard to the weldcross-sectional area. It was found to bemaximum with a tool having a 7-mm-diameter pin. The weld cross-sectional arereduced with increasing pin diameter.

Role of Shoulder Diameter in Weld Characteristics

The main effect plots indicated consid-erable effect of tool shoulder diameter ontensile strength and % elongation. The ef-fect of tool shoulder diameter on weldcross-sectional area was found to be notthat significant. The 19-mm shoulder di-ameter was observed to provide maximumweld tensile strength. As compared to thepin diameter, it was observed that shoul-der diameter had less of an effect on for-mation of the weld cross-sectional area.

Role of Shoulder Flat Surface andConcavity In Weld Characteristics

Shoulder surface (concavity) levels 2and 3 were found to achieve better weld


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A AB B

CC

Table 9 — Percentage Error of Weldment Characteristics for Test Cases

Test case input variables Percentage error from the model prediction

Sl. Shoulder Pin Shoulder Tensile Tensile % % % Elon- % Weld Weld cross %No. diameter dia. surface strength strength Error Elon- gation Error cross section Error

(mm) (mm) level (MPa) predicted (MPa) gation predicted section predicted(mm2) (mm2)

1 20 8 3 187 204.08 –8.37 3.54 3.68 –3.91 48.83 46.43 5.152 17 8 2 190 203.00 –6.40 3.56 3.76 –5.52 48.99 48.14 1.763 14 8 1 125.67 116.49 7.87 1.84 1.72 6.41 46.28 47.82 –3.224 20 7 3 267.05 253.74 5.24 5.9 5.85 0.81 53.91 50.89 5.925 17 7 2 266.3 261.97 1.65 5.9 6.32 –6.70 55.80 51.37 8.606 14 7 1 189.53 184.77 2.57 3.79 4.67 –18.87 46.28 49.83 –7.13

Fig. 10 — Surface plots of the following with respect to pin diameter and shoul-der surface type: A — Tensile strength; B — % elongation; C — weld cross section.

Fig. 9 — Surface plots of the following with respect to shoulder diameter and sur-face type: A —Tensile strength; B — % elongation; C — weld cross section.

tensile strength as compared to that oflevel 1 or full flat surface. The shoulderflat surface level 2 indicated 2 mm flat sur-face of the shoulder from the boundary ofthe tool then interally tapered at 70 andwas observed to perform better than level1. Shoulder surface level 3 was observed tocause less weld cross-sectional area as ob-served in Fig. 7. It can be stated that theflat shoulder surface and level 2 shouldersurface produced almost similar effectsfor weld cross-sectional area. However,overall shoulder surface level 2 was foundto achieve maximum weld tensile strength.

The response surface regression equa-tions for tensile strength (TS), % elonga-tion (EL), and weld cross-sectional area(WCS) are given in Table 8. It may benoted that the regression equations weretested with measured output of each toolas presented in Table 6. The predicted re-sponses from these equations were com-pared with the respective values of meas-ured responses given in Table 6. Theseequations, presented in Table 8, werefound to be sufficiently accurate with max-imum error of 5% indicating the suitabil-ity of these regression equations to predictthe effect of tool geometries.

The response surface regression equa-tions were further utilized for generating3D surface plots of responses as shown inFigs. 8–10. In Fig. 8A–C, the 3D surfaceresponse plots are shown for the tensilestrength, % elongation, and weld cross-sectional area with respect to the shoulderand pin diameters. The surface plotsshown in Fig. 8A–C having a convex sur-face indicates to having optimal points. InFig. 9A–C, the 3D surface response plotsare shown for the tensile strength, % elon-gation, and weld cross-sectional area withrespect to shoulder diameter and shouldersurface. The response indicates a zone ofoptimality. In Fig. 10A–C, the 3D surfaceresponse plots are shown for the tensilestrength, % elongation, and weld cross-sectional area with respect to pin diameterand shoulder surface levels. The regres-sion equations as indicated in Table 8 weretested further for some test case tools hav-ing different tool geometries other thanthose given in Table 6. Experiments wereconducted to measure tensile strength, %elongation, and weld cross-sectional areafor the test case tools as given in Table 9.The geometry features of these tools werefurther used in regression equationsstated in Table 8 for predicting tensilestrength, % elongation, and weld cross-section. The predicted values of the re-sponses and measured responses of thetest cases were then compared as shown inTable 9. The maximum % error was foundto be 8.6% for weld cross-sectional areafor test case serial number 5 (Table 9).

From the prediction capability of themodel developed in the present investiga-tion, it can be stated that the regressionequations developed in the present workare appropriate for predicting the effectsof varying design parameters of threadedtools on friction stir welding of 7039 alu-minum alloys.

Conclusions

The tool designs and modelingmethodology presented here demon-strated the usefulness of the approach forpredicting the friction stir weld character-istics based on tool geometrical parame-ters. The effect of tool shoulder concavitylevels was also investigated. The multi-response regression equations developedhere were found appropriate for predict-ing the weld quality characteristics basedon varying tool parameters. With respectto FSW of AA7039 using threaded toolshaving varying shoulder surface, shoulderdiameter, and pin dimension, the follow-ing can be stated:

Pin diameter was found to have maxi-mum influence among the control factorsthat determine tensile strength of theweld. In the present investigation, a 7-mmpin diameter was found to yield better re-sults compared to 6 and 8 mm.

The effect of shoulder diameter wasfound to not be significant compared topin diameter for weld tensile properties.With respect to the processing windowused in this investigation, the 19-mmshoulder diameter was found to be moresuitable for obtaining adequate tensilestrength and percentage elongation.

The 2-mm flat shoulder surface fromthe periphery of the shoulder, followed byconcavity of 70 was observed to be moresuitable for achieving adequate tensilestrength.

The weld cross-sectional area was alsofound to depend on the tool pin diameter,and the effect was almost similar to theweld tensile strength.

The surface response regression equa-tions developed in the present investigationwere found to be fairly accurate for predict-ing the effect of tool geometries on thewelds signifying the adequacy of the model.

References

1. Thomas, W. M., Nicholas, E. D., Need-ham, J. C., Murch, M. G., Temple-Smith, P., andDawes, C. J. 1993. Friction stir butt welding(The Welding Institute (TWI)). PCT WorldPatent Application WO93/10935; field: No-vember 27, 1992 (UK 9125978.8, December 6,1991); publication: June 10, 1993.

2. Thomas, W. M., Threadgill, P. L., andNicholas, E. D. 1999. The feasibility of frictionstir welding steel. Science and Technology of

Welding and Joining 4: 365–372.3. Su, J.-Q., Nelson, T. W., Mishra, R. S., and

Mahony, M. 2003. Microstructural investiga-tion of friction stir welded 7050-T651 alu-minium. Acta Materialia 51: 713–729.

4. Colligan, K. J., Konkol, P. J., Fisher, J. J.,and Pickens, J. R. 2003. Friction stir weldingdemonstrated for combat vehicle construction.Welding Journal 82(3): 34–40.

5. Zhao, Y. H., Lin, S. B., Wu, L., and Qu, F.X. 2005. The influence of pin geometry onbonding and mechanical properties in frictionstir weld 2014 Al alloy. Materials Letters 59:2948–2952.

6. Hidetoshi, F., Ling, C., Masakatsu, M.,Yutake, S. S., and Kiyoshi, N. 2006. Effect ofthreads on tool in friction stir welding of alu-minium alloys. Materials Science Forum 512:389–394.

7. Tozaki, Y., Uematsu, Y., and Tokaji, K.2007. Effect of tool geometry on microstructureand static strength in friction stir spot weldedaluminium alloys. International Journal of Ma-chine Tools & Manufacture 47: 2230–2236.

8. Scialpi, A., Filippis, L.A.C. De., and Cav-aliere, P. 2007. Influence of shoulder geometryon microstructure and mechanical properties offriction stir welded 6082 aluminium alloy. Ma-terials and Design 28: 1124–1129.

9. Elangovan, K., and Balasubramanian., V.2008. Influences of tool pin profile and toolshoulder diameter on the formation of frictionstir processing zone in AA6061 aluminiumalloy. Materials & Design 29: 362–373.

10. Padmanaban, G., and Balasubramanian,V. 2009. Selection of FSW tool pin profile,shoulder diameter and material for joiningAZ31B magnesium alloy — An experimentalapproach. Materials and Design 30: 2647–2656.

11. Palanivel, R., Mathews, P. K., and Mu-rugan, N. 2010. Influences of tool pin profile onthe mechanical and metallurgical properties offriction stir welding of dissimilar aluminum al-loys. Int. Journal of Engg. Science and Technol-ogy 2(6): 2109–2115.

12. Vijay, S. J., and Murugan, N. 2010. In-fluence of tool pin profile on the metallurgicaland mechanical properties of friction stirwelded Al–10 wt-% TiB2 metal matrix compos-ite. Materials and Design 31: 3585–3589.

13. Rajakumar, S., Muralidharan, C., andBalasubramanian, V. 2010. Optimization of thefriction-stir-welding process and tool parame-ters to attain a maximum tensile strength ofAA7075–T6 aluminium alloy. Proc. of theIMechE, Part B: Journal of Engineering Manu-facture 224: 1175–1191.

14. Blignault, C., Hattingh, D. G., and James,M. N. 2011. Optimizing friction stir welding viastatistical design of tool geometry and process pa-rameters. Journal of Materials Engineering andPerformance DOI: 10.1007/s11665-011-9984-2.

15. Rajakumar, S., Muralidharan, C., andBalasubramanian, V. 2011. Influence of frictionstir welding process and tool parameters onstrength properties of AA7075-T6 aluminiumalloy joints. Materials and Design 32: 535–549.

16. Montgomery, D. C. 2001. Design andAnalysis of experiments. Singapore: John Wiley& Sons.

17. Minitab Inc. 2000. User manual ofMINITAB statistical software. Release 13.31,State College, Pa.

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Introduction

Submerged arc welding (SAW) is amajor process used to join ship structures,and its efficiency plays a significant role indetermining the total ownership costs ofships. Unlike other arc welding processes,in SAW the arc and molten weld metal areshielded by a covering envelope of moltenflux and a layer of unfused granular fluxparticles (Refs. 1, 2). This unique ap-proach for shielding allows the use of largewelding currents without spatter and hightravel speeds without exposing high-tem-perature liquid metal to the surroundingatmosphere. Thus, quality welds can bemade at high travel speeds.

However, in current practices withSAW, the power supply is set to the con-

stant voltage (CV) mode to balance themelting of the wire with its given feedingspeed. While the deposition rate and wirebalance are controlled, the melting cur-rent is subject to change. Because themelting current is the same as the basemetal current, which controls weld pene-tration, the resultant weld penetration canvary with welding conditions that may af-fect the melting-feeding balance of thewire causing the CV power supply tochange the current. Efforts are needed tocontrol welding conditions such as rootopening, joint geometry, and contact tube-to-work distance (CTWD) within certainranges. However, the resultant weld pen-etration is still not ensured.

The significance of weld penetration

monitoring and control in SAW for ship-building can be appreciated and demon-strated through its capability in facilitatingthe so-called “no backgouge” method.This applies to the automated, two-sidedbutt joint welding processes such as panel-line assemblies where plates are weldedusing SAW tractors from both sides to en-sure complete joint penetration and ac-ceptable weld quality. Two-sided weldingin shipbuilding applications involves weld-ing from one side, flipping the plate, andthen completing the weld from the otherside.

For applications that require completejoint penetration, the key to two-sidedwelding is ensuring that the “backside”weld completely penetrates the joint andfuses into the weld deposited on the op-posite side. In most cases, complete jointpenetration is assured by backgougingprior to welding of the opposite side (orbackside weld) (Refs. 3, 4). The elimina-tion of backgouging could significantlysave time and cost through the following:1) eliminating the steps associated withthe backgouging process, and 2) reducingthe volume of weld metal needed to com-plete the backside weld. Unfortunately,this so-called no backgouge method is ap-proved in limited cases, and the majorissue limiting its use is due to the inabilityto reliably control weld penetration. If onecould accurately control weld penetrationfrom the two sides, one would be able toextend the use of no backgouge proce-dures to greater component thicknesses.

Sensing and control of weld penetra-tion are critical variables for the competi-tive next-generation manufacturing indus-try. Unfortunately, the penetration depthin partial penetration weld applications isnot visible, and the weld bead on the back-side of the workpiece is not visible fromthe front side. Monitoring weld penetra-tion, either the penetration depth or weldbead on the backside of the workpiece, ischallenging.

Despite the difficulties, a number ofmethods have been proposed to detectweld penetration. For SAW, methods thatare based on direct observation of theelectric arc or weld pool such as camera

Penetration Depth Monitoring andControl in Submerged Arc Welding

The partial penetration depth in the submerged arc welding process is modeledand feedback controlled based on the base metal current

BY X. R. LI, Y. M. ZHANG, AND L. KVIDAHL

KEYWORDS

Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)Weld PenetrationModelingControlProportional Integral

Derivative (PID)DH36

X. R. LI is with Adaptive Intelligent Systems,LLC, Lexington, Ky. Y. M. ZHANG([email protected];[email protected]) is with Adaptive Intelligent Systems, LLC,and the University of Kentucky Institute for Sus-tainable Manufacturing and Department of Elec-trical and Computer Engineering. L. KVIDAHLis with Huntington Ingalls Industries, Pascagoula,Miss.

Presented during the AWS Professional Programat FABTECH 2012, Las Vegas, Nev.

ABSTRACT

Submerged arc welding (SAW) is known for its high productivity. However, there isa lack of capability to monitor and control weld penetration. Because penetration is be-lieved to be primarily determined by base metal current, a gas metal arc welding(GMAW) gun is added into the SAW process to bypass part of the total current. Thebase metal current that controls weld penetration is directly reduced, and the ability toadjust the base metal current to control weld penetration without reducing depositionrate is introduced into SAW. To conveniently monitor weld penetration and acquire theneeded feedback for weld penetration control, welding parameters and conditions af-fecting weld penetration were analyzed and specific variables subject to variation andfluctuation were identified. Experiments were conducted to see what parameters affectthe weld penetration and what their significances are. It was found that the base metalcurrent is the dominant parameter that determines weld penetration with a sufficientaccuracy when other major parameters are in their stated ranges. A control system hasbeen established to monitor and control weld penetration using a proportional integralderivative (PID) control algorithm. This algorithm is based on penetration feedbackprovided by the penetration model that correlates weld penetration depth to base metalcurrent. Experiments on DH36 square butt joints verified the effectiveness of the pro-posed method.

FEBRUARY 2013, VOL. 92

and pool oscillation are apparently notsuitable. Other methods that have beenexplored for SAW, which include ultra-sonic penetration sensors (Refs. 5, 6), in-frared camera-based sensors (Refs. 7–9),and numerical analysis-based methods(Refs. 10, 11). However, to facilitate amethod that is more suitable for a manu-facturing environment, it may be pre-ferred if only arc signals can be conve-niently measured.

This paper proposes a method to mon-itor and control the depth of weld pene-tration using SAW, which can be conve-niently implemented in a manufacturingenvironment. At first, the double-elec-trode bypass method that has previouslybeen studied for gas metal arc welding(GMAW) with an added gas tungsten arcwelding (GTAW) bypass torch (Ref. 12)and GMAW bypass welding gun (Refs. 13,14), respectively, is introduced to the SAWto provide the ability to change the basemetal current. It is believed the base metalcurrent is a major parameter in determin-

ing weld penetration without reducingdeposition rate. In-situ testing and dataanalysis were performed to model thedepth of the weld penetration and corre-late the penetration depth to the arc sig-nals. Weld penetration monitoring andsubsequent control system were estab-lished with feasibility verified by prelimi-nary experiments. Finally, closed-loopcontrol experiments were conducted to

verify the effectiveness of the proposedmethod and system.

Process and System

Principle

A modified SAW process that allowsthe base metal current to be adjusted with-out reducing the deposition rate is intro-

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Fig. 1 — Bypass SAW process block diagram.

Fig. 3 — Bypass SAW platform.

Fig. 2 — Block diagram of automatic welding system.

Fig. 4 — Installation of bypass GMAW gun.

Table 1 — Welding Conditions for Modeling Experiments

Parameters Unit Value

Material AISI 1018Butt joint root opening in. 0

CTWD in. 3⁄4Travel speed in./min 20Main voltage V 30.0

Main wire 1⁄8 in. (3.2 mm) AWS A5.17Bypass voltage V 30.0

Bypass wire 0.045 in. (1.14 mm) AWS A5.18

duced by adding a GMAW gun into a con-ventional SAW process as illustrated inFig. 1. Two power supplies are used topower the SAW gun and added GMAWgun, separately. In all consumable arc

welding processes,including SAWwith a consumablewire as a terminalof the arc, the totalcurrent It that meltsthe main wire is thesame as the basemetal current Ibmthat determines thepenetration on theworkpiece. Thedeposition rate isproportional to

Ibm, since Ibm = It. If a partial penetrationof specific depth is needed, the depositionrate will have to change accordingly. Withthe introduction of the bypass GMAWgun and bypass current Ibm, the relation-

ship becomes as follows:

It = Ibm + Ibp (1)

As a result, the total current can be setlarge enough to achieve the needed depo-sition rate, while the bypass current can bewell controlled to achieve the desired basemetal current to produce the requiredpenetration. As a result, two control vari-ables, the wire feed speeds of the mainwire and bypass wire, can be adjusted toproduce the two outputs, weld penetrationand deposition rate, at their desired val-ues. The required controllability for weldpenetration without reducing the deposi-tion rate is provided.

The principle of the system establishedin this study is to implement the proposed

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Fig. 5 — Bypass SAW control system (left: control box; right: initial parameterinput screen on HMI terminal touchscreen).

Fig. 6 — Model accuracy for group 1.

Table 2 — Measurements from Identification Experiments

No. I Ibm Ibp P WFSm Wm WFSbp Wbp Wt(A) (A) (A) (in.) (in./min) (lb/h) (in./min) (lb/h) (lb/h)

1 466.23 301 165.23 0.157 91 18.63 322 8.55 27.182 464.23 279 185.23 0.111 91 18.63 371 9.84 28.473 464.23 264 200.23 0.084 91 18.63 408 10.81 29.444 464.23 251 213.23 0.074 91 18.63 439 11.65 30.285 464.23 237 227.23 0.071 91 18.63 473 12.55 31.186 462.23 245 217.23 0.058 91 18.63 448 11.91 30.537 586.23 431 155.23 0.222 101 20.67 298 7.91 28.588 584.23 406 178.23 0.208 101 20.67 354 9.39 30.069 597.23 397 200.23 0.208 101 20.67 407 10.81 31.4810 600.23 414 186.23 0.207 101 20.67 373 9.91 30.5811 611.23 393 218.23 0.199 101 20.67 451 11.97 32.6712 621.23 395 226.23 0.181 101 20.67 470 12.49 33.1613 692.23 577 115.23 0.346 112 22.9 201 5.33 28.2314 647.23 491 156.23 0.280 112 22.9 301 7.97 30.8715 638.23 458 180.23 0.265 112 22.9 359 9.52 32.4216 632.23 430 202.23 0.222 112 22.9 412 10.94 33.8417 626.23 399 227.23 0.214 112 22.9 473 12.55 35.4518 632.23 388 244.23 0.208 112 22.9 514 13.65 36.55


process and control shown in Fig. 2. Theembedded controller is the core of thecontrol system. It is interfaced with theprocess through a number of isolationmodules. A human machine interface(HMI) terminal is used by the operator toinput initial welding parameters. The op-tional data acquisition module is used onlywhen it is necessary to record the on-linemeasurements. All the components of thecontrol system are installed in a portablecontrol enclosure. Both power suppliesare operated under CV mode. For eachwire feeder, the wire feed speed commandsignal is provided by the embedded con-troller via the output isolation module.Two current sensors are used to measurethe base metal current and bypass current.The measurements from sensors are di-rectly connected to the input isolationmodules.

Experimental Setup

An LT-7 tractor from Lincoln Electricwas used to perform SAW in this study andis shown together with the bypass GMAWgun in Fig. 3. A Miller Deltaweld 652CV/DC welding machine was used topower the SAW gun under constant volt-age (CV) mode. With a preset arc voltage,the welding current can be changed withthe wire feeding speed setting. The AWSA5.17 EM12K wire with 1⁄8-in. (3.18-mm)diameter from Lincoln Electric was cho-sen as the consumable wire for SAW. It isfed by the LT-7 tractor, with adjustablewire feeding speed denoted as WFSm. Lin-colnweld 882 flux was used to protect thesubmerged arc and weld pool. The lowerend of the flux hopper merges with the tipof the SAW gun in order to supply fluxwhen the gun is moving and make surethat the electric arc is protected from sur-rounding atmosphere with the flux

protection.The bypass GMAW gun was fixed to

the tractor with an approximate 45-degangle with the SAW gun, as shown in Fig.

4. The bypass welding gun was powered bya Thermal Arc Powermaster 500 CC/CVwelding machine, which is also operatedunder CV mode. The AWS A5.18 ER70S-

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Fig. 9 — Block diagram of control system.

Fig. 10 — Weld bead made from experiment for ¼-in. penetration depth.

Table 3 — RMSEs for the Four Models

Model RMSE (in.) Regression variables/number of parameters

Model 1 0.0112 base metal current and deposition rates/4Model 2 0.0124 base metal current/2Model 3 0.0206 deposition rates/3Model 4 0.0122 base metal current, square of base metal current/3

Table 4 — Welding Parameters for 1⁄4-in. Penetration

Parameters Unit Parameter Value

Travel speed in./min 20CTWD in. 3⁄4

Main voltage V 30Total current Follow main wire speed

Main wire 0.125 in. (3.175 mm) AWS A5.17Main wire feed speed in./min 70

Bypass voltage V 30Bypass current Follow bypass wire feeding speedBypass wire 0.045 in. (1.14 mm) AWS A5.18

Initial bypass wire feed speed in./min 200Desired base metal current A 436

Table 5 — Experimental Results for 1⁄4-in. (0.25-in.) Penetration Depth

Point # Ibm Ibp I Penetration ErrorA A A in. %

1 438 117 555 0.2449 –2.052 436 123 559 0.2500 03 432 119 551 0.2571 2.834 434 113 547 0.2421 –3.155 438 112 550 0.2457 –1.736 434 116 550 0.2512 0.477 435 116 551 0.2520 0.79

6 wire with 0.045-in.(1.14-mm) diameterfrom Kobelco was se-lected as the bypass wire.A Miller S-74D wirefeeder was used to supplythe bypass wire at a wirefeeding speed of WFSbp.

A bypass SAW processcontroller was installedbased on the universalwelding process control

system developed by Adaptive IntelligentSystems, LLC, Lexington, Ky. (Ref. 15) Thecontroller was used to monitor and controlvarious welding parameters, such as weld-ing current, arc voltage, wire feeding speed,etc. A HMI terminal was used to enhancethe communication between welder andprocess. The controller and HMI screen areshown in Fig. 5.

Modeling

Regression Variables

As discussed above, the bypass SAWintroduced an ability to control both thebase metal current and deposition rate. Inthis section, the authors will demonstratethat the depth of the weld penetration can

be determined by the based metal currentwith sufficient accuracy. The ability tocontrol the weld penetration is establishedusing the bypass SAW. To this end, allmajor parameters affecting penetrationdepth would have to be taken into consid-eration first.

A number of studies have been de-voted to modeling the SAW process (Refs.16–20). Based on these studies, a compre-hensive model is proposed to correlate thedepth of the weld penetration to a numberof welding parameters as the regressionvariables:

P = f(Ibm ,Wt ,G, CTWD, S) (2)

Here, P is the depth of partial penetra-tion weld (in.), Ibm the base metal current(A), Wt the total deposition rate (lb/h), Gthe root opening (in.), CTWD the contacttip-to-work distance (in.), and S the travelspeed (in./min).

In the welding parameters included inEquation 2, CTWD and S can be accu-rately controlled, and G may be controlledwith a certain range. The approach is tosimplify the model into the followingform:

P = f(Ibm ,Wt), (3)

identify the model under given CTWDand S and nominal G, and then examinehow the accuracy may be affected by Gwhen it is in the tolerant range. It is ap-parent that

Wt = Wm + Wbp (4)

Here, Wm and Wbp are the depositionrates from the main (SAW) wire and by-pass wire, respectively. In general, a depo-sition rate W can be calculated from itswire feed speed WFS for a steel wire in thefollowing expression:

W = 13.1 × D2 × WFS × EE (5)

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Fig. 11 — Measured welding parameters with ¼-in. penetration control.

Fig. 12 — Completed weld bead for ¼-in. penetration depth on DH36.

Fig. 13 — Completed weld bead for 3⁄8-in. penetration test on DH36.

Table 6 — Alloy Composition (wt-%) of DH36Steel (Ref. 23)

Alloy Material Wt-%

C 0.18Mn 0.90–1.60Si 0.10–0.50S 0.035P 0.035Al 0.015 minNb 0.02–0.05V 0.05–0.10Ti 0.02Cu 0.35Cr 0.20Ni 0.40Mo 0.08

Table 7 — Welding Parameters for 1⁄4-in. Penetration Test on DH36


Material DH 36Root opening in. 0Travel speed in./min 20

CTWD in. 3⁄4Main voltage V 30.0Total current A Follow main wire speed

Main wire 1⁄8-in. (3.17-mm) AWS A5.17Main wire speed in./min 70Bypass voltage V 30.0Bypass current A Follow bypass wire speedBypass wire 0.045-in. (1.14-mm) AWS A5.18

Initial bypass wire speed in./min 200Desired base metal current A 470

Here, D is the diameter of the wire(in.), WFS the wire feed speed (in./min),and EE the electrode efficiency that isconsidered 100% for a solid wire. The con-stant of 13.1 is due to the density and unitsused. Hence,

Wt = Wm + Wbp = 13.1× (D2

m × WFSm + D2bp × WFSbp) (6)

The proposed model becomes

P = f(Ibm, Wm, Wbp) (7)

Identification Experiments

To provide sufficient variations for theregression parameters in the model, threegroups of butt joint welding experimentswere conducted on ½-in.-thick AISI 1018plates under conditions in Table 1.

In the butt joint welding experiments,no root openings were set intentionally.For each experiment, WFSm was manuallyset as a constant on the panel of the SAWtractor, and there were variations in thetotal current from experiment to experi-ment with the same nominal WFSm.Within each group, WFSbp was changed ina relatively large range and bypass currentchanged accordingly. After experiments,specimens were cut in 1-in. intervals tomeasure the depth of the weld penetra-tion. Table 2 lists all the measured experi-mental data, including the regression vari-ables/model inputs and model output.

Model Identification

Four tentative model structures wereproposed in Equation 8.

Model 1 includes the base metal currentand deposition rates as regression parame-ters/model inputs; Models 2 and 3 only con-sider either the base metal current or depo-sition rate, respectively; and Model 4contains linear and quadratic equationsrepresenting the base metal current.

The Least Squares method (Ref. 21)was used to estimate model coefficientsfor each given model structure in Equa-tion 8 using experimental data in Table 2.The measured output was compared withthe model fitted penetration depth in Figs.6–8 for each of the three experimentgroups.

To evaluate model performances, theroot mean square error (RMSE) was usedfor each model:

where p and p denote the measured andmodel-estimated penetration depths, re-

spectively. Index i indicates the ith samplein the given experiment group, and n is thenumber of samples from the given experi-ment group. The resultant RMSEs arelisted in Table 3.

When the number of parameters is thesame, a model with a smaller RMSEshould be selected. Model 3 is thus elimi-

P a a I a W a W Model

P a a Ibm m bp

bm

= + + +

= +

0 1 2 3

0 1

( 1)

( 2)Model

P a=00 1 2

( 3) (+ +a W a W Modelm bp

88)

(0 1 2

2P a a I a I Modebm bm

= + + ll 4)

⎧

⎨

⎪⎪⎪

⎩

⎪⎪⎪

RMSEp P

n

l ii

n

= (9)

2

1

−

⎛

⎝⎜

⎞

⎠⎟

=∑

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Fig. 14 — Weld bead profiles for ¼-in. partial penetration test etchants.

Fig. 15 — Weld bead profiles for 3⁄8-in. partial penetration test etchants.

Table 8 — Measured Welding Current and Penetration Depth for 1⁄4-in. Penetration Test on DH36

Point # Ibm Ibp It Penetration ErrorA A A in. %

1 480 63 543 0.2547 1.892 470 66 536 0.2516 0.633 470 63 533 0.2551 2.054 465 63 528 0.2539 1.575 469 63 532 0.2539 1.57

Table 9 — Welding Parameters for 3⁄8-in. Penetration Test on DH36


Material DH 36Root opening in. 0Travel speed in./min 20

CTWD in. 3⁄4Main voltage V 30.0Total current A Follow main wire speed

Main wire 1⁄8-in. (3.17-mm) AWS A5.17Main wire speed in./min 90Bypass voltage V 30.0Bypass current A Follow bypass wire speedBypass wire 0.045-in. (1.14-mm) AWS A5.18

Initial bypass wire speed in./min 200Desired base metal current A 570

∧

nated. As the number of parameters in-creases, the resultant reduction in RMSEmust be significant. The significance maybe examined using F-test (Ref. 22) with agiven confidence level α. For α = 0.05, F= 0.5 and 1.6 from Models 2 to 3 and fromModels 2 to 1, respectively. Both these Fvalues are far from being significant.Model 2 is selected. Because of the smallRMSE, the resultant model (model 2)

P = –0.1258 + 0.0008Ibm (10)

is considered to exhibit the best accuracy.

Local Modeling

The model identified above is a globalmodel. The modeling accuracy may bebetter assured if models are identified fordifferent penetration levels of concern,such as 50% and 75% of the full platethickness. This is because a specific pene-tration level can narrow down many pa-rameters/variables: 1) Root opening,CTWD, and travel speed appropriate tothe needed penetration level should be de-termined and then set to the correspon-ding constants; 2) arc voltage for main andbypass power supply appropriate to theneeded penetration level should be deter-

mined and then set at a constant level (30V, for example); and 3) main wire feedspeed appropriate to the needed penetra-tion level should be determined and thenset at a constant. Reduced ranges of theseparameters/variables in general shouldimprove the accuracy of local models overthe global model established on wideranges of these parameters/variables.

Feedback Control andVerification Experiment

The principle of the proposed penetra-tion control system is illustrated in Fig. 9.In this system, only the bypass wire feedspeed is adjusted to control the penetra-tion depth/base metal current. If the dep-osition rate and weld penetration bothneed to be accurately controlled, the mainwire speed should be adjusted togetherwith the bypass wire feed speed.

In Fig. 9, the penetration model calcu-lates/estimates the depth of weld penetra-tion P as the feedback. Its difference withthe desired depth of weld penetration P* isused as the input of the proportional inte-gral derivative (PID) control algorithm.The output of the PID control algorithm isthe change of the bypass wire feed speedΔWFSbp. The process includes power sup-

plies, wire feeders, and resultant arcs. Thetravel speed, main wire feed speed, andother constant parameters are also appliedto the process. However, only the bypasswire feed speed is manipulated as the con-trol variable of the process. The outputs ofthe process contain all variables from thebypass SAW process and can be recordedfor off-line analysis, but only the base metalcurrent is used as the feedback.

The PID controller was implemented bythe embedded control system introduced inthe process and system section. The A/Dport of controller samples the current sig-nals from the current sensors at 100 Hz (100samples per second per channel). The con-trol period was empirically selected to be 0.5s. The average of the measurements of aparticular signal in a control period wasused as the measurement/feedback of thissignal in this control period.

To demonstrate the effectiveness of theproposed monitoring and control method,closed-loop control verification experi-ments were conducted by butt joint weld-ing ½-in.-thick AISI 1018 carbon steelplates with the targeted depth of penetra-tion at ¼ in. (50% of whole thickness).AISI 1018 carbon steel was selected be-cause of its combination of typical traits ofsteel: strength, ductility, and comparativeease of machining. Chemically, it is verysimilar to A36 hot rolled steel, but the coldrolling process creates a better surface fin-ish and better properties. Its good weld-ability and low cost especially make it anappropriate choice for extensive experi-ments based on process and method de-velopments, as in this paper.

In all the preliminary experiments forverification, two ½-in.-thick by 2-in.-wideby 24-in.-long AISI 1018 plates weretacked with no intentional root opening.Square butt joints were welded with nogrooves at the flat position. The SAW trac-tor traveled along the experimental trackwith the welding gun in line with the joint.

The optimal values of constant param-eters were determined based on prelimi-nary experiments. For ¼-in. (50%) partialpenetration control, multiple tests withthe optimal values for the constant pa-rameters were conducted. These tests notonly produced more samples for furtheranalysis, but also proved the stability andconsistency of the proposed bypass SAWmethod. The optimal values for constantwelding parameters for targeted ¼-in.penetration are listed in Table 4.

The travel speed of 20 in./min is accept-able for butt joint welding in productivitylines, but not too fast to add difficulties forpenetration. The voltage settings and diam-eter of the main wire (0.125 in.) were deter-mined based on typical shipbuilding appli-cations. The bypass wire diameter (0.045in.) is typical for GMAW applications/guns.The initial value for the bypass wire feed


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Table 10 — Measured Welding Currents and Penetration Depth for 3⁄8-in. Penetration Test onDH36


1 563 106 669 0.3772 0.582 568 104 672 0.3709 –1.103 575 102 677 0.3752 0.054 576 107 683 0.3728 –0.585 561 102 663 0.3748 –0.05

Table 11 — Experimental Results from the Joint Root Opening Test


1 434 78 512 0.2512 0.472 438 78 516 0.2539 1.573 448 80 528 0.2547 1.894 436 89 525 0.2528 1.105 443 92 535 0.2449 –2.05

Table 12 — Experimental Results from 5⁄8-in. CTWD Test


1 432 110 542 0.2472 –1.102 438 105 543 0.2504 0.163 438 112 550 0.2480 –0.794 434 109 543 0.2449 –2.05

speed was used before the base metal cur-rent feedback became available.

Experiments have been conducted toidentify the local model corresponding tothe 50% penetration level using the ex-perimental conditions given in Table 5.The resultant local model is

P = –0.0361 + 0.000656Ibm (11)

Based on this local model, the desiredbase metal current is 436 A in order toproduce ¼-in. penetration depth on the½-in.-thick plates. Figure 10 shows theresultant butt joint weld. As can be ob-served, the weld made is consistent andsmooth after brushing off the solidifiedflux. The recorded currents are plottedin Fig. 11.

Figure 11 includes the bypass wirefeed speed command signal. Before t =3 s approximately, the bypass wire feedspeed command signal is 0. This is be-cause the bypass wire feed system wasswitched on manually after the main arcwas established. The bypass wire feedspeed command signal was then adjustedfrom its initial value of 200 in./min as de-termined by the PID control algorithm.As a result, the base metal current is con-trolled at its desired level, 436 A, ap-proximately.

The completed weldment was thencut into 1-in. segments to measure the re-sultant depth of the weld penetrationalong the coupon length. The results to-gether with the measured arc signals aregiven in Table 5 in 1-in. intervals. Forpartial penetration weld joints, it waseasy to identify the weld interface andpenetration depth from the weld profileof each small sample. In comparison withthe welding parameters measured in Fig.11, the measured penetration depthscorresponded to the welding parametersaround each point. The information ofweld samples is listed in Table 5.

As can be seen, the base metal currentwas closed-loop controlled accuratelyaround the desired level of 436 A, with amaximum error of 4 A. The average weldpenetration from the experiment was0.2484 in. The maximum error was0.0079 in., only 3.15% of the desired pen-etration depth.

In further tests, it was also found thatthe root opening of less than 1⁄16 in. willnot have a noticeable influence on thepenetration control accuracy. Actually,even though the weld joint was preparedto have a zero root opening, the rootopening may become larger during weld-ing because of heat distortion of the basematerial. Therefore, if the weld joint isprepared with a root opening smallerthan 1⁄16 in., the monitoring and controlaccuracy will not be affected visibly.

DH-36 Experiment Resultsand Analysis

In order to prove the effectiveness ofthe partial penetration control method, ½-in.-thick DH36 plates were welded toachieve a desired partial penetration of ¼in. (50%) and 3⁄8 in. (75%) targeting ship-building applications. The two penetra-tion depths are sufficient to avoid backgouging. If specific penetration depths arerequired for future applications, anotherset of welding and control parameters canbe given to achieve those levels.

Material

As extensively used in ship structures,DH36 plates were selected to demonstratethe feasibility of the proposed method inpractical applications. The chemical com-position of DH36 is listed in Table 6.

All the welding experiments were car-ried out on square butt joints in the flat po-sition. Two pieces of DH36 plates with ½ in.thickness × 3 in. width × 24 in. length werebutt joint welded with zero root opening.Although the root opening may be slightlyincreased during the welding process, itwon’t affect the control accuracy as learnedin previous experiments and will be demon-strated in this section. The SAW tractortraveled along the experimental track withthe GMAW gun in line with the joint.

Partial Penetration at ¼ in. (50%)

To achieve ¼-in. penetration on ½-in.-thick DH36 square butt joints, a series ofpreliminary experiments were conductedto obtain the following local model:

P = –0.3633 + 0.001312 × Ibm (12)

This local model calls for 470-A basemetal current to produce ¼-in. penetra-tion depth. The welding parameters usedto conduct these experiments and result-ant base metal current from this localmodel are listed in Table 7.

Again, the DH36 square butt jointswere tacked with zero root opening beforewelding. The completed weld bead is il-lustrated in Fig. 12. Similarly, as in theconventional SAW process, the weld beadin Fig. 12 is smooth without spatter. In ad-dition, due to the closed-loop control ef-fect, the weld bead is also consistent inwidth and height. To accurately measurepartial penetration depth, the specimenwas cut into several small sections alongthe weld bead with 1-in. interval. On theprofile of weld bead cross section, the pen-etration depth can be measured by caliperwith accepted accuracy. The welding cur-rent and partial penetration depth meas-urements corresponding to each cross-

section sample are listed in Table 8.From the measurement of partial pen-

etration depth, it can be seen that the max-imum error for ¼-in. penetration is 0.051in. (2.05% of desired penetration depth),which is far less than the maximum errorof 1⁄16 in. acceptable to shipyards.

Partial Penetration at 3⁄8 in. (75%)

Following the same procedure, the fol-lowing local model for 3⁄8-in. partial pene-tration was obtained:

P = –0.4942 + 0.001312 × Ibm (13)

By similar calculation, for 3⁄8-in. pene-tration depth, the required base metal cur-rent should be 570 A. Other welding pa-rameters are listed in Table 9. Withincreased weld penetration, the main wirefeeding speed was increased from 70 to 90in./min, in order to provide larger weldingcurrent and higher deposition rate.

Similarly consistent weld and resultswere obtained as shown in Fig. 13 andTable 10.

By examining the results, the maximumerror for 3⁄8-in. partial penetration is 0.0041in. (1.10% of required penetration depth),which is also inside the tolerated error of1⁄16 in.

Weld Profile

The obtained weld bead specimensfrom the partial penetration test werelater processed by SECAT, Inc., Lexing-ton, Ky., using standard preparation tech-niques for metallographic examination.By polishing and etching those specimens,the penetration depth could be moreclearly identified and measured. Some se-lected weld bead profiles were shownbelow in Figs. 14 and 15.

Based on the etching results, it can beobserved that in certain cases, the mainand bypass welding guns may deviate fromthe joint. This may have been caused by anirregular edge or deformation of the weldjoint, or the travel trajectory of the SAWtractor may not have been exactly in linewith the weld joint. However, the weld in-terface of all specimens reached the de-sired penetration depth. These weld beadprofiles further proved the effectivenessof the proposed partial penetration con-trol method by the bypass SAW process.

Variation Experiments

In ideal cases with all the welding pa-rameters and conditions kept constant, anopen-loop SAW process using predeter-mined welding parameters (wire feedspeed, voltage, CTWD, root opening, etc.)would produce consistent welds and weld-

55-sWELDING JOURNAL

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penetration depth as typically used in in-dustrial practices. However, the basemetal current that controls the weld pen-etration depth does subject to the effectsfrom possible variations in the CTWD androot opening. A closed-loop control wouldovercome the effects of these variationson the base metal current and weld pene-tration depth.

Further, while the introduction of thebypass arc provides advantages, the arcingprocess becomes more complicated and isdetermined by more parameters includingbypass wire position/angle. Ideally, settingall parameters at their nominal values be-comes challenging. A closed-loop controlwould overcome the effects of possiblesetting inaccuracy on the base metal cur-rent and weld penetration depth. In addi-tion, when an open-loop method is used, afew experiments are needed to determinethe values for the welding parameters thatproduce the desired base metal currentand weld penetration depth. With aclosed-loop control, such experiments be-come unnecessary.

To further demonstrate the effective-ness of the closed-loop controlled bypassSAW process, a series of experiments weredesigned and conducted with varying rootopenings and CTWDs.

Varying Root Opening

In previous experiments, butt jointwelds were made without intentional rootopenings. To demonstrate the effective-ness of the closed-loop control, the samewelding parameters from the feedbackcontrol and verification experiment sec-tion (Table 4) were used to weld the sameAISI 1018 plates but with an intentionalvariation in the root opening that in-creased from 0 to 1⁄16 in. The obtained weldbead was processed in the same way, andthe measurements are listed in Table 11.

As can be seen, even with a 1⁄16-in. rootopening, the base metal current was closed-loop controlled accurately around the de-sired level of 436 A. The average weld pen-etration from the experiment was 0.2515 in.The maximum error was 0.0066 in., only2.05% of the desired penetration depth.Therefore, for the root opening varying be-tween 0 and 1⁄16 in., the closed-loop controlstill guaranteed consistent weld penetrationdepth at the desired level.

Varying CTWD Test

For the varying CTWD test, the sameexperiment parameters and weld jointwere used as described in Table 4 and thefeedback control and verification experi-ment section. For this test, the CTWD wasset 1⁄8 in. lower than the standard 3⁄4-in.CTWD. The total current is expected tochange from the case with the standard 3⁄4-

in. CTWD under the same total WFS andpower supply voltage settings. Throughfeedback control, the base metal current,as well as the penetration depth, will bestable at the set points. The obtained weldbead was processed in the same way, andthe measurements are listed in Table 12.As can be seen, the maximum error was2.05%. The closed-loop control still guar-anteed consistent weld penetration depthat the desired level.

It is apparent that consistent weld pen-etration depths were achieved with ac-ceptable accuracies despite thechanges/variations in the CTWD and rootopening. Further verification experimentsare needed in order to confirm the effec-tiveness of the closed-loop control systemunder other different changes/variationsin welding conditions. The constraints onand the design of the closed-loop controlsystem may be subject to changes.

Conclusions

1) Bypass SAW provided an effectivemethod to adjust the weld penetration forSAW without reducing the depositionrate.

2) A controlled bypass SAW systemwas established with shipbuilding weldingas the target application.

3) The penetration depth in weldingsquare butt joints can be determined bythe base metal current with an acceptableaccuracy.

4) Local models provided a method toobtain more accurate weld penetration es-timates for specific applications.

5) The effectiveness of the proposedpenetration estimation/modeling and con-trol method for DH-36 was experimen-tally demonstrated.

Acknowledgment

This work was funded by the NavySBIR Program under contract N65538-10-M-0110. The technical guidance and assis-tance from the technical point of contact,Jonnie Deloach, is greatly appreciated.

References

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4. Jeffus, L., and Bower, L. 2009. WeldingSkills, Processes and Practices for Entry-LevelWelders. Florence, Ky.: Delmar Cengage Learning.

5. Graham, G. M., and Ume, I. C. 1997. Au-tomated system for laser ultrasonic sensing ofweld penetration. Mechatronics 7: 711–721.

6. Hopko, S. N., and Ume, I. C. 1999. Lasergenerated ultrasound by material ablationusing fiber optic delivery. Ultrasonics 37: 1–7.

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10. Murugan, N., Parmer, R. S., and Sud, S.K. 1993. Effect of submerged arc process vari-ables on dilution and bead geometry in singlewire surfacing. Journal of Materials ProcessingTechnology 37: 767–780.

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15. Li, X., Heusman, J., Kvidahl, L., Hoyt,P., and Zhang, Y. 2011. Manual keyhole PAWwith application. Welding Journal 90(12): 258-sto 264-s.

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