Avifauna in Mt Kitanglad Range Natural Park
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Transcript of Avifauna in Mt Kitanglad Range Natural Park
Compiled by:
Cindy B. Bitangcor
Department of Biological Sciences
MSU-Iligan Institute of Technology
IBA Code: PH094
Region: X –Bukidnon Province (Manolo Fortich, Sumilao, Impasugong, Malaybalay,
Lantapan, Talakag, Baungon, Libona)
Area: 31, 297 ha
Coordinates: 8˚06’N 124˚54’E
Altitude: 700-2,938 m
General Description • “Kitanglad” - combination of Visayan words “kita” (to
see) and “tanglad” (lemon grass), taken from a legend,
which says that lemon grass was the only thing visible on
top of the mountain as a great flood once submerged
Bukidnon
• declared a protected area through RA 8978, known as
the Mt. Kitanglad Range Protected Area Act of 2000
and as an ASEAN Heritage Park in October 2009
• Main peaks are Mt. Imbayao, Mt. Kaatoan,
Mt. Nangkabulos, Mt. Dulang-Dulang and Mt. Kitanglad.
• Mt Imbayao has the most extensive remaining lowland
forest at 800- 200 m
• Peak of Mt Kitanglad is denuded of vegetation because
of a fire in 1983
• Most important source of water of Bukidnon and Mis.
Oriental
Sustains substantial populations of:
Mindanao Lorikeet
Mindana Raquet-tail
Mindana Scops-owl
Slaty-backed Jungle-flycatcher
Red-eared parrotfinch
Apo Myna
has record of the poorly known
Whitehead’s swiftlet
And supports important population of the
Philippine Eagle
Known mammal fauna: 58 species natural habitat for several endemic mammals such as (DENR, 2013):
Golden crowned flying fox (Acerodon jubatus) Mindanao moon rat (Podogymnura truei)
Philippine brown deer (Cervus mariannus) Philippine tailless roundleaf bat (Coelops hirsutus)
Philippine flying lemur (Cynocephalus volans) Philippine pygmy fruit bat (Haplonycteris fischeri)
Phil. warty pig (Sus philippinensis) Mindanao tree shrew (Urogale everetti)
Philippine tarsier (Carlito syrichta)
Conservation Issues
Human activities severely impacting the area:
• High value crop plantations
• Kaingin
• Small-scale logging
• Establishment of buildings and roads for telecommunication and military camps
Other issues:
• Lack of security of tenure over the land
• Fires from adjacent grasslands
AVES
Philippine Duck Anas luzonica
Seen in or near at the base of Mt. Kitanglad in
1994.
Threat Category: Vulnerable
Habitat and Ecology:
Philippine endemic. It frequents most in freshwater and
saltwater habitats, including mangroves, open sea and
watercourses inside forest. It appears to be sedentary
although some seasonal aggregation occurs. It feeds on
fish, shrimps, insects, rice and young vegetation.
Philippine
Eagle Pithecophaga jefferyi
Recorded at several localities in or near to the Mt
Kitanglad Range in the 1980s and 1990s including
Manolo Fortich, Libona, Impasugong, Dalwangan
(nesting), Kinabulan (nesting), Sangaya, Malaybalay
and Dulang-dulang peak.
Threat Category: Critically endangered
Habitat and Ecology:
Philippine endemic. It inhabits primary dipterocarp
forest, particularly in steep terrain, sometimes
frequenting secondary growth and gallery forest (but
not occupying open canopy forest), from lowlands to
at least 1,800 m. Estimates based on the distribution
of nests in Mindanao suggest that each pair covers an
average of 133 km2, including an average of 68
km2 of forest . In Mindanao, eagles begin nesting from
September to December in primary and disturbed
forest, with some differences in the timing of breeding
between Mindanao and Luzon. A complete breeding
cycle lasts two years, with successful pairs raising one
offspring. Birds form a monogamous bond for life with
sexual maturity for females at around five years and
for males at around seven years (J. Ibanez in
litt. 2008). The young fledge after 4-5 months, but
stay in the nest vicinity for almost a year and a half.
Mindanao Brown-dove Phapitreron brunneiceps
Specimens were collected on Mt. Imbayao and Mt. Nangkabulos in 1992 and 1993, and it was seen in MKRNP in 1995.
Threat Category: Vulnerable
Identification: Mindanao endemic. 27 cm. A medium-sized, generally brown-coloured dove. Brown head and neck with glossy reddish-violet patch on side of neck. Warm, dark brownish rest of upperparts. Paler tip to tail. Vinous-grey underparts, contrasting with buff undertail-coverts.
Spotted Imperial-pigeon Ducula carola
Specimens were collected at Malaybalay in
1960, a sighting in 1997 but the species was not
found during 1992-1993, and most suitable mid-
altitude forest for this species may have been
cleared.
Threat Category: Vulnerable
Identification: Philippine endemic. 33 cm. Small,
imperial-pigeon. Male has pale grey head, neck
and breast with white, crescent-shaped band
across centre of breast. Blackish bar across lower
breast, rest of underparts dark chestnut. Grey
upperparts, tinged mauve, with dark spotting.
Greenish-black flight feathers and tail. Whitish
iris, reddish bill with paler tip, reddish legs.
Female has darker head and underparts, lacking
white breast-band and darker, mauvish-grey
upperparts with more metallic gloss.
Mindanao Lorikeet Trichoglossus johnstoniae
Many specimens were collected on Mt Kitanglad in 1967 and was
seen on Mt Nangkabulos and at Dalwangan in 1980s and 1990s
Threat Category: Near Threatened
Identification: Mindanao endemic. 20 cm. Both adults in general
green; pink/red forecrown and cheeks; band from lores to occiput
dark purple; yellow underparts, scalloped with green; yellow/green
underwing coverts and undertail coverts; underwing band yellow. Bill
orange/red. Eye ring dark grey. Eye red.
Mindanao Racquet-tail Prioniturus waterstradti
Many specimens collected on Mt Kitanglad, Mt nangkabulos, Mt Imbayao and Mt Dulang-dulang in 1993 and found to be fairly common in the 1990s.
Threat Category: Near Thretened
Identification: Mindanao endemic. 30 cm. Both adults-pale blue forehead to lores and beneath eyes; upperparts washed with brown; low back green/brown; belly olive/green; middle tail feathers green, "racquets" black, side tail feathers green tipped with black. Bill blue/grey. Eye dark brown.
Mindanao Scops-owl Otus mirus
Seen on Mt Kitanglad, including on Mt
nangkabulos by several observers in the 1990s.
Threat category: Near Threatened
Identification: Mindanao endemic. The owl’s
greyish-brown head and upperparts are heavily
marked with blackish streaks and blotches, and
the whitish underparts are interlaced with a criss-
crossed pattern of fine and heavy black lines. At
the back of the neck a row of white spots form a
distinct collar, and the whitish feathers at the
shoulders form two prominent white lines. The ear
tufts are reasonably small and whitish, the eyes
are brownish-yellow and the bill is greenish-grey
Lesser Eagle-owl Mimizuku gurneyi
Specimens were collected in Mt Kitanglad as early as 1960s
Threat Category: Vulnerable
Identification: Philippine endemic. 30 cm. Medium-sized owl with well-developed ear-tufts. Dark eyes. Rufescent facial disc outlined in black, conspicuous white eyebrows. Rufescent-brown crown and upperparts with darker shaft streaks, barred flight feathers and pale line on scapulars. Whitish underparts, washed rufous with bold black streaks.
Phil. Eagle-owl Bubo philippensis
Seen on Mt Kitanglad in 1987.
Threat Category: Vulnerable
Identification. Philippine endemic. 40 cm. Largish owl with small ear-tufts. Yellow eyes. Rufous-buff facial disc. Tawny-rufous crown and upperparts with conspicuous dark brown shaft-streaks. Dark brown wings and tail with buff barring. Whitish underparts, washed rufous especially on breast, with bold dark streaks. Subspecies B. p. mindanensis similar though darker.
Whitehead’s Swiftlet Collocalia whiteheadi
Reported from Mt Kitanglad and Mt Nangkabulos in 1993 but the
occurrence awaits definite confirmation
Threat Category: Data Deficient
Range Description: Collocalia whiteheadi is endemic to
the Philippines, where it is known from only four mountains, one on
Luzon (nominate whiteheadi) and three on Mindanao (race origenis)
(Collar et al. 1999). On Luzon, it was collected on Mt Data in 1895,
but has not been recorded there subsequently. On Mindanao, it is
known from Mt Apo in 1904 and Mt Kitanglad and Matutum in the
1990s, with specimens taken recently at an unnamed locality in South
Cotabato (the same province as Mt Matutum). Population numbers
are entirely unknown, partly as a result of the species's apparent
preference for relatively inaccessible areas and partly due to
identification difficulties, even with birds in the hand.
Phil Needletail Mearnsia picina
Seen on Mt Kitanglad in the 1990s
Threat Category: Near Threatened
Range Description: Mearnsia picina is endemic to the Philippines where it has been described as fairly common on Mindanao, Samar, Leyte, Biliran, Cebu and Negros, with a recent record from Tawitawi, but it appears to be scarce and local even at the best sites
Habitat and Ecology: This species is apparently restricted to lowland forest, although little is known of its breeding habits or life history. It feeds high above forest, either alone or in small groups.
Silvery Kingfisher Alcedo argentata
A reliable local report from Dalawagan in 1997,
although little of the lowland forest habitat of this
species remain.
Threat Category: Vulnerable
Identification. Philippine endemic. 14 cm. Tiny, black-
and-white kingfisher. Blackish underparts, washed blue
with white throat and belly. Black head and
upperparts, white loral spot, spots on side of head
forming streaky supercilium, neck blaze and median
covert tips. Silvery-white rump and blaze on back.
Bright red legs. Subspecies A. a. flumenicola smaller
with purple-washed underparts and yellow throat,
loral spot and neck blaze.
Blue-capped Kingfisher Actenoides hombroni
Seen on Mt Kitanglad by several observers in the 1990s.
Threat Category: Vulnerable
Identification: Mindanao endemic. 27 cm. Large, secretive, forest kingfisher. Male has bright blue cap and moustachial area, rufous-orange cheeks and underparts. Off-white throat, rest of underparts rufous-orange. Blue-green upperparts with small buff spots on scapulars and wing-coverts. Brighter blue rump and tail. Bright red bill. Female has drabber cap and moustachial area. Green upperparts with larger buff spots than male.
Mindanao Hornbill Penelopides affinis
Seen on Mt Kitanglad by many
observers in the 1980s and 90s.
Threat Category: Least Concern
Habitat and Ecology: It is social and
often seen in pairs of small groups.
These birds are noisy and emit an
incessant sound that sounds like ta-rik-
tik, hence the name. Despite their
noise they are difficult to find, being
well camouflaged by the
dense foliage. The principal food of
Mindanao Hornbill is fruit. It also
eats insects, beetles, ants,and
earthworms (rarely)
Writhed Hornbill Aceros leucocephalus
Specimens were collected from Mt Kitanglad in the 1960s and several
indiciduals were heard on Mt Nangkabulos in 1993
Threat category: Near Threatened
Range description: Aceros leucocephalus is endemic to
the Philippines occurring on three islands, Mindanao and its two small
satellites Camiguin Sur and Dinagat. It is poorly known, but considered
locally fairly common in suitable habitat. Most records come from
between 300 and 1,000 m in primary lowland forest.
Wattled Broadbill Eurylaimus steeri
Recorded in Mt Kitanglad in 1952
Threat Category: Vulnerable
Identification: Philippine endemic. 17 cm. Small, brightly coloured passerine. Black throat and face. Green eye surrounded by large, prominent sky-blue wattle. Large, broad, pale blue bill. Maroon-purple crown, bordered by white nuchal collar. Dark grey mantle, bright chestnut rump and tail. Black wings with prominent white and yellow bar across tertials and secondaries. Lilac underparts becoming yellowish-white on lower belly. Female as male but gleaming white breast and belly. Juvenile duller.
Specimens have been collected on Mt Kitanglad and Mt Kaatoan and Mt Imbayao most recently in 1992 and has been seen there including Mt Nangkabulos in 1980s and 1990s.
Threat category: Near Threatened
Range description: Mindanao endemic. It is described as common within the confines of its range and this is confirmed by the number of specimens obtained in short periods of time at various localities. This species inhabits montane-mossy forest and forest edge at 1,000 to 1,900 m.
McGregor’s Cuckoo-shrike Coracina mcgregori
Yellowish Bulbul Ixos everetti
Specimens were collected near this
IBA at Mailag in the early 20th
century.
Threat Category: Least Concern
Range description: It is endemic to
the Philippines. Its
natural habitat is subtropical or
tropical moist lowland forests.
Phil Leafbird Chloropsis flavipennis
Specimens were collected in Mt Kitanglad in 1951
Threat Category: Vulnerable
Identification: Philippine endemic. 18 cm. Small-medium, green, canopy-dwelling passerine. Entire plumage bright green except for yellow eye-ring, throat and line on closed wing formed by yellow primary fringes. Dark bill, iris and legs. Voice Short, loud melodious phrases such as whit-too-whee and see-tee-wee-oo.
Mountain Shrike Lanius validirostris
Specimens were collected on Mt
Kitanglad in the 1960 and was seen
there in 1990s.
Threat category: Near Threatened
Range description: Lanius validirostris is
endemic to the Philippines, where it
occurs on Luzon (nominate validirostris, in
Cordillera Central and Sierra Madre),
Mindoro (race tertius) and Mindanao
(race hachisuka, including on Mt
Kitanglad, Civolig, Mt Malindang and
Mt Apo)
Bagobo Babbler
Trichastoma woodi
Specimens have been collected in Dalwangan, Mt Nangkabulos and Mt Imbayao
Threat Category: Least Concern
Range description: Mindanao endemic. The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as probably common on all higher mountains in Mindanao.
Striated Wren-babbler Ptilocichla mindanensis
Specimens were collected in Mt Kitanglad in 1960 and has been seen in the 1990s.
Threat Category: Least Concern
Range description: It is endemic to the Philippines. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical moist montane forests.
Pygmy Babbler Stachyris plateni
Specimens were collected near to this IBA at Cabanglasan in
1951, and it was seen on Mt Kitanglad in 1987.
Threat Category: Near Threatened
Identification: Mindanao endemic. Small, sexes alike. Forehead,
sides of face and chin black-brown with prominent white shaft
streaks; hind neck, throat and upper breast red-brown with finer
white shaft streaks, whole head and neck appear as a hood;
back is olive brown with faint shaft streaks. The wings and tail are
brown, edged with olive; lower belly and undertail white. Bill
blue-grey with white tip. Eyes are lined by pinkish orange ring,
becoming fainter in colour towards the pupil. Legs grey.
Miniature Tit-babbler
Micromacronus leytensis
Seen on Mt Kitanglad in 1995
Threat Category: Data Deficient
Identification: Philippine
endemic. Small in size with
elongated, erectile feathers on
back and sides. Sexes similar.
Bill dark horn, lower mandible
lighter. Eyes red; legs greenish-
grey; toes straw yellow.
Long-tailed Bush-warbler Bradypterus caudatus
Specimens were collected in Mt Kitanglad in1960, and it has been found to be common there in the 1990s.
Threat Category: Least Concern
Description: Philippine endemic. A species of grass warbler (family Locustellidae). It was formerly included in the "Old World warbler" assemblage.
Rufous-headed Tailorbird
Orthotomus nigriceps
Specimens have been collected in Mt Kitanglad, most recently in 1960, and it has been found to be common there in the 1990s.
Threat Category: Least Concern
Description: Mindanao endemic. A songbird species in the family Cisticolidae.
Slaty-backed Jungle-flycatcher
Rhinomyias goodfellowi
Specimens have been collected in Mt Kitanglad, Mt Imbayao and Mt Nangkabulos most recently in 1992, and it has been seen there in the 1990s.
Threat Category: Near Threatened
Description: a species of bird in the Muscicapidae family. It is endemic to the Philippines. The specific epithet honours British zoological collector Walter Goodfellow. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montane forests. It is becoming rare due to habitat loss.
Black-and-cinnamon Fantail
Rhipidura nigrocinnamomea
Specimens have been collected in Mt Kitanglad, most recently in 1960, and it was found to be common there in the 1990s.
Threat Category: Least Concern
Description: Mindanao endemic. The population trend appears to be stable. The global population size has not been quantified, but the species is described as common to very common within its tiny range
Whiskered Flowerpecker Dicaeum propium
Seen on Mt Kitanglad range on the lower slopes of Mt Nangkabulos in 1993
Threat Category: Near Threatened
Distribution and population:
Dicaeum proprium is endemic to Mindanao, Philippines, where it is found at Mt Mayo,
Mainit, Manticao, Misamis Oriental, Mt Kitanglad on the lower slopes of Mt Nangkabulos,
Mt Piapayungan at Saronayan, Lumba-Bayabao, Mt Apo, Lake Sebu, Mt Matutum at
Tupi, and Mt Sugarloaf at Burakan Hill. Although previously considered an uncommon,
low-density species, and hence as threatened, recent evidence of its occurrence on Mt
Kitanglad and on Mt Apo, Mindanao's two largest mountains, suggests that its overall
numbers may be moderately high.
Olive-capped Flowerpecker
Dicaeum nigrilore
Specimens have been collected in Mt Kitanglad, most recently in 1960 and it was found to be fairly common there in the 1990s.
Threat Category: Least Concern
Description: a species of bird in the Dicaeidae family. It is endemic to the island of Mindanao in the Philippines. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montane forests.
Grey-hooded Sunbird Aethopyga primigenius
Specimens have been collected in Mt Kitanglad, most recently in 1960 and it was found to be fairly common there in the 1990s.
Threat Category: Near Threatened
Distribution and population: This species is endemic to Mindanao, Philippines, where it is fairly common to common including on Mt Hilong-hilong (race diuatae), Mt Kitanglad, Civolig, Daggayan, Mt Lamut, Mt Apo and Lake Sebu
Apo Sunbird Aethopyga boltoni
Specimens have been collected in Mt
Kitanglad, most recently in 1960 and it
was found to be fairly common there in
the 1990s.
Threat Category: Near Threatened
Description: is a species of bird in the
sunbird family Nectariniidae. It is
endemic to the island of Mindanao in the
Philippines.Its natural habitat is tropical
moist montane forest. The species is not
yet threatened by habitat loss, and is
common within its range, but it is listed as
Near Threatened due to its tiny range.
Cinnamon Ibon
Hypocryptadius cinnamomeus
Specimens have been collected in Mt Kitanglad, most recently in 1960 and it was found to be fairly common there in the 1990s.
Threat Category: Least Concern
Description: Monotypic endemic to the mountains of Mindanao. Its natural habitat is tropical moist montane forests and mossy forests above 1,000 metres (3,300 ft).
Mountain Serin Serinus estherae
Specimens have been collected in Mt Kitanglad, most recently in 1960 and it was found to be fairly common there in the 1990s.
Threat Category: Least Concern
Description: a species of finch in the Fringillidae family.
It is found in Indonesia and the Philippines. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist montane forests and subtropical or tropical high-altitude grassland.
White-cheeked Bullfinch Pyrrhula leucogenis
Specimens have been collected
on Mt Kitanglad at Kaatoan,
most recently in 1960, and it
was found to be fairly common
there in the 1980s and 90s.
Threat Category: Least Concern
Description: a species of finch in
theFringillidae family. It is found
only in the Philippines. Its
natural habitat is subtropical or
tropical moist montane forests.
Red-eared Parrotfinch Erythrura coloria
Many specimens have been collected in Mt Kitanglad
and Mt Kaatoan, most recently in 1969, and it has been
seen there, including at Mt Nangkabulos and Kinubalan,
by several observers in the 1980s and 90s.
Threat Category: Near Threatened
Distribution and population:
This species is endemic to Mindanao in the Philippines,
where it is now known in: Mt Hilong-hilong; Mt Pasian, Mt
Puting Bato, Mt Kitanglad, Mt Kaatoan, Mt
Nangkabulos, and at Kinubalan. It is described as
moderately common but very local, although is probably
present on every mountain in central Mindanao. It is very
unobtrusive and secretive, and its high-pitched call
(typical of the genus) is easily overlooked. On voice,
however, it appears to be not uncommon at Kitanglad.
Apo Myna Basilornis miranda
Seen on Mt Kitanglad by several
observers in the 1990s, and found to
be numerous in high altitude forest.
Threat category: Near Threatened
Distribution and population: Basilornis
mirandus is endemic to Mindanao,
where it is common within suitable
habitats, including at Daggayan, Mt
Kitanglad and Mt Apo. This species is
found above 1,250 m in forest and
forest edge, even in cut-over areas.
MAMMALS
Phil Brown Deer Cervus mariannus
Threat Category: Vulnerable
Range description: This species is endemic
to the Philippines, and occurs through most
of the country except the Negros-Panay
Faunal Region, the Babuyan/Batanes
groups, the Palawan Faunal Region, the
Sulu Faunal Region, and other isolated
islets.
Habitat and Ecology: This species formerly
occured from sea-level up to at least
2,900 m asl in primary and secondary
forest. The Mindoro subspecies also
frequents open grasslands, where it may
be able to persist. In general, however, this
is a forest species, which forages in
grassland.
Mindanao Gymnure Podogymnura truei
Threat Category: Least Concern
Description: Mindanao gymnures are medium sized, ground dwellers with a body length of 130 to 150 mm. Their pelage is long, soft, and full. Mindanao endemic. The species is found in primary montane and mossy forest above 1,300 m up to 2,900 m.
Long-tailed Macaque Macaca fascicularis
Threat Category: Least Concern Description: This is a widespread
and often abundant species, and is sometimes commensal with humans. In the Philippines, it ranges from being locally common to uncommon, though this is largely dependent upon hunting pressure. The species is extremely tolerant of a range of habitats, including mangrove and swamp forests, and can be found in agricultural areas near forest
Bearded Pig Sus barbatus
Threat Category: Vulnerable
Description: The Bearded Pig has the slimmest torso and longest head of all the living pigs. Distinguishing characteristics include two pairs of warts on the face with the first pair covered by the beard hair, thin whiskers on the face, and a two-rowed tail tuft. It inhabit rainforests, mangrove thickets, and secondary forests.
Mindanao Tree Shrew Urogale everetti
Threat Category: Least Concern
Description: Urogale can easily be distinguished from other members of the Tupaiidae by its even-haired round tail and elongated snout. Furthermore, it has small zygomatic fenestra and large canine-like second incisors. The Philippine tree shrew is widely distributed on the Mindanao, Dinagat, and Siargao islands of the Philippines
Philippine Lemur Cynocephalus volans
Threat Category: Least Concern
Description: They are cat-sized and a little smaller than the Malaysian
flying lemurs. Fur coloration is usually darker and less spotted than in
the Malaysian species. They have huge eyes and faces that resemble
those of Old World fruit bats. The head is broad, somewhat like a
greyhound's in appearance, with rounded short ears and a blunt
muzzle. The limbs are of equal length, with strong sharp claws for
climbing, and the toes are connected by webs of skin.
Mindanao Flying Squirrel Petinomys crinitus
Threat Category: Least Concern
This species is endemic to the Philippines, where it is found only in the Mindanao Faunal Region. Itis a ground squirrel and is found in lowlands to montane primary forest, although its abundance is higher in its preferred habitat (oak forest) at upper elevations. The habitat at that altitude is in pretty good shape since it is cold, wet, and difficult to access.
Mindanao Pygmy Fruit Bat
Alionycteris paucidentata
• Threat Category: Least Concern
• Description: The Mindanao pygmy fruit bat is endemic to the Philippines where it is restricted to Mindanao on Mounts Kitanglad and Kalatungan where it occupies an elevational range of 1,500-2,250 m asl. Most records are from primary montane mossy forest, it is also present in secondary and primary montane forest but absent in lowland forest.
Kitanglad Shrew-mouse Crunomys suncoides
Threat Category: Data Deficient
Range and Description: The species is known only from a single specimen captured in April 1993 taken at 2,500 m on Mt. Kitanglad. This species is currently known only from the Kitanglad Range, though suspected to be more widespread in mossy forest on Mindanao.
Habitat and Ecology: The individual was found in a primary mossy forest with little disturbance A semi-fossorial habit is inferred from a combination of external characters, including strong front feet with large claws, narrow head, tiny eyes, and dense, soft pelage.
REFERENCES
http://www.iucnredlist.org http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu http://www.birdlife.org http://ibc.lynxeds.com http://www.arkive.org http://orientalbirdimages.org http://www.denr.gov.ph Haribon Foundation (1998); Heaney et al., (1993);
Lambert (1993); NORDECO and DENR (1998); Peterson et al. (in prep); Rickart et al. (1998)