AutonomyAutonomy andand GeneticsGenetics ofofAutonomyAutonomy and and GeneticsGenetics of of BehaviourBehaviour

Emilio Mordini, MDEmilio Mordini, MDCentre for Science, Society and CitizenshipCentre for Science, Society and Citizenship –– RomeRome -- ItalyItalyCentre for Science, Society and Citizenship Centre for Science, Society and Citizenship Rome Rome ItalyItaly

EE--mail: e.mordini@bioethics.itmail: e.mordini@bioethics.it

IntroductionIntroductionGenetics and AutonomyGenetics and AutonomyGenetics and AutonomyGenetics and AutonomyDeterminism and IndeterminismDeterminism and IndeterminismThe Genetically Modified SocietyThe Genetically Modified SocietyC l iC l iConclusionsConclusions

INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION

Till the Eighties of last Till the Eighties of last century, to speak ofcentury, to speak ofcentury, to speak of century, to speak of the role of genes in the role of genes in shaping differences shaping differences b t i di id lb t i di id lbetween individuals between individuals was almost taboo. was almost taboo. The fear was thatThe fear was thatThe fear was that The fear was that the ability to predict the ability to predict personality traits personality traits

ill l d till l d twill lead to will lead to eugenicseugenics. But the . But the pendulum swung.pendulum swung.pendulum swung.pendulum swung.

“We“We usedused toto thinkthink ourour fatefate waswas inin ourour starsstars NowNow wewe knowknow inin largelargeWeWe usedused toto thinkthink ourour fatefate waswas inin ourour starsstars.. NowNow wewe know,know, inin largelargemeasure,measure, ourour fatefate isis inin ourour genes”genes” (J(J..Watson)Watson)

"The search for human nature can be viewed as the archaeology of "The search for human nature can be viewed as the archaeology of gygythe epigenetic rules.” (E.O.Wilson)the epigenetic rules.” (E.O.Wilson)

“We are the fortune“We are the fortune--tellers of modern times. Southern blots now tellers of modern times. Southern blots now replace the crystal ball ’ (J F Mattei)replace the crystal ball ’ (J F Mattei)replace the crystal ball.’ (J.F. Mattei) replace the crystal ball.’ (J.F. Mattei)

“Just as the patient “Just as the patient needs to relive his needs to relive his

hihipast to answer his past to answer his questions, so questions, so philosophy needsphilosophy needsphilosophy needs philosophy needs to relive its past in to relive its past in order to answer order to answer i i ”i i ”its questions” its questions” (R.Rorty)(R.Rorty)

1.GENETICS & AUTONOMY1.GENETICS & AUTONOMY

““One of the greatest risks of One of the greatest risks of this focus on the genome is this focus on the genome is ggthat people will draw the that people will draw the conclusion that their conclusion that their choices in life are hardchoices in life are hard--

i d i di d i dwired into our DNA and wired into our DNA and free will goes out the free will goes out the window and we move into window and we move into thi i d t f tithi i d t f tithis mindset of genetic this mindset of genetic determinismdeterminism””

(Francis Collins, Human Genome (Francis Collins, Human Genome P j )P j )Project)Project)

1.1 GENETICS1.1 GENETICS

Genetics refers to those Genetics refers to those biological factors which biological factors which ggpertain to the “gene”, the pertain to the “gene”, the Greek term for race, tribe. Greek term for race, tribe. In other words, genetics In other words, genetics

l h ll h lrelates to those elements relates to those elements that are common to a line that are common to a line of living beings, that are of living beings, that are t itt d (i h it d)t itt d (i h it d)transmitted (inherited) transmitted (inherited) along this line, and that along this line, and that each individual possesses each individual possesses only because she is part ofonly because she is part ofonly because she is part of only because she is part of that line.that line.

Observations have also shown Observations have also shown that patterns of behaviour that patterns of behaviour exist which are typical of exist which are typical of ypypgiven species. These patterns given species. These patterns of behaviour, which are innate of behaviour, which are innate and relatively independent ofand relatively independent ofand relatively independent of and relatively independent of learning, are usually called learning, are usually called “instincts”. The term has been “instincts”. The term has been applied to a wide range ofapplied to a wide range ofapplied to a wide range of applied to a wide range of behaviour (e.g., maternal behaviour (e.g., maternal instinct, nesting instinct, selfinstinct, nesting instinct, self--preservation instinct, etc.) andpreservation instinct, etc.) andpreservation instinct, etc.) and preservation instinct, etc.) and has often served us as a has often served us as a loophole to extricate ourselves loophole to extricate ourselves from the issues raised byfrom the issues raised byfrom the issues raised by from the issues raised by finalistic animal behaviour. finalistic animal behaviour. The term “instinct” has also The term “instinct” has also been widely applied to humanbeen widely applied to humanbeen widely applied to human been widely applied to human behaviour.behaviour.

At the beginning of the 20th century At the beginning of the 20th century Sigmund FreudSigmund Freudspoke of “instinctual drive”spoke of “instinctual drive”spoke of “instinctual drive”.spoke of “instinctual drive”.

Carl Gustav JungCarl Gustav Jung went beyond this and proposed went beyond this and proposed the existence in human beings of innate patternsthe existence in human beings of innate patternsthe existence in human beings of innate patterns the existence in human beings of innate patterns of psychological performances, manifested in of psychological performances, manifested in behaviours and emotions. He called these behaviours and emotions. He called these patterns “archetypes”.patterns “archetypes”.

Today Today polygenic polygenic characters no longercharacters no longercharacters no longer characters no longer pose an pose an insurmountable insurmountable obstacleobstacle: new: newobstacleobstacle: new : new molecular genetic molecular genetic strategies and new strategies and new statistical techniquesstatistical techniquesstatistical techniques statistical techniques allow to detect genes allow to detect genes which contribute, which contribute,

d tl td tl teven modestly, to even modestly, to the variance of a the variance of a behavioural trait, behavioural trait,

d t fd t fand many types of and many types of behaviour behaviour -- from from normal variations in normal variations in

lilipersonality to personality to complex psychiatric complex psychiatric disorders disorders -- are now are now under scrutiny.under scrutiny.

1.2 AUTONOMY1.2 AUTONOMY

The term “autonomy” The term “autonomy” involves the idea ofinvolves the idea ofinvolves the idea of involves the idea of freedom and the freedom and the capacity to be selfcapacity to be self--capac ty to be secapac ty to be sedetermining, to be in determining, to be in control of one’s own control of one’s own life, beyond any life, beyond any influence of biological, influence of biological, psychological andpsychological andpsychological and psychological and social compulsive social compulsive forces, genes included.forces, genes included., g, g

The word “The word “autonomyautonomy” ” has had various uses. has had various uses. In strict In strict philosophical terms it philosophical terms it refers to the Kantian refers to the Kantian theory of morality. In theory of morality. In a broader sense it a broader sense it has been much has been much invoked in recent invoked in recent applied ethics, esp. in applied ethics, esp. in bioethics. bioethics.

InIn Greek philosophyGreek philosophyIn In Greek philosophyGreek philosophy, , autonomy was autonomy was mainly a politicalmainly a politicalmainly a political mainly a political concept and, in concept and, in practice it referredpractice it referredpractice, it referred practice, it referred to selfto self--ruling free ruling free citizens as opposedcitizens as opposedcitizens as opposed citizens as opposed to the subjects of a to the subjects of a monarchymonarchymonarchymonarchy..

According to JudaismAccording to Judaism, the relationship between humans , the relationship between humans and the law is inherently theological, concerning the way in and the law is inherently theological, concerning the way in

which human accept on which human accept on refuse God’will.

And the LORD God said, And the LORD God said, "The man has now "The man has now become like one ofbecome like one ofbecome like one of become like one of us, knowing good us, knowing good and evil. He must not and evil. He must not be allowed to reach be allowed to reach out his hand and take out his hand and take also from the tree of also from the tree of life and eat, and live life and eat, and live forever." So the forever." So the LORD God banished LORD God banished him from the Garden him from the Garden

f df dof Eden.of Eden.(Genesis 3, 22(Genesis 3, 22--23)23)

The key to Christianity’s view on autonomy isThe key to Christianity s view on autonomy is found in Luke 22:42

“Father, if thou be willing, remove this cup from “Father, if thou be willing, remove this cup from me: nevertheless not my will but thine beme: nevertheless not my will but thine beme: nevertheless not my will, but thine, be me: nevertheless not my will, but thine, be

done”. done”.

Th d fTh d fThe modern account of The modern account of autonomy emerged during autonomy emerged during the Reformation: for the manthe Reformation: for the manthe Reformation: for the man the Reformation: for the man of the Reformation, of the Reformation, autonomy dwells in the inner autonomy dwells in the inner conscienceconscience the “absolutethe “absoluteconscience conscience -- the “absolute the “absolute conscience” in Luther’s conscience” in Luther’s words words –– of each human of each human being and it represents the being and it represents the actual centre of the person. actual centre of the person. Locke Hume and Kant wereLocke Hume and Kant wereLocke, Hume and Kant were Locke, Hume and Kant were then to ground this concept then to ground this concept on nonon non--religious bases. religious bases. St t Mill l t d thSt t Mill l t d thStuart Mill completed the Stuart Mill completed the idea of moral autonomy with idea of moral autonomy with the idea of libertythe idea of liberty –– intendedintendedthe idea of liberty the idea of liberty intended intended as political autonomy.as political autonomy.

2 DETERMINISM & INDETERMINISM2 DETERMINISM & INDETERMINISM2. DETERMINISM & INDETERMINISM2. DETERMINISM & INDETERMINISM

If you didn’t believe the will was free itIf you didn’t believe the will was free itIf you didn t believe the will was free, it If you didn t believe the will was free, it would be unreasonable to thank someone would be unreasonable to thank someone for passing the mustardfor passing the mustardfor passing the mustardfor passing the mustard

G.ChestertonG.Chesterton

2 1 DETERMINISM2 1 DETERMINISM2.1 DETERMINISM2.1 DETERMINISM

““Determinism Determinism is the is the general general philosophicalphilosophicalphilosophical philosophical thesis which thesis which states that for states that for everything thateverything thateverything that everything that ever happens ever happens there are there are

diti hditi hconditions such conditions such that, given them, that, given them, nothing else nothing else

ld h ”ld h ”could happen”could happen”(R.Taylor (R.Taylor Determinism Determinism in The in The

Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Encyclopedia of Philosophy, k ill )k ill )New York, Macmillan, 1967).New York, Macmillan, 1967).

Kant discussed this pointKant discussed this pointKant discussed this point Kant discussed this point in the third antinomy in the third antinomy of the Pure Reason. of the Pure Reason. Th i i l fTh i i l fThe principle of The principle of sufficient reason, sufficient reason, viz.viz.each effect requires aeach effect requires aeach effect requires a each effect requires a causecause, is the typical , is the typical example of those example of those

th ti itith ti itisynthetic propositions synthetic propositions a prioria priori that Kant that Kant showed to beshowed to beshowed to be showed to be “regulative”, namely “regulative”, namely about our way to think about our way to think

f th ld thf th ld thof the world, rather of the world, rather than “constitutive”, than “constitutive”, namely about thenamely about thenamely about the namely about the reality of the world. reality of the world.

Undoubtedly we think of the world as if any effect Undoubtedly we think of the world as if any effect has a cause buthas a cause but there is no way to demonstratethere is no way to demonstratehas a cause, but has a cause, but there is no way to demonstrate there is no way to demonstrate that the world really works in such a waythat the world really works in such a way. As . As empiricist philosophers claim, we can just say empiricist philosophers claim, we can just say p p p , j yp p p , j ythat we perceive regularities in the world.that we perceive regularities in the world.

Not only is the premise of Not only is the premise of determinism moredeterminism moredeterminism more determinism more metaphysical than one metaphysical than one might imagine, it is also might imagine, it is also highly unmanageable inhighly unmanageable inhighly unmanageable in highly unmanageable in its consequences. While its consequences. While determinism in the determinism in the physical sciences doesphysical sciences doesphysical sciences does physical sciences does not pose major not pose major problems, it creates a problems, it creates a lot of problems whenlot of problems whenlot of problems when lot of problems when applied to human applied to human beings. beings. Any explanation Any explanation of human behaviourof human behaviourof human behaviour, of human behaviour, and especially of moral and especially of moral conduct, in terms of conduct, in terms of causes effects andcauses effects andcauses, effects and causes, effects and necessary laws raises necessary laws raises the problem of free the problem of free agencagencagency. agency.

If human actions are embedded in a If human actions are embedded in a system that presupposes universal system that presupposes universal causation, we are mere automatons, as causation, we are mere automatons, as predictablepredictable at least in principleat least in principle asaspredictable predictable –– at least in principle at least in principle –– as as any physical event. If we are any physical event. If we are predetermined we are not responsiblepredetermined we are not responsiblepredetermined we are not responsible predetermined we are not responsible for our actions, thus neither ethics nor for our actions, thus neither ethics nor law can be rationally justifiedlaw can be rationally justified. .

At the turn of the 19th century At the turn of the 19th century W. W. JamesJames introduced a distinctionintroduced a distinctionJamesJames introduced a distinction introduced a distinction that has remained in use to this that has remained in use to this day. He distinguished between day. He distinguished between hard and soft determinism. hard and soft determinism. While While hard determinismhard determinismassumes that everything isassumes that everything isassumes that everything is assumes that everything is caused and consequently, in caused and consequently, in principle, everything is principle, everything is

di t bl (k i th i iti ldi t bl (k i th i iti lpredictable (knowing the initial predictable (knowing the initial conditions and the relevant conditions and the relevant laws), laws), soft determinism soft determinism –– also also ),),called “compatibilism”called “compatibilism” -- says says that to a certain degree, there that to a certain degree, there is freedom or randomness inis freedom or randomness inis freedom, or randomness, in is freedom, or randomness, in the universe, or, at least, we the universe, or, at least, we had better believe there is.had better believe there is.

“One is free, in the ordinary sense of the term, when “One is free, in the ordinary sense of the term, when d lik fi d hi id lik fi d hi ione does as one likes or sees fit; and this is not one does as one likes or sees fit; and this is not

altered by the fact, if fact it be, that what one altered by the fact, if fact it be, that what one likes or sees fit has had its causes” likes or sees fit has had its causes”

(Quine)(Quine)

DeweyDewey argued that freedom could argued that freedom could not mean “without any cause”,not mean “without any cause”,not mean without any cause , not mean without any cause , because if it did human actions because if it did human actions would be totally inexplicable. would be totally inexplicable. U d bt dl ’ t thU d bt dl ’ t thUndoubtedly one’s acts are the Undoubtedly one’s acts are the result of one’s personality and result of one’s personality and character. Yet people can character. Yet people can p pp pmodify their natural tendencies modify their natural tendencies by understanding them. Dewey by understanding them. Dewey argued that intelligence andargued that intelligence andargued that intelligence and argued that intelligence and knowledge are the keys to knowledge are the keys to freedom of action. freedom of action. Yet it is hard Yet it is hard to confute that a strict to confute that a strict determinism undermines ethics determinism undermines ethics and law. People want rewardand law. People want rewardand law. People want reward and law. People want reward and punishment to be grounded and punishment to be grounded in justice, not in utility.in justice, not in utility.

GENETIC DEFENSEGENETIC DEFENSEGENETIC DEFENSEGENETIC DEFENSE

Mobley was convicted in Mobley was convicted in February 1994 of the murder of February 1994 of the murder of J h C lli d t d tJ h C lli d t d tJohn Collins and sentenced to John Collins and sentenced to death. death. His lawyers attempted to His lawyers attempted to put together a genetic defenceput together a genetic defence( bl h )( bl h )(Mobley vs. The State 1995). (Mobley vs. The State 1995). The defence claimed that there The defence claimed that there was a pattern of aggression in was a pattern of aggression in p ggp ggMobley’s ancestry which Mobley’s ancestry which suggests a relevant genetic suggests a relevant genetic aetiology underlying his criminal aetiology underlying his criminal gy y ggy y gbehaviour. In Mobley’s case the behaviour. In Mobley’s case the genetic defence was rejected by genetic defence was rejected by the jury. the jury. ju yju y

2.2 INDETERMINISM2.2 INDETERMINISMIndeterminismIndeterminism –– which is also called which is also called

libertarianism libertarianism –– makes no assumption makes no assumption on general causality, it focuses only on on general causality, it focuses only on g y, yg y, yhuman agency. Its starting point is the human agency. Its starting point is the basic experience that we are able to basic experience that we are able to choose among alternatives. As a matterchoose among alternatives. As a matterchoose among alternatives. As a matter choose among alternatives. As a matter of fact, we all live of fact, we all live –– even determinist even determinist philosophers! philosophers! -- as if we were free as if we were free agents.agents.agents.agents.

Early libertarians Early libertarians f d d th if d d th ifounded their founded their theory on theory on religious bases, religious bases, g ,g ,claiming that claiming that free agency was free agency was the effect ofthe effect ofthe effect of the effect of being made in being made in God’s image, God’s image, and thus free. and thus free. Contemporary Contemporary libertarianslibertarianslibertarians libertarians usually cite usually cite quantum quantum

h ih imechanics as mechanics as evidence that evidence that determinism is determinism is false.false.

““Sometimes people suggest a way in which chance might allow us Sometimes people suggest a way in which chance might allow us to escape from deteminism… I am doubtful about this escape for to escape from deteminism… I am doubtful about this escape for t O i ti i b t th l i th tt O i ti i b t th l i th ttwo reasons. One reason is scepticism about the claim that two reasons. One reason is scepticism about the claim that quantum effects actually do affect gross physical objects very quantum effects actually do affect gross physical objects very much...The other worry I have about that sort of approach is much...The other worry I have about that sort of approach is that even if it could be shown that some of our behaviour wasthat even if it could be shown that some of our behaviour wasthat even if it could be shown that some of our behaviour was that even if it could be shown that some of our behaviour was unpredictable unpredictable -- that indeterminism held for human decision that indeterminism held for human decision -- it it doesn’t seem to rescue freedom... doesn’t seem to rescue freedom... An element of randomness An element of randomness does not seem to be the same as an element of freedomdoes not seem to be the same as an element of freedom””(J Gl )(J Gl )(J.Glover)(J.Glover)

Libertarianism is not Libertarianism is not only theoretically only theoretically weak, but it also weak, but it also p acticall a g ablep acticall a g ablepractically arguable. practically arguable. One basic experience One basic experience should be expoundedshould be expoundedshould be expounded should be expounded in order to clarify the in order to clarify the framework of theframework of theframework of the framework of the problem: this problem: this experience is well experience is well ppknown to known to psychiatrists and is psychiatrists and is

ll d “ th till d “ th ticalled “posthypnotic called “posthypnotic suggestion”.suggestion”.

Posthypnotic suggestionPosthypnotic suggestionPosthypnotic suggestionPosthypnotic suggestion

Desires, preferences, Desires, preferences, th ht d t lth ht d t lthoughts, and any mental thoughts, and any mental content, could be just ad content, could be just ad hoc rationalizations that we hoc rationalizations that we

i ii iconstruct construct a posterioria posteriori to to justify what we have justify what we have thought and done under thought and done under ggsuggestion. What holds suggestion. What holds true for suggestion could true for suggestion could be told for any other cause be told for any other cause yythat might underlie our that might underlie our behaviour. In other word, behaviour. In other word, the libertarian’s argument the libertarian’s argument e e a a s a gu ee e a a s a gu ebased on the “freedom based on the “freedom experience” does not prove experience” does not prove anything.anything.anything. anything.

I d lif it iI d lif it iIn everyday life it is In everyday life it is impossible either impossible either t d tht d thto deny the to deny the concept of cause or concept of cause or t t th tt t th tto accept that to accept that everything is everything is t i tl d t i dt i tl d t i dstrictly determined strictly determined

by causation.by causation.

3 THE GENETICALLY3 THE GENETICALLY3. THE GENETICALLY 3. THE GENETICALLY MODIFIED SOCIETYMODIFIED SOCIETY

The genetics of behaviour have The genetics of behaviour have achieved great popularity inachieved great popularity inachieved great popularity in achieved great popularity in the media and hardly a week the media and hardly a week goes by without some news on goes by without some news on th di f thth di f ththe discovery of some other the discovery of some other “gene for” some other aspect of “gene for” some other aspect of human behaviour, be this human behaviour, be this ,,intelligence, aggression, intelligence, aggression, antisocial behaviour, antisocial behaviour, impulsiveness sociabilityimpulsiveness sociabilityimpulsiveness, sociability, impulsiveness, sociability, dominance, anxiety, noveltydominance, anxiety, novelty--seeking, alcoholism, addiction, seeking, alcoholism, addiction, obesity or sexual orientation.obesity or sexual orientation.

Like children who like toLike children who like toLike children who like to Like children who like to be scared by fairy tales, be scared by fairy tales, people like to be people like to be p pp ptroubled and thrilled by troubled and thrilled by the fantasy of a the fantasy of a

i ll i di ll i dgenetically engineered genetically engineered world as portrayed in world as portrayed in “GATTACA” the 1997“GATTACA” the 1997GATTACA , the 1997 GATTACA , the 1997 movie that describes a movie that describes a genetically modifiedgenetically modifiedgenetically modified genetically modified society in which society in which parents can shape their parents can shape their p pp poffspring by offspring by manipulating their manipulating their genes.genes.

The idea that the world is The idea that the world is fully determined gives fully determined gives birth to the idea that one birth to the idea that one –– if he can get hold of theif he can get hold of theif he can get hold of the if he can get hold of the keys keys -- can control can control everything and thus have everything and thus have i fi it Gii fi it Giinfinite power. Given infinite power. Given today’s today’s zeitgeistzeitgeist, these , these keys are seen by many to keys are seen by many to y y yy y ybe provided by genetics.be provided by genetics.This is the real novelty of This is the real novelty of genetic determinismgenetic determinismgenetic determinism, genetic determinism, which is in many ways which is in many ways similar to the ancient, similar to the ancient, wicked dream provided wicked dream provided by any kind of magic, or by any kind of magic, or any kind ofany kind of gnosticismgnosticism..any kind of any kind of gnosticismgnosticism..

In any mass society In any mass society –– and Romanand Roman--Hellenistic Hellenistic society was the first mass society in our history society was the first mass society in our history ––i di id l f l h i id i h d di di id l f l h i id i h d dindividuals feel their identity threatened and individuals feel their identity threatened and power as a distant, impersonal Leviathan. In power as a distant, impersonal Leviathan. In these societies people tend to develop paranoid these societies people tend to develop paranoid p p p pp p p pfantasies, among which fantasies on determinism fantasies, among which fantasies on determinism usually play a pivotal role. Sometimes scholars usually play a pivotal role. Sometimes scholars label these fantasies as Promethean fantasies. I label these fantasies as Promethean fantasies. I think that is to give them an unmerited mark of think that is to give them an unmerited mark of nobility.nobility.

Actually they are just clichés, Actually they are just clichés, they are just athey are just athey are just a they are just a manifestation of “the manifestation of “the fearsome, wordfearsome, word--andand--thoughtthought--defying banality of defying banality of

il” It i t b hil” It i t b hevil”. It is not by chance evil”. It is not by chance that determinism has been that determinism has been the official doctrine of the official doctrine of ideologies such as Nazismideologies such as Nazismideologies such as Nazism ideologies such as Nazism and Communism.and Communism.

CONCLUSIONSCONCLUSIONSCONCLUSIONSCONCLUSIONS

Determinism in itself is Determinism in itself is not at all a bad thing.not at all a bad thing.not at all a bad thing. not at all a bad thing. Science needs Science needs determinism. It is determinism. It is

b i th t i ti tb i th t i ti tobvious that scientists obvious that scientists hope to get hope to get increasingly closer to aincreasingly closer to aincreasingly closer to a increasingly closer to a determinist picture, determinist picture, but they should be but they should be

th t thi i j tth t thi i j taware that this is just aware that this is just an ideal, not a an ideal, not a metaphysical dogmametaphysical dogmametaphysical dogmametaphysical dogma. .

One should beware of One should beware of determinism when it determinism when it becomes a social rule becomes a social rule rather than a scientific rather than a scientific ideal. Sometimes ideal. Sometimes ideal. Sometimes ideal. Sometimes scientists do not seem to scientists do not seem to realise this. What is even realise this. What is even more worrying, is that themore worrying, is that themore worrying, is that the more worrying, is that the media don’t either. In media don’t either. In genetics, the ethics of genetics, the ethics of research and its medicalresearch and its medicalresearch and its medical research and its medical applications is applications is undoubtedly important, undoubtedly important, butbut media ethicsmedia ethics is andis andbut but media ethicsmedia ethics is and is and will be still more will be still more important.important.

In the information society In the information society what shapes public opinionwhat shapes public opinionwhat shapes public opinion what shapes public opinion is more the way in which is more the way in which scientific discoveries are scientific discoveries are presented to the public presented to the public th th i t lth th i t lthan their actual essence. than their actual essence. In turn, the way in which In turn, the way in which the public is formed the public is formed affects scientific research,affects scientific research,affects scientific research, affects scientific research, both by influencing both by influencing funding agencies and funding agencies and exerting psychological exerting psychological press res on researcherspress res on researcherspressures on researchers, pressures on researchers, thus establishing a circle thus establishing a circle that can be either virtuous that can be either virtuous or vicious.or vicious.or vicious.or vicious.

As we enter a genomic As we enter a genomic era in medicine and era in medicine and biology, perhaps the biology, perhaps the greatest danger I see greatest danger I see stems from the stems from the enormous emphasis enormous emphasis placed on the human placed on the human genome by the media.genome by the media.((S.Paabo, Science 2001 S.Paabo, Science 2001 Feb 16;291:1221)Feb 16;291:1221)

The practical consequences of the genetics of The practical consequences of the genetics of behaviour might be bad or it might be goodbehaviour might be bad or it might be goodbehaviour might be bad or it might be good. behaviour might be bad or it might be good. But, But, if we are concerned about its ethical if we are concerned about its ethical implications, we would do better to form a implications, we would do better to form a p ,p ,clearer picture of how scientists should clearer picture of how scientists should communicate with the public. communicate with the public.

“I often wonder where the “I often wonder where the o oo oline between the necessary line between the necessary

i t d th lli t d th llresistance and the equally resistance and the equally necessary surrender tonecessary surrender tonecessary surrender to necessary surrender to destiny can be drawn”destiny can be drawn”

(D.Bonhoeffer(D.Bonhoeffer))

We have met various couples of words: genetics We have met various couples of words: genetics and autonomy, determinism and indeterminism, and autonomy, determinism and indeterminism, compatibilism and incompatibilism. compatibilism and incompatibilism.

I would like to propose you now a new one: I would like to propose you now a new one: “Resistance”“Resistance” andand “surrender”“surrender” This couple ofThis couple ofResistance Resistance andand surrender .surrender . This couple of This couple of words is the best antidote against any paranoid words is the best antidote against any paranoid fantasy of omnipotence fantasy of omnipotence -- as well as against any as well as against any form of cynical fatalism. form of cynical fatalism.