Author's personal copy - Southeast Asia Research Groupsearg.rhul.ac.uk/pubs/sevastjanova_etal_2012...

Author's personal copy

A detrital heavy mineral viewpoint on sediment provenance and tropical weatheringin SE Asia

Inga Sevastjanova ⁎, Robert Hall, David AldertonSE Asia Research Group, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham, Surrey, TW20 0EX, UK

a b s t r a c ta r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 15 July 2011Received in revised form 9 February 2012Accepted 8 March 2012Available online 24 March 2012

Keywords:Heavy mineralsDetritalProvenanceWeatheringSE Asia

Understanding heavy mineral preservation is important for interpreting generation, pathways, provenance andgeochemistry of sediments. Despite this, many assumptions about heavy mineral stability are based on ancientstrata and few studies consider modern sediments, particularly those in tectonically active tropical areas suchas SE Asia. We report new heavy mineral data on 69 river sand samples from the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra,inwhich one aimwas to find provenance indicators specific to these areas. Identificationswere performed usingoptical microscopy and confirmed with SEM-EDS. In the Malay Peninsula heavy minerals record granitic andcontact metamorphic provenance. Variable amounts of zircon, tourmaline, hornblende, andalusite, epidote,monazite, rutile and titanite, andminor amounts of pyroxene, apatite, anatase, garnet, diaspore, colourless spinel,cassiterite and allanite are typical of this source area. The composition of assemblages from Sumatra indicatescontributions from two major sources: the modern volcanic arc (I) and the basement (II). Abundant pyroxene,particularly hypersthene (up to 70%), is diagnostic of the volcanic arc source. Vesuvianite, garnet, andalusite,tourmaline, chrome spinel, rutile, anatase and corundum, are present only in small amounts (b3%), and are inter-preted as recycled from the basement. Zircon, apatite, hornblende, epidote, and olivine are also common inSumatra and are likely to have a mixed provenance. Abundance of ferromagnesian silicate minerals suggestsmild weathering, possibly reflecting several processes: dilution of natural etching fluids by heavy rainfall, higherosion rates, rapid transport and short grain residence time in the river. The heavy mineral assemblages ofmodern rivers are very different from those recorded by the few previous studies of Cenozoic sediments of theMalay Peninsula and Sumatra. Assemblages in the Cenozoic basins are significantly more mature than those ofmodern rivers. The differences cannot be explained simply by dissolution of susceptible minerals during onesedimentary cycle and instead imply rapid source area unroofing.

© 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Heavy mineral analysis has a wide range of applications, e.g. study-ing provenance of siliciclastic rocks, reconstructing ancient sedimentaryroutes, subdividing and correlating unfossiliferous siliciclastic strata,mining and exploration and forensic science (e.g. Mange and Wright,2007 and references therein). Most heavy minerals are restricted tospecific source rocks and are sensitive indicators of provenance, provid-ed that there are statistically distinguishable differences betweensediment source areas. It is a holistic approach, which gives insightsinto all types of rocks that contribute detritus to siliciclastic sediments.Other techniques such as single-mineral geochemistry are valuable foradvanced interpretations when potential source areas have alreadybeen identified. For instance, detrital zircon U–Pb dating, Hf isotopeanalyses or trace element patterns are rewarding for studying prove-nance of sediments derived from crustal rocks (e.g. Belousova et al.,

2002; Dickinson and Gehrels, 2003; Griffin et al., 2006; Howard et al.,2009; Bahlburg et al., 2010; Clements and Hall, 2011). However, zirconstudies alone are not likely to detect contributions frommafic and ultra-mafic source rocks, in which zircon is rare or absent. Rutile geochemis-try is valuable for differentiating between various metamorphic sourcerocks (e.g. Zack et al., 2004; Triebold et al., 2007; Meinhold, 2010) andthis mineral may also be present in quartz veins and granites, pegma-tites, carbonatites, kimberlites, xenoliths of metasomatised peridotite(Meinhold, 2010 and references therein). However, detrital rutile isderived predominantly from metamorphic rocks in which it is mostabundant (e.g. Force, 1980; Zack et al., 2004; Triebold et al., 2007).Detrital garnet (Morton et al., 1994; Takeuchi, 1994; Sabeen et al.,2002; Morton et al., 2005; Takeuchi et al., 2008), tourmaline (Henry,1985), amphibole (e.g. Mange-Rajetzky, 1981), pyroxene (e.g.Cawood, 1990; Cawood, 1991), Fe–Ti oxides (Basu and Molinaroli,1991) and many other minerals (e.g. von Eynatten and Gaupp, 1999;Mange and Morton, 2007) have been successfully used in provenancestudies. Therefore, single-mineral geochemistry and geochronologysupplement, but do not substitute for, the heavy mineral analysis.

Sedimentary Geology 280 (2012) 179–194

⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 1784 443896; fax: +44 1784 434716.E-mail address: [email protected] (I. Sevastjanova).

0037-0738/$ – see front matter © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2012.03.007

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Sedimentary Geology

j ourna l homepage: www.e lsev ie r .com/ locate /sedgeo


Initial heavymineral assemblages undergomodifications during thesedimentary cycle (Morton andHallsworth, 1999; van Loon andMange,2007). Heavy minerals (e.g. zircon, monazite, xenotime, allanite, rutile,apatite, etc.) contain trace elements. Therefore, understanding heavymineral transport and preservation is significant not only for prove-nance studies, but also for interpreting the geochemistry of sediments(e.g. van Loon andMange, 2007). However, despite decades of intensivestudies (e.g. Bramlette, 1941; Blatt and Sutherland, 1969; Grimm, 1973;Nickel, 1973; Morton, 1985; Pettijohn et al., 1987; Morton andHallsworth, 1999; Milliken, 2007; Morton and Hallsworth, 2007),these modifications are still poorly understood.

SE Asia is important because it is estimated to yield 20–25% of theglobal sediment supplied to the world's oceans (Milliman et al., 1999).Being situated in a tropical climate, SE Asia is a particularly rewardingarea for studying heavy mineral provenance, weathering and post-depositional dissolution. SE Asian landmasses are surrounded byoffshore Cenozoic hydrocarbon-bearing basins that are filled withthick (up to 14 km in the Malay Basin, e.g. Petronas, 1999) deltaic andshallow-marine detrital strata. Provenance studies suggest that thisdetrital material has been derived from local SE Asian sources(e.g. van Hattum et al., 2006; Smyth et al., 2007; 2008; Hall et al.,2008; Witts et al., 2011). Thus, areas which are devoid of the Cenozoicsedimentary cover, such as the Malay Peninsula, provide a uniqueopportunity for studying heavy mineral assemblages of the sourcerocks. The Cenozoic basins, where these assemblages were deposited,give insights into the processes that have affected heavy minerals dur-ing transport and after deposition. SE Asia also hosts a range of granitic,(contact) metamorphic, metasomatic and placer mineral deposits (e.g.Hutchison and Tan, 2009) that contain rare minerals of restrictedparagenesis (Table 2). When found in detrital sediments, many ofthese minerals can be used as sensitive indicators of provenance.

Studying heavy minerals in river sands has proven an effective wayof characterisingheavymineral assemblages at the source areas in otherregions of the world (e.g. Griffin et al., 2006). However, almost no suchstudies have been undertaken in SE Asia. In the present study, we dis-cuss heavymineral data from 69 river sand samples in theMalay Penin-sula and Sumatra and 103microprobe analyses of detrital garnets fromsix samples in the Malay Peninsula. New data reveal abundance of fer-romagnesian silicateminerals that suggests only amild effect of tropicalweathering on heavy mineral assemblages and emphasise the need toconsider tectonic controls on heavy mineral weathering and post-depositional dissolution. Data presented here also add new details to aprevious provenance model for the North Sumatra Basin (Mortonet al., 1994). The heavy mineral assemblages of modern rivers aremore diverse than those recorded from the North Sumatra Basin (e.g.Morton et al., 1994). These differences cannot be explained simply bydissolution of susceptible minerals during one sedimentary cycle andrequire significant provenance changes to have occurred within ashort time-span—most likely due to rapid source area unroofing,although the role of paleo-climate cannot be completely isolated.

2. Heavy mineral stability revisited

Heavy mineral assemblages in siliciclastic rocks and sediments arenot identical to those in their source rocks. Initial heavy mineral assem-blages are changed throughout the sedimentary cycle (i.e. duringsediment release and transport, and after deposition) by hydraulic sort-ing (different behaviour of minerals during transport that is influencedby their specific gravity and shape), dissolution, growth of authigenicminerals and mechanical abrasion (e.g. Morton and Hallsworth, 1999;van Loon and Mange, 2007; Garzanti et al., 2011).

Some authors (Morton andHallsworth, 1999; 2007) argue that in allgeological settings,minerals dissolve in a similar order. Ferromagnesiansilicate minerals (e.g. olivine, pyroxene, and amphibole) are most liableto dissolution, whereas Ti-minerals (rutile and anatase), tourmaline,and zircon are most stable. It is also argued that apatite is susceptible

to weathering but resistant to diagenetic dissolution because weather-ing takes place at acidic pH conditions, while diagenetic dissolutionoccurs under saline and alkaline pH conditions (e.g. Morton, 1985).Early experimental studies (Nickel, 1973) supported these suggestions.However, recent studies show that for most minerals, and not only forapatite, dissolution rates increase at lower pH and higher temperatures(Grandstaff, 1977; Rimstidt and Dove, 1986; Zhang, 1990; Knauss et al.,1993; Zhang et al., 1993; Franke and Teschner-Steinhardt, 1994; Zhanget al., 1996; Chen and Brantley, 1998; Frogner and Schweda, 1998;Valsami-Jones et al., 1998; Pokrovsky and Schott, 2000; Oelkers andSchott, 2001a, b; Oelkers and Poitrasson, 2002; Guidry and Mackenzie,2003; Golubev et al., 2005; Chaïrat et al., 2007; Harouiya et al., 2007).

Natural weathering rates are several orders of magnitude lowerthan those measured in the laboratory (White and Brantley, 2003).This may be due to the depletion of reaction surface, accumulation ofleached layers and secondary precipitates (Murakami et al., 2003;White and Brantley, 2003). Dissolution rates may also vary because ofheterogeneities in overall chemical composition of the mineral, thepresence of defects and dislocations in the crystal structure, inheritedexsolution features, Eh values the presence of bacteria and other factors(e.g. Santelli et al., 2001;Wilson, 2004; Duro et al., 2005). In the subsur-face, dissolution is also influenced by pore stress, fluid pressure andpore fluid saturation. A combination of these processes may result notonly in dissolution along the grain boundaries, but also in secondaryprecipitation from oversaturated pore fluids (e.g. Sheldon andWheeler, 2003).

It is difficult to predict the time or depth of burial required forcompletely dissolving a certain mineral species from an assemblage.For instance, in Paleocene–Eocene sandstones of the Central NorthSea, calcic amphibole disappears from heavy mineral assemblage at adepth of 600 m. Depth-induced decrease of diversity of heavy mineralassemblages and advancing corrosion marks on mineral grains suggestthat this disappearance is due to diagenetic dissolution (e.g.Morton andHallsworth, 2007). However, in other basins, calcic amphiboles arecommon at greater depths, e.g. up to 2 km in the Miocene BengalBasin and up to 4 km in the Pliocene Kura Basin (Uddin and Lundberg,1998; Morton and Hallsworth, 2007).

Heavy minerals that are regarded as susceptible to dissolution (e.g.Morton and Hallsworth, 1999) are also common in sandstones ofquite different ages. Unsurprisingly, hornblende, pyroxene, and locallyolivine, are abundant in recent coast and shelf sediments in theMediterranean (e.g. Mange-Rajetzky, 1983) and in volcanic arc-derived sediments offshore eastern Korea (Chough, 1984) and in thePacific Oceania (Dickinson, 2007). However, amphiboles and pyroxenestogether with other “unstable” minerals are found in much olderdeposits. They are preserved in Plio-Pleistocene siliciclastic sedimentsof the southern Apennines, Italy (Acquafredda et al., 1997), UpperMiocene–Pliocene back-arc sandstones of Halmahera, eastern Indone-sia (Nichols et al., 1991), Lower Miocene intra-arc Waitemata Basinsediments, New Zealand (Hayward and Smale, 1992), OligoceneBarrême thrust-top Basin, France (Evans and Mange-Rajetzky, 1991;Evans et al., 2004),Middle Eocene to LowerMiocene forearc sandstonesof the Azuero-Soná Complex, NW Panama (Krawinkel et al., 1999),Cretaceous to Paleogene volcaniclastic complexes of Sikhote-Alinand Kamchatka (Malinovsky and Markevich, 2007), Middle toUpper Jurassic volcaniclastic conglomerates and sandstones in NewZealand (Noda et al., 2004), and in Ordovician oceanic arc-derivedsedimentary rocks in Southern Uplands, Scotland (Mange et al., 2005)and western Irish Caledonides (Dewey and Mange, 1999; Mange et al.,2003). Abundant hornblendes are preserved in Lower Cretaceoussandstones in the Eastern Alps (von Eynatten and Gaupp, 1999) andeven in Neoproterozoic–Lower Cambrian conglomerates and arkosesandstones of Arabia (Weissbrod and Nachmias, 1986; Weissbrod andBogoch, 2007).

These examples indicate that our understanding of heavy mineralstability versus dissolution during weathering and diagenesis is still

180 I. Sevastjanova et al. / Sedimentary Geology 280 (2012) 179–194


fragmentary and it is difficult to distinguish between ‘true’ prove-nance and dissolution effects in ancient heavy mineral assemblages.With this in mind, a study of heavy minerals from river sands in theMalay Peninsula and Sumatra was initiated with the aim (i) to char-acterise present day heavy mineral assemblages shed from theMalay Peninsula and Sumatra, (ii) to identify provenance indicatorsspecific to each source area and (iii) to give insights into alterationsof heavy mineral assemblages that occur during transport in tropicalrivers.

3. Geological background

The Malay Peninsula and Sumatra form western Sundaland in SEAsia. Sundaland includes Indochina, the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra,Java, Borneo and the shallow Sunda Shelf (Hamilton, 1979; Hall andMorley, 2004). This region is underlain by fragments of continentalcrust and volcanic arcs of Gondwanan origin (Audley-Charles, 1988;Metcalfe, 1988; Sengör et al., 1988; Metcalfe, 1996, 2011) (Fig. 3)that amalgamated during the Permian and Triassic. Sundaland is in-truded by Permian–Triassic, locally Jurassic and Cretaceous granitoids.Granitoids that stretch in a narrow belt across Thailand, the MalayPeninsula and Indonesian Tin islands are cassiterite-bearing (e.g.Cobbing et al., 1992).

Sedimentary rocks in Western Sundaland range in age from theCambrian to recent. However, the oldest strata, the Upper Cambrianshallowmarine-deltaic siliciclastic rocks, are common only on the Lang-kawi Islands and in the NE Malay Peninsula (e.g. Hutchison and Tan,2009). Lower Palaeozoic marine siliciclastic and calcareous rocks arecommon on the Sibumasu Block, but are not exposed on the EastMalayaand the Sukhothai Arc Blocks. There are also the Carboniferous–Permianglacial-marine ‘pebbly mudstones’ present on Sibumasu, both in theMalay Peninsula and Sumatra (e.g. Metcalfe, 1996; Barber and Crow,2009). They indicate that this block was attached to Gondwana duringglaciation. The Middle-Upper Palaeozoic strata on the East Malaya andSukhotai Arc contain warm-water Tethyan/Cathaysian biotas thatindicate that these fragments separated from Gondwana earlierthan Sibumasu (e.g. Metcalfe, 2011). From the Late Mesozoic onwards,the Malay Peninsula became subaerially exposed. Upper Jurassic–Lower Cretaceous alluvial and fluvial strata of the Malay Peninsula(Rishworth, 1974; Harbury et al., 1990; Racey, 2009) can be correlatedwith the regionally extensive, laterally continuous Khorat Group ‘red-beds’ in Indochina (Racey, 2009). In the Malay Peninsula, most of theMesozoic succession has been subsequently eroded. In Sumatra, theMe-sozoic is represented by the Upper Jurassic–Lower Cretaceous WoylaGroup, composed of an east-facing accretionary complex of ophiolites,pelagic and volcaniclastic sediments, mélanges, and basaltic–andesiticvolcanic rocks (Barber, 2000; Barber et al., 2005; Barber and Crow,2009). The Woyla Nappe is interpreted as an intra-oceanic volcanic arcwith carbonate fringing reefs that developed in the Meso-TethysOcean and collided with West Sumatra Block in the mid Cretaceous (atabout 90 Ma) (Barber, 2000; Barber et al., 2005; Barber and Crow,2009; Hall et al., 2009).

After themid Cretaceous (90 Ma) Sundaland experienced prolongedLate Cretaceous–Paleogene emergence (Hall and Morley, 2004; Hall,2009; Clements et al., 2011; Hall, 2011). On land, in the Malay Peninsu-la, Cenozoic sediments are of limited distribution. These are continentalcoal-bearing lacustrine and alluvial sediments and minor basalts(Gobbett and Hutchison, 1973; Hutchison and Tan, 2009) (Fig. 1). InSumatra, there are deep sedimentary basins filled with siliciclastic andcalcareous Cenozoic strata, as well as minor Paleocene–Early Eoceneand Early Miocene–recent volcanic and plutonic rocks (McCourt et al.,1996; Bellon et al., 2004; Barber et al., 2005). Throughout WesternSundaland sedimentary rocks are metamorphosed at low to moderategrades, while high grade metamorphic rocks are of limited distribution(Figs. 1 and 2).Ta

ble1

Abu

ndan

cesof

detrital

heav

ymineralsin

differen

tsand

grain-

size

fraction

sof

five

samples

that

wereselected

from

theMalay

Penins

ulaan

dSu

matra

fora‘pilo

t-test’in

orde

rto

iden

tify

theop

timal

grain-

size

interval

forfurthe

rhe

avy

mineral

analyses.

Sample

Size

Zircon

OPX

CPX

Amph

ibolea

Amph

iboleb

Amph

ibolec

Apa

tite

And

alus

ite

Tourmaline

Garne

tTitanite

Epidote

Chlorite

Oliv

ine

Rutile

Ana

tase

Cassiterite

Mon

azite

Alterites

N

IS31

63–12

5μm

42.1

20.8

2.0

1.0

22.8

5.0

0.5

0.5

2.5

0.5

0.5

1.0

1.0

202

125–

250μm

5.8

31.4

0.5

3.9

1.0

2.4

42.0

1.0

0.5

2.9

3.9

1.0

0.5

3.4

207

250–

500μm

Insu

fficien

tgrains

7IS37

B63

–12

5μm

51.0

1.0

12.5

1.5

2.0

19.0

8.0

0.5

1.0

0.5

0.5

0.5

2.0

200

125–

250μm

1.0

16.0

54.5

19.5

3.5

0.5

1.5

0.5

3.0

200

250–

500μm

3.3

85.2

6.7

1.0

3.8

210

LKS7

-13

63–12

5μm

26.7

40.3

11.2

14.1

1.9

0.5

0.5

1.0

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

1.9

206

125–

250μm

2.4

70.4

5.8

14.1

1.0

0.5

0.5

1.9

0.5

0.5

2.4

206

250–

500μm

1.0

57.2

4.8

19.2

1.9

2.4

2.9

4.8

0.5

1.0

0.5

3.8

208

LKS7

-28

63–12

5μm

13.5

33.0

13.5

21.5

1.0

2.0

1.5

0.5

0.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

8.5

200

125–

250μm

3.0

48.0

12.5

21.0

2.0

0.5

2.0

0.5

1.5

0.5

4.0

4.5

200

250–

500μm

39.0

13.5

20.0

0.5

1.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

20.0

4.0

200

LKS7

-72

63–12

5μm

11.4

66.3

10.4

5.0

0.5

0.5

1.0

2.5

0.5

1.0

1.0

202

125–

250μm

0.5

85.0

5.3

5.3

0.5

1.0

0.5

0.5

1.5

206

250–

500μm

0.5

76.4

4.3

15.9

0.5

2.4

208

Num

bers

inbo

ldsh

owab

unda

nces

ofmineral

speciesthat

arepresen

tin

thean

alysed

samples,b

utno

tin

alla

nalysedgrain-

size

fraction

s.a

Green

-brownho

rnblen

de.

bRe

ddish-

brow

nho

rnblen

de.

cOther.

181I. Sevastjanova et al. / Sedimentary Geology 280 (2012) 179–194


4. Present day topography and drainage

Sundaland is a relatively low-lying regionwithmaximumelevationsrarely exceeding 2000 m. In the Malay Peninsula, mountains form pre-dominantly north–south trending features and the most prominent ofthese are the Main Range, the Kledang Range, and the Eastern Belt.There is also a group of isolated small mountains forming the north–south trending Central Belt. There are tenmajor drainage basins in pen-insular Malaysia (Fig. 1). The main watershed follows the Main Range.Rivers west of the Main Range drain into the Sunda Shelf and theSingapore Strait. As there are twomajormountain ranges on the easterncoast, the Eastern Belt and Tahan Range, some rivers also drain towardsthe lower inland area. The Pahang River collects streams from centralpeninsular Malaysia and flows through Lake Bera (Tasik Bera) ontothe Sunda Shelf. It has been suggested that in the recent past the PahangRiver flew into Lake Bera and then became the present Muar River toflow into theMelaka Strait (Gobbett and Hutchison, 1973) on the oppo-site side of the peninsula.

Geologically the Malay Peninsula can be divided into three zones,Eastern, Central and Western (e.g. Hutchison, 1975, 1977; Khoo andTan, 1983) that are bounded by major fault zones and lie on the EastMalaya, Sukhothai Arc and Sibumasu basement blocks respectively(Fig. 1). At present, the most widely exposed lithologies are granitoids,contact metamorphic metapelites, limestones and locally (in theCentral Zone) Mesozoic red-bed and volcaniclastic turbidites (Fig. 1).These lithologies are sources of detritus in modern rivers.

The Barisan Mountains are the most prominent topographic featureof Sumatra and are 1,650 km long and 100 km wide. They form themajor drainage divide in Sumatra and modern rivers split the islandinto 15 drainage basins (Fig. 2). Modern Sumatran rivers are underlainby Cenozoic volcanic rocks and siliciclastic sedimentary basins.

5. Samples and methods

5.1. Samples

Detrital heavy mineral abundances and zircon morphological typeswere studied in 69 river sand samples collected from 11 drainage basinsin the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra (Figs. 1 and 2).

Samples were chosen to cover a range of lithologies exposed in eachbasin. River basin outlines were determined from the HYDRO1K data-base that is based on the USGS GTOPO30 DEM (Suggate and Hall,2003). Source lithologies were characterised from published literature,SRTM-derived digital elevationmodels (DEM) and published geologicaland river maps (Gobbett and Hutchison, 1973; Senathi Rajah et al.,1976; Hutchison and Tan, 2009) that were digitised using MapInfoProfessional GIS software.

5.2. Heavy mineral analysis

Heavy minerals were separated in sodium polytungstate (SPT)solution (2.89 g/cm3) using the funnel technique (e.g. Mange andMaurer, 1992). A ‘pilot-test’ was performed on five samples in orderto choose the grain-size fraction in which all significant heavy mineralspecies are present in sufficient amounts (Table. 1) (e.g. Mange andOtvos, 2005). The 63–250 μm fraction was selected based on the resultsof this test.

The SPT heavy fraction was split in halves, using a quarteringapproach (Mange and Maurer, 1992). One half was used for heavymineral analysis. Heavy minerals were mounted on glass slides andidentified using Nikon and Zeiss Axiolab microscopes. Optical identifi-cations were verified with semi-quantitative SEM analysis of grainsthatwere hand-picked from the same samples. Identifications of hyper-sthene were confirmed using X-ray powder diffraction on one sample(LKS7-72).

Western Zone(Sibumasu)

Central Zone(Sukhothai Arc)

Eastern Zone(East Malaya)

Ijok

Perak

Selangor

Muar

Endau

Pahang

Terengganu

Kelantan

LakeBera

G. Tahan

The M

ain Range

The KedangRange

The E

astern Belt

B

A

Perli

sM

uda

2° N

3° N

4° N

5° N

6° N

102° E 103° E 104° E101° E

2° N

3° N

4° N

102° E 103° E 104° E101° E

InternationalborderThe Main RangeProvincegranitoids

The EasternProvincegranitoids

Carbonifer ous,mostlymetapelites

Silurian-Devonian,limest oneand siliciclastic

Cambrian,siliciclastic

Triassic,siliciclastic,volcaniclastic,and minorlimestone

Permian,limest one,siliciclasticand volcanic

Permian-Triassic,siliciclastic,limestone

ModernsedimentsCenozoic,continentalsiliciclasticand volcanicJurassic-Cretaceous,continentalsiliciclastic

Heavy mineralsampleHeavy mineraland garnetsamplePeninsulardrainagedivide

River basinoutlines

kilometres

0 10050

Fig. 1. A. Simplified geological map of the Malay Peninsula (modified from Gobbett andHutchison, 1973). Dashed lines show approximate boundaries of the Eastern, CentralandWestern Zones in theMalay Peninsula. These zones lie on the East Malaya, SukhothaiArc and Sibumasu basement fragments respectively. B. Modern river drainage patterns ofthe Malay Peninsula modified from Hydro1K database. Base map—STRM-derived digitalelevation model (DEM).



5.3. Zircon typological studies

Half of the SPT heavy fraction was run through a Franz Magneticseparator at 20° tilt angle, and 0.1, 0.4, and 1.7 μA voltages. The non-magnetic (>1.7 μA) fraction from Sumatran samples was mounted onglass slides for zircon typological studies (e.g. Mange-Rajetzky, 1995).In theMalay Peninsula samples, zircon typological studies were carriedout using heavy mineral grain mounts. In all cases, detrital grains weremounted in Canada balsam, which was then hardened by heating to105 °C. Zircons were classified based on their colour, length to width

ratio (l:w), rounding and zoning, and the following categories wererecognised:

(1) Colourless: (1.a) elongate (l:w>3:1), (1.b) euhedral, (1.c)subhedral/subrounded, (1.d) rounded, (1.e) anhedral and (1.d) sur-rounded by volcanic glass;

(2) Zoned;(3) Purple: (3.a) rounded and (3.b) other;(4) Brown(5) Red.

Lower Jurassic-Upper CretaceousWoyla Accretionary Complex

Carboniferous(?)-TriassicBasement

TIN ISLANDSTriassic-CretaceousDevonian-PermianBentong-BelitungAccretionary Complex

96°E 98°E 100°E 102°E 104°E 106°E 108°E

4° S

2° S

0°

2° N

4° N

Fault

Holocene-Pleistocenesiliciclastic sedimentsRecent volcanicbasic and acid rocks

CENOZOIC

PRE-CENOZOIC BASEMENT

kilometres

0 200100

Tin IslandsBangka

Nias

Sunda Forearc

Sunda Trench

Granitoids

Pliocene-Eocene siliciclasticsediments

Pliocene-Eocene basic volcanicrocks

Mesuji

Musi

Hari

Muaram

aan

Singkarak Indragir

Kampar

Siak

Rokan

Barumum

Tamiang

BandaAceh

Tripa

Simonggo

Natal

The Barisan Mts.

103

101100

96

105107 108

110111

50

4745

4038 35

33

53

92

94 88

9087

969696

67697172

75

13

010515

19

17

96°E 98°E 100°E 102°E 104°E 106°E 108°E

4° S

2° S

0°

2° N

4° N

Major drainage divide

River basin outline

Sample(”LKS7-” omitted)

River

A

B

Fig. 2. A. Simplified geological map of Sumatra (modified from Barber et al., 2005). B. Modern river drainage basins of Sumatra (based on from Hydro1K database) overlain on theSRTM-derived DEM.



5.4. Point counting

Point counting was performed using a Petrog automated steppingstage and software. The line point-counting method (e.g. Mange andMaurer, 1992) with step sizes between 300 and 500 μm was used inthe present study. Whenever possible, at least 200 heavy mineralswere identified and counted from each slide, which is a sufficient num-ber for characterising abundances of common species (e.g. Mange andMaurer, 1992). Heavy mineral slides were also examined for the pres-ence of other species that were not detected during counting. Whenpresent, such species were identified as traces (tr. b0.5%). Wheneverpossible, 100 counts per sample were made for zircon typologicalstudies (e.g. Mange-Rajetzky, 1995; Lihou and Mange-Rajetzky, 1996).

5.5. Detrital garnet microprobe analyses

Detrital garnets were hand-picked, mounted in araldite resin,polished and analysed with a Jeol733 Superprobe and an attachedOxford Instrument ISIS/INCA microanalytical energy-dispersivetechnique. Analyses were performed at the Research School of EarthSciences at UCL-Birkbeck using 15 kV accelerating voltage, 0.1 nAbeam current, 2 μm spot size and 60 s counting time. Data werecalibrated against silicate, pure metal and oxide standards. Almandine,andradite, grossular, pyrope, spessartine and uvarovite end-memberswere calculated using in-house MINPREP and FORMULA programs(R. Hall, pers. comm., 2007).

6. Results

6.1. Heavy minerals

6.1.1. The Malay Peninsula34 river sand samples from seven river drainage basins have been

analysed from theMalay Peninsula (Fig. 1). Heavymineral assemblagescontain variable amounts of tourmaline (0–85%), amphibole (0–76%),zircon (0–76%), monazite and xenotime (0–62%), andalusite (0–61%),rutile (0–23%), titanite (0–18%), chlorite (0–18%) and epidote(0–16%). Cassiterite, apatite, anatase, garnet, colourless spinel, allanite,diaspore and kyanite occur locally in minor amounts (b3.5%).

Distribution of these heavy mineral species within the MalayPeninsula is not uniform. Zircon, tourmaline, amphibole and andalusiteare the most common minerals that are present throughout the MalayPeninsula, but in variable amounts. The chiastolite variety of andalusiteis common only in the Eastern and Central Zones. Monazite (and xeno-time) concentrations are found only in the Western Zone and nearKuantan in the Eastern Zone. Titanite is abundant in the northern partof the Malay Peninsula (Fig. 4).

6.1.2. Sumatra35 samples were analysed from four drainage basins in Sumatra

(Fig. 2). Heavy mineral assemblages of modern river basins in SouthSumatra are dominated by orthopyroxene (23–70%), clinopyroxene(15–52%), amphibole (0 25%), locally with zircon (0–24%), chlorite(0–12%), olivine (0–9%), apatite (0–5.5%), epidote (0–4%), garnet(0–4%), and andalusite (0–3%). Vesuvianite, tourmaline, Cr-spinel,rutile, anatase, and corundum are also present locally in smalleramounts (less than 3.5%). These minerals are evenly distributed in thestudy area (Fig. 4).

Orthopyroxene (mostly hypersthene) is strongly pleochroic, sug-gesting volcanic provenance. Pyroxene habits vary from fresh euhedralto corroded with ‘hacksaw-terminations’ and rarely skeletal shapes.Clinopyroxene (mostly augite) appears more corroded than orthopyr-oxene. Pyroxene (both ortho- and clino-) is often surrounded by freshbrown volcanic glass. Amphibole is predominantly green-brown horn-blende, but rare reddish-brown amphibole (oxyhornblende) is alsopresent. Olivine is fresh or rounded and rarely hacksaw terminationsare developed on the rounded grains (Fig. 6). Some olivine is alteredto iddingsite.

6.2. Zircon types

Detrital zircons in theMalay Peninsula are predominantly colourlesseuhedral and subhedral, while rounded zircon grains are rare (Fig. 4). Astriking feature of detrital zircon assemblages from theMalay Peninsulais the abundance of brown zircons. Sumatran detrital zircons arepredominantly colourless euhedral, colourless subhedral and purple.Zircons that are surrounded by volcanic glass are common in all riverbasins, but are particularly abundant in the Musi Basin (Fig. 4). Suchzircons are predominantly stubby (width:length less than 3:1). Volca-nic glass that surrounds zircons is colourless, unlike that surroundingpyroxenes (brown) (Fig. 5).

6.3. Detrital garnet microprobe analyses

103 garnets were analysed from six samples in the Malay Peninsula(Fig. 7). Three garnet groups were identified. Group I (n=54) includesugrandite garnets that are predominantly grossular (68–92%) andandradite (2–27%) in composition. Group I garnets also contain alman-dine (1–9%), spessartine (0–3%) and minor (b1%) uvarovite (0–0.2%).

Group II (n=33) includes spessartine-rich pyralspite garnets thatare mainly almandine (14–85%) and spessartine (11–84%) in composi-tion. Group II garnets also contain grossular (0–23%), pyrope (0–18%),andradite (0–4%) and minor uvarovite (0–0.2%).

Ben

tong

-Rau

bSu

khot

hai A

r c

?

The Sunda Trench

The MalayPeninsula

Sumatr a

LangkawiTarutao

Bangka

Java

Borneo

Singapor e

Nias

The SundaShelf

Fig. 3. Principal features and model ages of continental basement beneath westernSundaland (modified from Lan et al., 2003; Hall, 2008; Sone and Metcalfe, 2008;Metcalfe, 2009; Sevastjanova et al., 2011). Black dashed line separated basement frag-ments that were part of Sundaland by the Mesozoic.



Group III (n=16) includes all other garnets that are not included intoGroups I and II. Group III garnets are predominantly almandine (54–87%)in composition and they also contain pyrope (1–30%), grossular (2–26%),spessartine (0–14%) and minor andradite (0–0.5%) and uvarovite(0–0.2%).

Group I garnets are common in all analysed samples. Group II garnetsare present in all samples, with the exception of IS18 (Central Zone) andIS36 (Eastern Zone). Group III garnets are present in IS37B (Eastern Zone),IS18 (Central Zone) and IS6 (western Zone).

7. Discussion

7.1. Provenance

7.1.1. The Malay PeninsulaHeavyminerals in river sands from theMalay Peninsula indicate two

important assemblages, (I) granitic and (II) contact metamorphic/

contact metasomatic. (I) The granitic heavy mineral assemblageincludes zircon, brown tourmaline, green-brown amphibole, andalusite(but not the chiastolite variety), monazite (and xenotime), titanite,epidote (secondary) and minor cassiterite, apatite and allanite. Ofthese minerals zircon is ubiquitous. Euhedral/subhedral habit, colourand abundant Permian–Triassic and locally Cretaceous U–Pb ages ofdetrital zircons (Sevastjanova et al., 2011) suggest a first-cycle graniticprovenance for thismineral. Green-brown hornblende ismost commonin the Eastern Zone, while in the Western Zone it is only present in itsnorth-western part; and brown tourmaline is most common in theWestern Zone. Titanite (Fig. 5) and andalusite (Fig. 5) are commononly in the northern and north-western part of the Malay Peninsula.Andalusite is typically considered as a contact metamorphic mineral(e.g. Deer et al., 1992; Mange and Maurer, 1992). However, the com-mon andalusite in this area is interpreted to be of magmatic originbecause it is inclusion-free (e.g. Clarke et al., 2004) (Fig. 6). A graniticprovenance for andalusite is supported by the observation of Azman

Mes

uji

Mus

iH

ari

Mua

ram

aan

Heavy minerals

Sumatra The Malay PeninsulaM

esuj

iM

usi

Har

i

Ijok

Per

akM

uar

Sela

ngor

Kel

anta

nPa

hang

T ere

ngga

nu

Zircon types

Eas

tern

Zon

eC

entr

al Z

one

Wes

tern

Zon

e

"Alterites"OtherMonazite

Anatase

RutileChloriteEpidote

Titanite

GarnetTourmalineAndalusiteApatiteZircon

Hornblendeb

Oxyhorn blende

Hornblendea

Diaspore

Olivine

CPX

OPX

(and x enotime)

Subhedral/Subrounded

Colourless

Red

Brow n

Purp le Other

Purp le Rounded

ZonedWith glassAnhedralRounded

EuhedralElongate

Ijok

Per

akM

uar

Sela

ngor

Kel

anta

nP

ahan

gTe

reng

ganu

Eas

tern

Zon

eC

entr

al Z

one

Wes

tern

Zon

e

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

IS9

IS5

IS6

IS23

IS24

IS46

IS43

IS3

IS2

IS11

IS12

IS16

IS18

IS19

IS25

IS26

IS28

IS31

IS34

IS36

IS37

IS37B

IS39

IS40

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

IS8100%

Mua

ram

aan

agreen - brown, b

A B

C D

blue-green and colourless, other: cassiterite, vesuvianite, kyanite, chloritoid, spinel, chrome spinel, and allanite

Fig. 4. Distribution of detrital heavyminerals and zircon types in river sands from theMalay Peninsula and Sumatra. Grey boxes on the left of each diagram show the names of the basins,fromwhich the analysed sampleswere collected (see Figs. 1 and 2). For theMalay Peninsula diagrams (B and D), black boxes on the left showwhich zones these river basins are draining.


Au

tho

r's perso

nal co

py

Table 2Distribution of potentially provenance-diagnostic heavy minerals in SE Asia.Based on Fitch (1952; Ingham and Bradford, 1960; MacDonald, 1967; Alexander, 1968; Leong, 1968; MacDonald, 1971; Bradford, 1972; Gobbett and Hutchison, 1973; Jones, 1978; Heng, 1982; Manning, 1982; wan Hassan, 1989; Krähenbuhl, 1991;Cobbing et al., 1992; wan Hassan, 1994; Azman et al., 1999; Khoo, 2002a, 2002b; Azman, 2003, 2005; Azman and Singh, 2005; Barber et al., 2005; Mitchell et al., 2007; Hutchison and Tan, 2009).

Mineral Source rocks Malay

Peninsula

Sumatra Other

SE Asia

Allanite The tin belt granitoids, and Toba tuffs + + +Anatase Secondary in granitoids and authigenic +/− +/− +/−Andalusite The Eastern Province contact metamorphic schists, rarely the Main Range Province granitoids ++ ?Apatite Acid-intermediate igneous and volcanic, and metamorphic ++

+++

+++

+++

+++

+++ +++ +++

++ ++Cassiterite The Main Range Province granitoid, pegmatite veins, skarns, and Cenozoic placers + + +Clinozoisite Locally common in metamorphic rocks + ? ?Corundum The Main Range contact aureole (with carbonates) + +/− +Clinopyroxene Volcanic and rarely in metamorphic rocks +/− +Chrome spinel Ophiolites +/− +/− +Detrital chlorite Low grade metamorphic rocks + + +Diamond Unknown sedimentary source + − +Diaspore The Main Range Province granitoid contact aureole (with carbonates) and possibly in Cenozoic volcanics (?) +/− ? ?Diopside Locally common in metamorphic rocks + + +Epidote Secondary in granitoids and volcanic rocks + + +Fluorite Very rare in the Main Range Province granitoids +/− +/− ?Garnet Contact aureoles and schists +/− +/− ++Glaucophane Not known from the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra − − +Hornblende, actinolitic The Main Range Province granitoids; rarely contact metamorphic aureoles ++ ? ?Hornblende, blue-green The tin belt granitoids +/− +/− +/−Hornblende, green-brown The Eastern Province granitoids, Cenozoic volcanic rocks, and tin belt contact metamorphic aureoles ++ ++Kyanite Rare high grade metamorphic, e.g. the Taku Schist +/− ? +Malayaite Discovered from the Perak State in the Malay Peninsula; very rare elsewhere in the world; occurs in skarns +/− − −Monazite The Main Range Province granitoids, Kuantan area in the Eastern Province, and placers ++ + +Olivine Basic volcanic rocks +/− +/− +/−Orthopyroxene Volcanic rocks + ?Rutile Metapelites, Cenozoic placers, and rarely in granitoids +/− +/− +/−Silimanite Rare high grade metamorphic, e.g. the Taku Schist and contact aureoles +/− +/− +Staurolite Very rare in metamorphic rocks +/− +/− ?Titanite The tin belt granitoids, particularly in the northern part of the Malay Peninsula ++ + +Topaz Aluminium-rich contac metamorphic rocks, e.g. tourmaline−corundum rocks in the Kinta Valley + + +Tourmaline The Main Range Province: evolved leucogranites, pegmatite veins, contact aureoles, greisens, and metasedimentary rocks ++ + ++Tremolite Rare in metamorphic rocks +/− +/− +Vesuvianite (Idiocrase) The Main Range contact aureole (with carbonates) + + ?Xenotime The Main Range Province granitoids, Kuantan area in the Eastern Province, and placers ++ + ?Zircon Acid igneous and volcanic, metamorphic, and sedimentary

Zoisite Locally common in metamorphic rocks + ? ?

+++, very common; ++, common; +, present; +/−, locally present; −, not found; ?, no data; CPX, clinopyroxene; OPX, orthopyroxene.

186I.Sevastjanova

etal./

Sedimentary

Geology

280(2012)

179–194


(2005) that the Malay Peninsula's Main Range Province S-type granit-oids contain andalusite but not cordierite. Monazite forms local concen-trations in river sediments of theWestern Zone and around Kuantan inthe Eastern Zone.

(II) The contact metamorphic/contact metasomatic heavy mineralassemblage includes abundant inclusion-rich andalusite and raregarnet, diaspore and vesuvianite. Andalusite characteristic of thisassemblage is common in the Eastern Zone and is interpreted as derivedfrom the contact metamorphic Carboniferous metapelites which areabundant in this area. Common inclusions and the presence of thechiastolite (Fig. 5) variety support a contact metamorphic origin forthis mineral (e.g. Clarke et al., 2004).

Based on the systematic compilation and analysis of the garnet com-positional database, Suggate (2011) concluded that extreme protolithtypes, such as skarns, calc-silicates, peridotites, eclogites, blue schistsand granitoids yield garnets of source-specific compositions, whichcan be used as provenance indicators. However, it is impossible to

identify with confidence garnet that is derived from pelitic, basic andintermediate volcanic and ultrabasic protoliths (Suggate, 2011). It isalso impossible to identify metamorphic conditions based on garnetcompositional data (Suggate, 2011). The comparison of new garnetdata from the present study with the database of Suggate (2011)shows unequivocally that grossular-rich garnet that is diagnostic ofthe Malay Peninsula (Group 1) is derived from a calc-silicate andskarn protolith (Fig. 7). This interpretation is consistent with previouslypublished work of Deer et al. (1992) and Mange and Maurer (1992),who suggested that grossular garnet is common in skarns and othercontact metamorphic calc-silicates, as well as rodingites. Spessartine-rich garnet has a granitoid protolith (Deer et al., 1992; Suggate, 2011).We, therefore, interpret spessartine-rich garnet from the Malay Penin-sula (Group II) to be derived from the contact aureoles of the granitoidintrusions. It is difficult to interpret provenance of otherMalay Peninsu-la's garnet (Group III), which is of non-extreme composition, but thisgroup is not abundant (15% of all garnet analyses). Garnet contact

And: andalusite, Aug: augite, Cas: cassiterite, Chst: chiastolite, Hb: hornblende,Hy: hypersthene, Mon: monazite, Ol: olivine; Ti: titatnite, Ves: Vesuvianite,g: volcanic glass

0 50 100 µm

Ti Ti Cas Cas

Chst Chst And Mon Mon

AugVes

Hy

Ol

Hb

Zir Zir Aug

Hy

gg

g

g

g

Fig. 5. Selected examples of detrital heavy minerals from the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. Images with the light backgrounds are in plane polarised light, whereas images with theblack backgrounds are in crossed polars. Note that hypersthene and augite are surrounded by brown volcanic glass, suggesting derivation from the ash-borne tuffs. Also note thatzircons which are surrounded by colourless volcanic glass are not elongate.



metamorphic provenance is also supported by association of grossularwith vesuvianite, which is a typical mineral of skarns or regionallymetamorphosed impure limestones (Deer et al., 1992; Mange andMaurer, 1992). Furthermore, andradite garnet and vesuvianite arefound in skarns around the Main Range Province granitoids in otherareas of the Tin Belt, in southern Thailand (e.g. Schwartz et al., 1995).Spessartine-rich garnet was also described from the Tin Belt aplitesand pegmatites of Peninsular Thailand and Phuket (Manning, 1983).Garnet of contact metamorphic provenance is also consistent with theabundance of chiastolite variety of andalusite, a common contact meta-morphic mineral, in heavy mineral assemblages of the Eastern Zone.

The medium and high-grade metamorphic minerals, colourlessspinel and kyanite, are sporadically present in the Central and EasternZone of the Malay Peninsula. These indicate a minor contribution fromrare, poorly studied and isotopically undated schists, e.g. the Taku Schist(Hutchison and Tan, 2009).

Several provenance-diagnostic heavy minerals were identified forthe Malay Peninsula Tin Belt granites. These include Permian–Triassicbrown zircons, monazite (and xenotime), chiastolite and, if present,cassiterite, diaspore, colourless spinel and allanite. However, the distri-bution of these minerals within the peninsula is not uniform.

Cassiterite (Fig. 5), which is common in the peninsula's Tin Belt gran-itoids is uncommon (max. 3.5%) in river sands, possibly due to its highspecific gravity (~7.15 g/cm3) and high settling velocity (Fletcher, 1994;Fletcher and Loh, 1996). Studies of tin-bearing placers in SE Asia (e.g.Aleva, 1985) and elsewhere in the world (e.g. Yim, 1994) suggest thatunder normal flow conditions most of detrital cassiterite is trapped inplacers close (0.5–1 km) to its source (Aleva, 1985; Yim, 1994). Finecassiterite grains recycled frompre-existing placer deposits can occasion-ally travel for distances greater than 0.5 km in the river valleys (Aleva,1985). Fletcher and Loh (1996) noted that cassiterite is unevenly distrib-uted in river sands from theMalay Peninsula. Therefore, when present inSE Asian sedimentary basins, cassiterite can be a sensitive indicator of theTin Belt provenance (e.g. van Hattum et al., 2006) but the absence ofcassiterite offshore does not necessitate a different provenance.

7.1.2. SumatraHeavy minerals from river sands in Sumatra suggest contributions

from two major sources: (I) the Cenozoic volcanic arc and (II) the

basement. The Cenozoic volcanic arc assemblage includes strongly pleo-chroic hypersthene (Fig. 5), augite and oxyhornblende. Somepyroxenesare surrounded by fragile volcanic glass and this suggests a contributiondirectly from air-borne tuffs.

Minerals recycled from the unexposed basement are present only insmall amounts. These are garnet, andalusite, tourmaline, chrome spinel,rutile, anatase, and corundum. Zircon, apatite, green-brown amphibole,epidote, olivine and vesuvianite (Fig. 5) are also common in Sumatraand are likely to have a mixed provenance.

Vesuvianite is present locally, indicating a contribution from contactmetamorphosed impure limestones (e.g. Deer et al., 1992; Mange andMaurer, 1992) either from the pre-Cenozoic basement or from the xe-noliths in young volcanic rocks. The presence of rounded olivine alongwith fresh angular olivine suggests derivation from multiple sourcesand rounded grains show that olivine can survive transport.

Some detrital zircons in Sumatra are surrounded by colourlessvolcanic glass (Fig. 5) and this indicates a contribution from acid volca-nic rocks. Zircon elongation is considered as a factor reflecting graincrystallization velocity (e.g. Corfu et al., 2003). ‘Stubby’ and equantforms are associated with slowly cooled intrusions, whereas elongateacicular shapes occur as a result of rapid crystallization and are tradi-tionally interpreted as of volcanic origin (e.g. Corfu et al., 2003). Howev-er, in Sumatra, zircons that are surrounded by volcanic glass (anunequivocal sign of volcanic provenance) are mostly stubby (w:lb3:1).

An abundance of volcanic hypersthene is a unique signature ofSunda Arc provenance. In volcanic arcs rocks elsewhere in the world,hypersthene is subordinate to associated clinopyroxene (usuallyaugite) (e.g. Camus et al., 2000; Carn and Pyle, 2001; Handley, 2006).Detrital orthopyroxene is more abundant than detrital clinopyroxenein sands derived from the pyroxene-andesites of the Inner Kuril volca-nic arc (e.g. Noda, 2005). However, in most other sands of andesiticprovenance, clinopyroxene is the most common transparent heavymineral (e.g. Dickinson, 2007; Markevich et al., 2007).

In contrast to those from the Malay Peninsula, compositions of heavymineral assemblages in Sumatran river sands are uniform (Fig. 4). How-ever, several episodes of volcanic activity have been recognised through-out the Cenozoic in this area and the composition of erupted rocks haschanged through time. Paleogene volcanic rocks consist of basalts andvariable pyroxene-rich mafic lavas and agglomerates (e.g. Rock et al.,

andalusite

chiastolite monazite hornblende

olivine olivine olivine0 50 100µm

Fig. 6. Selected examples of backscattered electron microphotographs of heavy minerals from the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra.



1982). Locally, basalts are intruded byMiocene diorites. Miocene volcanicrocks are calc-alkaline to high-K calc-alkaline basalts, andesites, anddacites. Pleistocene–Holocene volcanic rocks include calc-alkaline andes-ites, dacites, and rhyolites with rare basalts. These are less variable, but onthe whole more acid, than the Neogene–Paleogene volcanic rocks(e.g. Rock et al., 1982). Therefore, heavy mineral assemblages in

Cenozoic sandstones derived from Sumatra may not be identical tothose observed in modern rivers. Nonetheless, the presence of volca-nic minerals is expected in all Cenozoic sediments derived from thisarea.

Rare occurrences of minerals derived from the basement do notallow detailed characterisation. However, it is expected that heavy

Almandine

Spessartine

Pyr

ope

Gro

ssul

aran

d A

ndra

dite

Calc-silicateprotolith

(Group 1)

Peridotiteprotolith

Granitoidprotolith

(Group 2)

Blue-schistprotolith

Almandine

Spessartine

Pyr

ope

Gro

ssul

aran

d A

ndra

dite


(Group 1)

Peridotiteprotolith

Granitoidprotolith

(Group 2)


Almandine

Spessartine

Pyr

ope

Gro

ssul

aran

d A

ndra

dite


(Group 1)

Peridotiteprotolith

Granitoidprotolith

(Group 2)


Almandine

Spessartine

Pyr

ope

Gro

ssul

aran

d A

ndra

dite


(Group 1)

Peridotiteprotolith

Granitoidprotolith

(Group 2)


Othergarnets

Othergarnets

Othergarnets

Othergarnets

(Group 3)

Other garnets Other garnets

Other garnets

Almandine

Spessartine

Pyr

ope

Gro

ssul

aran

d A

ndra

dite

Almandine

Spessartine

Pyr

ope

Gro

ssul

aran

d A

ndra

dite

Other garnets


(Group 1)

Peridotiteprotolith

Granitoidprotolith

(Group 2)



(Group 1)

Peridotiteprotolith

Granitoidprotolith

(Group 2)


Othergarnets

Othergarnets

Other garnets Other garnets

IS37Bn=17

IS36n=17

IS18n=18

IS12n=12

IS6n=24

IS7n=15

EA

STE

RN

ZO

NE

CE

NT

RA

L Z

ON

EW

EST

ER

N Z

ON

E

Fig. 7. Ternary diagrams showing abundances of almandine, grossular and andradite, pyrope, and spessartine end-members in detrital garnets from the Malay Peninsula. Provenancefields from Suggate (2011).



minerals derived from the pre-Cenozoic basement of Sumatrawould besimilar to those in modern rivers of the Malay Peninsula.

7.2. Heavy mineral dissolution during transport

Heavymineral assemblages in theMalay Peninsula and Sumatra areimmature, despite the position of these areas at the heart of the humidtropics. Apatite is common in granitic and volcanic source rocks but rarein the river sediments, suggesting selective dissolution duringweather-ing. However, other minerals commonly regarded as less durable, suchas amphibole, pyroxene, monazite, xenotime, andalusite, titanite, andolivine, are preserved and locally abundant. Although corrosion andetchingmarks on the surfaces of these grains (Fig. 5) suggest some dis-solution, the abundance of these minerals indicates mild dissolutionthat only significantly affected apatite. Furthermore, rounding of olivinesuggests that this mineral survives transport in tropical rivers. Round-ing can be produced during first cycle transport but may also indicaterecycling of olivine from the pre-Cenozoic basement, e.g. from theWoyla Group. The diversity of heavy mineral species and preservationof olivine, pyroxene and amphibole suggest high erosion rates, rapidtransport and short grain residence time in the river. This is inagreement with the high present day sediment yields typical of SEAsia (Milliman and Syvitski, 1992; Milliman et al., 1999; Syvitski andMilliman, 2007; Kao and Milliman, 2008).

Models based onU-series isotopes suggest that themean sand-grainresidence time in global rivers varies between ~1 and 500 kyr (e.g.Vigier et al., 2006). The shortest residence is typical of highland drain-ages, e.g. Iceland (0.98–6.3 kyr, Vigier et al., 2006) the Andes (3–4 kyr,Dosseto et al., 2006a), and SE Australia (Dosseto et al., 2006b). In theAmazon lowlands mean sediment residence time is longer, 100–500 kyr (Dosseto et al., 2006a). The authors know of no sediment resi-dence time studies in SE Asia. However, by analogywith other short riv-ers draining mountainous regions it is assumed that the mean grainresidence time in rivers of the Malay Peninsula does not exceed severalthousand years. Even more rapid transport is expected for the volcanicarc-derived sediments in Sumatra. Deposition ofmaterial from turbiditycurrents, pyroclastic flows, mass flows and air-borne-tuffs typical ofvolcanic arcs (Marsaglia et al., 1995; Underwood et al., 1995) is almostinstantaneous on a geological time scale. For instance, sediment accu-mulation rates from the rain-triggered lahar deposits at theMerapi Vol-cano, Central Java vary between 3.5–4 cm/min to 20 cm/min (Lavigneand Thouret, 2003).

Seasonal climate fluctuations and episodic heavy rainfalls, such asthose typical of SE Asia, can further reduce grain residence time in theriver. Kao and Milliman (2008) demonstrated that in Taiwan, dry- andwet-season discharges vary by 1–2 orders of magnitude. Typhoon-induced floods increase river discharge by 2–3 orders of magnitude ina single day. Such events can account for a major part of the annualsediment discharge even when they last only several hours to a fewdays (Syvitski and Milliman, 2007; Kao and Milliman, 2008).

According to van Baren and Kiel (1950) heavy mineral assemblageson the shallow-marine shelf around Sumatra and Java are dominatedby hypersthene, augite, and hornblende. Both corroded and fresh grainsthat are locally surrounded by volcanic glass are common in these areas.Andalusite and staurolite are abundant in offshore Borneo, whereasepidote and blue-green hornblende are prominent in the South ChinaSea (van Baren and Kiel, 1950). This suggests that only an insignificantselective loss of heavy mineral species from the heavy mineral assem-blages occurs on the Sunda Shelf.

Rapid sediment transport minimises mineral interaction with naturaletching fluids, and in a monsoonal climate such fluids are diluted byheavy rainfall. Mild heavy mineral weathering has also been observed inother modern tropical settings, e.g. in the Gulf of Carpentaria (Haredy,2008). It is therefore argued from the present study that, in contrast tocommon assumptions, detrital heavy minerals may have high preserva-tion potential in tectonically active tropical areas, such as SE Asia.

7.3. Implications for sediment provenance in the North Sumatra Basin

These new data add important details to the heavy mineralprovenance model for Miocene sedimentary rocks of the NorthSumatra Basin (Morton et al., 1994). Based on heavy mineral data,supplemented by garnet and tourmaline geochemistry, Morton et al.(1994) suggested that in the Early Miocene sediments were shed tothis basin from the east-southeast (the Malay Peninsula or AsahanArch), while in the Middle-Late Miocene sandstones were sourcedfrom the Barisan Mountains in Sumatra.

Heavy mineral suites common in the Miocene sandstones of theNorth Sumatra Basins are dramatically different from those in Sumatranriver sands. The North Sumatra Basin lacks hypersthene, augite andhornblende, which are abundant in modern rivers draining the BarisanMountains (Fig. 4). These discrepancies cannot be explained simply bythe dissolution of these mineral species during weathering or afterdeposition. Profound lateritic weathering inferred from the presenceof diaspore by Morton et al. (1994) would be expected to result indissolution of phosphate minerals. Apatite, abundant in the Miocenesandstones of the North Sumatra Basin, contradicts this inference.Furthermore, diaspore does not directly indicate lateritic weathering,as it is present not only in sedimentary bauxites, but is also a commonproduct of hydrothermal alteration of aluminousminerals, e.g. silliman-ite, kyanite, andalusite, pyrophyllite or corundum (e.g. Deer et al.,1992).

Morton et al. (1994) showed that garnets in the Middle–UpperMiocene sandstones of the North Sumatra Basin, which they inter-preted as derived from the Barisan Mountains in Sumatra, arepyrope-poor grossular and spessartine varieties. However, new dataobtained in this study show that grossular and spessartine garnetsare also common in the Malay Peninsula (Fig. 7). North Sumatra andthe Malay Peninsula are both underlain by fragments of Gondwana-derived continental crust that is intruded by granitoids and it is there-fore argued here that heavy mineral assemblages derived from theMalay Peninsula cannot be confidently distinguished from those de-rived from the pre-Cenozoic basement of Sumatra. However, by theMiocene the basement of Sumatra was not producing abundantdetritus because it was covered by the Eocene–Oligocene volcanicrocks, volcaniclastic sediments and was the site of sediment deposi-tion. Since granitic and metamorphic minerals are abundant in boththe Belumai and the Keutapang sandstones, it is proposed here thatthe Malay Peninsula was a major source of sediments in the NorthSumatra Basin throughout the Miocene and not only during theEarly Miocene.

Previous provenance models for the North Sumatra Basin (e.g.Kallagher, 1989;Morton et al., 1994; Samuel et al., 1997) do not accountfor several other significant observations. The Miocene formations inthe North, Central, and South Sumatra Basins are distinctively differentfrom those in the Barisan Mountains and in the forearc basins. TheMiocene strata in the basins east of the Barisan Mountains are predom-inantly shales; and coarse immature sandstones that are locally tuffa-ceous are common only along the Eastern Foothills of the BarisanMountains (e.g. Barber et al., 2005). This suggests only a small contribu-tion from the Barisan Mountains and the nearby Cenozoic volcanic arcinto these basins.

In contrast, volcanic material is abundant in Miocene shelf depositsand deep-water turbidites of the forearc basins (Kallagher, 1989;Samuel et al., 1997; Barber et al., 2005). Kallagher (1989) has shownthat epidote, amphibole, tourmaline, tremolite, zircon, andminor rutile,apatite, sillimanite, spinel, and hypersthene are common in Pleistocenestrata of theWest Aceh Basin. There are no heavymineral studies of theMiocene strata in the forearc basins. However, trace amounts of olivine,hornblende, and tourmaline were identified in thin-sections of theMiocene sandstones from Nias (the Nias Beds) (Kallagher, 1989). Thepresence of olivine and amphibole suggests that significant post-depositional dissolution is unlikely to have taken place.



Abundant volcaniclastic sediments in the forearc and recycled sedi-ments in the North Sumatra Basin suggest that during the Miocene theBarisan Mountains were shedding detritus predominantly towards Eand SE. This suggests either (a) a different drainage divide or (b) highersediment yields for rivers discharging into the forearc. A different posi-tion for the drainage divide compared to the present day fits well withthe palinspastic reconstructions of Barber et al. (2005) that suggest ca.30 km eastwards migration of the divide since the Middle Miocene(Fig. 8). Algorithms used for predicting present day sediment yields(e.g. Milliman and Syvitski, 1992; Milliman et al., 1999) suggest thatsmall mountainous rivers, such as those draining the eastern slope ofthe Barisan Mountains, would have transported very large volumes ofdetritus. At present, higher sediment yields are expected for the forearcbasins, compared to those close to the Malaka Straits (e.g. Suggate andHall, 2003). A similar situation is probable during the Miocene.

The new interpretation based on the present study supports the sug-gestion of Morton et al. (1994) that during the Miocene sediments wereshed into the North Sumatra Basins from the Malay Peninsula andSumatra. We agree that occurrences of chrome spinel in the Middle–Upper Miocene sandstones of this basin mark sediment influx from theWoyla Group that was caused by the uplift of the Barisan Mountains.The exposure of the Barisan Mountains from the Mid Miocene onwardscould have been further amplified by eustatic sea level fall (e.g. Haqet al., 1987). However, we argue that the Malay Peninsula remained adominant source area for sediment in the North Sumatra Basin through-out the Miocene. We suggest that only a minor contribution from theMiocene volcanic rocks was shed into the North Sumatra Basin, andmost of these immature assemblageswere shed towards the Sunda Fore-arc Basins. This is consistent with the conclusion of Barber et al. (2005)with regard to the migration of the major drainage divide in Sumatraduring the Cenozoic.

Wide present day exposure of granitoids in the Malay Peninsula,which were emplaced at deeper crustal levels, suggests a significantunroofing of this area. There are a few geobarometric studies based onthe aluminium content in granitic hornblendes, and contact metamor-phic mineral assemblages, from in situ samples and pebbles derivedfrom these rocks (Hutchison, 1989; Khoo, 2002a; Azman and Singh,2005). The accuracy of these data is not always clear, but they suggestthat between 6 and 14 km of overburden strata may have been re-moved from theMalay Peninsula since granite emplacement in theMe-sozoic. This is consistentwith denudation estimates for other areas in SEAsia. Hall and Nichols (2002) estimated that average thickness of 6 kmcrust has been removed from Borneo during the Cenozoic and denuda-tion rates per unit area of Borneo are comparable to those of the Hima-layan orogen (Hall andNichols, 2002). Such rapid source area unroofingis likely to have resulted in a complete removal of certain rock typesfrom the source area. This partly explains the dramatic differences inheavy mineral assemblages between SE Asian river sands discussed inthis study and the North Sumatra Basin sandstones (Morton et al.,1994).

8. Conclusions

1. Granitic and contact metamorphic heavy mineral assemblages pre-vail in river sands from the Malay Peninsula. Several provenance-diagnostic heavy minerals are identified for this area which includesthe Tin Belt granitoids. These are brown zircon, monazite, chiastoliteand, if present, cassiterite, colourless spinel, diaspore and allanite.However, the distribution of these minerals within the peninsula isnot uniform. Dense minerals (e.g. cassiterite) are rarely transportedlarge distances and therefore absence of any of these mineralsoffshore does not necessitate a different provenance.

2. Detrital heavy minerals in modern Sumatran river sands are derivedfrom two major sources: the active volcanic arc (I) and the basement(II). Abundant hypersthene and augite are diagnostic of the volcanicarc source. Vesuvianite, garnet, andalusite, tourmaline, chrome spinel,rutile, anatase and corundum, are present only in small amounts(b3%), and are interpreted to be recycled from the basement. Zircon,apatite, hornblende, epidote, and olivine are also common in Sumatraand are likely to have a mixed provenance from these two sources.

3. An abundance of pyroxene, amphibole and locally monazite andolivine suggests mild weathering. This possibly reflects dilution ofnatural etching fluids by heavy rainfall in a monsoonal climate, higherosion rates, rapid transport and short grain residence time in theriver.

4. Comparisons of heavy mineral assemblages from tropical riversdraining SE Asia with previously published data from the NorthSumatra Basin reveal significant provenance changes within thelast 5–7 Ma (since the Late Miocene). These changes are most likelycaused by the rapid unroofing of the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra.

EARLY MIOCENE20 Ma

LATE MIOCENE10 Ma

Sunda Trench

Transgression

Regression

Sunda Trench

deep sea highland possible drainage divide

0 250 500 km

?

?

?

?

?

?

Fig. 8. Simplifiedmap showing theMiocene sedimentary pathways inwestern Sundaland.Red box shows an approximate location of the North Sumatra Basin. Distribution of high-lands and deep sea modified from Barber et al. (2005). White areas show emerged low-lands or shallow-marine shelf. In the Early Miocene sediment were shed from the MalayPeninsula. The Barisan Mountains became emergent as a result of ongoing uplift andeustatic sea level changes (e.g. Haq et al., 1987).



Supplementary data to this article can be found online at doi:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2012.03.007.

Acknowledgements

This contribution is dedicated to the memory of Dr Maria AnnaMange-Rajetzky, who is deeply missed by her friends and colleagues.Maria is sincerely thanked for her tremendous help with heavymineralidentifications and for useful discussions about the dissolution of heavyminerals in SE Asia. IS thanks the International Association of Sedimen-tologists (IAS) for an award from the Postgraduate Grant Scheme thatmade it possible to visit Maria in UC Davis and improve heavy mineralidentifications.

Thework presented here was funded by the SE Asia Research Groupand we thank our sponsors and colleagues, in particular Dr BenjaminClements, Dr Michael Cottam, Dr Ian Watkinson, Dr Simon Suggate,Indra Gunawan, Lorin Davis, Duncan Witts and Lanu Cross. We alsothank Dr Andy Beard for help with garnet microprobe analyses andDr Andy Morton for discussions about the North Sumatra Basin. Finally,we thank an anonymous reviewer and Professor Basu, whose com-ments significantly improved this manuscript.

References

Acquafredda, P., Fornelli, A., Piccarreta, G., Summa, V., 1997. Provenance and tectonicimplications of heavy minerals in Pliocene–Pleistocene siliciclastic sediments ofthe southern Apennines, Italy. Sedimentary Geology 113 (1–2), 149–159.

Aleva, G.J.J., 1985. Indonesian fluvial cassiterite placers and their genetic environment.Journal of the Geological Society of London 142 (5), 815–836.

Alexander, J.B., 1968. Geology and mineral resources of the Bentong area, Pahang. Geo-logical Survey of Malaysia, District Memoirs 47, 250 pp.

Audley-Charles, M.G., 1988. Evolution of the southernmargin of Tethys (North Australianregion) from Early Permian to Late Cretaceous. In: Audley-Charles, M.G., Hallam, A.(Eds.), Gondwana and Tethys. : Geological Society Special Publications, 37. OxfordUniversity Press, Oxford, pp. 79–100.

Azman, A.G., 2003. Morphology and chemistry of sphene from Noring granite, StongComplex, North Kelantan and Perhetian Kecil syenite, Besut, Terengganu. WartaGeologi 29 (2), 41–45.

Azman, A.G., 2005. Geochemical characteristics of S- and I-type granites: example fromPeninsular Malaysia granites. Geological Society of Malaysia Bulletin 51, 123–134.

Azman, A.G., Azlan, M., Ahmad, T.I., 1999. Description and implication of micro-structurein mafic microgranular enclaves from the Bukit Labohan granite, Terengganu. WartaGeologi 25 (4), 193–197.

Azman, A.G., Singh, N., 2005. Petrology and geochemistry of the Sempah volcaniccomplex: peninsular Malaysia. Geological Society of Malaysia Bulletin 51, 103–121.

Bahlburg, H., Vervoort, J.D., DuFrane, A., 2010. Plate tectonic significance of MiddleCambrian and Ordovician siliciclastic rocks of the Bavarian Facies, Armorican TerraneAssemblage, Germany—U–Pb and Hf isotope evidence from detrital zircons.Gondwana Research 17, 223–235.

Barber, A.J., 2000. The origin of the Woyla Terranes in Sumatra and Late Mesozoic evolu-tion of the Sundaland margin. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 18, 713–738.

Barber, A.J., Crow, M.J., 2009. Structure of Sumatra and its implications for the tectonicassembly of Southeast Asia and the destruction of Paleotethys. Island Arc 18, 3–20.

Barber, A.J., Crow, M.J., Milsom, J.S. (Eds.), 2005. Sumatra: geology, resources and tec-tonic evolution. : Geological Society Memoirs, 31. The Geological Society, London.290pp.

Basu, A., Molinaroli, E., 1991. Reliability and application of detrital opaque Fe–Ti oxideminerals in provenance determination. In: Morton, A.C., Todd, S.P., Haughton,P.D.W. (Eds.), Developments in Sedimentary Provenance Studies: Geological Society,London, Special Publications, 57, pp. 55–65.

Bellon, H., Maury, R.C., Sautanto, Soeria-Atmadja, R., Cotten, J., Polve, M., 2004. 65 m.-y.-long magmatic activity in Sumatra (Indonesia), from Paleocene to Present. Bulletinde la Societe Geologique de France 175, 61–72.

Belousova, E., Griffin, W.L., O'Reilly, S.Y., Fisher, N.I., 2002. Igneous zircon: trace elementcomposition as indicator of source rock type. Contributions toMineralogy and Petrology143, 602–622.

Blatt, H., Sutherland, B., 1969. Intrastratal solution and non-opaque heavy minerals inshales. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 39 (2), 591–600.

Bradford, E.F., 1972. Geology and mineral resources of the Gunong Jerai area, Kedah.Geological Survey of Malaysia, District Memoirs, 16. 242pp.

Bramlette, M.N., 1941. The stability of minerals in sandstone. Journal of SedimentaryResearch 11, 32–36.

Camus, G., Gourgaud, A., Mossand-Berthommier, P.-C., Vincent, P.M., 2000. Merapi(Central Java, Indonesia): an outline of the structural and agmatological evolution,with a special emphasis to the major pyroclastic events. Journal of Volcanology andGeothermal Research 100, 139–163.

Carn, S.A., Pyle, D.M., 2001. Petrology and geochemistry of the Lamogan Volcanic Field,East Java, Indonesia: primitive Sunda Arc magmas in an extensional tectonic setting?Journal of Petrology 42 (9), 1643–1683.

Cawood, P.A., 1990. Provenance mixing in an intraoceanic subduction zone: TongaTrench-Louisville Ridge collision zone, southwest Pacific. Sedimentary Geology 67,35–53.

Cawood, P.A., 1991. Nature and record of igneous activity in the Tonga arc, SW Pacific,deduced from the phase chemistry of detrital grains. In: Morton, A.C., Todd, S.P.,Haughton, P.D.W. (Eds.), Developments in Sedimentary Provenance Studies: Geolog-ical Society, London, Special Publications, 57, pp. 305–321.

Chaïrat, C., Schott, J., Oelkers, E.H., Lartigue, J.-E., Harouiya, N., 2007. Kinetics and mecha-nism of natural fluorapatite dissolution at 25 °C and pH from 3 to 12. Geochimica etCosmochimica Acta 71, 5901–5912.

Chen, Y., Brantley, S.L., 1998. Diopside and anthophyllite dissolution at 25 °C and 90 °Cand acid pH. Chemical Geology 147, 233–248.

Chough, S.K., 1984. Fine-grained turbidites and associated mass-flow deposits in theUlleung (Tsushima) back-arc basin, East Sea (Sea of Japan). In: Fine-grainedSediments: Deep-water Processes and Facies: Geological Society, London, SpecialPublications, 15, pp. 185–196.

Clarke, D.B., Dorais, M., Barbarin, B., Barker, D., Cesare, B., Clarke, G., El Baghdadi, M.,Erdmann, S., Förster, H.-J., Gaeta, M., Gottesmann, B., Jamieson, R.A., Kontak, D.J.,Koller, F., Gomes, C.L., London, D., Morgan, G.B., VI, Neves, L.J.P.F., Pattison, D.R.M.,Pereira, A.J.S.C., Pichavant, M., Rapela, C.W., Renno, A.D., Richards, S., Roberts, M.,Rottura, A., Saavedra, J., Sial, A.N., Tosell, Ugidos, J.M., Uher, P., Vilaseca, C., Visonà, D.,Whitney, D.L., Williamson, B., Woodard, H.H., 2004. Occurrence and origin of andalusitein peraluminous felsic igneous rocks. Journal of Petrology 1–32.

Clements, B., Burgess, P.M., Hall, R., 2011. Subsidence and uplift by slab-related mantledynamics: a driving mechanism for the Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic evolution ofcontinental SE Asia? In: Hall, R., Cottam, M.A., Wilson, M.E.J. (Eds.), The SE Asiangateway: history and tectonics of the Australia–Asia collision: Geological Society,London, Special Publications, 355, pp. 37–51.

Clements, B., Hall, R., 2011. A record of continental collision and regional sediment fluxfor the Cretaceous and Palaeogene core of SE Asia: implications for early Cenozoicpalaeogeography. Journal of the Geological Society of London 168, 1187–1200.

Cobbing, E.J., Pitfield, P.E.J., Darbyshire, D.P.F., Mallick, D.I.J. (Eds.), 1992. The granites ofthe South-East Asian tin belt: Overseas Memoir of the British Geological Survey, 10.369pp.

Corfu, F., Hanchar, J.M., Hoskin, P.W.O., Kinny, P., 2003. Atlas of zircon textures. Reviews inMineralogy and Geochemistry 53 (1), 469–500.

Deer, W.A., Howie, R.A., Zussman, J., 1992. An Introduction to The Rock-forming Minerals.Pearson Prentice Hall, London. 696pp.

Dewey, J.F., Mange, M.A., 1999. Petrography of Ordovician and Silurian sediments in thewestern Irish Caledonides: tracers of a short-lived Ordovician continent-arc collisionorogeny and the evolution of the Laurentian Appalachian–Caledonian margin. In:Mac Niocaill, C., Ryan, P.D. (Eds.), Continental Tectonics: Geological Society, London,Special Publications, 164, pp. 55–107.

Dickinson, W.R., 2007. Discriminating among volcanic temper sands in Prehistoricpotshreds of Pacific Oceania using heavy minerals. In: Mange, M.A., Wright, D.T.(Eds.), Developments in Sedimentology. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 985–1005.

Dickinson, W.R., Gehrels, G.E., 2003. U–Pb ages of detrital zircons from Permian and Jurassiceolian sandstones of the Colorado Plateau, USA: paleogeographic implications. Sedimen-tary Geology 163 (1–2), 29–66.

Dosseto, A., Bourdon, B., Gaillardet, J., Allègre, C.J., Filizola, N., 2006a. Time scale andconditions of weathering under tropical climate: study of the Amazon basin withU-series. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 70 (1), 71–89.

Dosseto, A., Turner, S.P., Douglas, G.B., 2006b. Uranium-series isotopes in colloids and sus-pended sediments: timescale for sediment production and transport in the Murray-Darling River system. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 246 (3–4), 418–431.

Duro, L., El Aamrani, F., Rovira, M., Giménez, J., Casas, I., de Pablo, J., Bruno, J., 2005. Thedissolution of high-FeO olivine rock from the Lovasja¨rvi intrusion (SE-Finland) at25 °C as a function of pH. Applied Geochemistry 20, 1284–1291.

Evans, M.J., Elliott, T., Apps, G.M., Mange-Rajetzky, M.A., 2004. The Tertiary Grès deVille of the Barrême Basin: feather edge equivalent to the Grès d'Annot? In:Joseph, P., Lomas, S.A. (Eds.), Deep-Water Sedimentation in the Alpine Basin ofSE France: New perspectives on the Grès d'Annot and related systems: GeologicalSociety, London, Special Publications, 221, pp. 97–110.

Evans, M.J., Mange-Rajetzky, M.A., 1991. The provenance of sediments in the Barrêmethrust-top basin, Haute Provence, France. In: Morton, A.C., Todd, S.P., Haughton,P.D.W. (Eds.), Developments in Sedimentary Provenance Studies: Geological Society,London, Special Publications, 57, pp. 323–342.

Fitch, F.H., 1952. The geology and mineral resources of the neighbourhood of Kuantan,Pahang. Geological Survey of Malaya, Memoir, 6. 146pp.

Fletcher, W.K., 1994. Behaviour and exploration geochemistry of cassiterite and otherheavy minerals in streams. Journal of Southeast Asian Earth Sciences 10 (1/2), 5–10.

Fletcher, W.K., Loh, C.H., 1996. Transport of cassiterite in a Malaysian Stream: implica-tions for geochemical exploration. Journal of Geochemical Exploration 57, 9–20.

Force, E.R., 1980. The provenance of rutile. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 50 (2),485–488.

Franke,W.A., Teschner-Steinhardt, R., 1994. An experimental approach to the sequence ofthe stability of rock-forming minerals towards chemical weathering. Catena 21,279–290.

Frogner, P., Schweda, P., 1998. Hornblende dissolution kinetics at 25 °C. Chemical Geology151, 169–179.

Garzanti, S., Andó, S., France-Lanord, C., Censi, P., Vignola, P., Galy, V., Lupker, M., 2011.Mineralogical and chemical variability of fluvial sediments 2. Suspended-load silt(Ganga-Brahmaputra, Bangladesh). Earth and Planetary Science Letters 302,107–120.

Gobbett, D.J., Hutchison, C.S. (Eds.), 1973. Geology of theMalay Peninsula (West Malaysiaand Singapore). Wiley Intersciences, New York. 438pp.



Golubev, S.V., Pokrovsky, O.S., Schott, J., 2005. Experimental determination of the effect ofdissolved CO2 on the dissolution kinetics of Mg and Ca silicates at 25 °C. ChemicalGeology 217, 227–238.

Grandstaff, D.E., 1977. Some kinetics of bronzite orthopyroxene dissolution. Geochimicaet Cosmochimica Acta 41, 1097–1103.

Griffin, W.L., Belousova, E.A., Walters, S.G., O'Reilly, S.Y., 2006. Archaean and Proterozoiccrustal evolution in the Eastern Succession of the Mt Isa district, Australia: U–Pband Hf-isotope studies of detrital zircons. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 53,125–149.

Grimm,W.-D., 1973. Stepwise heavy mineral weathering in the Residual Quartz Gravel,Bavarian Molasse (Germany). Contributions to Sedimentology 1, 103–125.

Guidry, M.W., Mackenzie, F.T., 2003. Experimental study of igneous and sedimentaryapatite dissolution: control of pH, distance from equilibrium, and temperature ondissolution rates. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 67 (16), 2949–2963.

Hall, R., 2008. Continental growth at the Indonesian margins of southeast Asia. In:Spencer, J.E., Titley, S.R. (Eds.), Ores and orogenesis: Circum-Pacific tectonics, geolog-ic evolution, and ore deposits: Arizona Geological Society Digest, 22, pp. 245–258.

Hall, R., 2009. Hydrocarbon basins in SE Asia: understanding why they are there. Petro-leum Geoscience 15, 131–146.

Hall, R., 2011. Australia–SE Asia collision: plate tectonics and crustal flow. In: Hall, R.,Cottam, M.A., Wilson, M.E.J. (Eds.), The SE Asian Gateway: History and Tectonics ofthe Australia-Asia Collision: Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 355,pp. 75–109.

Hall, R., Clements, B., Smyth, H.R., 2009. Sundaland: basement character, structure andplate tectonic development. Proceedings Indonesian Petroleum Association 33rdannual Convention, Jakarta, pp. 131–176 (IPA09-G134).

Hall, R., Morley, C.K., 2004. Sundaland basins. Continent–ocean interactions within eastAsian marginal seas. Geophysical Monograph Series, 149, pp. 55–85.

Hall, R., Nichols, G., 2002. Cenozoic sedimentation and tectonics in Borneo: climatic influ-ences on orogenesis. In: Jones, S.J., Frostick, L. (Eds.), Sediment Flux to Basins: Causes,Controls and Consequences: Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 191,pp. 5–22.

Hall, R., van Hattum, M.W.A., Spakman, W., 2008. Impact of India–Asia collision on SEAsia: the record in Borneo. Tectonophysics 451, 366–389.

Hamilton, W. (Ed.), 1979. Tectonics of the Indonesian region: U.S.G.S. Prof. Paper, 1078.345pp.

Handley, H.K., 2006. Geochemical and SrNdHfO isotopic constraints on volcanic petrogen-esis at the Sunda arc, Indonesia. PhD Thesis, Durham University, 289 pp.

Haq, B.U., Hardenbol, J., Vail, P.R., 1987. Chronology of fluctuating sea levels since theTriassic. Nature 235, 1156–1167.

Harbury, N.A., Jones, M.E., Audley-Charles, M.G., Metcalfe, I., Mohamed, K.R., 1990.Structural evolution of Mesozoic Peninsular Malaysia. Journal of the GeologicalSociety of London 147, 11–26.

Haredy, R.A., 2008. Heavy minerals of marine and fluvial sediments: provenance indi-cators and distributions in the tropical southeastern shelf of the Gulf of Carpen-taria and its hinterland, North Australia PhD Thesis, University of Wollongong,614 pp.

Harouiya, N., Chaïrat, C., Köhler, S.J., Gout, R., Oelkers, E.H., 2007. The dissolution kineticsand apparent solubility of natural apatite in closed reactors at temperatures from 5 to50 °C and pH from 1 to 6. Chemical Geology 244, 554–568.

Hayward, B.W., Smale, D., 1992. Heavy minerals and the provenance of WaitemataBasin sediments (early Miocene, Northland, New Zealand). New Zealand Journalof Geology and Geophysics 35, 223–242.

Heng, C.T., 1982. Geochemistry of South Kelantan. Geological Survey of Malaysia,Geochemical Report, 1. 59pp.

Henry, D.J., 1985. Tourmaline as a petrogenetic indicator mineral: an example from thestaurolite-grade metapelites of NW Maine. American Mineralogist 70, 1–15.

Howard, K.E., Hand, M., Barovich, K.M., Reid, A., Wade, B.P., Belousova, E.A., 2009. Detritalzircon ages: improving interpretation via Nd and Hf isotopic data. Chemical Geology262 (3–4), 277–292.

Hutchison, C.S., 1975. Ophiolites in southeast Asia. Geological Society of America Bulletin86, 797–806.

Hutchison, C.S., 1977. Granite emplacement and tectonic subdivision of PeninsularMalaya. Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia 9, 187–207.

Hutchison, C.S., 1989. Chemical variation of biotite and hornblende in some Malaysianand Sumatran granitoids and their bearing on tin mineralization, particularly in theMalay Peninsula region. Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia 24, 101–119.

Hutchison, C.S., Tan, D.N.K. (Eds.), 2009. Geology of Peninsular Malaysia. The Universityof Malaya and the Geological Society of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur. 479pp.

Ingham, F.T., Bradford, E.F., 1960. Geology and mineral resources of the Kinta Valley,Perak. Geological Survey of Malaysia, Memoir, 9. 347pp.

Jones, C.R., 1978. Geology and mineral resources of Perlis, North Kedah and the LangkawiIslands. Geological Survey of Malaysia, District Memoirs, 17. 257pp.

Kallagher, H.J., 1989. The structural and stratigraphic evolution of the Sunda ForearcBasin, North Sumatra Indonesia. PhD Thesis, 387 pp.

Kao, S.J., Milliman, J.D., 2008. Water and sediment discharge from small mountainousrivers, Taiwan: the roles of lithology, episodic events, and human activities. Journalof Geology 116, 431–448.

Khoo, H.P., 2002a. Diaspore-corundum rock: a new member of tourmaline–corundumrock diaspora from the New Lahat Mine, Lahat, Kinta Valley, Perak. Warta Geologi28 (5), 149–152.

Khoo, T.T., 2002b. Composition of colour zoned garnet from the Redang aureole. WartaGeologi 28 (6), 293–295.

Khoo, T.T., Tan, B.K., 1983. Geologic evolution of Peninsular Malaysia, Proceedings of aworkshop on stratigraphic correlation of Thailand and Malaysia. The GeologicalSociety of Thailand and the Geological Society of Malaysia, pp. 253–290.

Knauss, K.G., Nguyen, S.N., Weed, H.C., 1993. Diopside dissolution kinetics as afunction of pH, C02, temperature, and time. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta57, 285–294.

Krähenbuhl, R., 1991. Magmatism, tin mineralization and tectonics of the Main Range,Malaysian Peninsula: consequences for the plate tectonic model of Southeast Asiabased on Rb–Sr, K–Ar and fission track data. Bulletin of the Geological Society ofMalaysia 29, 1–100.

Krawinkel, H., Wozazek, S., Krawinkel, J., Hellmann, W., 1999. Heavy-mineral analysisand clinopyroxene geochemistry applied to provenance analysis of lithic sandstonesfrom the Azuero-Soná Complex (NW Panama). Sedimentary Geology 124 (1–4),149–168.

Lan, C.-Y., Chung, S.-L., Long, T.V., Lo, C.-H., Lee, T.-Y., Mertzman, S.A., Shen, J.J.-S., 2003.Geochemical and Sr-Nd isotopic constraints from the Kontummassif, central Vietnamon the crustal evolution of the Indochina block. Precambrian Research 122, 7–27.

Lavigne, F., Thouret, J.-C., 2003. Sediment transportation and deposition by rain-triggeredlahars at Merapi Volcano, Central Java, Indonesia. Geomorphology 49 (1–2), 45–69.

Leong, C.P., 1968. Analytical data on commercial concentrates of monazite and xenotime.Geological Survey of Malaysia, 14. 36pp.

Lihou, J.C., Mange-Rajetzky, M.A., 1996. Provenance of the Sardona Flysch, Eastern SwissAlps: example of high-resolution heavy mineral analysis applied to an ultrastableassemblage. Sedimentary Geology 105, 141–157.

MacDonald, E.H., 1971. Detrital heavy minerals. Country report: West Malaysia. UnitedNations ECAFE CCOP Technical Bulletin, 5, pp. 74–78.

MacDonald, S., 1967. The geology and mineral resources of north Kelantan and northTrengganu. West Malaysia Geological Survey, District Memoirs, 10. 202pp.

Malinovsky, A.I., Markevich, P.V., 2007. Heavy clastic minerals from the Far East island-arccomplexes. Russian Journal of Pacific Geology 1 (1), 71–81.

Mange-Rajetzky, M.A., 1981. Detrital blue sodic amphibole in recent sediments, southerncoast, Turkey. Journal of the Geological Society of London 138, 83–92.

Mange-Rajetzky, M.A., 1983. Sediment dispersal from source to shelf on an active conti-nental margin, S. Turkey. Marine Geology 52, 1–26.

Mange-Rajetzky, M.A., 1995. Subdivision and correlation of monotonous sandstonesequences using high-resolution heavy mineral analysis, a case study: the Triassicof the Central Graben. In: Dunay, R.E., Hailwood, E.A. (Eds.), Non-BiostratigraphicalMethods of Dating and Correlation: Geological Society, London, Special Publications,89, pp. 23–30.

Mange, M.A., Dewey, J.F., Floyd, J.D., 2005. The origin, evolution and provenance of theNorthern Belt (Ordovician) of the Southern Uplands Terrane, Scotland: a heavymineral perspective. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association 116, 251–280.

Mange, M.A., Dewey, J.F., Wright, D.T., 2003. Heavy minerals solve structural and strati-graphic problems in Ordovician strata of the western Irish Caledonides. GeologicalMagazine 140 (1), 25–30.

Mange, M.A., Maurer, H.F.W., 1992. Heavy Minerals in Colour. Chapman & Hall, London.147pp.

Mange, M.A., Morton, A.C., 2007. Geochemistry of heavy minerals. In: Mange, M.A., Wright,D.T. (Eds.), Heavy minerals in use: Developments in Sedimentology, 58, pp. 345–391.

Mange, M.A., Otvos, E.G., 2005. Gulf coastal plain evolution inWest Louisiana: heavymin-eral provenance and Pleistocene alluvial chronology. Sedimentary Geology 182(1–4), 29–57.

Mange, M.A., Wright, D.T. (Eds.), 2007. Heavy minerals in use. : Developments inSedimentology, 58. Elsevier, Amsterdam. 1283pp.

Manning, D.A.C., 1982. Chemical and morphological variation in tourmalines from theHub Kapong batholith of peninsular Thailand. Mineralogical Magazine 45,139–147.

Manning, D.A.C., 1983. Chemical variation in garnets from aplites and pegmatites,peninsular Thailand. Mineralogical Magazine 47, 353–358.

Markevich, P.V., Malinovsky, A.I., Tuchkova, M.I., Sokolov, S.D., Grigoryev, N., 2007. Theuse of heavy minerals in determining the provenance and tectonic evolution ofMesozoic and Caenozoic sedimentary basins in the continent-Pacific Ocean transitionzone: examples from Sikhote-Alin and Koryak-Kamchatka regions (Russian Far East)and Western Pacific. In: Mange, M.A., Wright, D.T. (Eds.), Heavy minerals in use: De-velopments in Sedimentology, 58, pp. 789–822.

Marsaglia, K.M., Boggs, S., Clift, P., Seyedolali, A., Smith, R., 1995. Sediementation inWestern Pacific Backarc Basins: new insights from recent ODP drilling. In: Taylor,B., Natland, J. (Eds.), Active Margins and Marginal Basins of the Western Pacific.American Geophysical Union, Washington, pp. 291–314.

McCourt, W.J., Crow, M.J., Cobbing, E.J., Amin, T.C., 1996. Mesozoic and Cenozoic plutonicevolution of SE Asia: evidence from Sumatra, Indonesia. In: Hall, R., Blundell, D.J.(Eds.), Tectonic Evolution of SE Asia. Geological Society of London Special Publica-tion: Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 106, pp. 321–335.

Meinhold, G., 2010. Rutile and its applications in earth sciences. Earth-Science Reviews102, 1–28.

Metcalfe, I., 1988. Origin and assembly of Southeast Asian continental terranes. In:Audley-Charles, M.G., Hallam, A. (Eds.), Gondwana and Tethys: Geological Society,London, Special Publications, 37, pp. 101–118.

Metcalfe, I., 1996. Gondwanaland dispersion, Asian accretion and evolution of easternTethys. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 43 (6), 605–623.

Metcalfe, I., 2009. Late Palaeozoic and Mesozoic tectonic and palaeogeographical evo-lution of SE Asia. In: Buffetaut, E., Cuny, G., Le Loeuff, J., Suteethorn, V. (Eds.),Late Palaeozoic and Mesozoic Ecosystems in SE Asia: Geological Society, London,Special Publications, 315, pp. 7–23.

Metcalfe, I., 2011. Tectonic framework and Phanerozoic evolution of Sundaland. GondwanaResearch 19 (1), 3–21.

Milliken, K.L., 2007. Provenance and diagenesis of heavy minerals, Cenozoic units of thenorthwestern Gulf of Mexico sedimentary basin. In: Mange, M.A., Wright, D.T.(Eds.), Heavy minerals in use: Developments in Sedimentology, 58, pp. 247–261.



Milliman, J.D., Farnsworth, K.L., Albertin, C.S., 1999. Flux and fate of fluvial sedimentsleaving large islands in the East Indies. Journal of Sea Research 41 (1–2), 97–107.

Milliman, J.D., Syvitski, J.P.M., 1992. Geomorphic tectonic control of sediment dischargeto the ocean—the importance of small mountainous rivers. Journal of Geology 100(5), 525–544.

Mitchell, A.H.G., Htay, M.T.H., Htun, K.M., Win, M.N., Oo, T., Hlaing, T., 2007. Rock relation-ships in the Mogok metamorphic belt, Tatkon to Mandalay, cetral Myanmar. Journalof Asian Earth Sciences 29, 891–910.

Morton, A.C., 1985. Heavy minerals in provenance studies. In: Zuffa, G.G. (Ed.), Prove-nance of arenites. Reidel, Dordrecht, pp. 249–277.

Morton, A.C., Hallsworth, C., 2007. Stability of detrital heavy minerals during burial dia-genesis. In: Mange, M.A., Wright, D.T. (Eds.), Heavy minerals in use: Developmentsin Sedimentology, 58, pp. 215–245.

Morton, A.C., Hallsworth, C.R., 1999. Processes controlling the composition of heavymineral assemblages in sandstones. Sedimentary Geology 124 (1–4), 3–29.

Morton, A.C., Humphreys, B., Dharmayanti, D.A., Sundoro, 1994. Palaeogeographic impli-cations of the heavy mineral distribution in Miocene sandstones of the NorthSumatra Basin. Journal of Southeast Asian Earth Sciences 10 (3/4), 177–190.

Morton, A.C., Whitham, A.G., Fanning, C.M., 2005. Provenance of Late Cretaceous toPaleocene submarine fan sandstones in the Norwegian Sea: integration of heavymineral, mineral chemical and zircon age data. Sedimentary Geology 182, 3–28.

Murakami, T., Utsonomiya, S., Yokoyama, T., Kasama, T., 2003. Biotite dissolution process-es and mechanisms in the laboratory and in nature: early stage weathering environ-ment and vermiculitization. American Mineralogist 88, 377–386.

Nichols, G., Kusnama, Hall, R., 1991. Sandstones of arc and ophiolite provenance in a back-arc basin, Halmahera, eastern Indonesia. In: Morton, A.C., Todd, S.P., Haughton,P.W.D. (Eds.), Developments in sedimentary provenance studies: Geological Society,London, Special Publications, 57, pp. 291–303.

Nickel, E., 1973. Experimental dissolution of light and heavy minerals in comparisonwith weathering and intrastratal solution. Contributions to Sedimentology 1, 1–68.

Noda, A., 2005. Texture and petrology ofmodern river, beach and shelf sands in a volcanicback-arc setting, northeastern Japan. The Island Arc 14, 678–707.

Noda, A., Takeuchi, M., Adachi, M., 2004. Provenance of the Murihiku Terrane, NewZealand: evidence from the Jurassic conglomerates and sandstones in Southland.Sedimentary Geology 164, 203–222.

Oelkers, E.H., Poitrasson, F., 2002. An experimental study of the dissolution stoichiom-etry and rates of a natural monazite as a function of temperature from 50 to 230 °Cand pH from 1.5 to 10. Chemical Geology 191, 73–87.

Oelkers, E.H., Schott, J., 2001a. An experimental study of enstatite dissolution rates as afunction of pH, temperature, and aqueous Mg and Si concentration, and the mecha-nism of pyroxene/pyroxenoid dissolution. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 65 (8),1219–1231.

Oelkers, E.H., Schott, J., 2001b. General kinetic description of multioxide silicate mineraland glass dissolution. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 65 (21), 3703–3719.

Petronas (Ed.), 1999. The petroleum geology and resources of Malaysia. 665pp.Pettijohn, F.J., Potter, P.E., Siever, R., 1987. Sand and Sandstone. Springer-Verlag, New York.

553 pp.Pokrovsky, O.S., Schott, J., 2000. Kinetics and mechanism of forsterite dissolution at

25 °C and pH from 1 to 12. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 64 (19), 3313–3325.Racey, A., 2009. Mesozoic red bed sequences from SE Asia and the significance of the

Khorat Group of NE Thailand. In: Buffetaut, E., Cuny, G., Le Loeuff, J., Suteethorn,V. (Eds.), Late Palaeozoic and Mesozoic Ecosystems in SE Asia: Geological Society,London, Special Publications, 315, pp. 41–67.

Rimstidt, J.D., Dove, P.M., 1986. Mineral/solution reaction rates in a mixed flow reactor:wollastonite hydrolysis. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 50, 2509–2516.

Rishworth, D.E.H., 1974. The Upper Mesozoic terrigenous Gagau Group of PeninsularMalaysia. Geological Society of Malaysia Special Papers, 1. 78 pp.

Rock, N.M.S., Syah, H.H., Davis, A.E., Hutchison, D., Styles, M.T., Lena, R., 1982. Permian torecent volcanism in Northern Sumatra, Indonesia: a preliminary study of its distribu-tion, chemistry, and peculiarities. Bulletin of Volcanology 45 (2), 127–152.

Sabeen, H.M., Ramanujam, N., Morton, A.C., 2002. The provenance of garnet: constraintsprovided by studies of coastal sediments from southern India. Sedimentary Geology152 (3–4), 279–287.

Samuel, M.A., Harbury, N.A., Bakri, A., Banner, F.T., Hartono, L., 1997. A new stratigraphyfor the islands of the Sumatran Forearc, Indonesia. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences15 (4–5), 339–380.

Schwartz, M.O., Rajah, S.S., Askury, A.K., Putthapiban, P., Djaswadi, S., 1995. The SoutheastAsian Tin Belt. Earth-Science Reviews 38 (2–4), 95–290.

Santelli, C.M., Welch, S.A., Westrich, H.R., Banfield, J.F., 2001. The effect of Fe-oxidizingbacteria on Fe-silicate mineral dissolution. Chemical Geology 180 (1–4), 99–115.

Senathi Rajah, S., Chand, F., Peck Chin, A., bin Ngah Lamat, H., Wee, L., 1976. Mineraldistribution map of Peninsular Malaysia. Geological Survey of Malaysia.

Sengör, A.M.C., Altiner, D., Cin, A., Ustaomer, T., Hsu, K.J., 1988. Origin and assembly of theTethyside orogenic collage at the expense of Gondwanaland. In: Audley-Charles,M.G., Hallam, A. (Eds.), Gondwana and Tethys: Geological Society, London, SpecialPublications, 37, pp. 119–181.

Sevastjanova, I., et al., 2011. Granitic magmatism, basement ages, and provenance indica-tors in the Malay Peninsula: insights from detrital zircon U–Pb and Hf–isotope data.Gondwana Research 19 (4), 1024–1039.

Sheldon, H.A., Wheeler, J., 2003. Influence of pore fluid chemistry on the state of stressin sedimentary basins. Geology 31 (1), 59–62.

Smyth, H.R., Hall, R., Nichols, G.J., 2008. Cenozoic volcanic arc history of East Java, Indonesia:the stratigraphic record of eruptions on an active continental margin. In: Draut, A.E.,

Clift, P.D., Scholl, D.W. (Eds.), Formation and Applications of the Sedimentary Recordin Arc Collision Zones: Geological Society of America Special Paper, 436, pp. 199–222.

Smyth, H.R., Hamilton, P.J., Hall, R., Kinny, P.D., 2007. The deep crust beneath island arcs:inherited zircons reveal a Gondwana continental fragment beneath East Java,Indonesia. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 258 (1–2), 269–282.

Sone, M., Metcalfe, I., 2008. Parallel Tethyan sutures in mainland Southeast Asia: newinsights for Palaeo-Tethys closure and implications for the Indosinian orogeny.Comptes Rendus Geosciences 340 (2–3), 166–179.

Suggate, S., 2011. Provenance of Neogene sandstones of Sabah, Northern Borneo. PhDThesis, Royal Holloway University of London, 441 pp.

Suggate, S., Hall, R., 2003. Predicting sediment yields from SE Asia: a GIS approach.Proceedings Indonesian Petroleum Association 29th Annual Convention, Jakarta,pp. 289–304 (IPA03-G-015).

Syvitski, J.P.M., Milliman, J.D., 2007. Geology, geography, and humans battle for dominanceover the delivery of fluvial sediment to the coastal ocean. Journal of Geology 115, 1–19.

Takeuchi, M., 1994. Changes in garnet chemistry show a progressive denudation of thesource areas for Permian–Jurassic sandstones, Southern Kitakami Terrane, Japan.Sedimentary Geology 93, 85–105.

Takeuchi, M., Kawai, M., Matsuzawa, N., 2008. Detrital garnet and chromian spinelchemistry of Permian clastics in the Renge area, central Japan: implications for thepaleogeography of the East Asian continental margin. Sedimentary Geology 212(1–4), 25–39.

Triebold, S., von Eynatten, H., Luvizotto, G.L., Zack, T., 2007. Deducing source rock lithologyfrom detrital rutile geochemistry: an example from the Erzgebirge, Germany. ChemicalGeology 244, 421–436.

Uddin, A., Lundberg, N., 1998. Unroofing history of the Eastern Himalaya and the Indo-Burman ranges: heavy mineral study of Cenozoic sediments, from the Bengal Basin,Bangladesh. Journal of Sedimentary Research 68 (3), 465–472.

Underwood, M.B., Ballance, P.F., Clift, P., Hiscott, R.N., Marsaglia, K.M., Pickering, K.T., Reid,R.P., 1995. Sedimentation in forearc basins, trenches, and collision zones of theWest-ern Pacific: a summary of results from the Ocean Drilling Program. In: Taylor, B.,Natland, J. (Eds.), Active Margins and Marginal Basins of the Western Pacific.American Geophysical Union, Washington, pp. 315–353.

Valsami-Jones, E., Ragnarsdottir, K.V., Putnis, A., Bosbach, D., Kemp, A.J., Cressey, G.,1998. The dissolution of apatite in the presence of aqueous metal cations at pH2–7. Chemical Geology 151, 215–233.

van Baren, F.A., Kiel, H., 1950. Contribution to the sedimentary petrology of the SundaShelf. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 20 (4), 185–213.

van Hattum, M.W.A., Hall, R., Pickard, A.L., Nichols, G.J., 2006. Southeast Asian sedimentsnot from Asia: provenance and geochronology of north Borneo sandstones. Geology34 (7), 589–592.

van Loon, A.J., Mange, M.A., 2007. In Situ' dissolution of heavy minerals through ex-treme weathering, and the application of the surviving assemblages and their dis-solution characteristics to correlation of Dutch and German Silver Sands. In:Mange, M.A., Wright, D.T. (Eds.), Heavy minerals in use: Developments in Sedi-mentology, 58, pp. 189–213.

Vigier, N., Burton, K.W., Gislason, S.R., Rogers, N.W., Duchene, S., Thomas, L., Hodge, E.,Schaefer, B., 2006. The relationship between riverine U-series disequilibria and erosionrates in a basaltic terrain. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 249 (3–4), 258–273.

von Eynatten, H., Gaupp, R., 1999. Provenance of Cretaceous synorogenic sandstones inthe Eastern Alps: constraints from framework petrography, heavy mineral analysisand mineral chemistry. Sedimentary Geology 124 (1–4), 81–111.

wan Hassan, F., 1989. Some characteristics of the heavy detrital minerals from PeninsularMalaysia. Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia 24, 1–12.

wan Hassan, W.F., 1994. Geochemistry and mineralogy of Ta–Nb rutile from PeninsularMalaysia. Journal of Southeast Asian Earth Sciences 10 (1/2), 11–23.

Weissbrod, T., Bogoch, R., 2007. Distribution pattern and provenance implications of theheavy minerals in Neoproterozoic to Mesozoic siliciclastic successions in the Arabo-Nubian Shield and its northern periphery: a review. In: Mange, M.A., Wright, D.T.(Eds.), Heavy minerals in use: Developments in Sedimentology, 58, pp. 647–676.

Weissbrod, T., Nachmias, J., 1986. Stratigraphic significance of heavy minerals in theLate Precambrian–Mesozoic clastic sequence ("Nubian Sandstone") in the NearEast. Sedimentary Geology 47 (3–4), 263–291.

White, A.F., Brantley, S.L., 2003. The effect of time on the weathering of silicate minerals:why do weathering rates differ in the laboratory and field? Chemical Geology 202,479–506.

Wilson, M.J., 2004. Weathering of the primary rock-forming minerals: processes,products and rates. Clay Minerals 39, 233–266.

Witts, D., Hall, R., Morley, R.J., Boudagher-Fadel, M.K., 2011. Stratigraphy and sedimentprovenance, Barito Basin, Southeast Kalimantan, Proceedings Indonesian Petro-leum Association 35th Annual Convention, Jakarta, pp. 1–18 (IPA11-G-054).

Yim, W.-S., 1994. Particle size and trace element distribution characteristics of cassiteriteas an aid to provenance study of stanniferous placers in northeastern Tasmania,Australia. Journal of Southeast Asian Earth Sciences 10 (1/2), 131–142.

Zack, T., von Eynatten, H., Kronz, A., 2004. Rutile geochemistry and its potential use inquantitative provenance studies. Sedimentary Geology 171 (1–4), 37–58.

Zhang, H., 1990. Factors determining the rate and stoichiometry of hornblende dissolu-tion. University of Minnesota.

Zhang, H., Bloom, P.R., Nater, E.A., 1993. Change in surface area and dissolution rates duringhornblende dissolution at pH 4.0. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 57, 1681–1689.

Zhang, H., Bloom, P.R., Nater, E.A., Erich, M.S., 1996. Rates and stoichiometry of horn-blende dissolution over 115 days of laboratory weathering at pH 3.6–4.0 and 25 °Cin 0.01 M lithium acetate. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 60, 941–950.


Author's personal copy - Southeast Asia Research Groupsearg.rhul.ac.uk/pubs/sevastjanova_etal_2012...

Documents

Transcript of Author's personal copy - Southeast Asia Research Groupsearg.rhul.ac.uk/pubs/sevastjanova_etal_2012...