Authors - Inya Institute€¦ · Authors: Maxime Boutry, a social anthropologist (Ph.D. EHESS -...

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Transcript of Authors - Inya Institute€¦ · Authors: Maxime Boutry, a social anthropologist (Ph.D. EHESS -...

Page 1: Authors - Inya Institute€¦ · Authors: Maxime Boutry, a social anthropologist (Ph.D. EHESS - Paris) specializing on Myanmar, has been Lead Researcher for a number of development
Page 2: Authors - Inya Institute€¦ · Authors: Maxime Boutry, a social anthropologist (Ph.D. EHESS - Paris) specializing on Myanmar, has been Lead Researcher for a number of development
Page 3: Authors - Inya Institute€¦ · Authors: Maxime Boutry, a social anthropologist (Ph.D. EHESS - Paris) specializing on Myanmar, has been Lead Researcher for a number of development

Authors:

Maxime Boutry, a social anthropologist (Ph.D. EHESS - Paris) specializing on Myanmar, has been Lead

Researcher for a number of development projects since 2008. His academic publications include: From

Padi States to Commercial States (Amsterdam University Press, 2015) as co-editor.

Tun Myint is Assistant Professor, Faculty of Health Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Barnaby, British

Columbia, Canada. He is specialized in Global Health, Program Planning and Evaluation, and

Quantitative Research Methods.

François Tainturier, Ph.D. (SOAS, London) is the Inya Institute’s Executive Director. He has eight

years of experience in developing and coordinating research and training programs in the field of social

sciences and humanities first in Cambodia (2001-2005) and since 2011 in Myanmar.

Translators: Naing Tun Lin - Ye Wunna - Wai Phyo Maung

English version copy editor: Myanmar version copy editor:

Charles Carstens San San Hnin Tun, Ph.D.

Inya Institute (www.inyainstitute.org) is a Yangon-based higher-learning institute dedicated to advancing

knowledge in the social sciences, arts and humanities in the field of Myanmar Studies. The institute is a

non-political, non-religious, non-profit, and non-degree-granting organization. It has the following goals:

(1) to build research capacity for young local researchers; (2) to foster scholarly exchange between local

and international researchers; (3) to encourage a critical approach to scholarship; (4) to raise the public’s

understanding of the country’s multi-faceted cultural heritage.

Project and Publication generously funded by:

and supported in part by a grant from the Open Society Foundations

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ပါဝငေရးသားၾကသမား မကဆငမး ဘထရသည ျမနမာျပညေရးရာ အထးျပေလလာေသာ လမႈေရး မႏေဗဒ ပညာ႐င (Ph.D. EHESS - ပါရ) ျဖစျပး ၂၀၀၈ ခႏစကတညးက စတင၍ စမကနး ေျမာကျမားစြာ၏ ဥးစးသေတသနမးအျဖစ လပကငခသည။ ပညာရပဆငရာ ေရးသားထတေဝမႈအျဖစ From Padi States to Commercial States (အမစတာဒမ တကသလ ပႏပ၊ ၂၀၁၅) စာအပတြင တြဖက စာတညးအျဖစေဆာင႐ြကခသည။

ထြနးျမငသည ကေနဒါႏငင၊ ျဗတသ ကလဘယာ၊ ဘာနေဘ၊ ဆငမြနဖေရဇာ တကသလ၊ ကနးမာေရး သပၸဌာနမ လကေထာက ပါေမာကၡျဖစျပး ကမာၻ႕ကနးမာေရး၊ အစအစဥ ခမတေရးႏင အကျဖတေရး၊ အေရအတြက သေတသန နညးလမးမားတြင အထးျပ ကၽြမးကငသ ျဖစသည။

ဖရနဆြာ တနတေယ Ph.D. (SOAS၊ လနဒန) သည Inya Institute ၏ အမႈေဆာင ညႊနၾကားေရးမးျဖစသည။ ၄ငးသည လမႈသပၸ ဘာသာရပဆငရာ သေတသနႏင ေလကငသငၾကားေရး အစအစဥမားက ပးေပါငး အေကာငအထညေဖာရာတြင ႐စႏစၾကာ အေတြ႕အၾက ႐ျပးသျဖစျပး ဥးစြာ ပထမ ကေမာၻဒးယားႏငင (၂၀၀၁ - ၂၀၀၅) တြင လပကငချပး ၂၀၁၁ ခႏစမစ၍ ျမနမာႏငငတြင လပကငခသည။

ဘာသာျပနဆသမား။ ။ႏငထြနးလငး ၊ ရဝဏၰ ၊ ေဝျဖးေမာင

အဂၤလပပငး စစဥတညးျဖတသ ျမနမာပငး စစဥတညးျဖတသ ခာလကာစတန စစႏငးထြနး PhD

Inya Institute (www.inyainstitute.org) သည ရနကန အေျခစက အဆငျမငေလလာေရး အဖြ႕အစညးတစရပျဖစျပး ျမနမာျပညေလလာေရး နယပယတြင လမႈသပၸဘာသာရပမား၊ ဝဇၨာဘာသာတြမားႏင လမႈေဗဒဆငရာ အသပညာမား ျမငမားလာေစရန ရည႐ြယထေထာငထားျခငးျဖစသည။ အဖြ႕သည ႏငငေရး၊ ဘာသာေရး ကငး႐ငးျပး၊ အကးအျမတ ပဓာန မထားဘ၊ ဘြ႕ဒဂရ အပႏငးျခငး မျပသည အဖြ႕အစညးတစရပျဖစသည။ ယငးတြင ေဖာျပပါ ရညမနးခကမား ထား႐ပါသည။ (၁) ျပညတြငး လငယ သေတသမားအား သေတသန လပငနးစြမးရည ပးေထာငေပးရန၊ (၂) ျပညတြငးျပညပ သေတသမားအၾကား ပညာရပဆငရာ ကးလးဆကဆမႈ ျဖစထြနးလာေစရန (၃) ပညာရပႏင ပတသကလင ဆစဆစပငးပငး ခဥးကပေလလာျခငးက အားေပးရန (၄) တငးျပညယဥေကးမႈ အေမြအႏစ၏ ဘကေပါငးစအေပၚ လထ၏ သနားလညမႈ ျမငမားလာေစရန တ႔ျဖစပါသည။

စမကနးႏင ထတေဝေရးအား ေဖာျပပါ အဖြ႕အစညးမားမ ရပေငြ ေထာကပပါသည

Open Society Foundations မလညး တစတတေဒသ ကညေထာကပပါသည။

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Table of Contents

Foreword 1

Introduction 7

Glossary 19

Basic 1. Defining a Research Problem 27

Basic 2. Quantitative and Qualitative Research 39

Basic 3. Baseline Study 58

Basic 4. Survey Research (1) 74

Basic 5. Survey Research (2) 84

Basic 6. Sampling: Non-Probability Sampling 98

Basic 7. Sampling: Probability sampling 110

Basic 8. Focus Group Discussion (FGD) 124

Basic 9. In-depth Interviews 144

Basic 10. Participatory Learning Appraisal and its Tools 160

Basic 11. Participatory Action Research (PAR) 184

Basic 12. Research and Ethics 204

Intermediate 13. Research and Project Design 222

Intermediate 14. Case study 240

Intermediate 15. Quantitative Data Analysis 254

Intermediate 16. Qualitative data analysis 276

Intermediate 17. Using Secondary Sources or Existing Data 292

Intermediate 18. Evaluation Research 300

Intermediate 19. Supporting Details 314

Intermediate 20. Writing a Report 330

Intermediate 21. Policy and Advocacy brief Writing 342

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မာတကာ

၂ အမာစာ ၈ မတဆက ၂၀ ခကဆစ ၂၈ သေတသနျပနာအားအဓပၸါယဖြငဆျခငး- အေျခခအဆင၁ ၄၀ အရညအေသြးစျပႏငအေရအတြကစျပသေတသန - အေျခခအဆင၂ ၅၉ အေျချပစထားတငးတာေလလာမႈ - အေျခခအဆင ၃ ၇၅ စစတမးသေတသန ( ၁ ) - အေျခခအဆင ၄ ၈၅ စစတမးေကာကယသေတသနျပျခငး (၂ ) - အေျခခအဆင ၅ ၉၉ နမနာေကာကယျခငး - ျဖစတနစြမးနညး (န) နမနာေကာကယျခငး - အေျခခအဆင ၆ ၁၁၁ နမနာေကာကယျခငး - ျဖစတနစြမး နမနာေကာကယျခငး - အေျခခအဆင ၇ ၁၂၅ ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြ - အေျခခအဆင ၈ ၁၄၅ အေသးစတေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမျပျခငး - အေျခခအဆင ၉ ၁၆၁ ပးေပါငးေလလာေရးနညးစဥႏင၄ငး၏ကရယာမား - အေျခခအဆင ၁၀ ၁၈၅ အလပျဖငပးေပါငးေဆာငရြကေသာသေတသန - အေျခခအဆင ၁၁ ၂၀၅ သေတသနနငကင၀တ - အေျခခအဆင ၁၂ ၂၂၃ သေတသနႏငစမကနးပစ - အလယအလတအဆင၁၃ ၂၄၁ နမနာျဖစရပ - အလယအလတအဆင ၁၄ ၂၅၅ အေရအတြကဆငရာေဒတာအခကအလကစစစေလ႔လာမႈ - အလယအလတအဆင ၁၅ ၂၇၇ အရညအေသြးစထားေဒတာစစစေလ႔လာမႈ - အလယအလတအဆင၁၆ ၂၉၃ တဆငခအရငးျမစမားသ႔မဟတ႐ျပးသားအခကအလကမား - အလယအလတအဆင ၁၇ ၃၀၁ အကျဖတသေတသန - အလယအလတအဆင၁၈ ၃၁၅ ေထာကကျပအေသးစတအခကအလကမား - အလယအလတအဆင၁၉ ၃၃၁ အစရငခစာေရးသားျခငး - အလယအလတအဆင ၂၀ ၃၄၃ မဝါဒနငလထအကးတကတြနးေျပာဆမဆငရာအနစခပတစရပေရးသားျခငး - အလယအလတအဆင၂၁

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1

Foreword

There is a shared agreement among local and international organizations as well as

experts in the field that social projects developed in Myanmar lack the following three

components:

(1) Research that helps to gain better knowledge of the communities targeted by

social projects;

(2) Monitoring that helps to assess progress made in the implementation of a

project based on its initial plan;

(3) Evaluation that helps to assess how a completed project has reached its

objectives.

Responding to this shared agreement, the present manual introduces Myanmar

readers to social research methods that can improve the implementation of social

projects in the country, particularly regarding the three components mentioned

above.

The manual is primarily targeted to Myanmar individuals who are involved in social

projects or have an interest in developing their research skills, but have little

knowledge of how to conduct social research. We also hope that this manual will be

of interested to a larger audience at a time when social research is much needed in

Myanmar.

The manual is divided in two parts: Basic level (Chapter 1-12) for those who have no

prior knowledge of how to conduct research; and Intermediate level (Chapter 13-21)

for those who have some acquaintance with social research. Chapters in the first part

introduce the basic concepts of social research and the research methods commonly

used for collecting data. Chapters in the second part elaborate some of the concepts

introduced in the first part. They also give guidance on how to produce evidence

based on the data collected and how to produce reports.

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2

အမာစာ

ျပညတြငးျပညပ အဖြ႕အစညးမားႏင သေတသန နယပယမ ပညာ႐ငမားၾကား ျခြငးခကမ႐ ယဆထားေသာ အခက႐ပါသည။

ယငးမာ ျမနမာႏငငတြင အေကာငအထညေဖာ ေဆာင႐ြကေနေသာ လမႈစမကနးမားသည ေအာကပါ အစတအပငးသးခ

ကငးမေနေၾကာငးပင ျဖစပါသည။ အဆပါ အစတအပငးသးခမာ -

(က) လမႈစမကနးမား ခမတေဖာေဆာငရန ရည႐ြယပစမတထားသည ရပ႐ြာအစအဖြ႕မားအေၾကာငး ပမနားလညေစမည

သေတသန

(ခ) ကနဥး အစအစဥအတငး အေကာငအထညေဖာ လပေဆာငထားသည စမကနး တးတကမႈက အကျဖတရာတြင

အေထာကအကျဖစေစမည ေစာငၾကညေလလာမႈ

(ဂ) စမကနး ျပးဆးသြားသညအခါ ခမတထားေသာ ရညမနးခကက ျပညမျခငး႐မ႐ အကျဖတသးသပမႈ တ႔ ျဖစၾကသည။

ဤယဆခကက လက၍ ယခလကစြစာအပတြင ျမနမာစာဖတပရတသတအား လမႈသေတသန နညးလမးမားအား

မတဆကေပးထားပါသည။ ၄ငးနညးလမးမားသည ျမနမာႏငင႐ လမႈစမကနးမားက ပမေကာငးမြနစြာ အေကာငအထညေဖာ

လပေဆာငႏငေစျပး၊ အထးသျဖင အထကေဖာျပပါ အစတအပငးသးရပအတြက အကးသကေရာကမႈ ႐ေစပါလမမည။

လမႈစမကနးလပငနးမားတြင ပါဝငလပကငေနသ (သ႔) မမ၏ သေတသနအရညအေသြးက ျမငတငလစတ႐သ၊ သ႔ေသာလညး

လမႈသေတသန မညသ႔မညပ ျပလပရမညက ေကာငးစြာအကၽြမးမဝငေသးေသာသမားအတြက အဓက ရည႐ြယျပး

ဤလကစြစာအပက ျပစပါသည။ ျမနမာႏငငတြင လမႈသေတသနလပငနးက အလးအရငးႏင လအပလာခနတြင

ဤလကစြစာအပသည အျခားပရတသတမားအတြကလညး စတဝငစားစရာ ျဖစလာလမမညဟ ေမာလငပါသည။

လကစြစာအပအား အပငးႏစပငး ခြျခားထားပါသည။ အေျခခအဆင (အခနး ၁ မ ၁၂) က သေတသနျပလပပ စးစဥးမ

မသေသးေသာ သမားအတြက ရည႐ြယျပး အလယအလတအဆင (အခနး ၁၃ မ ၂၁) က လမႈသေတသနအေၾကာငး

တးမေခါကမထားျပးသမားအတြက ရည႐ြယပါသည။ ပထမပငးတြင ပါဝငေသာ အခနးမားသည လမႈသေတသန

အေျခခသေဘာတရားမားႏင အခကအလကေဒတာ ေကာကယတြင ပမနအသးျပေလ႐သည သေတသနညးလမးမားက

မတဆကေပးထားပါသည။ ဒတယပငးပါ အခနးမားသည ပထမပငးတြင မတဆကေပးခေသာ သေဘာတရားအခ႕က

အကယခ႕႐ငးလငးထားျပး၊ ေကာကယရ႐ေသာ အခကအလကမားက အေျခခ၍ မညသ႔မညပ

အေထာကအထားထတယရမည၊ မညသ႔မညပ အစရငခစာမားေရးသားရမညက လမးညႊနခကေပးထားပါသည။

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In terms of content, emphasis was placed on writing this manual in an accessible

and concise way. We avoided technical jargon as much as possible for two reasons:

first, vocabulary related to research methods in both the English and Myanmar

languages is only understood by a very small minority of people in Myanmar;

second, there is not yet a widely-accepted agreement on technical terms and their

equivalent in both languages. Whenever needed, a possible Myanmar-language

equivalent was suggested. Some of these suggestions, however, may not be widely

accepted. Time and more practice of social research in Myanmar will eventually

bring greater currency to some equivalents rather than others.

Along these same lines, we aimed to include concrete examples that are related to

the Myanmar context. The value of examples as learning tools has long been

recognized. Learners can more easily grasp explanations about concepts or ideas if

they can associate them with experiences or contexts with which they are familiar.

Lastly, one of the main features of the manual is the English- and Myanmar-

language texts placed face-to-face. We believe that this page layout is in itself a

very effective pedagogical tool. It is often the case that Myanmar readers read

English-language texts first and believe they have fully grasped their meaning. This,

however, may not be necessarily the case. With the two versions placed side by

side, readers will be able to confirm whether or not they have correctly understood

the text.

The manual is an introduction to social research methods and focuses mainly on

‘applied research’. This means that it offers practical tools on how to conduct

research, report findings, and, ultimately, give recommendations so as to improve

the lives of those in the communities under study. Because of this emphasis, we

deliberately omit many of the theoretical issues that are usually discussed in

textbooks about social research methods. Such issues may not have direct

relevance for those who have little research experience and expect practical

guidance. But it will of great benefit to discuss these issues when the teaching of

social research methods reaches a more advanced level in Myanmar.

With the country opening up, it is often said that international assistance ought to

disseminate the benefits of critical thinking as part of the current efforts to

reinvigorate Myanmar’s education system. It is indeed a very important issue. Yet

this is one that may not be an immediate priority. What seems more pressing is to

provide learners with tools that help structure their thinking. What seems more

critical at this stage is to guide these learners to use these tools so that they may

link observations and data collected from the field research to broader reasonings.

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စာအပပါ အေၾကာငးအရာပငးအတြကမ လအမား နားလညလြယ၍ တကမႈ႐ေသာ နညးကသာ အသားေပးျပး

ေရးသားထားပါသည။ ေရးသားရာတြငလညး တတႏငသမ ပညာရပဆနလြနးေသာ အသးအႏနးမားက အတတႏငဆး

ေ႐ာင႐ားထားပါသည။ ဤသ႔ေ႐ာင ႐ားရသည အေၾကာငးအရငးႏစရပ႐ပါသည။ ပထမတစခကမာ

သေတသနနညးလမးဆငရာ အသးအႏနးမားသည အဂၤလပ၊ ျမနမာ မညသညဘာသာစကားျဖင ေရးသားထားေစကာမ

ျမနမာႏငင႐ လအနညးစသာ နားလညႏငစြမး႐ေနပါေသးသည။ ဒတယ အခကအေနျဖင အမားသေဘာတ

သတမတထားေသာ ပညာရပဆငရာ အသးအႏနးမားႏင ၄ငးတ႔၏ အဂၤလပ-ျမနမာ ႏစဘာသာအၾကား ဖလယ၍ သးစြႏငသည

အသးအႏနးမား မ႐ေသးပါ။ ျမနမာဘာသာျဖင အဓပၸါယ နးစပတညေသာ စကားလးမားက လအပလင လအပသလ

ေဖာျပသြားမညျဖစေသာလညး အခ႕စကားလးမားက အမားက သေဘာတေကာငးမ တပါလမမည။ အခနကာလၾကာျမငလာ၍

ျမနမာႏငငတြင လမႈသေတသနလပငနးမားအား လပေဆာငလာသညႏငအမ အမားသေဘာတညေသာ စကားလးမား

တြငကယစြာ ေပၚေပါကလာပါလမမည။

တဆကတညးမာပင ျမနမာႏငငအေနအထားႏင ဆကစပအကးဝငျပး ကးေၾကာငးခငမာေသာ ဥပမာမားကလညး

ထညသြငးအသးျပရန ရည႐ြယထားပါသည။ ဥပမာမားအား ေလလာသငၾကားေရး အေထာကအက

အျဖစကာလၾကာျမငစြာကပင အသအမတျပထားျပး ျဖစသညအတငး ေလလာသမားအေနႏင ၄ငးတ႔ ရငးႏးကၽြမးဝငေသာ

ကစၥရပမားျဖစပါမ ႐ငးလငးတငျပထားေသာ သေဘာတရားမား၏ ဆလရငးက ပမလြယကစြာ ဆပမကငမ ျဖစေပမည။

ေနာကဆးအေနႏငဆရေသာ လကစြစာအပ၏ အဓက အားသာခကတစခမာ အဂၤလပ-ျမနမာ ဘာသာႏစရပက

စာတစမကႏာစ ယဥတြလက ေရးသားထားျခငးျဖစသည။ သညအတြက စာမကႏာ ျပငဆငထားပ ကယ၌ကပင

ထေရာကေသာ သငၾကားေရးကရယာျဖစေနသညဟ ယၾကညပါသည။ ျဖစေလျဖစထ႐ေသာ ကစၥရပတစခမာ

ျမနမာစာဖတပရတသတသည အဂၤလပဘာသာျဖင ေရးသားထားခကမားက ဖတ႐ျပး ဆလရငးက နားလညသညဟ

ထငျမငေလ႐တတၾကသည။ သ႔ေသာလညး ဤသညမာ အျမတမးမနကနသညဟ မဆႏငပါ။ ဘာသာစကားတစမးစႏင

ေရးသားထားခကက တစမကႏာစ ယဥလကျမငရျခငးျဖင စာဖတသအေနႏင မနကနတကစြာ နားလညမႈ ႐မ႐က

ကယတငဆနးစစၾကညႏငေပသည။

ဤလကစြစာအပသည ‘အသးခ သေတသနပငး’ က အသားေပးျပး လမႈသေတသနနညးနာမားအား မတဆကေပးထားျခငး

ျဖစသည။ ဆလသညမာ လကစြစာအပထတြင သေတသနျပလပပ၊ ေတြ႕႐ခကမားအား တငျပပႏင အဆးသတပငး၌

ေလလာသည ရပ႐ြာအတြငး လေနမႈ ဘဝတးတကျမငမားေစေရးအတြက အၾကျပေထာကခခကမား ျပလပေပးရနတ ႔အတြက

လကေတြ႕အသးခ ကရယာမား ထညသြငးေပးထားပါသည။ သ႔ျဖစေသာေၾကာင ပမနအားျဖင လမႈသေတသန

စာအပမားထတြင ထညသြငးေဆြးေႏြးေလ႐ေသာ သအရပငး အေၾကာငးခငးရာမားက တမငသပသပ ခနလပထားခပါသည။

ယငးကစၥရပမားမာ သေတသန အေတြ႕အၾကနညးပါးျပး၊ တမးတဖေသာ လကေတြ႕နညးေပးလမးျပ လပျခငးကသာ

ေမာလငထားေသာသမားႏင တက႐က သကဆငလမမည မဟတေပ။ သ႔ေသာျငားလညး ျမနမာႏငငတြင

လမႈသေတသနနညးလမးမား သညထကပ၍ ျမငမားေသာ အဆငသ႔ေရာက႐လာခနတြငေတာ သအရပငးႏင ပတသကျပး

ေဆြးေႏြးေပးျခငးျဖင အကးေကးဇး ျဖစထြနးေစပါလမမည။

တငးျပညတခါးဖြငလကသညႏငအတ ႏငငတကာမ ကညေထာကပမႈမားသည လက႐ အားသြနခြနစကၾကးပမးေနၾကေသာ

ပညာေရး ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈ ျဖစစဥတြင ဆနးစစေတြးေခၚမႈ၏ အကးရလဒမားက တစတတပငးအေနျဖင

ပ႕ႏ႔ေစသငသညဟလညး မၾကာခဏ ေျပာဆေလ ႐ၾကသည။ ဤသညမာ အလြနတရာ အေရးၾကးေသာ ကစၥရပျဖစေသာလညး

လကငငးဥးစားေပးကစၥရပ မဟတေသးေခ။ ခကခငးလကငငးလပေဆာငရန လအပသညမာ ေလလာသမား၏

စဥးစားေတြးေခၚပက ပစခေပးမည ကရယာမား ဖနတးေပးေရးျဖစသည။ ယခအဆငတြင ပမ၍ အေရးၾကးသညမာ

ေလလာသမားအား ေဖာျပပါ ကရယာမား အသးျပပက သငၾကားေပးရနျဖစသညး။ သ႔မသာလင ၄ငးတ႔အေနႏင

ကြငးဆငးသေတသန ျပရာမ ရ႐လာသည စးစမးေလလာမႈႏင စေဆာငးရ႐ထားေသာ ေဒတာအခကအလကမားက

ခတဆကျပး ပမကယျပန႔ေသာ စဥးစားေတြးေခၚမႈမား ျပလပႏငေပမည။

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Further implementation of international programs in Myanmar requires

observing commonly accepted international procedures and standards.

We hope that the present guide will help readers understand what these

procedures and standards are and how they may be followed.

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ေနာငတြင ျမနမာႏငင၌ ႏငငတကာမ အစအစဥမား ပမအေကာငအထညေဖာ ေဆာင႐ြကရနအတြက ဘသေဘာတ

သတမတထားေသာ ႏငငတကာ လပငနးစဥ အဆငဆငႏင စသတမတခကမားအား ေလလာၾကညရန လေပမည။

အဆပါ လပငနးစဥ အဆငဆငမာ မညသညတ႔ ျဖစၾကသည၊ မညသ႔မညပ လကနာေဆာင႐ြကႏငသညတ႔က

စာဖတသမားနားလညေစရန ဤလမးညႊနစာအပသည အေထာကအက ျဖစေစမညဟ ေမာလငပါသည။

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Introduction: What is social science research? What is its purpose? How is it done?

General definition: Social science research (hereafter referred to as ‘social

research’) means studying in a scientific way how people act and interact in a

society. In order to study these issues, researchers usually study how people

think, behave, and act in a particular context. People here means either

people as individuals or groups of individuals, or people as embodied in

institutions, associations, or any types of formal or informal organizations.

The social study of people is an activity that aims to produce a correct, true,

and scientific understanding of a situation or problem involving individuals or

groups of people. Researchers attempt to understand this situation or

problem through direct experience.

Producing this correct, true, and scientific understanding requires working

systematically and rigorously based upon observations and data collected

during the research. Observations and data are collected by researchers who

use social research methods that have been long recognized by social

researchers. The researcher then interprets both observations and data and

uses them as supporting details or research findings. The end result is a report

that presents the researcher’s understanding and analysis of a particular

issue.

Purpose of social research: Social research aims to contribute to existing knowledge

and to generate new knowledge. It is important that this knowledge is shared and

disseminated to a broad audience. In doing so, social researchers participate in the

general progress of the society. In the case of social research applied to communities

in need, researchers also formulate recommendations which address social problems

affecting these communities.

Types of social research: For clarifying purposes, social research is often divided into

the following three types of investigation:

An exploratory type: this type of investigation is only concerned with topics

that have largely remained underexplored.

A descriptive type: this type of investigation is concerned with a simple

account of observations and data.

An explanatory type: this type of investigation is about establishing a

relationship between two situations: (1) a relational link and (2) a causal link.

The relational link shows a relationship between two situations and, possibly,

how the significance of this relationship. The causal link shows how specific

factors from one situation influence the other, or generate a problem.

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မတဆက။ ။ လမႈသေတသန၊ ရည႐ြယခကႏင ျပလပပ။

ေယဘယ ဖြငဆခက။ ။ လမႈသပၸသေတသန (ဤေနရာမစ၍ ‘လမႈသေတသန’ ဟ ေခၚဆပါမည) ဆသညမာ

လ႔အဖြ႕အစညးတစခအတြငးတြင လမားမညသ႔မညပ ျပမၾကပႏင [၄ငးတ႔အခငးအခငး] အျပနအလန ျပမၾကပတ႔က

သပၸနညးက စးစမးေလလာျခငးျဖစသည။ အဆပါ ကစၥရပမားအား ေလလာရနအလ႔ငာ သေတသမား ျပလပေလ႐သညမာ

လအမား အေျခအေနတစရပအတြငး မညသ႔မညပ ေတြးေခၚပ၊ ျပမပႏင လပ႐ားပတ႔က ေလလာေလ႐ၾကသည။ လမားဟ

ဆရာတြင လပဂၢလ တစဥးတစေယာကခငးစေသာလညးေကာငး၊ လပဂၢလအစအဖြ႕လကေသာလညးေကာငး၊

အစညးအ႐း၊ အသငးအပငးႏင မညကသ႔ေသာ အဖြ႕အစညးတြငမဆ ပါဝငလက႐ေသာ လမားအား ဆလသည။

လမႈေရးေလလာခက ျပလပျခငး၏ ရည႐ြယခကမာ လတစေယာကခငးစ (သ႔) လအပစမား ပါဝငေသာ အေနအထား

(သ႔) ျပနာ တစရပႏငစပလဥး၍ မနကနျပး သပၸနညးကေသာ သေဘာေပါကနားလညမႈ တစရပရ႐လာရန ျဖစသည။

သေတသတ႔သည ဤအေနအထား (သ႔) ျပနာက တက႐ကအေတြ႕အၾကမတဆင နားလညေအာင

ၾကးစားေလ႐ၾကသည။

မနကနျပး သပၸနညးကေသာ နားလညသေဘာေပါကမႈ တစရပထြကေပၚလာေစရနအတြက သေတသနျပလပစဥအတြငး

စးစမးေလလာမႈႏင စေဆာငးရ႐ေသာ ေဒတာအခကအလကမားအေပၚအေျခချပး စနစတကႏင အားသြနခြနစက

အလပလပရန လအပသည။ လမႈသေတသမား ကာလအတနၾကာကတညးက အသအမတျပျပးျဖစသည

လမႈသေတသနနညးလမးမား အသးျပသည သေတသမားက စးစမးေလလာမႈမားႏင ေဒတာအခကအလကမားက

စေဆာငးသည။ ၄ငးေနာက သေတသသည အဆပါ စးစမးေလလာမႈမားႏင ေဒတာအခကအလကမားက

အဓပၸါယေကာကယျပး ေထာကကျပ အေသးစတ အခကအလကမား (သ႔) သေတသန ေတြ႕႐ခကမား အေနႏင

အသးျပသည။ အဆးရလဒမာ သေတသ၏ နားလညမႈႏင ကစၥရပတစခအေပၚ ေလလာဆနးစစခကျပထားေသာ

အစရငခစာျဖစသည။

လမႈသေတသန၏ ရည႐ြယခက ။ ။ လမႈသေတသန၏ ရည႐ြယခကမာ ႐ရငးစြ အသပညာဗဟသတက

ျဖန႔ေဝရနႏင အသပညာသစ ေပါကဖြားလာေစရန ျဖစသည။ အဆပါ အသပညာက မေဝရနႏင လထက

ျဖန႔ေဝေပးရနမာလညး အေရးၾကးသည။ ဤသ႔ျပလပျခငးျဖင လမႈသေတသမားသည လ႔အဖြ႕အစညး၏

ေယဘယတးတကမႈ လမးေၾကာငးတြင ပါဝငၾကသည။အေထာကအက လအပေနေသာ ရပ႐ြာအဖြ႕အစညးမားအတြက

လမႈသေတသနအား အသးခရာတြင အဆပါ ရပ႐ြာအဖြ႕အစညးမားက ထခကေစမည လမႈျပနာမားက

ေျဖ႐ငးေပးႏငမည အၾကျပေထာကခခကမား ေဖာထတေပးရမည။

လမႈသေတသန အမးအစားမား - ကြျပား႐ငးလငးေစရန အလ႔ငာ လမႈသေတသနအား အမားအားျဖင ေအာကပါအတငး စးစမးေလလာေရး နညးနာသးမးခြျခားထားပါသည။

ပဏာမ စးစမးေလလာေရးနညးနာ။ ။ ဤအမးအစား စးစမးေလလာနညးမာ မညသမ ကယကယျပန႔ျပန႔ ေလလာမႈ မျပရေသးသည အေၾကာငးအရာႏငသာ စပဆငသည။

ေဖာျပညႊနးဆေရးနညးနာ။ ။ ဤအမးအစား စးစမးေလလာနညးမာ စးစမးမႈႏင ေဒတာအခကအလကမားက ႐း႐း႐ငး႐ငး ေဖာျပျခငးႏင စပဆငသည။

႐ငးလငးတငျပေရးနညးနာ။ ။ ဤအမးအစား စးစမးေလလာနညးမာ (၁) ပတသကဆကႏြယမႈႏင (၂) အေၾကာငးတရားဆကႏြယမႈ ႏစရပၾကား ဆကစပမႈ တညေဆာကျခငးျဖစသည။ ပတသကဆကႏြယမႈသည အေျခအေန ႏစရပၾကား ဆကစပမႈကသာမက ယငးဆကစပမႈ၏ အေရးပါမႈကပါ ျပသႏငေလသည။ အေၾကာငးတရား ဆကႏြယမႈ သည အေျခအေနတစရပ႐ တစတရာေသာ အေၾကာငးတရားမ အျခားတစခက မညသ႔လႊမးမးသကေရာကသည (သ႔) ျပနာတစရပ ျဖစေပၚလာေစသညက ျပသသည။

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The boundaries between these three main types of investigations, however,

are not strict. It is often the case that a research project may blend at least two

of these three types of investigations. Explanations on these three types will

receive further development in the first chapter.

Among all types of investigation above mentioned, it is probably the

explanatory type which is the most challenging.

One of the main problems of the explanatory type is confusion between

relational and causal links. In English-language textbooks, this confusion is

summed up as follows: “correlation does not imply causation”. Simply because

one event follows another or two factors vary at the same time does not mean

that one causes the other (causal link) or that they are even linked (relational

link). It is one of the benefits of research to identify a possible link between

two events, factors, or situations and to clarify possible confusion.

Explanatory investigations also lead to a frequent misconception about causal

links. This misconception is the following: because a causal link is identified

between two events, two factors, or two situations does not mean that

researchers have a strong basis upon which to elaborate a broader pattern

between events, factors, or situations of the same nature. When trying to

explain a causal link, it is sometimes difficult to access sufficient information to

precisely understand why a particular situation or problem arose. This

limitation makes it often impossible to observe and identify all causes within

the time of the research process. This means that researchers have sometimes

to infer causes. In other words, they have to draw a conclusion about why

something happened by thinking logically and rationally and based on

assumed facts. In conducting social research, it is critical to ensure that

inferences that are not valid are avoided. This is achieved when (1) the process

by which researchers infer causes is logical and rational, and (2) the facts that

are assumed by the researchers are likely to have occurred. All this is to show

that researchers have to remain cautious about establishing causal links. In

other words, it is important to be alert to the danger of elaborating a broader

social pattern on the basis of a causal link.

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အဆပါ အဓက စးစမးေလလာနညး သးသြယအၾကား ျခားနားထားေသာ ၾကားခနယမာ တတပပ မ႐ေပ။

မားေသာအားျဖင သေတသန စမကနးတစရပသည ဤစးစမးေလလာေရးနညးနာ သးမးထမ အနညးဆး ႏစမးက

ေရာယကသးစြေလ႐သည။ အဆပါ နညးလမးသးရပႏင စပလဥး၍ အကယခ႕႐ငးလငးခကမားအား လကစြစာအပပါ

ပထမ အခနးတြင ဖတ႐ႏငပါသည။

ေဖာျပပါ စးစမးေလလာနညး အမးအစားမားတြင ႐ငးလငးတငျပေရး အမးအစားမာ စနေခၚမႈ အ႐ဆး အခကအခဟ

ဆရေပမည။

႐ငးလငးတငျပေရး နညးနာ အမးအစား၏ အဓက ျပနာရပမားထတြင တစခမာ ပတသကဆကႏြယမႈႏင

အေၾကာငးတရား ဆကႏြယမႈမားအၾကား ႐ပေထြးမႈ ျဖစသည။ အဂၤလပဘာသာျဖင ေရးသားထားေသာ [သေတသန]

သင႐းမားတြင အဆပါ ႐ပေထြးမႈအား ဤသ႔အကဥးျခးေဖာျပထားသည။ “အျပနအလနဆကႏြယမႈတငးသည

ျဖစေစသညအေၾကာငးတရားဟ ယဆ၍ မရေခ။” ၄ငးဆလရငးမာ လြနစြာ႐း႐ငးပါသည။ အဘယေၾကာငဆေသာ

ျဖစရပတစခေနာကမာ ေနာကတစချဖစျခငး၊ သ႔တညးမဟတ တစခနတညး၌ အေၾကာငးတရားႏစရပ ကြျပားသြားျခငးက

ယျပး တစခေၾကာငတစချဖစသည (အေၾကာငးတရား ဆကႏြယမႈ) သ႔မဟတ တစခႏင တစခဆကစပသည

(ပတသကဆကႏြယမႈ) ဟ၍ ယဆ၍ မရေခ။ ဤသ႔ ျဖစရပႏစခၾကား (သ႔) အေၾကာငးတရား ႏစခၾကား (သ႔)

အေျခအေနႏစရပၾကား ျဖစတနရာေသာ ဆကႏြယမႈႏင ျဖစတနရာေသာ ႐ပေထြးမႈတ႔က ႐ာေဖြေဖာထတျခငးသည

သေတသန၏ အကးအျမတတစခပင ျဖစသည။

႐ငးလငးတငျပေရး နညးနာမားသည အေၾကာငးတရား ဆကႏြယမႈႏင ပတသကျပး အၾကမေတာေတာမားမား အေကာကအယ

လြသြားေစႏငသည။ ယငး အေကာကအယအလြမာ ေအာကေဖာျပပါအတငး ျဖစသည။ ျဖစရပႏစခၾကား (သ႔)

အေၾကာငးတရားႏစခၾကား (သ႔) အေျခအေနႏစရပၾကား အေၾကာငးတရား ဆကစပမႈတစခ ေဖာထတေတြ႕႐ျခငးသည

သေဘာသဘာဝ တညေသာ အဆပါျဖစရပမား (သ႔) အေၾကာငးတရားမားၾကား (သ႔) အေျခအေနမားၾကားမ ပမကယျပန႔ေသာ

[တညသည] အခငးအရာမားက ႐ငးထတရန သေတသအေနႏင အခငအမာ အေျချပစရာတစခ ႐လမမညဟ မယဆႏငေပ။

အေၾကာငးတရား ဆကႏြယမႈ တစခအား ႐ငးလငးတငျပရနၾကးပမးရာတြငအေျခအေနတစရပ (သ႔) ျပနာတစရပ

ေပၚေပါကလာပက အတအကနားလညရန လေလာကေသာ သတငးအခကအလကရ႐ေရးမာ တခါတရ၌ ခကခတတသည။

အဆပါ ကန႔သတခကေၾကာငပင မၾကာခဏဆသလ အေၾကာငးတရား အားလးက သေတသန လပငနးစဥကာလအတြငး

စးစမးေလလာျပး ႐ာေဖြေဖာထတရန အမားအားျဖင မျဖစႏငေတာေပ။ ဆလသညမာသေတသမားသည

အေၾကာငးတရားမားက ဆငျခငမနးဆ၍ ေကာကခကခရသည။ တနညးဆေသာ ၄ငးတ႔အေနျဖင

ယဆခကမားေပၚအေျချပျပး ယတေဗဒကကႏင ဆငဆငျခငျခငေတြးေခၚ၍ ကစၥတစရပမညသ႔မညပ ျဖစပြားခသညက

ေကာကခကဆြေပးရနလအပသည။ လမႈသေတသနျပလပရာတြင တက႐ကသကဆငျခငးလညးမ႐၊ အကးလညးမဝငေသာ

ေကာကခကမားက ေ႐ာင႐ားရနမာ အလြနတရာ အေရးၾကးသည။ ဤသ႔ ျပလပႏငရနအလ႔ငာ (၁) သေတသတ႔

အေၾကာငးတရား ေဖာထတသည လပငနးစဥသည ယတယတာကရမည၊ (၂) သေတသတ႔ ယဆလကေသာ

အခကအလကမားမာ ျဖစပြားခႏငစရာ အေၾကာငးလညး ႐ရမည။ ေဖာျပျပးအခကမားအားလးက စ႐း၍ ဆရလင

အေၾကာငးတရား ဆကႏြယမႈက တညေဆာကရာတြင သေတသတ႔အေနျဖင သတၾကးစြာထားရမည။ အေၾကာငးတရား

ဆကႏြယမႈက အေျချပျပး ပမ ကယျပန႔ေသာ လမႈျဖစစဥတစရပက ခ႕ထြင႐ငးလငးရာတြင ျဖစတတေသာ အႏရာယက

သတမရနဟလညး တစနညးမတရမည။

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Another important issue for explanatory investigation is the pitfall

of simplistic explanations about causal links. Simplistic explanations

about why something happened are those which give more weight

to determinism than probability. Causal links are explained in the

same way as the rule of nature governs things and beings in the

field of natural sciences: for instance, whenever water is heated to

100C, it always boils. This causal link is acceptable for the field of

natural sciences. But, in the field of social sciences which studies

human action and interaction, this type of explanation can’t be

accepted. Causal links do not invariably lead to the same outcome

because human behavior is complex. This is true even when pre-

existing conditions appear the same. Therefore causality in the

social sciences is more about probability than about determinism.

In other words, researchers can say “a factor or a set of factors

increases (or decreases) the probability of a particular outcome”.

But researchers can’t say that “this factor or set of factors will

inevitably lead to this particular outcome”.

This overall approach to causality—both more probabilistic and

sensitive to context—will hopefully leads to a better understanding

of a particular problem or issue. It may also raise researchers’

awareness that a problem should not be thought in “black” or

“white” terms only. That is, a problem is better approached by

trying to identify the varying shades of grey of social behavior.

When researchers study social behavior, they have to develop their

‘tolerance for ambiguity’. This means to take into account

someone’s ability to have multiple and possibly conflicting views in

his/her mind. These multiple and possibly conflicting views are

simultaneously upheld by the person who does not deny any of

them. One of the tasks of the researcher is to report about all of

them without making any judgment.

Scientific process and social research: a scientific understanding of

a problem or issue has two main characteristics: (1) it has to make

sense and follows some logical thought; and (2) it is consistent with

all the research observations.

In everyday life, people sometimes reason illogically. By contrast, as

researchers structure their thinking, they have to come up with a

logical reasoning. Also in everyday life, people often observe

inaccurately and make very general conclusions based on only few

observations. By contrast, researchers make careful observations.

They also make large number of observations. This large number

ensures that the conclusions reached by researchers take into

account what was learned from all observations.

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အေၾကာငးတရားဆကႏြယမႈမားက ဖြငဆ႐ငးလငးရာတြင ႐းစငးလြနး၍ ျဖစေလ႐သည သတမမ ဂမျမငတတေသာ

အမားမးမာလညး ႐ငးလငးတငျပေရး နညးနာ၏ ေနာကထပ အေရးၾကးေသာ ကစၥရပျဖစသည။ ကစၥတစရပ

အဘယေၾကာင ျဖစပြားရသညက ႐းစငးလြယကစြာ ႐ငးလငးျပဆခကမားသည ျဖစတနရာထက အတအလငး

ဆးျဖတသတမတခကက အသားေပးေလ႐ၾကသည။ သဘာဝသပၸ ဘာသာရပမားတြင အေၾကာငးတရား

ဆကႏြယခကမားက သက႐မားႏင အရာဝတမားတြင လႊမးမးခပကငထားသည သဘာဝဓမၼကသ႔

႐ငးလငးျပဆေလ႐သည။ ဥပမာ မညသည အခန၌မဆ ေရအား အပခန ၁၀၀ C ေပးလကပါက ဆပြကလာမည။

ဤသ႔ေသာ အေၾကာငးတရားဆကႏြယမႈမာ သဘာဝသပၸ ဘာသာရပမားတြင လကခႏငစရာ႐သည။ သ႔ေသာလညး

လသားတ႔၏ လပေဆာငခကႏင အျပနအလန တန႔ျပနေဆာင႐ြကခကမားက ေလလာသည လမႈသပၸဘာသာရပတြငမ

၄ငးအမးအစား ႐ငးလငးခကမာ လကခႏငစရာ မ႐ေပ။ လသားတ႔၏ ျပမေဆာင႐ြကပမာ

႐ပေထြးနကနလြနးလသညအတြက အေၾကာငးတရား ဆကႏြယမႈမားသည တညေသာ ရလဒတစခတညးကသာ

မလြမေသြ ဥးတညသြားေလမ႐ေပ။ နဂ႐ရငးစြ အေျခအေနမား တညဟန႐သညတင ဤအခကမာ

မနကနေနဆပငျဖစသည။ ထ႔ေၾကာင လမႈသပၸဘာသာရပမား႐ ကးေၾကာငးျပဆမႈမာ အတအလငး

ဆးျဖတသတမတခကထက ျဖစတနရာအေၾကာငးတရားသာ ျဖစရန႐သည။ တနညးဆရပါမ သေတသမားအေနျဖင

“အေၾကာငးတရားတစခ (သ႔) အေၾကာငးတရား အစအေဝးတစရပသည တစတရာေသာ ရလဒတစခ၏

ျဖစတနစြမးရညက ျမငတက (သ႔မဟတ ေလာပါး) ေစသည” ဟ ဆႏငသည။ သ႔ေသာ “၄ငးအေၾကာငးတရား (သ႔)

အေၾကာငးတရား အစအေဝးတစရပသည တစတရာေသာ ရလဒက မလြမေသြ ဥးတညျဖစေပၚေစသည” ဟ၍ကား

မဆႏငေခ။

ဤကသ႔ ျဖစႏငေခ႐မႈက အသားေပး၍ အေျခအေနအလက စးစမးေလလာေသာ ေယဘယ ခဥးကပပသည ျပနာ

(သ႔) ကစၥရပတစခက ပမနားလညေစမညဟ ေမာလငရသည။ ထ႔ျပငျပနာတစရပအား “အျဖ” ႏင “အမညး”

ခညးသာ မစဥးစားရန သေတသမားအား သတျပမေစသည။ ဆလသညမာ ျပနာက ခဥးကပရာတြင

လမႈေရးအျပအမ၏ မးခးေရာင အႏအရင အလက ႐ာေဖြေဖာထတရန ၾကးစားသညနညးကသာ

သာလြနေကာငးမြနသည။ သေတသမားအေနျဖင လမႈေရး အျပအမမားက ေလလာသညအခါတြင

‘႐ငးလငးျပတသားျခငးမ႐သညအေပၚ သညးခႏငစတ’ က ၾကးစားေမြးျမသငသည။ ဆလသညမာ လတစဥး၏

စတတြင ႐ႏငသည ေျမာကျမားစြာေသာ အျမငမားက ထညသြငးစဥးစားရမည။ အဆပါ ျမားေျမာငသေလာက

တစခႏငတစခ ပဋပကၡျဖစေနေလာကသည အျမငမားသည လတစေယာက၏ စတတြင ၄ငးတ႔က တစခမလညး

ျငငးပယျခငးမ႐ပ ျပငတတည႐ေနတတသည။ သေတသ၏ တာဝနတစရပမာ ၄ငးအျမငအလးစက

ထငျမငဆးျဖတခကမေပးဘ အ႐အတငး တငျပရနျဖစသည။

သပၸနညးက လပငနးစဥႏင လမႈသေတသန ။ ။ ျပနာတစရပ (သ႔) ကစၥတစရပအေပၚ သပၸနညးက

သေဘာေပါက နားလညမႈတြင အဓက လကၡဏာႏစရပပါဝငသည။ (၁) အဓပၸါယ႐ျပး

ယတေဗဒအေတြးစဥအတငးျဖစရမည၊ (၂) သေတသန စးစမးေလလာမႈမားအားလးႏင ေ႐႕ေနာကညရမည။

ေန႔စဥဘဝတြင လမားသည တခါတရ ယတေဗဒမ လြေခာ၍ ဆငျခငေတြးေတာေလ႐ၾကသည။ သေတသမားကမ

ယငးႏင ဆန႔ကငစြာပင ၄ငးတ႔၏ စဥးစားပအား ပစခထားသညျဖစ၍ ၄ငးတ႔အေနႏင ယတေဗဒကက

ဆငျခငနညးကသာ အသးျပၾကသည။ ေန႔စဥဘဝမာပင လတ႔သည တကေရရာမႈမ႐သည စးစမးမႈမားျပလပျပး

ေလလာခကအနညးငယမကသာ အေျခခ၍ အလြနတရာ ေယဘယ ကေသာ ေကာကခကမား ခမတေလ႐ၾကသည။

သေတသမားက ၄ငးႏင ဆန႔ကငဘက ေသေသခာခာ စးစမးေလလာမႈမား ျပလပၾကသည။

အေရအတြကအားျဖငလညး စးစမးေလလာမႈ ေျမာကျမားစြာ ျပလပၾကသည။ ဤသ႔ အၾကမေရမားသညအတြက

သေတသမား ဆြသားလကသည ေကာကခကမားမာလညး စးစမးေလလာမႈမားအားလးက အေျခခေၾကာငး

ေသခာေစသည။

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13

Developing a scientific understanding of an issue based on these two characteristics can

be done in two ways: an inductive approach and a deductive approach.

The inductive approach means that the research process moves from the particular to the

general. The researcher uses the observations collected during the field research. The

researcher then tries to identify a social pattern based on a number of observations as

large as possible. To identify a social pattern means to identify some regularity and order

in all the observations made. This social pattern is linked to a larger reasoning about why

the issue or problem emerged. When linking this pattern to a larger reasoning,

researchers produce some generalizing principles about the issue or problem. This

inductive approach is the way that researchers with little experience frequently use.

The deductive approach means that the research process moves from the general to the

particular. The researcher tests concepts and patterns known from theory. Before testing

these concepts and patterns, the researcher formulates a hypothesis that will be

confirmed or rejected by research findings. A hypothesis is a statement of what the

research expects to observe in reality when conducting the research if the theory is

correct. After collecting observations and data, the researcher determines whether the

results are consistent with the initial hypothesis. If research findings do not support the

initial hypothesis, this should not be seen as a problem at all. It simply shows that research

was critical in clarifying some misconceptions made about the issue or problem

addressed.

These two approaches, inductive and deductive, are the two most frequent approaches of

conducting research. It is usually recognized that the interaction of the two approaches

into a cyclical model usually produce the most sound and comprehensive research. There

also exist other ways of conducting research which are not introduced here.

Again, whether deductive or inductive, both approaches must have the two above-

mentioned characteristics: (1) make sense and follow some logical thought; (2) use the

observation and data made during the research process.

Measurement and Research methods

It was said earlier that social research is about studying in a scientific way how people act

and interact in a society. Applied social research, it was also mentioned, is about

understanding a problem or an issue that affects communities.

Whatever the type of social research (exploratory, descriptive, explanatory) and the

scientific approach chosen to conduct research (deductive or inductive), research requires

measuring and observing human activity and human behavior.

Page 20: Authors - Inya Institute€¦ · Authors: Maxime Boutry, a social anthropologist (Ph.D. EHESS - Paris) specializing on Myanmar, has been Lead Researcher for a number of development

14

အဆပါ လကၡဏာရပႏစခေပၚ အေျခခသည သပၸနညးက သေဘာေပါက နားလညမႈက ရ႐ရန ျခယဆငျခငနညးႏင

ထတယဆငျခငနညးဟေသာ နညးလမးႏစသြယျဖင ျပလပႏငသည။

ျခယဆငျခငနညးဟသည သးသန႔တစစတစရာမ ေယဘယသ႔သြားသည သေတသန လပငနးစဥဆလသည။

သေတသသည ကြငးဆငးသေတသန ျပလပစဥ စေဆာငးရ႐ေသာ စးစမးေလလာမႈမားက အသးျပေလ႐သည။

ယငးေနာက စးစမးေလလာမႈ မားႏငသမ မားမားေပၚတြင အေျခချပး လမႈေရး ျဖစစဥက ေဖာထတေလ႐သည။

လမႈေရး ျဖစစဥက ေဖာထတျခငးဟသည ျပလပထားသမေသာ စးစမးေလလာမႈမားမ ပမနအခငးအရာ ႏင

အစဥအတနးျဖစစဥအခ႕က ေဖာထတျခငးက ဆလေပသည။ အဆပါ ျခယဆငျခငနညးအား

အေတြ႕အၾကနညးပါးေသးသည သေတသမား မၾကာခဏ အသးျပေလ ႐ၾကသည။

ထတယဆငျခငနညးမာမ သေတသနလပငနးစဥသည ေယဘယမ သးသန႔တစတရာဆသ႔ သြားသည။ သေတသသည

သအရမ ေလလာသ႐ထားသည သေဘာတရားႏင ျဖစစဥလမးေၾကာငးမားအား စမးသပသည။ ၄ငးတ႔အား မစမးသပမ

သေတသသည အဆၾကမးတစခက သတမတထေထာငျပး သေတသန ေတြ႕႐ခကမားျဖင အတညျပျခငး (သ႔)

ျငငးပယျခငးမား ျပလပသည။ အဆၾကမးဟသည သေတသနျပလပရာတြင သအရမနကနပါက

လကေတြ႕႐ျမငလသည အဆျပခကတစရပျဖစသည။ စးစမးေလလာမႈမားႏင ေဒတာအခကအလကမားက

စေဆာငးျပးပါက သေတသအေနျဖင ရလဒသည မလအဆၾကမးႏင ညညြတမႈ ႐မ႐က ဆးျဖတေပးရသည။ အကယ၍

သေတသန ေတြ႕႐ခကမားသည မလအဆၾကမးက ေထာကပျခငး မ႐ပါကလညး ျပနာဟ မဆႏငပါ။ ဤသညမာ

ကငတြယေနသည ကစၥရပ (သ႔) ျပနာရပႏင ပတသကသည အေကာကအယအလြမားအား ႐ငးလငးရာတြင

အလြနတရာ စစစသည သေတသနျဖစေၾကာငး ျပသရာသာ ေရာကပါသည။

အဆပါ ျခယဆငျခငနညးႏင ထတယဆငျခငနညးႏစရပမာ သေတသနျပလပရာတြင အသးအမားဆး

ခဥးကပေလလာနညး ႏစသြယ ျဖစၾကပါသည။ ၄ငးနညးလမးႏစသြယက အျပနအလနခတဆကျပး အဖနတလလ

အသးျပသည ပစသည အခငမာဆးႏင ျခငမႈ အ႐ဆး သေတသနက ျဖစေပၚေစသည။ ယခ ေဖာျပထားျခငးမ႐သည

အျခားသေတသနျပလပနညးမားလညး ႐ပါေသးသည။

ထပမေျပာလသညမာ ထတယဆငျခငနညးျဖစေစ၊ ျခယဆငျခငနညးျဖစေစ အဆပါ ခဥးကပေလလာမႈ

ႏစရပစလးသည ေ႐႕ေဖာျပပါ လကၡဏာႏစရပစလး ပါ႐ရမည။ (၁) အဓပၸါယ႐ျပး ယတေဗဒအေတြးစဥအတငးျဖစရမည၊

(၂) သေတသန လပငနးစဥအတြငး ရ႐ေသာ စးစမးေလလာမႈႏင ေဒတာအခကအလကမားက အသးျပရမည။

တငးတာမႈႏင သေတသနနညးလမးမား

ေဖာျပခသညမာ လမႈသေတသနသည လ႔အဖြ႕အစညးအတြငးတြင လအမား မညကသ႔ ျပမပႏင မညကသ႔

အျပနအလနျပမပတ႔က သပၸနညးက ေလလာျခငးျဖစေၾကာငးက ေ႐႕တြင ေဖာျပချပးျဖစသည။ အသးခ

လမႈသေတသနမာ ရပ႐ြာအစအဖြ႕မားအေပၚ သကေရာကမႈ႐သည ျပနာတစရပ (သ႔) ကစၥတစရပက

နားလညသေဘာေပါကျခငးျဖစေၾကာငးကလညး ေဖာျပချပးျဖစသည။

မညကသ႔ေသာ လမႈသေတသန အမးအစား (ပဏာမ စးစမးေလလာနညး၊ ေဖာျပညႊနးဆနညး၊ ႐ငးလငးတငျပနညး)

ႏင သေတသနအတြက မညသ႔ေသာ သပၸနညးက ခဥးကပေလလာမႈ (ထတယဆငျခငနညး သ႔မဟတ

ျခယဆငျခငနညး) က ေ႐ြးခယေစကာမ သေတသနလပရာတြင လမား၏ လပ႐ားေဆာငခကပႏင အျပအမမားက

တငးတာရန လအပသည။

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Measurement and observation about human activity, behavior, mindset, and social

problems involve identifying the extent, frequency, or degree of this activity,

behavior, mindset, or problem. Social researchers must constantly ask themselves the

following: how frequently (not frequently, rather frequently, very frequently), how

seriously (not seriously, rather seriously, very seriously), how widespread (not

widespread, rather widespread, very widespread), ….activities, behaviors, mindsets,

or problems are.

To answer these questions, qualitative or quantitative measurements are conducted.

Researchers decide which ones, quantitative or qualitative, are most appropriate

based on the research topic and the human resource and financial capacity available

for the research. Sometimes, it may be possible to conduct both qualitative and

quantitative measurements.

The selection of either quantitative or qualitative measurement for the research also

means the selection of different social research methods. The present volume

addresses this question. It introduces a variety of qualitative and quantitative research

methods that are used to measure human activities, behaviors, mindsets, or social

problems.

For conducting social research in a scientific way, researchers think not only about the

type of measurement (qualitative or quantitative) but also how to measure. The

success of a research project and its scientific value are primarily based on the choice

of the research methods and the quality of measurement.

The quality of measurement includes, but is not limited to, validity and reliability of

the measurement. These two technical considerations of measurement are complex

yet crucial for understanding how social research is conducted. They are introduced

here but will receive further development in the chapters.

To ensure validity of the measurement, it is important to ask oneself the following

question: does the way I measure this activity, behavior, mindset, or problem include

all the aspects of this activity, behavior, mindset, or problem that are measured for

this particular research project? There are other relevant questions to ask oneself

about validity of measurement but they are not introduced in the present volume.

To ensure reliability of the measurement, it is important to ask oneself the following

question: does the way I measure this activity, behavior, mindset, or problem produce

the same accurate and consistent results each time I measure this activity, behavior,

mindset, or problem? Similarly, there are other relevant questions to ask oneself

about reliability of measurement but they are not introduced in the present volume.

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လမား၏ လပ႐ားေဆာင႐ြကပ၊ အျပအမ၊ စတသေဘာထားႏင လမႈေရး ျပနာမားက တငးတာျခငးႏင

စးစမးေလလာျခငးတြင ၄ငးလပ႐ားေဆာင႐ြကပ၊ အျပအမ၊ စတသေဘာထားႏင ျပနာတ႔၏ အတမအနက၊

အၾကမေရႏင ဒဂရတ႔ ပါဝငေပသည။ လမႈသေတသမားသည ေအာကပါ ေမးခြနးမားက မမကယက

မျဖစမေနေမးျမနးရမည။ လပ႐ားေဆာင႐ြကမႈမား (သ႔) အျပအမမား (သ႔) စတသေဘာထားမား (သ႔)

ျပနာမားသည . . . အၾကမေရမညမနညး (အၾကမေရ မမား၊ အၾကမေရ နညးနညးမား၊ အၾကမေရ အလြနမား)၊

မညမျပငးထနသနညး (မျပငးထန၊ အတနငယျပငးထန၊ အလြနျပငးထန)၊ မညမ ျပန႔ႏ႔သနညး (မျပန႔ႏ႔၊

အနညးငယျပန႔ႏ႔၊ လြနစြာျပန႔ႏ႔)။

ထေမးခြနးမားအား ေျဖဆရနအတြက အရညအခငး ႏင အေရအတြက တငးတာမႈမားအား လပေဆာငရသည။

သေတသန အေၾကာငးအရာႏင သေတသနအတြက ရႏငသမ လအငအား ေငြအငအားေပၚတြင အေျခချပး

အရညအခငး ႏင အေရအတြက မညသည နညးလမးအား အသးျပျခငးသည အသငေတာဆး ျဖစမညက

သေတသအေနျဖင ဆးျဖတရသည။ တခါတရ၌မ အရညအခငးႏင အေရအတြက အတငးအတာႏစမးလး

အသးျပႏငေလသည။

အရညအခငးႏင အေရအတြက တငးတာနညးတစရပရပက ေ႐ြးခယရျခငးမာ သေတသန နညးလမးအဖဖက

စစညးေ႐ြးခယရျခငးပငျဖစသည။ လက႐စာအပတြင ဤေမးခြနးအား ေဆြးေႏြးတငျပထားသည။ လမား၏

လႈပ႐ားေဆာင႐ြကပမား၊ အျပအမမား၊ စတေနစတထားမားႏင လမႈေရး ျပနာမားအား တငးတာရန အသးျပသည

အရညအခငးႏင အေရအတြက သေတသန နညးလမး ေျမာကျမားစြာကလညး မတဆကေပးထားသည။

လမႈသေတသနအား သပၸနညးက ျပလပရာတြင သေတသတ႔အေနႏင တငးတာမႈ အမးအစား (အရညအခငး

သ႔မဟတ အေရအတြက) ကသာမက မညသ႔တငးတာမညကပါ စဥးစားရမည။ သေတသန စမကနး၏ ေအာငျမငမႈႏင

သပၸနညးက ဂဏသတမာ သေတသန နညးလမးေ႐ြးခယမႈႏင တငးတာမႈ အရညအေသြးေပၚတြင အမားဆး

မတညသည။

တငးတာမႈ၏ အရညအေသြး ျမငမားမႈ ဂဏအဂၤါရပတြင အကးဝငမႈႏင ကးစားႏငမႈတ႔ပါဝငသည။ (ယငး အရညအေသြး

အဂၤါရပႏစမးတညးႏငသာ ကန႔သတထားသညေတာ မဟတေပ။) အဆပါ ပညာရပပငးဆငရာ စဥးစားေတြးေခၚစရာ

ႏစခမာ ႐ပေထြးေသာလညး လမႈသေတသန မညသ႔ျပလပသညက နားလညသ႐ရန အလြနတရာ အေရးၾကးသည။

ဤေနရာတြင ၄ငးတ႔အား မတဆကေပးသြားမည ျဖစေသာလညး အကယက [သကဆငရာ] အခနးမားတြင

ဖတ႐ႏငပါသည။

တငးတာခက၏ အကးဝငမႈက ခငမာေစရန မမကယက ေအာကပါအတငး ေမးခြနးထတရန

အေရးတၾကးလအပပါသည။ ဤ သေတသန စမကနးအတြက လပေဆာငခက (သ႔) အျပအမ (သ႔) စတေနစတထား

(သ႔) ျပနာရပအေပၚ ျပလပလကေသာ တငးတာခကတြင ယငး လပေဆာငခက (သ႔) အျပအမ (သ႔)

စတေနစတထား (သ႔) ျပနာရပ၏ ႐ေထာငေပါငးစ ပါဝငပါသေလာ။ တငးတာမႈ၏ အကးဝငမႈႏင ပတသက၍

မမကယက ေမးရန ေကာငးသည အျခားေမးခြနးမား ႐ေသးေသာလညး ဤစာအပတြင မတဆကမထားေတာပါ။

တငးတာခက၏ ကးစားႏငမႈက ခငမာေစရန မမကယက ဤအတငး ေမးခြနးထတရန အေရးၾကးပါသည။ သေတသန

စမကနးအတြက လပေဆာငခက (သ႔) အျပအမ (သ႔) စတေနစတထား (သ႔) ျပနာရပအေပၚ ျပလပလကေသာ

တငးတာခကသည ဤကသ႔ တငးတာမႈ ျပလပလကတငး တကျပး တသမတတညးျဖစေသာ ရလဒမား

ထြကေပၚပါေစ။ အလားတပင တငးတာခက၏ ကးစားႏငမႈႏင ပတသက၍ မမကယက ေမးရန ေကာငးသည

အျခားေမးခြနးမား ႐ေသးေသာလညး ဤစာအပတြင မတဆကမထားေတာပါ။

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This introduction has shown that social research is a scientific way of understanding

how people act and interact in society and how problems often emerge because of

people’s actions and interactions. Depending on the existing knowledge about a

specific topic, researchers may choose to study it in an exploratory, descriptive, or

explanatory way. This last way is the most challenging because it involves identifying

a link between two factors or situations and defining the nature of this link. If there

exist a causal link between two factors or situations, caution was given to avoid

establishing a causal link that determines a particular outcome.

Conducting social research as a scientific activity includes two necessary features.

First, the researcher develops broad and logical reasoning. Second, the researcher

interprets all observations and data from the research and frames them within this

broader reasoning. Depending on how these two points are articulated by the

researcher, the scientific process can go from the general to the particular: this is the

deductive way. Or it can go from the particular to the general: this is the inductive

way. Lastly, as a scientific process, social research involves measurement of the

extent, frequency, or degree of an activity or problem. Social measurement is either

quantitative or qualitative. The decision by the researcher to opt for either a

quantitative or qualitative measurement depends on many factors such as research

topic, time, funding, human resources, …. The scientific value of this qualitative or

quantitative measurement is based on quality criteria such a precision, validity, and

reliability.

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လမႈသေတသနဟသည လ႔အဖြ႕အစညးတြင လမား မညသ႔ ျပမပ၊ အျပနအလန ျပမပႏင လတ႔၏ လပေဆာငခကႏင

အျပနအလန ျပမေဆာင႐ြကခကမားေၾကာင ျပနာရပမား မညသ႔ထြကေပၚလာေလ႐ပက သပၸနညးက

နားလညသေဘာေပါကျခငးျဖစေၾကာငး က ဤမတဆကတြင ေဖာျပခသည။ အေၾကာငးအရာတစရပႏင စပလဥးသည

နဂ႐ျပးသား အသပညာ ဗဟသတအေပၚ မတညျပး သေတသတ႔အေနႏင ၄ငးအေၾကာငးအရာက ပဏာမ

စးစမးေလလာနညးျဖငေသာလညးေကာငး၊ ေဖာျပညႊနးဆသည နညးျဖငေသာလညးေကာငး၊ ႐ငးလငးတငျပသည

နညးျဖငေသာလညးေကာငး လအပသလ ေ႐ြးခယေလလာႏငသည။ ထနညးသးနညးအနက ေနာကဆးနညးလမးမာ

အေၾကာငးတရားႏစရပ (သ႔) အေျခအေနႏစရပၾကားမ ဆကႏြယမႈက ႐ာေဖြရျပး ၄ငးဆကႏြယမႈ၏ သေဘာသေဘာဝကပါ

႐ာေဖြရေသာေၾကာင အခကခဆးျဖစသည။ အေၾကာငးရငးႏစရပ (သ႔) အေျခအေနႏစရပၾကားတြင အေၾကာငးတရား

ဆကႏြယမႈတစခ တည႐ပါက ရလဒတစခထြကေပၚျခငးက ဆးျဖတသတမတေပးသည အေၾကာငးတရား ဆကႏြယမႈ တစရပ

ဖနတးျခငးက သတထား ေ႐ာင႐ားရသည။

သပၸနညးက လပေဆာငခကတစရပျဖစေသာ လမႈသေတသန ျပလပရာတြင လအပေသာ အခကႏစခက႐သည။ ဥးစြာပထမ

သေတသအေနႏင ကယကယျပန႔ျပန႔ႏင ယတေဗဒကက ေတြးေခၚမႈက ဖနတးရမည။ ဒတယအေနျဖင သေတသသည

သေတသနမ ရ႐လာသည စးစမးေလလာမႈႏင ေဒတာအခကအလကမားက အဓပၸါယေကာကယျပး ၄ငးတ႔အား ေဖာျပပါ

ကယျပန႔သည စဥးစားေတြးေခၚမႈ ေဘာငထတြင ထညသြငးစဥးစားရမည။ ထအခကႏစခကအား သေတသအေနျဖင

မညသ႔မညပ ေဖာျပသညက မတည၍ သပၸနညးက လပငနးစဥသည ေယဘယမ တစတရာဆသ႔ သြားသည။ ဤသညမာ

ထတယဆငျခငနညးျဖစသည။ သ႔တညးမဟတ တစတရာမ ေယဘယသ႔လညး သြားႏငသည။ ၄ငးမာ

ျခယဆငျခငနညးျဖစသည။ ေနာကဆးအေနျဖင သပၸနညးက လပငနးစဥတစရပအေနျဖင လမႈသေတသနတြင

လပေဆာငခကတစခ (သ႔) ျပနာတစရပ၏ အတမအနက၊ အၾကမေရႏင ဒဂရ တငးတာခကတ႔က

ထညသြငးစဥးစားထားသည။ လမႈေရးတငးတာခကသည အရညအခငးအရေသာလညးေကာငး၊

အေရအတြကအရေသာလညးေကာငး ျဖစႏငသည။ အရညအခငး တငးတာခကေသာလညးေကာငး အေရအတြက

တငးတာခကေသာလညးေကာငး မညသညက အသးျပမညက သေတသအေနႏင ဆးျဖတရနမာ သေတသန အေၾကာငးအရာ၊

အခန၊ ဘ႑ာေရး၊ လအငအား စသည အေၾကာငးရငး ေျမာကျမားစြာေပၚတြင အေျခခသည။ ထ အရညအခငး သ႔မဟတ

အေရအတြက တငးတာခက၏ သပၸနညးက အရညအေသြး ဂဏသတမာ တကမႈ၊ အကးဝငမႈႏင ကးစားႏငမႈ စေသာ

ဂဏအငလကၡဏာ စႏနးမားေပၚတြင မတညသည။

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Glossary

Data: information collected during the research. ‘Data’ can’t appear as such in a research report. Data is information about individuals, groups of persons, or organizations while evidence is based on a set of data about these individuals, groups of persons, or organizations. For example, Ko Myo who lives in Shwe pyi thar Township lives on 800 kyats/day: this is data. 90% of all the persons surveyed in Shwe pyi thar Township lives on an average of 800 kyats/day: this is evidence.

Data source: data produced through research can come from different sources: observation, notes, interview tapes and transcripts, newspapers, surveys and questionnaires, statistics, etc.

Data analysis: Data have to be analyzed, that means that the researcher (1) enters all data into a computer, (2) seeks for evidence, and (3) examines whether these evidence form general social patterns related to the problem under study.

Evidence: as explained above, evidence is an aggregate of data about individuals, households, or groups of individuals.

Fact: an observation that is objective and can be verified by researchers. For example, “contaminated water considerably increases the risk of disease” is a fact.

Finding (or research finding): the principal result(s) of a research project presented in a report. For example, “the research shows that villagers’ knowledge of the presence of the contaminated water in the underground table did not prevent them from using it for most of the household’s activities” is a finding.

Attribute: a characteristic of a person or a thing. For example, male/female is an attribute.

Category: a category is almost similar as an attribute except that category is defined by the researcher for measuring a variable. For example, the researcher defines the different levels of income that are relevant to the purpose of a particular study: categories defined for levels of income will vary if the study is undertaken in the countryside or in Yangon.

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ခကဆစ ေဒတာ။ ။သေတသန ျပလပစဥအတြငး စေဆာငးရ႐ေသာ သတငးအခကအလကမားက ဆလသည။ ‘ေဒတာ’ မားအား နဂမလ အတငး အစရငခစာတြင ေဖာျပေလမ႐ေပ။ ေဒတာဟသည လပဂၢလမား (သ႔) လအပစမား (သ႔) အဖြ႕အစညးမားႏင ပတသက ေသာ သတငးအခကအလကမား ျဖစၾကျပး အေထာကအထားမာမ အဆပါ လပဂၢလမား (သ႔) လအပစမား (သ႔) အဖြ႕အစညးမားႏင ပတသကေသာ ေဒတာအစအဖြ႕ ျဖစသည။ ဥပမာ ေ႐ႊျပညသာ ျမ႕နယတြင ေနထငသ ကမးသည တစေန႔ဝငေငြ ၈၀၀ ကပျဖင ရပတညသည။ ဤသညမာ ေဒတာျဖစသည။ ေ႐ႊျပညသာ ျမ႕နယအတြငး စစတမးေကာကယရ႐ေသာ သမား၏ ၉၀% မာ တစေန႔လင ပမးမဝငေငြ ၈၀၀ ကပျဖင ရပတညေနၾကသည။ ဤသညမာ အေထာကအထားျဖစသည။

ေဒတာ အရငးအျမစ။ ။ သေတသနျပလပစဥအတြငး အရငးအျမစအမးမးမ ေဒတာမား ထြကေပၚလာႏငသည။ စးစမးေလလာမႈ၊ မတစ၊ လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးထားသည တပေခြႏင စာစထားခကမား၊ သတငးစာမား၊ စစတမးႏင ေမးခြနးလႊာမား၊ စာရငးအငး ကနးဂဏနးမားစသညျဖင။

ေဒတာ စစစေလလာခက။ ။ေဒတာမားအား စစစေလလာရန လအပသည။ ဆလသညမာ သေတသသည (၁) ေဒတာအကနလး က ကြနပတာအတြငး ထညသြငးရမည (၂) အေထာကအထား ႐ာေဖြရမည (၃) အဆပါ အေထာကအထားမားသည ေလလာဆ ျပနာရပႏင စပလဥးျပး ေယဘယ လမႈေရး ဆငတျဖစစဥ ျဖစရပ လမးေၾကာငးမား ေဖာထတေပးႏငစြမး ႐မ႐ ေလလာသးသပ ရမည။

အေထာကအထား။ ။အထကတြင ႐ငးလငးခသညအတငး အေထာကအထားဟသည လပဂၢလမား (သ႔) အမေထာငစမား (သ႔) အပစမားဆငရာ ေဒတာအခကအလကမားျဖင ေပါငးစပဖြ႕စညးထားျခငးျဖစသည။

အခကအလက။ ။ ဓမၼဓ႒ာနကျပး သေတသမား မန၊ မမန ၾကည႐စစေဆး၍ ရႏငေသာ ေလလာခကတစရပက ဆလသည။ ဥပမာ “ညစညမးေရေၾကာင ေရာဂါျဖစပြားမႈ အလြနတရာ ျမငတကေစသည” ဆသညမာ အခကအလကတစချဖစသည။

ေတြ႕႐ခက (သ႔မဟတ သေတသန ေတြ႕႐ခက)။ ။ အစရငခစာတြင ေဖာျပေလ႐ေသာ သေတသန စမကနး၏ အေရးအၾကးဆး ရလဒ (မား) ျဖစသည။ ဥပမာ “သေတသန အရ ႐ြာသားမားသည ေျမေအာက႐ ညစညမးေရ၏ ဆးကးမားက နားလညသ႐ ေသာလညး အမေထာငစ လပငနးေဆာငတာမားေၾကာင ယငးက အသးမျပပေန၍ မရေခ” ဆသညမာ ေတြ႕႐ခကျဖစသည။

အဂၤါရပ။ ။ လတစဥးတစေယာက (သ႔) အရာဝတတစခ၏ လကၡဏာရပတစခက ဆလသည။ ဥပမာ ကား/မ ဆသညမာ အဂၤါရပတစချဖစသည။

အပစ ။ ။ အပစမားသည အဂၤါရပမားႏင ဆငတသေယာင ႐ေသာလညး အပစမားသည သေတသမားက ကနး႐ငမားက တငးတာရန သတမတထားျခငးျဖစသည။ ဥပမာ သေတသသည ေလလာခကတစခႏင သကဆငေသာ ဝငေငြ အဆငအတနး အမးမးက သတမတလကသညဆပါစ႔။ ဝငေငြ အဆငအတနးအတြက သတမတေသာ အပစကြမားမ ေကးလကႏင ရနကနတြင ျပလပသည ေလလာမႈအလက ကြျပားသြားေပလမမည။

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Variable: usually the problem or issue that is studied for research purposes. The

variable is to be measured quantitatively or quantitatively, or both. A variable can be

independent or dependent depending on the context of the study. For example, when

studying primary education, ‘surface area of classrooms’ is an independent variable

that influences the ‘ratio teachers/schoolchildren’, here a dependent variable. BUT

‘ratio teachers/schoolchildren’ becomes an independent variable when researchers

examine how high or low enforcement of child-centered approaches, here a

dependent variable, is at primary school level.

Unit of measurement: the unit is defined by the researcher; it is the unit from which

information will be collected in order to measure the variable. In most cases, units of

measurement are individuals, households, or groups of persons legally or informally

established (see example of units of measurement in Chapter 2).

Hypothesis: it is a statement made by the researcher at the beginning of the project

regarding what he/she expects to observe about the link between two variables. The

expectation the researcher has about these observations is based on some theoretical

background.

Research question: it is also a statement about what the researcher expects to

observe during the research process; as opposed to a hypothesis, however, a research

question is not linked to a theory.

Sampling frame: a list or a set of assembled list of units composing a population from

which a sample is selected. For example, if a sample of students for a study of

graduates in Yangon division is selected from a compilation list of university graduates

in the division, all these lists put together are the sampling frame.

Sampling: a research method that researchers use to select a few people for study

and discover information about them that also apply to a larger of population that

can’t be studied. Sampling is divided into probability and non-probability sampling

(both developed in this volume in separate chapters).

Indicator: measurement made about one aspect of a variable. Measuring an indicator

helps to understand how a variable changes throughout time. For example, a

researcher examines how deep a population in Mandalay division adheres to

Buddhism (the variable being ‘religious adherence’). One of the possible indicators is

‘frequency at which individuals go to the pagoda’.

Informant: an individual who has significant knowledge of the problem under study

and who is willing to tell what he/she knows about it.

Respondent: an individual who provides information by responding to a survey questionnaire

(different from informant, see above).

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ကနး႐င။ ။ သေတသနအတြက ေလလာေနသည ျပနာရပ (သ႔) ကစၥရပပငျဖစသည။ ကနး႐ငသည အရညအခငးနညး အရေသာလညးေကာငး၊ အေရအတြကနညးအရေသာလညးေကာငး၊ ႏစနညးစလးျဖငေသာလညးေကာငး ေလလာရန ျဖစသည။ ေလလာသည အေနအထားေပၚ မတည၍ ကနး႐ငသည လြတလပကနး႐င (သ႔) မခ ကနး႐ငျဖစႏငသည။ ဥပမာ အေျခခ ပညာေရး က ေလလာရာတြင ‘စာသငခနးမား၏ မကႏာျပင ဧရယာ’ သည လြတလပကနး႐ငျဖစျပး မခကနး႐ငျဖစသည ‘ဆရာ/ေကာငးသား အခး’ က လႊမးမးမႈ ႐သည။ သ႔ေသာ မလတနးအဆင ေကာငးသားဗဟျပသငၾကားမႈအေပၚ ၾကပမတေဆာင႐ြကမႈ အနညးအမားက သးသပေလလာရာတြင ‘ဆရာ/ေကာငးသား အခး’ သည လြတလပကနး႐ငျဖစလာျပး ‘ေကာငးသား ဗဟျပ သငၾကားမႈ’ မာ မခကနး႐ငျဖစလာသည။

တငးတာေရး ယနစ။ ။ သေတသမ ယနစအား သတမတသည။ ကနး႐ငအား တငးတာရန ၄ငးယနစမ သတငးအခကအလကမားက စေဆာငးသည။ မားေသာအားျဖင တငးတာေရး ယနစမားသည တရားဝငေသာလညေကာငး၊ အၾကမးမေသာလညးေကာငး သတမတထားသည လပဂၢလမား (သ႔) အမေထာငစမား (သ႔) လအပစမား ျဖစေလ႐ၾကသည။ (အခနး ၂ ပါ တငးတာေရးယနစ ဥပမာမားက ၾကညပါ။)

အဆၾကမး ။ ။ ကနး႐ငႏစခၾကား ဆကႏြယခကႏင ပတသကျပး ေလလာေတြ႕႐လာမညအေပၚ မနးဆထားခကႏင စပလဥးျပး စမကနးအစတြင သေတသ ျပလပထားသည အဆျပခကျဖစသည။ ေလလာခကမားႏင ပတသကသည သေတသ၏ ခန႔မနးခကသည သအရပငးေပၚတြင အေျခတညသည။

သေတသန ေမးခြနး ။ ။ သေတသန လပငနးစဥအတြငး သေတသ ေလလာေတြ႕႐ရန မနးဆထားခကႏင ဆငသည အဆပင ျဖစသည။ အဆၾကမးႏင ျခားနားဆန႔ကငသည အခကမာ သေတသန ေမးခြနးသည သအရပငးႏင ခတဆကမႈ မ႐ေပ။

နမနာေကာကယမႈဆငရာ အေျခခစာရငး။ ။ နမနာတစရပ ေကာကယေ႐ြးခယမည လဥးေရ စာရငးတစခ (သ႔) ယနစမားစစညးထားသည လဥးေရ စာရငးတစချဖစသည။ ဥပမာ ရနကနတငးအတြငး႐ ဘြ႕ရမားအေၾကာငး ေလလာရန ေကာငးသားနမနာတစရပက ရနကနတငးအတြငး တကသလဘြ႕ရမားစစညးထားသည စာရငးတစခမ ေ႐ြးခယသည ဆပါစ႔။ အဆပါ စာရငးအကနလးသည နမနာေကာကယမႈဆငရာ အေျခခစာရငးျဖစသည။

နမနာေကာကယျခငး။ ။ လအနညးငယက ေလလာျပး ရ႐လာေသာ သတငးအခကအလကမားက ေလလာ၍ မရႏငေလာကေအာင ကယျပန႔မားျပားသည လဥးေရတစရပတြင ျပန၍ အသးခႏငေစရန သေတသမား အသးျပသည သေတသန နညးလမးတစရပျဖစသည။ နမနာေကာကယနညးအား ျဖစတနစြမး နမနာေကာကယနညးႏင ျဖစတနစြမးနညး နမနာေကာကယနညး ဟ၍ ခြျခားထားသည။ (ႏစနညးစလးအား ဤစာအပတြင အခနးခြ၍ ေဖာျပထားသည။)

အညႊနးကနး။ ။ ကနး႐ငအား တစတတပငး တငးတာျခငးျဖစသည။ အညႊနးကနးအား တငးတာျခငးျဖင ကနး႐ငတစခ အခနႏငအမ မညသ႔ေျပာငးလလာသညက နားလညႏငသည။ ဥပမာ မႏေလးမ လဥးေရတစရပသည ဗဒၶဘာသာအား မညမ အေလးအနကထား ကးကြယၾကသနညးဆသညက ေလလာသညဆပါစ႔။ (‘ဘာသာေရး လကစားမႈ’ အား ကနး႐ငအျဖစထားသည) ျဖစႏငေခ႐ေသာ အညႊနးကနးတစရပမာ ‘လမား အၾကမမညမ ဘရားသြားၾကသနညး’ ဆေသာ အခကျဖစသည။

အခကအလကေပးသ။ ။ ေလလာေနသည ျပနာႏင ပတသက၍ အထးတလည ဗဟသတ ႐ျပး ၄ငးသ႐ထားသမကလညး ေျပာျပရန စတပါဝငစားသ။

ေျဖၾကားသ။ ။ စစတမးပါ ေမးခြနးလႊာက ေျဖၾကားျခငးျဖင သတငးအခကအလက ေပးစြမးသ (အထကေဖာျပပါ အခကအလကေပးသႏင မတညပါ။)

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Stakeholder: individuals, or groups of individuals whose life, livelihood, or

professional activity is directly linked to the problem under study.

Quantitative research method: technique of collecting information based on large

number of informants. These techniques include survey and sampling.

Qualitative research method: technique of collecting information based on an

extensive interaction between the researcher and the informants. They include

Focus Group Discussion (FGD), In-Depth Interview, Participatory Learning

Appraisal, Participatory Action Research.

Livelihood: refers to the “means of securing the basic necessities - food, water,

shelter and clothing- of life”. It is defined as a set of activities, involving securing

water, food, fodder, medicine, shelter, clothing and the capacity to acquire these

necessities. Decent livelihood is achieved by working either individually or as a

group without having one’s dignity being harmed by something or someone.

Well-being: refers to a situation characterized by health, happiness, and prosperity

for an individual or a community.

Social capital: refers to the networks, links, shared values in society that enable

individuals and groups to trust each other and so work together. The more social

capital one individual has, the more likely he/she is able to move socially upward.

Triangulation: refers to the use of two (or more) methods in a study in order to

check the results. Because much social research is founded on the use of a single

research method, and as such may suffer from limitations associated with that

method, triangulation offers the prospect of increased confidence.

Baseline study: refers to a descriptive survey covering a wide range of aspects

related to livelihood. The main purpose is to measure these aspects of livelihoods

for a population at a certain time. The data collected will serve as reference

materials for future surveys.

Problem tree: refers to a graphic tool mapping out a logical sequence of causes

and effects around a problem that is studied by researchers. The problem is broken

down into causes and consequences that may be studied as variables.

Reliability: is about whether the measurement of a variable is reliable or not. In

the context of a survey measuring religious practices, “did you go the pagoda

during the last full moon?” is a question for which answers will be more reliable

that the question “about how many times have you been to the pagoda in your

life?”

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အကးစးပြား ႏးႏႊယသမား။ ။ လပဂၢလမား (သ႔) လအပစမားျဖစၾကျပး ၄ငးတ႔၏ ဘဝ၊ အသကေမြးမႈလပငနး၊ အသကေမြးမႈ အတတပညာမားသည ေလလာေနသည ျပနာႏင တက႐က သကဆငသည။

အေရအတြက သေတသန နညး။ ။ အခကအလကေပးသ အေျမာကအျမားထမ သတငးအခကအလကမား ရယႏငသည နညးလမးျဖစသည။ အဆပါ နညးလမးတြင စစတမးႏင နမနာေကာကယနညးမား ပါဝငသည။

အရညအခငး သေတသန နညး။ ။ သေတသႏင အခကအလကေပးမညသမားအၾကား အခနေပး ဆကဆျပး သတငးအခကအလက စေဆာငးသည နညးလမးျဖစသည။ ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြ (Focus Group Discussion - FGD)၊ အေသးစတ ေတြ႕ဆ ေမးျမနးမႈ (In-Depth Interview)၊ ပးေပါငးေလလာေရးနညးစဥ (Participatory Learning Appraisal-PLA)၊ ပးေပါငးပါဝင လမႈေရး သေတသန (Participatory Action Research-PAR) တ႔ ပါဝငသည။

အသကေမြးလပငနး။ ။ ‘လ႔ဘဝ အေျခခ လအပခကမားျဖစသည စားနပရကၡာ၊ ေရ၊ အမးအကာႏင အဝတအစားမား ဖလေစမည နညးလမးမား’ ဟ၍ ရညညႊနးပါသည။ ေရ၊ စားနပရကၡာ၊ အမေမြးတရစာၦနမားအတြက အစာ၊ ေဆး၊ အမးအကာ၊ အဝတအထညႏင အဆပါ လအပခကမား ျဖညဆညးေပမည အရညအခငး ပါ ပါဝငသည လပငနးေဆာငတာ အစအေဝးဟ၍ အဓပၸါယဖြငဆသည။ ပမန ႐းစငးေသာ အသကေမြးမႈဟသည တစဥးတစေယာကခငး (သ႔) အပစႏင လပကငႏငျပး မညသတစဥးတစေယာက၏ ဂဏသကၡာကမ မထခကေစရပါ။

အကးစးပြား/သခခမးသာ။ ။ လတစဥးတစေယာက (သ႔) ရပ႐ြာအဖြ႕အစညးတစခ ကနးမာေပာ႐ႊငျပး ကလၾကြယဝေသာ အေျခအေနတစရပက ဆလျခငးျဖစသည။

လမႈအရငး။ ။ လပဂၢလမားႏင အပစမားအၾကား တစဥးႏငတစဥး ယၾကညျပး အတတကြ အလပလပေဆာငႏငေစမည အသငးအဝငး၊ အခတအဆကႏင မေဝရာ တနဖးမားက ဆလသည။ လတစဥးတစေယာကသည လမႈအရငးမားမား႐ေလေလ၊ လမႈေရးအရ အထကသ႔ ေရာကေလေလျဖစသည။

႐ေထာငစ စစေဆးခက။ ။ ေလလာခကတြင ရလဒမားအား စစေဆးရန နညးလမး ႏစခ (သ႔မဟတ ပ၍) အသးျပျခငးက ဆလသည။ လမႈသေတသန အေတာမားမားမ သေတသန နညးလမးတစခတညးအေပၚတြင အေျခတညသညျဖစ၍ ယငးနညးလမးဆငရာ ကန႔သတခကမားေၾကာင အကးယတေစႏငသည။ ႐ေထာငစ စစေဆးျခငးျဖင ပမ၍ ယၾကညကးစားေလာကဖြယ ျဖစလာေစႏငသည။

အေျချပစထား ေလလာခက။ ။ အသကေမြးမႈဆငရာ ႐ေထာငျမငကြငးကယက ျခငမေစမည ေဖာျပညႊနးဆေရး စစတမးတစရပက ရညညႊနးပါသည။ အဓက ရည႐ြယခကမာ လဥးေရ တစရပအတြက အဆပါ အသကေမြးမႈဆငရာ ႐ေထာငမားက တခေသာ အခနတြင တငးတာရန ျဖစသည။ ေကာကယရ႐ေသာ ေဒတာအခကအလကမားသည ေနာငလာမည စစတမးမားတြင အကးအကားမား ျဖစလာမည။

ျပနာ အေျချပပ။ ။ သေတသမားေလလာေနသည ျပနာရပတစခ၏ ယတေဗဒ ကးေၾကာငးျဖစစဥက ေျမပျပထားသည ပအညႊနးျဖစသည။ ျပနာက အေၾကာငးတရားႏင အကးရလဒမားအျဖစ ခြစတျပထားျပး ၄ငးတ႔အား ကနး႐ငမားအျဖစေလလာႏငသည။

ကးစားႏငစြမး။ ။ ကနး႐ငတစခက တငးတာထားခကသည ကးစားႏငေလာကဖြယ ႐မ႐ဆေသာ အခကျဖစသည။ ဘာသာေရး လကနာကငသးမႈက စစတမးေကာကယသညေနရာတြင “ျပးခသည လျပညေန႔တြင ဘရားသြားပါသလား” ဟေသာ ေမးခြနးအတြက အေျဖသည “သငတသကတာတြင ဘရားသ႔ အၾကမမညမ ေရာကဖးပါသနညး” ဆသည ေမးခြနးအေျဖထက ပ၍ ကးစားေလာကသည။

24

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25

Validity: is about whether the measurement of a variable under study offers valid

information covering all aspects of this variable. In the context of a survey focusing on the

livelihood of a community, asking individuals their views about current politics would not

provide valid information for the focus of the research.

Bias: refers to a flaw in the research process that may lead to a wrong measurement of

the variable. There are various types of bias, which are described in the chapters of the

present introduction.

Anonymity: refers to a procedure that make it impossible for the researcher and the

reader of the research report to identify the findings with a particular individual or group

of individuals (different from confidentiality, see below).

Confidentiality: refers to a procedure that makes sure that only the researcher knows the

identity of the individual from whom information is obtained.

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26

အကးဝငစြမး။ ။ေလလာေနသည ကနး႐ငတစခအား တငးတာခကသည ကနး႐င၏ ဘကစေထာငစပါဝငျပး အကးဝငသည သတငးအခကအလကေပးစြမး ႐မ႐ ဆေသာအခကပင ျဖစသည။ ရပ႐ြာအစအဖြ႕၏ အသကေမြးမႈ လပငနးအေပၚ အထးျပေလလာသည စစတမးတစရပတြင ရပ႐ြာ႐လမားအား လက႐ႏငငေရးႏငပတသကျပး ၄ငးတ႔၏ အျမငက ေမးျမနးပါက သေတသန အဓက လအပေသာ သတငးအခကအလကမား ရ႐လာမည မဟတေပ။ အဂတ။ ။ သေတသန လပငနးစဥအတြငး ကနး႐င၏ တငးတာခကတစခ မားယြငးသြားေစေလာကသည အျပစအနာအဆာမးက ဆလသည။ တြင အဂတ အမးအစား ေျမာကျမားစြာ႐ျပး ၄ငးတ႔အား လက႐ မတဆက စာအပပါ အခနးမားတြင ေဖာျပထားသည။ အမညမေဖၚမႈ။ ။ လပဂၢလ (သ႔) လအပစ တစစႏင ပတသကသည အခကအလကမားက သေတသႏင သေတသန အစရငခစာ ဖတ႐သမား မညသညနညးႏငမ ေဖာထတ၍မရႏငေစရန ျပလပသည လပငနးအစအစဥတစရပျဖစသည။ (လ႕ဝကထားမႈႏင မတညပါ။ ေအာကတြင႐ပါ) လ႕ဝကထားမႈ။ ။ သတငးအခကအလက ရယလကသည လပဂၢလ မညသမညဝါ ျဖစသညက သေတသသာ သ႐ႏငေစရန ျပလပသည လပငနးအစအစဥတစရပျဖစသည။

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BASIC 1. DEFINING A RESEARCH PROBLEM

THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT:

The research steps to define a problem;

The problem trees as a tool for gaining better understanding of an issue, its

causes, and its consequences;

The definition of an issue or problem affecting communities in five questions:

What, Who, Why, Where, and How?

______________________________________________________________________

This chapter introduces readers to the preliminary steps that researchers should follow

when defining a research problem. These are the first steps of the research design, which

will receive a comprehensive treatment in the ‘intermediate level’ section of the manual.

RESEARCH AND EXPANDING KNOWLEDGE ABOUT AN ISSUE

When implementing social projects centered on an issue or problem, research produces

new knowledge about this issue or problem that impacts certain groups of the population.

This new knowledge often leads researchers to put into question what they think they

know already about this issue or problem.

Therefore, conducting social research is about two points. The first point is about

investigating the issue or problem in an open-minded way. The second point is about

gaining a deep understanding of the issue or problem.

When they investigate the issue or problem, researchers produce new information about

this issue or problem based on the data collected during the research process. This

information is new: this is not some information that can be entirely taken from the work

done by other researchers.

The research process helps the researcher acquire an informed view of the issue that is

under study. When the researcher disseminates the findings, more people can gain an

informed view of the issue or problem.

Very often, people are confused between the root causes and the consequences of the

problem. This happens because they lack an informed view of problem. By doing

research, the researcher can know more precisely what the root causes and

consequences of a problem are.

Researchers study “Child Drop-out in Hlaing Township”. They may include some statistical data provided by the Ministry of Education about drop-out rate nationwide or specifically in Hlaing Township. But this data is not sufficient. It is crucial that the researchers also include data collected from the field work conducted in Hlaing Township. This data is the new information that organizations tackling child drop-out may use for their own projects.

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အေျခခအဆင၁ - သေတသနျပနာအားအဓပၸါယဖြငဆျခငး

ဤအခနးတြင ျပနာရပအား အဓပၸါယဖြငဆပ သေတသနလပငနး အဆငဆင ကစၥရပတစခႏင႔ ယငး၏အေၾကာငးရငးျမစမား၊ အကးဆကမားအား ပမနားလညႏငေရးအတြက ျပနာ

အေျခအျမစျပပ ( Problem tree ) အား တနဆာပလာအျဖစ အသးျပပ အဘယအရာ၊ အဘယသ၊ အဘယေၾကာင႔၊ အဘယေနရာႏင႔ အဘယက႔သ႔ ဟေသာေမးခြနးငါးရပျဖင႔ လထ

အဖြ႔အစညးမား အေပၚ သကေရာကမႈရေသာကစၥရပ ( သ႔ ) ျပနာတစရပအား ေဖာထတျခငးတ႕ပါ၀ငသည။ _____________________________________________________________________________________ ဤအခနးတြင စာဖတသမားအား သေတသန ျပနာရပအား အဓပၸါယဖြငဆရာတြင လကနာရမည ပဏာမ အဆငမား က မတဆကေပးထားသည။ ၄ငးတ႔မာသေတသနပစ၏ ကနဥးအဆငမားျဖစၾကျပး စာအပပါ ‘အလယအလတ အဆင’ အတြက ေရးထားသားေသာ အပငးမားတြင ျပညျပညစစေဖာျပသြားမည ျဖစသည။

ကစၥရပတစခႏင႔သကဆငေသာအသပညာအားျဖန႔ကကျခငးႏင႔သေတသန ကစၥတစရပသ႔မဟတ ျပနာတစခက အရငးျပျပး လမႈစမကနးမား ေဖာေဆာငရာတြင သေတသနသည [လဥးေရ တစရပလးတြငမ] တစတရာေသာ လအပစမားအေပၚ အကးသကေရာကမႈရေသာ ျပနာႏငစပလဥးျပး အသပညာ သစတစခက ေပးစြမးႏငေလရသည။ ယငးအသပညာသစေၾကာင သေတသတ႔သည ျပနာရပႏင ပတသက၍ ၄ငးတ႔ သႏငျပး ျဖစသညဟ ထငျမငယဆထားေသာ အခကက ၄ငးတ႔ဘာသာ၄ငးတ႔ ျပနလည ေမးခြနးထတစရာ ျဖစလာေလရသည။

သ႔အတြက လမႈသေတသနက လပေဆာငရာ၌ အခကသးခက ရပါသည။ ပထမအခကအေနျဖင႔ ကစၥရပ (သ႔) ျပနာအား ပြင႔လငးေသာ အျမငစတထားျဖင႔ စစမးေဖာထတျခငး ျဖစသည။ ဒတယအခကသည အဆပါကစၥရပ (သ႔) ျပနာအား နကနကရႈငးရႈငး နားလညေရး ျဖစသည။ တတယအခကမာ အဆပါကစၥရပ (သ႔) ျပနာမားမ သကေရာကမႈရသည႔ လထအဖြ႔အစညးမားအေပၚ အျပသေဘာေဆာငသည႔ ေျပာငးလမႈတ႔ ေပၚေပါကလာေစေရး၊ ၄ငးကစၥရပ (သ႕) ျပနာရပႏင႔ ယငး၏အေၾကာငးရငးျမစမားအား ကငတြယေျဖရငးရန ျဖစသည။ သေတသမားမ ကစၥရပ ( သ႕ ) ျပနာတစရပအား စစမးေဖာထတသည႔အခါ သေတသနလပငနးစဥအတြငး စေဆာငးရရသည႔ အခကအလကမားက အေျခခ၍ အဆပါ ကစၥရပ ( သ႔ ) ျပနာရပႏင႔ သကဆငေသာ သတငးအခကအလက အသစမား ျပစေဖာထတရပါသည။ ၄ငးသတငး အခကအလကမားမာ အသစျဖစျပး အျခားသေတသတ႔၏ သေတသန ျပခကမားမ ထတယထားျခငးမး မဟတပါ။

သေတသနလပငနးစဥ အေနျဖင႔ သေတသအား ေလ႔လာမႈ ျပေသာကစၥရပႏင႔ပတသကသည႔ အခကအလက အေျချပ ဆငျခငသးသပနားလညသည႔ အျမင ကရရသေဘာေပါက ေစရနအေထာကအက ေပးသည။ သေတသ အေနျဖင႔ ယငး၏ေလ႔လာ ေတြ႔ရခကမားႏင႔ ေဒတာအခကအလကမားက ျဖန႔ေ၀ေပးသည႔အခါ လအမားအေနျဖင႔လညး အဆပါကစၥရပ (သ႕) ျပနာရပႏင႔သကဆငေသာ အခကအလကအေျချပ ဆငျခငသးသပနားလညသည႔ အျမငတစရပက ရရသြားၾကသည။

မၾကာခဏ ဆသလပင လအမားအေနျဖင႔ ျပနာျဖစရသည႔ အေၾကာငးရငးျမစမားႏင႔ စမကနးမ ကငတြယေျဖရငးသည႔ ျပနာ၏ အကးဆကမားႏစခအၾကား ေရာေထြးေလ႔ရသည။ ဤသ႔ျဖစရသညမာ ျပနာရပႏင ပတသက၍ အခက အလက အေျချပ ဆငျခငသးသပနားလညသညအျမင ထထ၀င၀ငနားလညသည႔အျမငမရေသာေၾကာင႔ျဖစသည။ သေတသနလပေဆာငျခငးအားျဖင႔ သေတသ အေနျဖင႔ ျဖစရသည႔ အေၾကာငးရငးျမစမားႏင႔ ျပနာတစရပ၏ အကးဆက မားႏင႔ပတသက၍ ပမတတကကသရႏငသည။

သတသတ႔သည " လငျမ႕နယအတြငးရကေလးမား ေကာငးထြကမႈကေလ႔လာၾကသည။၄ငးတ႔အေနျဖင႔ပညာေရး၀နၾကးဌာနမ ထတ ျပနထားေသာတစတငးျပညလးအတငးအတာအရ ေကာငးထြကႏႈနး ( သ႕ ) အထးသျဖင႔လႈငျမ႕နယရ ေကာငးထြကႏႈနး စာရငးအငး အခကအလကအခ႕ ရရေကာငးရရႏငပါသည။ " သ႔ေသာ ဤအခကအလကတ႔မာ မလေလာကပါ။ သေတသတ႔အေနျဖင႔ လႈငျမ႕နယအတြငး ကြငးဆငးစေဆာငးရရေသာ အခက အလကမား ပါ၀ငရနအေရးၾကးပါသည။ ယငးအခကအလကတ႕မာ ကေလးမား ေကာငးထြကမႈႏင႔ပတသကေသာ လပငနးမား ေဆာငရြကေနၾကသည႔ အဖြ႔အစညးမားမ ၄ငးတ႔၏ စမကနးမားက အေကာငအထညေဖာျခငးႏင႔ တးျမင႔ေဆာငရြကႏငေရးတ႔႔အတြက အသးျပႏငေသာ သတငးအခကအလကအသစမား ျဖစပါသည။

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DRAWING A PROBLEM TREE

Even before drawing a problem tree, it is recommended to read available

reference materials about the problem investigated. The more materials that are

read, the better. This may help one have a clearer view of the problem.

One effective way to try to identify the root causes and consequences of a

problem is to draw a problem tree:

(1) when drafting the project proposal or at the beginning

of the project;

(2) at the end of the project.

The first problem tree presents the level of understanding of the specific issue.

Because people at the beginning of the project may not have a thorough

knowledge of the issue, its root causes, and consequences, the problem tree is not

very precise. It may also include preconceived ideas.

After the research project is complete, a second problem tree has to be drawn

again. At this time, it is expected that the new problem tree will have much more

information than the first problem tree: For example, the number of causes and

effects about the issue will be larger. Also, all preconceived ideas hopefully will

have disappeared!

First problem tree Second problem tree

The second problem tree drawn after research usually offers a good summary of the

research findings. In some cases, it may be a good option to place this second problem

tree in the final research report.

The root causes of the issue and

the impact of the issue on the

communities are not well

identified. The knowledge of the

researchers is limited. Some of

the root causes and impact can

often be blurred and mistaken

for one another. The problem

tree before research remains

quite vague and features

generalities.

The root causes and the impact of the issue

are clearly identified and rightly placed

in relation to the issue that is studied.

Furthermore, the number of root causes and

the consequences linked to the issue or

problem under study is much larger than

those in the first problem tree. The

research process may also question some

preconceived ideas that were featured in

the problem tree before research.

After research

Consequences

Issue or Problem

Root Causes

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ျပနာအေျခအျဖစျပပ Problem Tree တစရပအားစမကနးအစပငးကာလႏင႔အဆးသတကာလတ႕တြင ေရးဆြျခငး ျပနာအေျခအျမစျပပတစရပအားမဆြသားမကပငရႏငသမေသာစာအပစာတမးအကးအကားမားကဖတရေလလာထားရနလအပသည။စာအပစာတမးမားမားဖတေလ၊ပမေကာငးမြနေလ၊ျပနာရပအေၾကာငးပမျပးရငးရငးလငးလငးနားလညေလျဖစသည။

ပနာျဖစရသည႔အေၾကာငးအရငးျမစမားႏင႔ထျပနာ၏အကးဆကမားအေၾကာငးသရႏငရနထေရာကသည႔နညးလမးတစခမာျပနာအေျခအျမစျပပ Problem Tree အား

(၁) စမကနးပနၾကားလႊာအၾကမးေရးသားေနစဥ (သ႔) စမကနးအစပငးကာလႏင႔ (၂) စမကနးအဆးသတကာလတ႔၌ ေရးဆြရန ျဖစသည။

စမကနးအစပငးကာလ၌ ေရးဆြေသာပထမ ျပနာအေျခအျမစျပပ Problem Tree သည ကစၥရပတစခႏင႔ ပတသကသည႔ သေဘာေပါကနားလညသည႔ အေျခအေနတစရပအား ကယစားျပသည။ စမကနး အေစာပငးကာလ၌ လအမားအေနျဖင႔ ျပနာျဖစရသည႔ အေၾကာငးရငးျမစမား၊ အကးဆကမားႏင႔ ျပနာရပတ႔အေၾကာငး ထထ ၀င၀င နားလညျခငး မရေသးသျဖင႔ ျပနာအေျခအျမစ ျပပတြင တငၾကယဆသည႔ စတကမား မၾကာခဏ ပါ၀ငေလ႔ ရသည။ သ႔ေသာ သေတသနစမကနး ျပးဆးသြားသည႔အခါ ဒတယျပနာ အေျခအျမစျပပ Problem Tree အသစတစရပ ထပမ၍ ေရးဆြရန လပါသည။ ဤတစၾကမတြငမ ျပနာအေျခအျမစျပပ အသစသည ပထမပထက သတငးအခက အလက ပမစလငလမမည ျဖစသည။ ဥပမာ - ျပနာတစရပ၏ ျဖစရသည႔ အေၾကာငးတရားမားႏင႔ အကး သကေရာကမႈမားတြင အခကအလက အေရအတြက ပမစလငလာေပလမ႔မည။ တငၾကစတကးထားသည႔ ယဆခက မားလညး ေပာကကြယေကာငး ေပာကကြယသြားမည။

သေတသန ျပလပျပးသကာလ ေရးဆြထားေသာဒတယ ျပနာအေျခအျမစျပပသည သေတသနလပငနး၏ ေတြ႔ရခကမားက ေကာငးစြာအႏစခပ တငျပႏငေလ႔ရသည။ အခ႕ကစၥရပမား၌ ဤဒတယျပနာ အေျခအျမစျပပ အား သေတသန၏ အျပးသတအစရငခစာတြင တငျပႏငလင ေကာငးေပသည။

ျပနာျဖစရသည႔ အေၾကာငးရငးျမစမားႏင႔ ထျပနာရပ၏ လထအေပၚ အကးသကေရာကမႈတ႕အား ေကာငးစြာ ေဖာထတထားျခငး မရေပ။ သေတသ၏ အသတရားမာလညး အကန႔အသတျဖင႔သာရ၏။ အခ႕ေသာ အေၾကာငးရငးျမစမားႏင႔ အကးသကေရာကမႈတ႕ႏင႔ ပတသကေသာအျမငမာ မႈန၀ါးလကရျပး တစခႏင႔တစခေရာ ေထြးမားယြငးေလ႔ရသည. သေတသန မလပေဆာငမေရးဆြေသာ ျပနာအေျခအျမစျပပသည ပပျပငျပင မရပ တငၾကယဆခကမားႏင႔ ေယဘယ သေဘာတရားမား ပါ၀ငေလ႔ရသည။

ျပနာျဖစရသည႔ အေၾကာငးရငးျမစမားႏင႔ ျပနာရပ၏ အကး သကေရာကမႈတ႕အား ရငးလငးစြာ ေဖာထတႏငျပး ေလ႔လာမႈျပႏငသည။ ၄ငးအျပငေလ႔လာမႈ ျပသည႔ကစၥရပ (သ႕ ) ျပနာရပ၏ ျဖစရသည႕အေၾကာငးတရားမားႏင႔ အကးသကေရာကမႈ အခကအလက အေရအတြကတ႕သညလညး ပထမ ျပနာ အေျခအျမစျပပထက ပမစလငသည။ သေတသနမျပလပမက ေရးဆြခေသာျပနာ အေျခအျမစ ျပပတြငပါ၀ငသည႔ တငၾကယဆခကမားကလညး ယခ သေတသန လပငနးစဥတြင ေမးခြနးထတေကာငး ထတလာႏငသည။

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Below is an example of a problem tree created after research is conducted. The

problem is related to health issues and does not directly address social issues. But it is

nevertheless instructive because it shows more easily the link between the problem, its

causes, and its effects or consequences.

It is also important to note that after research, the problem tree may also identify some

primary effects or consequences, and some secondary (indirect) effects or

consequences.

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ေအာကေဖာျပပါပဥပမာသည သေတသနျပလပျပးေနာက ေရးဆြထားေသာ ျပနာအေျခအျမစျပပျဖစသည။ ျပနာရပမာ ကနးမာေရးကစၥႏင ဆကႏြယျပး လမႈေရးကစၥရပမားက တကရကေဖာျပထားျခငး မရေပ။ သ႔ေသာလညး ၄ငးပမာ ျပနာကြငးဆက၊ ျဖစစဥႏင အကးအေၾကာငးမားကလြယလငတကတငျပထားသညျဖစ၍ သငေထာကကအျဖစ အသးျပထားသည။ ၄ငးအျပင မတသားရနမာလညး သေတသနအျပးတြင ျပနာအေျခအျမစျပပသည မလအကးတရား အခ႕ႏင

တဆငခ (သြယဝက) အကးတရားမားက ေဖာျပႏငသည။

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WHAT, WHO, WHY, WHERE, AND HOW?

Drawing the first problem tree is also a preliminary step in answering five

questions. Answering these five questions is essential in implementing a project and

defining the research component of the project. More generally, these five questions

are the basic questions that need to be answered in the preliminary phase of the

research design. A comprehensive treatment of ‘Research design’ is given in the

‘intermediate level’ section of this manual.

What?

Answering the ‘What?’ question means to define the issue or problem addressed.

One big difficulty for local CSOs and NGOs is the definition of an issue or a

problem that can be realistically addressed based on the human resources and

financial capacity of the organization.

Issues like ‘poverty’, ‘livelihood’, or ‘discrimination’ are too big if they are

addressed by only one NGO or CSO. All these issues have a wide range of causes

that cannot be resolved by one specific project implemented by one single

organization.

This, however, should not prevent researchers or organizations from gaining a broad

understanding of the problem, its root causes, and consequences.

Even though the organization may address only one root cause of the problem as its

project, there are benefits in doing research on its many root causes.

Who?

Another crucial issue is defining the type of population that the research team

examines. This issue is addressed several times in this manual because it depends on

whether the research team uses quantitative data based on surveys or qualitative data

based on qualitative interviews.

The ‘Who?’ question also means that the research team has to decide whether the issue

or problem is linked to (1) individuals, (2) households, or (3) groups of people (legal

associations, self-help groups, etc…). It would be wrong for a research team to

investigate an issue by using two or three of the three categories mentioned above at

the same time and for the same project. Only one category should be selected for a

specific topic.

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အဘယအရာ၊ အဘယသ၊ အဘယေၾကာင႔၊ အဘယေနရာႏင႔အဘယက႔သ႕?

ပထမျပနာ အေျခအျမစျပပအား ေရးဆြျခငးမာ ေမးခြနးငါးရပက ေျဖဆရာ၌ ေရ႕ေျပးအဆင႔လညး ျဖစသည။ ဤ ေမးခြနးငါးရပက ေျဖဆရျခငးမာ စမကနးတစရပအား အေကာငအထည ေဖာရာ၌ေသာလညးေကာငး၊ စမကနးႏင႔ သကဆငေသာ သေတသနလပငနးအပငးအား ေဖာထတသတမတရာ၌ေသာလညး မရမျဖစ အေရးပါပါသည။ ထ႔ထကပ၍ ေယဘယ ကကဆရလင အဆပါ ေမးခြနးငါးရပသည သေတသနပစ ေ႐႕ေျပးအဆငတြင ေျဖဆရန လအပသည အေျခခကေသာ ေမးခြနးမားျဖစၾကသည။ ‘သေတသနပစ’အေၾကာငးက အျပညအစက ဤလကစြစာအပပါ ‘အလယအလတအဆင’တြင ေဖာျပထားသည။

အဘယအရာ ? "အဘယအရာ" ဟသည႔ေမးခြနးအား ေျဖဆရျခငးမာ စမကနးအေနျဖင႔ မညသည႔ကစၥရပ ( သ႕ ) ျပနာရပက ကငတြယေျဖရငးျခငး ျဖစေၾကာငး ေဖာထတသတမတရျခငးျဖစသည။ ျပညတြငးစအက(စ) အမားႏင႔ အငနဂအမား အတြကၾကးမားေသာအခကအခတစရပမာ၄ငးတ႕အဖြ႔အစညး၏ဘ႑ာေရးအေျခအေနႏင႔လ႔စြမးအားအရငးအျမစ အငအားတ႔ျဖင ကငတြယ ေျဖရငးႏငမညကစၥရပ ( သ႕ ) ျပနာတစရပအားလကေတြ႕ ကကေဖာထတ သတမတရျခငးျဖစသည။

“ဆငးရမြေတမႈ”၊ “အသကေမြး၀မးေၾကာငးမႈ”၊ “ခြျခားဆကဆျခငး” စသညက႔သ႔ေသာ ကစၥရပမား အငနဂအ ( သ႕ ) စအကစအ တစခတညးအတြက အလြနပငၾကးမားေသာ ကစၥရပမား ျဖစသည။ အဆပါကစၥရပမားက အလြနပင ကယျပန႔ေသာ ေနာကခ အေၾကာငးရငးျမစမား ရၾကျပး အဖြ႔အစညး တစရပတညးမ ေဖာေဆာငေသာ စမကနး တစရပတညးျဖင ေျဖရငးႏငလမ႔မည မဟတေပ။

သ႔ေသာလညး ယငးအတြကေၾကာင သေတသမား (သ႔) အဖြ႕အစညးမားအေနျဖင ျပနာရပ၏ မလဇစျမစႏင အကးဆကမားက ကယကယျပန႔ျပန႔ နားလညေအာင ျပလပေရးအတြက အဟန႔အတား မျဖစေစသငေပ။ အဖြ႕အစညး အေနႏင စမကနးအရ ျပနာ ဇစျမစတစခတညးသာ တငျပႏငေစကာမ ဇစျမစေျမာကျမားစြာက သေတသနလပျခငးေၾကာင အကးေကးဇး ႐စျမပင ျဖစသည။ အဘယသ ? သေတသနအဖြ႔အေနျဖင႔ ေလ႔လာမႈ ျပမည႔လအပစအားသတမတရျခငးသညအေရးပါေသာအျခားအခက တစရပ ျဖစပါသည။ ဤကစၥႏင႔ပတသက၍ ဤလကစြစာမတြင အၾကမအေတာမားမား ေဖာျပသြားမညျဖစသည။ အဘယေၾကာင႔ဆေသာ ၄ငးသညသေတသနအဖြ႔မ စစတမးမားအေပၚ အေျခခသည႔ အေရအတြကစထား ေဒတာ အခကအလကမားကအသးျပသေလာ၊ သ႔တညးမဟတ အရညအေသြးစထား အငတာဗးမားအေပၚအေျချပသည႔ အရညအေသြးစထား ေဒတာအခကအလကမားက အသးျပသေလာဆသည႔ အခကအေပၚ မတညေသာေၾကာင႔ ဤ “အဘယသ” ဟေသာေမးခြနးသည သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင႔ ေလ႔လာမည႔ကစၥရပ ( သ႕ ) ျပနာရပသည ( ၁ ) လပဂၢလမား ( ၂ ) အမေထာငစမား ( ၃ ) လအပစမား ( အသငးအဖြမား၊ ကယထကယထအဖြ႔မား စသည) ဟ၍ မညသတ႕ႏင႔ ပတသကလကရသညကလညး ဆးျဖတရန ျဖစသည။ သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင႔ အထကတြင ေဖာျပခ႔ေသာ အပစသးခမႏစစ ( သ႕ ) သးစက စမကနးတစခတညးတြင တစခနတညး ေလ႔လာစးစမးရန အသးျပပါက မားယြငးေပလမ႔မည။ ကစၥရပတစခအတြက အပစတစစကသာ ေရြးခယသငပါမည။

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After deciding whether the research issue is linked to individuals, households,

groups of people, etc…., the research team defines more precisely the criteria

associated with the category of population which is studied. For instance, if the

research project studies individuals, the team may select the following criteria: age

of the individuals, gender of the individuals, educational background of individuals,

etc… The decision to include one or more of these criteria depends on how each

criterion is relevant to the research topic. The same is valid whether the research project studies households or groups of

people, although the criteria may be different.

Why? The research team has to answer the ‘Why?’ question. This means: why does the

research team focus on this issue or problem? The main reason, of course, is that

this issue affects the communities that are targeted by the project. The research

team may have some ideas about why the issue or problem emerges at a specific

time and in particular place or is already so acute at a specific time and in particular

place. In this case, the research team conducts research in order to check whether

these ideas are valid and how solutions to the issue can be found.

A research team examines the issue of child drop out. The population selected for the research is a large number of children who dropped out of school. These children are all (1) individuals. The team may contact parents, teachers, and school directors for the study. But the population that is exclusively examined here consists of drop-out kids.

For a research project focusing on access to water, it is

relevant to study the (2) household. Because access to water is

shared within one household or one family, it makes sense to

study this issue among households only.

A research project studies how community forestry is managed

among (3) self-organized groups of villagers in a mountainous

area. The research team contacts heads of villages, villagers,

government authorities, and other stakeholders. The research,

however, uses groups of villagers as category of population that

is under study because it studies how these different groups

interact with each other in order to manage community forestry

collectively and sustainably.

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သေတသနအဖြ႔တစဖြ႕သညကေလးမား ေကာငးထြကသည႔ကစၥရပအား ေလ႔လာမႈျပသည။သေတသနအတြက ေရြးခယလကေသာလဥးေရမာ ေကာငးထြကသြားေသာ ကေလးမား အေရအတြကပမာဏၾကး ျဖစသည။ ဤကေလးမားမာ ( ၁ ) လပဂၢလမား ျဖစသည။ သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင႔ ေလ႔လာမႈ ျပရနအတြကမဘမား၊ ဆရာမားႏင႔၊ ေကာငးအပခပသမားအား ဆကသြယႏငပါသည။ သ႕ေသာဤ ေနရာတြငတသးတသန႔ေလ႔လာမႈျပ ေသာလဥးေရမာ ေကာငးထြကသည႔ ကေလးမားသာ ျဖစသည။

ေရသးစြမႈႏင႔ ပတသကသည႔ သေတသနစမကနးတစရပ အတြကမ ( ၂ ) အမေထာငစမားသည ေလ႔လာမႈျပရန အတြက သင႔ေလာပါသည။ အဘယေၾကာင႔ဆေသာ ေရသးစြမႈသည အမေထာငစတစစ ( သ႕ ) မသားစတစစအတြက ေ၀မသးစြျခငး ျဖစသည႔အတြက ဤကစၥရပႏင႔ပတသက၍ အမေထာငစမားအား ေလ႔လာမႈ ျပျခငးသညသာ အဓပၸါယရပါသည။

သေတသနစမကနးတစရပသည ေတာငတနးေဒသတစခရ ( ၃ ) ကယထကယထ ဖြ႔စညးထားသည႔ ေကးရြာသားအပစမားသည ေကးရြာပငသစေတာစကခငးအားမညက႔သ႕ စမခန႔ခြၾကသညက ေလ႔လာမႈျပသည။ သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင႔ ေကးရြာမား၏ ေခါငးေဆာငမား၊ ေကးရြာသားမား၊ အစးရအာဏာပငမားႏင႔ အျခား ပတသကဆကႏြယသမားအားလညး ဆကသြယပါသည။ သ႕ေသာ လညးသေတသန အေနျဖင႔ ေကးရြာသား အပစမားကသာ ေလ႔လာမည လဥးေရအမးအစားအျဖစ အသးျပပါသည။ အဘယ႔ေၾကာင႔ဆေသာ သေတသန အေနျဖင႔ ဤမတကြျပားျခားနားသည႔ အပစမားအေနျဖင႔ ေကးရြာပငသစေတာစကခငးအား ေရရညတည႔တ႔ေသာ နညးလမးျဖင႔စေပါငး၍ စမခန႔ခြၾကရနအခငးခငးမညက႕သ႕ အျပနအလန ေဆာငရြကၾကသည႔က ေလ႔လာလေသေေေၾကာင႔ျဖစသည။

သေတသနျပမည႔ကစၥရပသည လပဂၢလမား၊ အမေထာငစမား၊ လအပစမား စသည မညသည႔အပစအမးအစားႏင႔ စပဆငသညက ဆးျဖတျပးသကာလ သေတသနအဖြ႔သည ေလ႔လာမည႔အပစႏင႔ပတသက၍ ပ၍တကစြာ ေဖာထတ သတမတႏငရန ဆးျဖတခကမား ဆကလကျပလပရေပမည။ သာဓကအေနျဖင႔ အကယ၍သေတသနစမကနးသည လပဂၢလမားက ေလ႔လာပါက သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင႔ အဆပါလပဂၢလမား၏ - အသကအရြယ၊ ကားမ၊ ပညာေရး အေျခအေနစသညျဖင႔ မညသည႔သတမတခကတ႕အား အသးျပမညက ဆကလကဆးျဖတရပါမည။ မညသည႔ သတမတခကတ႕အေနျဖင႔ သေတသန ေခါငးစဥႏင႔မညသ႕ဆကစပမႈရသညဆသည႔အခကအေပၚမတညပါသည။ သတမတခကတ႕ကြျပားမႈရေသာျငားလညး သေတသနအေနျဖင႔ အမေထာငစမား၊ လအပစမားက ေလ႔လာမႈ ျပပါကလညး ဤက႔သ႕ပငျပရပါသည။

အဘယေၾကာင႔ ? သေတသနအဖြ႔အေနျဖင႔ “အဘယေၾကာင႔” ဟသည႔ ေမးခြနးကလညး ေျဖဆရပါသည။ ဆလသညမာ - သေတသန အဖြ႔အေနျဖင႔ ဤမညေသာ ကစၥရပ ( သ႕ ) ျပနာရပအား အဘယေၾကာင႔ အာရထားေလ႔လာရသနညးဟ၍ ျဖစပါသည။ မနပါသည။ အဓကအေၾကာငးအရငးမာ အဆပါကစၥရပသည စမကနးမ ပစမတထားသည႔ လထအေပၚ ဆးကးမား သကေရာကမႈ ရေသာ ေၾကာင႔ဟသည႔ အခကပင ျဖစပါသည။ သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင အဆပါကစၥရပ (သ႔) ျပနာရပသည အဘယေၾကာငတစတရာေသာအခနကာလ၊ တစတရာေသာ အေျခအေနတစရပတြင ေပၚေပါကလာသည၊ သ႔တညးမဟတ အဘယေၾကာင တစတရာေသာ အခနကာလ၊ တစတရာေသာ အေျခအေန တစရပတြင ျပငးထနစြာ ျဖစပြားရသညက အနညးႏငအမား ၾကတငသႏငျပး ျဖစႏငသည။ ဤတြင သေတသနအဖြ႕သည ယငးၾကတင သ႐ထားခကမားသည မနကနအကးဝငမႈ႐မ႐ႏင ျပနာ ေျဖ႐ငးမညနညးလမးမားက မညသ႔မညပ ႐ာေဖြေတြ႕႐ႏငမညက ရညသနျပး သေတသန ျပလပေတာသည။

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When answering the ‘Why?’ question, concrete examples of how the issue affects these

communities should be given. There may also be many other reasons that explain why

an organization conducts projects in a certain field of activities and why the

organization conducts research about this problem before implementing the project

itself. These reasons have to be clearly stated in any documents produced by the

organization.

Where? Myanmar is a very diverse country with many different geographical, social and

economic contexts. The team in charge of conducting research on a specific issue has

to decide where the research project is going to be conducted. Depending on the

organization’s background and scope of activities, the location of the projects will be

different. The selection of the place also has to consider the language issue: For

example, in areas where the Myanmar language is not widely spoken, can the research

be conducted using Myanmar-language materials and Myanmar-language interviewers

only? Translating survey materials from the Myanmar into the local language and

hiring local translators will probably be two issues to seriously consider when the

location of the project is decided.

How?

Answering the ‘How?’ question is primarily about whether the research will rely on

quantitative data, qualitative data, or both. All this will eventually depend on the

human resources and the financial capacity available to the organization. In terms of

human resources, it depends on the research skills and experience of those conducting

the research. After deciding whether to use quantitative research, qualitative research, or both, the

research team has to decide how to collect the data (i.e. which research methods will be

used).

TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THIS CHAPTER ARE:

How conducting research at the beginning of a project must expand knowledge about an issue or problem that affects communities;

The importance of drawing a problem tree at the beginning of a project and at

the end;

The importance of answering the five questions: What, Who, Why, Where, and How?

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‘အဘယေၾကာင?’ ဆေသာေမးခြနးက ေျဖဆရာတြင ျပနာရပမားသည ရပ႐ြာအစအဖြ႕မားအား မညသ႔မညပ ထခက ေစသညက ခငမာေျချမစေသာ ဥပမာမားျဖင ျပဆရန လအပသည။ အဖြ႔အစညးတစရပအေနျဖင႔ အဘယေၾကာင႔ အခ႕ေသာ လပငနးနယပယမားက ေရြးခယ၍ စမကနးမား ေဆာငရြကရျခငးႏင႔ စမကနး မစတငမ အဘယေၾကာင႔ သေတသန လပေဆာငရျခငး ဆသညတ႔ႏငပတသက၍ အျခားေသာ အေၾကာငးအရငးမားစြာ ရေသးပါသည။ ထအေၾကာငးအရငးမားက အဖြ႔အစညးမ ျပစသည႔မတတမး မတရာမားတြင ရငးလငးစြာ ေဖာျပသင႔ပါသည။ အဘယေနရာ ? မနမာႏငငသညကြျပားစလငမႈမားေသာတငးျပညတစျပညျဖစပါသည။လမးစမားလညးမား ျပားစြာရပါသည။ နယေျမ ေဒသမား၊လမႈစးပြားဘ၀မားအဖဖစလငကြျပားစြာရပါသည။ကစၥရပတစခႏင႔ပတသက၍သေတသနလပေဆာငမည႔အဖြ႕ အေနျဖင႔မညသည႔ ေနရာေဒသတြငသေတသနစမကနးလပေဆာငရမညကဆးျဖတရပါမည။ ဤအခကသည အသကေမြး၀မး ေၾကာငးစမကနးၾကးတစရပလးအေနျဖင႔မညသည႔ ေနရာတြငအေကာငအထည ေဖာသည ( သ႕မဟတ ) အဖြ႕အစညး အေနျဖင႔ အသကေမြး၀မးေၾကာငးမႈဆငရာ ျပနာရပမားကမညသည႔အရပတြင ကငတြယေျဖရငး သင႔ ေလာ သညဟေသာ ဆးျဖတခကတ႕အေပၚမတညပါသည။အဖြ႔အစညး၏ ေနာကခအေနအထား၊လပငနး ေဆာငတာတ႕၏ ကယျပန႔မႈအတငး အတာမား ေပၚမတည၍စမကနး ေနရာမားကြျပားလမ႔မည ျဖစပါသည။ ေနရာေဒသ ေ႐ြးခယရာတြင ဘာသာစကား အခကအခကလညးထညသြငးစဥးစားရမည။ဥပမာ ျမနမာဘာသာစကားအသးမမားေသာအရပတြင ျမနမာ ဘာသာသး စာ႐ြကစာတမးမား၊ ျမနမာစကားေျပာလေတြ႕ေမးျမနးသမားခညးျဖငသာသေတသနလပ၍မရႏငေခ။စစတမးလႊာမားအား ျမနမာဘာသာမ ေဒသယဘာသာစကားသ႔ ျပနဆျခငးႏင ေဒသခမားအားဘာသာျပနအျဖစငားရမးျခငးတ႔သညစမကနး ျပလပမည ေနရာေဒသ ေ႐ြးခယရာတြငအေလးအနကစဥးစားရမညကစၥရပႏစခ ျဖစလာႏငသည။

အဘယသ႕ ? “အဘယသ႕နညး”ဟေသာ ေမးခြနးက ေျဖဆရနမာသေတသနအေနျဖငအရညအခငးဆငရာ (သ႔) အေရအတြက ဆငရာ (သ႔) ယငးႏစမးစလးမလာေသာ ေဒတာအခကအလကမားအနက မညသညက အေျခခမညက စဥးစားျခငးျဖစသည။ ေနာကဆး၌၄ငးအခကသညအဖြ႕အစညး၏လအငအား၊ ေငြအငအားေပၚတြငသာမတညသြားသည။ လအငအားေပၚမတည၍ ဆရပါမသေတသန ျပလပမညသမား၏သေတသနလပငနးပငးကၽြမးကငမႈႏငအေတြ႕အၾကေပၚတြငမတညသည။

အရညအခငးသေတသန (သ႔) အေရအတြကသေတသန (သ႔) ယငးႏစမးစလးကအသးျပရနဆးျဖတျပးပါက သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင ေဒတာမညသ႔ ေကာကယရမညကဆကလကဆးျဖတရမည။ (ဆလသညမာအသးျပမည သေတသနနညးလမးအား ေ႐ြးခယျခငးပင။) အႏစခပရလငဤအခနးတြငပါ၀ငေသာမတသားရနအဓကအခကမားမာ စမကနး၏ အစပငးကာလ၌ ျပလပေသာ သေတသနအေနျဖင႔ လထအေပၚ ဆးယတနစနာေစေသာ ကစၥရပ (သ႕)

ျပနာရပႏင႔ပတသကေသာ အသပညာက မညက႔သ႕ျပန႔ပြားေစပ

သေတသနစမကနးတစရပ၏ အစပငးႏင႔ အဆးသတကာလာတ႔၌ ျပနာအေျခအျမစျပပ ( Problem Tree )

ဆြျခငး၏ အေရးပါပ

“အဘယအရာ၊ အဘယသ၊ အဘယေၾကာင႔၊ အဘယေနရာႏင႔ အဘယက႔သ႔” ဟေသာ ေမးခြနးငါးရပအား

ေျဖဆရန အေရးၾကးပတ႕ ျဖစပါသည။

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BASIC 2. QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT: The main features of ‘quantitative research’;

The main features of ‘qualitative research’;

The difference between ‘quantitative research’ and ‘qualitative research’;

The notion of a ‘variable’ linked to a problem or issue;

The use and measurement of a ‘variable’ in quantitative and qualitative research.

_____________________________________________________________________

There are three broad types of investigation for conducting social research. Selecting

the suitable type depends on the level of knowledge about the issue or problem

addressed. Sometimes, the knowledge of the issue and problem under study is very

limited. Sometimes, it is quite advanced. Social research can therefore be conducted

through the following three approaches:

-Exploratory, meaning that the researcher tries to gain a preliminary

understanding of the situation under study, because there is no or little

preexisting knowledge about the problem under study;

-Descriptive, meaning that the researcher tries to measure the issue under study

so as expand the existing knowledge about the problem under study;

-Explanatory, meaning that the researcher tries to find out some connections

between different aspects of the situation under study.

In many cases, research projects can combine two or three of these different aspects.

All this depends on the nature of the research topic, the level of knowledge about the

topic, and the human and financial resources available to the project. Also, it should

be remembered there are no clear-cut boundaries between these three aspects: in

some studies, these aspects can overlap.

Let’s take the example of a research on Karen communities living

in the Ayeyawaddi Division.

An exploratory aspect of the research is about identifying Karen

communities in the overall population of the division.

A descriptive aspect of the research is about the level of land

and food security typical in these Karen communities.

An explanatory aspect of the research is about finding out some of

the causes linked to poverty among the Karen communities.

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အေျခခအဆင၂. အရညအေသြးစျပႏငအေရအတြကစျပသေတသန

ဤပ႔ခခကသည ‘အေရအတြကစျပသေတသန’ ၏ အဓကလကၡဏာမား ‘အရညအေသြးစျပသေတသန’ ၏ အဓကလကၡဏာမား ‘အေရအတြကစျပ’ ႏင ‘အရညအေသြးစျပ’ သေတသနအၾကား ျခားနားခက ကနးရငတစလးႏင ျပနာ (ဝါ) ကစၥရပၾကားဆကႏြယပ အေရအတြကစျပႏင အရညအေသြးစျပသေတသနမ ကနးရငတစခ၏ အသးျပပႏင အတငးအတာ

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

သေတသနျပလပရန အကယအားျဖင နညးလမးသးခ႐သည။ သငေတာသည နညးလမးက ေရြးခယရာတြင ကငတြယမည ျပနာရပႏင ပတသကျပး သရနားလညထားမႈ အေပၚမတညသည။ ေလလာေနသည ျပနာရပအေပၚ သရနားလညထားမႈမာ တခါတရနညးပါးသေလာက တခါတရတြငလညး မားျပားေနတတသည။ သ႔ျဖစပါ၍ လမႈလပငနးစဥ သေတသနအား ေအာကပါခဥးကပနညးသးမးျဖင ျပလပႏငသည။

-ပဏာမစးစမးေရး (Exploratory)။ ။ဤတြင ေလလာဆ ျပနာရပႏင စပလဥးျပး တငၾကသ႐ထားမႈ အနညးငယမ (သ႔) လးဝမရေသာေၾကာင သေတသအေနႏင ေလလာဆ အေနအထားတစရပက ပဏာမ နားလညမႈရရေစရန ျပလပျခငးျဖစသည။

-ေဖာျပညႊနးဆေရး (Descriptive)။ ။သေတသအေနႏင ေလလာဆကစၥရပ၏ အတမအနကက အတအကသရႏင ေစရန အလ႔ငာေလလာဆ ျပနာရပႏငပတသကေသာရရငးစြ သရနားလညမႈကခ႕ထြငျခငးျဖစသည။

-႐ငးလငးတငျပေရး (Explanatory)။ ။သေတသမ ေလလာဆအေျခအေနတစခ၏ ဘကေပါငးစအၾကား ဆကႏြယမႈအခ႕က ေဖာထတရန ၾကးစားျခငးျဖစသည။ (အထးသျဖငအကးတရားႏင အေၾကာငးတရားမား)

မားေသာအားျဖင သေတသနလပငနးမားတြင ေဖာျပပါနညးလမး ႏစခသးခေလာကက ေပါငးစပျပးအသးျပေလ ရၾက သည။ ဤသ႔ေဆာငရြကႏငရနမာ သေတသနျပလပမည အေၾကာငးအရာ၏ သေဘာသဘာဝ၊ ၄ငးအေၾကာငးအရာ ႏင ပတသကေသာဗဟသတ၊ စမကနးအတြက ရတတသမေသာ လအငအား၊ ေငြေၾကးအငအားတ႔ေပၚတြင လးလးလားလား မတညပါသည။ အဆပါ နညးလမးသးသြယအၾကား တကျပတသားေသာ နယနမတ သတမတခက မရသညကလညး သတထားသငပါသည။ အခ႕ေသာ ေလလာမႈမားတြင ထနညးလမးမားမာ တစခႏငတစခ ဆကစပေရာထပလက ရႏငသည။

ဧရာဝတတငးတြင ေနထငၾကသည ကရငလမး အစအဖြ႕မားက ေလလာေသာ သေတသနအား ဥပမာအျဖစယရေသာ သေတသန၏ ပဏာမ စးစမးသညအပငးမာ အဆပါ ကရငလမး အစအဖြ႕မားအား တတငးလး႐ လဥးေရ မ ႐ာေဖြ ေဖာထတျခငးျဖစသည။

သေတသန၏ ေဖာျပညႊနးဆသညအပငးမာ အဆပါ ကရငအစအဖြ႕မား၏ ေျမယာအာမခခကႏင စားနပရကၡာလေလာကမႈ ပမနအဆငသတမတခက ျဖစသည။

သေတသန၏ ရငးလငးတငျပသညအပငးမာ ကရင အစအဖြ႕မားၾကား ဆငးရမြေတမႈ ျဖစေပၚေစသည အေၾကာငးတရားအခ႕က ရာေဖြေဖာထတျခငးျဖစသည။

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For each of these ways of conducting social research, data may be collected by using

qualitative research methods. This means using interviews with the people directly or

indirectly linked with the issue under study.

The data may also be collected by using quantitative research methods. This means

surveying the people directly linked with the issue under study.

Research can therefore be qualitative and quantitative.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

The examples given previously show that quantitative research produces statistical

data. Quantitative research focuses on numerical measurement. It frequently uses the

survey as its main research method.

Final research reports usually contain statistical data and percentages that more easily

catch the attention of the reader.

If researchers study livelihoods of Karen communities in the

Ayeyawaddi Division (like in the previous example), they can

produce both qualitative and quantitative research.

Quantitative research with an exploratory purpose produces a

percentage of the Karen population among the entire population of

the Ayeyawaddi division and assesses its poverty level.

Qualitative research with the same exploratory purpose gives

insights into whether livelihood difficulties among Karen

communities are different from those of other communities in the

Ayeyawaddi division or not.

Quantitative research with a descriptive purpose produces

percentages of levels of land tenure and food production among

Karen communities.

Qualitative research with the same descriptive purpose gives

insights into the range of difficulties encountered by Karen

communities for attaining land and food security.

Finally, quantitative research with an explanatory purpose

attempts to determine statistically if a link between land and

food security does exist among these Karen communities.

Qualitative research with the same purpose investigates whether

these Karen communities perceive a possible link between land and

food security in the context of their villages.

There are therefore many ways in which a research project can be

carried out: there is no single way to conduct research on a

specific topic.

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လမႈလပငနးစဥ သေတသနျပလပသည အဆပါ နညးလမးတစခခငးစအတြက ေဒတာအခကအလကမားအား အရည အေသြးသေတသနနညးမား အသးျပျပးရ႐ႏငသည။ ေလလာဆျပနာ (သ႔) ကစၥရပႏင တကရကေသာလညးေကာငး၊ သြယဝက၍ေသာလညးေကာငး ဆကစပေနေသာ လမားအား လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးျခငးက ဆလသည။ အေရအတြကနညး က အသးျပ၍လညး ေဒတာအခကအလက ေကာကယႏငပါေသးသည။ ဤအတြက ေလလာသည ကစၥရပႏင တက႐က ဆကႏြယသမားအား စစတမးေကာကယရပါမည။

သ႔ျဖစပါ၍ သေတသနမာ အရညအေသြးပငးေရာ အေရအတြကပငးပါ ျဖစႏငပါသည။

အေရအတြကသေတသန (QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH)

ေ႐႕တြငေဖာျပခေသာ ဥပမာမားအရ အေရအတြကသေတသနသည စာရငးအငးအခကအလကမား (statistical data) ရ႐ေစႏငသည။ အေရအတြကသေတသနသည တငးတာခကေပၚတြင အာ႐စကသည။ မားေသာအားျဖင စစတမးေကာကယျခငးအား အဓကသေတသနနညးလမးအျဖစ အသးျပသည။ သေတသနအစရငခစာ အေခာသတတြင စာဖတသမား အာ႐စကေလာကေသာ စာရငးဇယား အခကအလကမားႏင ရာခငႏနးမား ပါ႐ေလ ႐သည။

အကယ၍ (ေ႐႕ဥပမာတြငကသ႔) သေတသမားသည ဧရာဝတတငးရ ကရငလမးအစအဖြ႕မား၏ အသကေမြးမႈ လပငနးမားအား ေလလာသညဆပါက အရညအေသြးဆငရာႏင အေရအတြကဆငရာ သေတသန ႏစမးစလးက ရ႐ႏငသည။ ပဏာမ စးစမးရန ရည႐ြယေသာ အေရအတြက သေတသနသည ဧရာဝတ တစတငးလး၏ လဥးေရမ ကရငလဥးေရ ရာခငႏနးက ရ႐ေစျပး ၄ငးပမာဏ၏ ဆငးရမြေတမႈ ေရခနက ဆနးစစႏငသည။ ဤကသ႔ပင ပဏာမ စးစမးရန ရည႐ြယေသာ အရညအေသြး သေတသနသည အဆပါ ကရငလမး အစအဖြ႕မား၏ အသကေမြးမႈဆငရာ အခကအခမားႏင ဧရာဝတတငးမ အျခားလမး အစအဖြ႕မား၏ အခကအခမားတ႔ တညမႈ ႐မ႐က သ႐နားလညေစသည။ ေဖာျပညႊနးဆရန ရည႐ြယေသာ အေရအတြက သေတသနသည ကရင အစအဖြ႕မားတြငး ေျမပငဆငခြင အဆငသတမတခက ႏင စားနပရကၡာထြက႐မႈတ႔က ရာခငႏနးျဖင ေဖာျပသည။ ထ႔နညးတပင ေဖာျပညႊနးဆရန ရည႐ြယေသာ အရညအေသြး သေတသနသည ေျမယာ အာမခခကႏင စားနပရကၡာ လေလာကမႈ ရ႐ေရးအတြက ကရငအစအဖြ႕မား ရငဆငေနရေသာ အခကအခ ေျမာကျမားစြာအား သျမငနားလညေစသည။ ေနာကဆးတစချဖစသည ႐ငးလငးတငျပရန ရည႐ြယေသာ အေရအတြက သေတသနသည အဆပါ ကရငအစအဖြ႕မားအတြငး ေျမယာအာမခခကႏင စားနပရကၡာဖလမႈၾကား ဆကႏြယခကတစခ ႐မ႐က စာရငးဇယား ကနးဂဏာနးမားျဖင အဆးအျဖတျပရန အားထတသည။ အလားတ ေဖာျပညႊနးဆရန ရည႐ြယေသာ အရညအေသြး သေတသနသည အဆပါ ကရငအစအဖြ႕မားအေနျဖင ၄ငးတ႔ ေကး႐ြာမား၏ ပကတ အေနအထားတြင ေျမယာအာမခခကႏင စားနပရကၡာဖလမႈၾကား ဆကႏြယမႈ ႐ႏငသည ဆေသာအခကက သျမငလကခထားျခငး ႐မ႐ စးစမးေလလာသည။ သ႔ျဖစပါ၍ သေတသန စမကနးတစရပ အေကာငအထညေဖာရန နညးလမးအဖဖ႐သည။ ကစၥရပတစခက သေတသနျပရာတြင နညးလမးတစသြယတညး ႐သညမဟတေပ။

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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

In contrast to quantitative research, qualitative research does not focus on numerical

measurement. The examples given previously show that qualitative research tries to

illustrate the deep meaning of the problems under study. Qualitative research typically

examines individual cases. It frequently uses interviews and field observations without

strict numerical measurement.

Qualitative research eventually produces findings that are richer in meaning and

complex in details. Final research reports usually contain lots of observations,

testimonies, and also interpretations of these observations by the researcher.

VARIABLE

Quantitative research and qualitative research involve collecting information related to

a problem or an issue under study. Very often, however, final research reports are

vague and do not contain any new information about the problem or issue that was

examined. One of the main reasons for this lack of information is that the researcher

did not think about how the problem or issue could be broken down into one or two

variables. Also the researcher did not think how such variables could be measured.

At the beginning of a research project, it is important for the researcher to consider how

the problem under examination can be broken down into variables that will be

measured.

A variable is anything that can have different values. Height, weight, age, race, and

attitude are variables because there are different heights, weights, ages, races, and

attitudes. By contrast, if something cannot vary, then it is referred to as a constant.

Broadly speaking, quantitative researchers usually work with a few variables and many

cases, whereas qualitative researchers usually rely on a few cases and many variables.

In the example given previously about the livelihood of Karen

communities in the Ayeyawaddi Division, the problem of livelihood

is very broad. It is difficult to study as such. The researcher

has to decide which aspects of livelihood will be studied. The

researcher makes this decision after drawing the problem tree

(discussed in a previous lesson) and identifying the root causes

and consequences of this problem.

It was suggested previously that land security and food security

are important aspects of livelihood. These two aspects (land

security and food security) can be chosen by the researcher as

variables under examination.

Another variable for the research topic of livelihood could be

income generation.

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အရညအေသြးသေတသန (QUALITATIVE RESEARCH)

အေရအတြက သေတသနႏင ဆန႔ကငစြာပင အရညအေသြးသေတသနသည ကနးဂဏနး တငးတာခကမားေပၚတြင အသား မေပးေခ။ ေ႐႕တြငေဖာျပခေသာ ဥပမာမားအရ အရညအေသြးသေတသနသည ေလလာဆ ျပနာသ႔မဟတ ကစၥရပမား၏ နကနေသာ သေဘာသဘာဝက သ႐ပျပ႐ငးလငးႏငရန အားထတသည။ ေယဘယအားျဖင အရညအေသြး သေတသနသည လတစဥး တစေယာကခငးစ၏ အမႈကစၥမားအား ဆနးစစေလလာသည။ တကလြနးေသာ ကနးဂဏနးတငးတာခကမား မပါဝငဘ လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးမႈမားႏင ကြငးဆငးေလလာမႈမားကသာ အမားဆးအသးျပသည။ အဆးသတတြင အရညအေသြး သေတသနသည အဓပၸါယျပညဝျပး အေသးစတအားျဖင ႐ပေထြးေသာ ေတြ႕႐ခကမားက ရ႐ေစသည။ သေတသနအစရငခစာ အေခာသတတြင စးစမးေလလာမႈႏင သကေသျပခက အေျမာကအျမားသာမက အဆပါ ေလလာခကမားအေပၚ သေတသ၏ အဓပၸါယေကာကယမႈမားပါ ပါဝငပါသည။ ကနး႐င (VARIABLE)

အေရအတြကႏင အရညအေသြး သေတသနမားမာ ေလလာဆ ျပနာ သ႔မဟတ ကစၥရပတစခႏင ပတသကေသာ သတငးအခကအလကမား စေဆာငးျခငးျဖစသည။ သ႔ေသာလညး အေခာသတ အစရငခစာမားမာ မားေသာအားျဖင ႐ငးလငးမႈမ႐ပ ေလလာဆနးစစခေသာ ျပနာ သ႔မဟတ ကစၥအေၾကာငးႏင ပတသကေသာ အခကအလက အသစ မပါဝငေတာေပ။ ဤသ႔ သတငးအခကအလက ကငးမရျခငး၏ အဓကအေၾကာငးရငးတစခမာ သေတသအေနႏင ျပနာ (သ႔) ကစၥရပအား ကနး႐င တစခႏစခေလာကအျဖစမညသ႔မညပ ေျပာငးလ၍ရႏငသညက မစဥးစားခေသာ ေၾကာင ျဖစသည။ ထ႔အျပငလညး သေတသသည အဆပါကနး႐ငအား မညသ႔မညပ တငးတာ၍ ရႏငသညက မစဥးစားခေသာေၾကာင ျဖစသည။ သေတသနလပငနး၏ အစဥးပငးကတညးက သေတသအေနျဖင ေလလာဆနးစစဆ ျပနာအား တငးတာရန ကနး႐ငမားအျဖစ မညသ႔ေျပာငးလရမညက စဥးစားထားရန အေရးၾကးသည။

မတကြျပားေသာ တနဖးမား ႐ႏငေသာ မညသညအရာကမဆ ကနး႐င (variable) ဟ သတမတႏငသည။ အရပ၊ ကယ အေလးခန၊ အသက၊ လမး၊ စတေနစတထားတ႔မာ ကနး႐ငမား ျဖစၾကသည။ အဘယေၾကာငဆေသာ ကြျပားျခားနား ေသာအရပ၊ ကယအေလးခန၊ အသက၊ လမး၊ စတေနစတထားတ႔ ႐ေသာေၾကာငျဖစသည။ ဤသ႔မဟတပ ကြလြမႈ မ႐ႏငေသာ အရာ႐ပါက ၄ငးအားကနးေသ (constant) တစခအျဖစ သတမတသည။ အလြယဆရပါမ အေရအတြက သေတသမားသည ကနး႐ငနညးနညးႏင ကစၥရပေျမာကျမားစြာအား အလပလပေလ႐သည၌ အရညအေသြး သေတသ မားသည ကစၥရပနညးနညးႏင ကနး႐င အမားအျပားအေပၚတြင အားကးအားထားျပသည။

ေ႐႕တြင ေဖာျပထားခေသာ ဧရာဝတတငးတြင႐ ကရငအစအဖြ႕မား၏ အသကေမြးဝမးေကာငးလပငနး အေၾကာငး ဥပမာတြင အသကေမြးဝမးေကာငးမႈ ျပနာဆသညမာ အလြနကယျပန႔လြနးသည။ ဤအတငးေလလာရန ခကခသည။ အသကေမြးဝမးေကာငးလပငနး၏ မညသည အစတအပငးအား ေလလာမညဆသည က သေတသအေနျဖင ဆးျဖတရနလအပသည။ သေတသသည (ေ႐႕သငခနးစာတြင ေဆြးေႏြးခသည) ျပနာဇစျမစျပဇယား (problem tree) ဆြသားျပး ၄ငးျပနာ၏ ပဓာန အေၾကာငးတရားမားႏင အကးသကေရာကမႈမားအား ေဖာထတျပးမ အဆပါ ဆးျဖတခကက ခမတေလ႐သည။ ေ႐႕တြငေဖာျပခသညအတငးပင ေျမယာအာမခခကႏင စားနပရကၡာလေလာကမႈတ႔သည အသကေမြးဝမးေကာငးမႈ၏ အေရးၾကးေသာ အစတအပငးမားျဖစၾကသည။ အဆပါ အစတအပငးႏစခ (ေျမယာအာမခခကႏင စားနပရကၡာလေလာကမႈ) အား သေတသသည ေလလာဆနးစစရန ကနး႐ငမားအျဖစ ေ႐ြးခယႏငသည။ ဝငေငြစးဆငးမႈမာလညး အသကေမြးဝမးေကာငးဆငရာ သေတသန ေခါငးစဥအတြက ေနာကထပ ျဖစႏငစရာ ကနး႐ငတစချဖစသည။

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Besides values, a variable has also attributes. Attributes are characteristics that describe

a person, an object, and an abstract thing.

For one variable under study, there are many attributes. If is often important for

researchers to use different research methods to study a variable. If financial and

human resources allow and time is sufficient, researchers would benefit from

investigating a variable in quantitative and qualitative ways.

Here is a list of variable with some suggested attributes. It is the researcher’s

responsibility to define these attributes.

VARIABLE

ATTRIBUTE

age young, middle aged, old

gender female, male

occupation plumber, journalist, driver

nationality Myanmar, Japanese,

Australian

social class upper, middle, lower-class

political views conservative, liberal, non-

partisan

interest in politics

low, moderate, high

For the research on the livelihood of Karen communities in the

Ayeyawaddi Division, the two variables suggested (‘land security’

and ‘food security’) can have different values: land security and

food security may be low, moderate, or high.

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ကနး႐ငတစခတြင တနဖးအျပင အဂၤါရပမား (attributes) လညး ႐သည။ အဂၤါရပမားမာ လပဂၢလ တစဥးတစေယာက၊ အရာဝတတစခခ သ႔မဟတ စတဇနာမတစခခ အေၾကာငးက ေဖာျပေသာ ဝေသသလကၡဏာမား ျဖစၾကသည။

ေလလာဆ ကနး႐ငတစခအတြက အဂၤါရပ အေျမာကအျမား ႐သည။ ကနး႐ငတစခက ေလလာရနအတြက သေတသမား အေနျဖင သေတသနနညးလမးေပါငးစက အသးျပရန အေရးၾကးသည။ ေငြေၾကးႏင လအငအားလေလာကမႈ႐ျပး အခနလညး ေပးႏငမညဆပါက ကနး႐ငတစခအား အေရအတြကေရာ အရညအေသြး နညးအားျဖငပါ ေလလာျခငးျဖင သေတသမား အေနျဖင အကးေကးဇးမားႏငသည။ ဤသညမာ ဥပမာေပးထားေသာ အဂၤါရပမား ပါဝငသည ကနး႐ငမား စာရငး ျဖစသည။ အဆပါ အဂၤါရပမားက သတမတေပးရနမာ သေတသ၏ တာဝနျဖစသည။

ကနး႐င အဂၤါရပ

အသက ငယ၊ လတ၊ ၾကး

လင ကား၊ မ

အလပအကင ပကျပငဆရာ၊ စာနယဇငးသမား၊ ကားသမား

ႏငငသား ျမနမာ၊ ဂပန၊ ၾသစေၾတးလသား

လမႈအဆငအတနး အထကတနး၊ လလတတနး၊ ဆငးရသား

ႏငငေရးအျမင ေ႐း႐းစြ၊ လစဘရယ၊ ပဂၢလပါတစြမ႐

ႏငငေရးစတပါဝငစားမႈ နမ၊ လယ၊ ျမင

ဧရာဝတတငး႐ ကရငအစအဖြ႕မား၏ အသကေမြးဝမးေကာငးမႈက သေတသနျပရာတြင ေဖာျပပါ ကနး႐ငႏစခ (‘ေျမယာအာမခခက’ ႏင ‘စားနပရကၡာလေလာကမႈ’) ၌ ကြျပားျခားနားေသာ တနဖးမား ႐ႏငသည။ ေျမယာအာမခခကႏငစားနပရကၡာလေလာကမႈတ႔မာ နမပါးႏငသည။ အလယအလတျဖစႏငသည။ ျမငမားႏငသည။

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Very often a research project will investigate more than one variable, usually two

variables and their possible link. Then, the purpose is explanatory. This means that the

research project tries to clarify how one variable influences another variable.

Examining the link between two variables leads to studying them in the following way:

Independent variable: a variable that influences the other variable

Dependent variable: a variable that is influenced by the other variable

If a research project investigates the link between two variables, researchers have to

identify which variable is independent, and which variable is dependent.

Let’s take the case of a study trying to find a link between education level and fertility.

The study reported that because fertility depends on the education level (and not the

other round) fertility is the dependent variable and education level is the independent

variable.

The research findings are as shown below.

The population with a low education level was found to have high fertility. In contrast

to this, the population that had a high education level was found to have low fertility.

Although having many different aspects, two main attributes about land security are: land tenure and landlessness. Land tenure means the link between a plot of land and a person who has claim on it. Therefore land security may be poor, moderate, or high depending on how strong the link between the land and the person is. By contrast, landlessness relates to a person who cannot make any claim on any land. Thus a research project that takes land security as the main variable has to examine the two main attributes of this variable which are land tenure and landlessness. The researcher may also examine other aspects of land security.

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မားေသာအားျဖင သေတသနလပငနးတစခတြင ကနး႐ငတစခထကပ၍ ေလလာရေလ႐သည။ ပမနအားျဖင ကနး႐င ႏစခႏင ၄ငးတ႔၏ ျဖစတနရာေသာ ဆကႏြယခကက ေလလာသည။ ဤသညမာ ႐ငးလငးတငျပေရး (Explanatory) ရည႐ြယခကျဖင ျပလပျခငး ျဖစသည။ သေတသနတြင ကနး႐ငတစခမ အျခားကနး႐ငတစခအား မညသ႔မညပ ၾသဇာ သကေရာကသညက လြယက႐ငးလငးစြာ သျမငေစရန အားထတျခငးက ဆလပါသည။

ကနး႐ငႏစခၾကား ဆကႏြယခကက ဆနးစစရာတြင ေအာကပါ ပစအတငးေလလာသည။

လြတလပကနး႐င (Independent variable)။ ။အျခားကနး႐ငက ၾသဇာသကေရာကေသာ ကနး႐င။

မခကနး႐င (dependent variable)။ ။အျခားကနး႐င၏ ၾသဇာသကေရာကျခငးခရေသာ ကနး႐င။ ကနး႐ငႏစခၾကား ဆကႏြယခကက ေဖာထတမညဆပါက သေတသမားအေနျဖင မညသည ကနး႐ငက လြတလပျပး မညသညကနး႐ငက မခသညက ေဖာထတရနလအပသည။ ပညာတတေျမာကမႈႏနးႏင ကေလးရ႐ႏငမႈႏနးအၾကား ဆကႏြယခကက ႐ာေဖြသည ေလလာမႈတစခအား ဥပမာ အေနႏင ယၾကညပါစ႔။ ေလလာမႈအရ သ႐ရသညမာ ကေလးေမြးဖြားႏနးသည ပညာတတေျမာကမႈႏနးအေပၚ မတည သည (ပညာတတေျမာကမႈႏနးသည ကေလးေမြးဖြားႏနးေပၚ မတညျခငးမးကသ႔ တျခားတစနညးမ႐ႏင) ဟ ဆေသာေၾကာင ကေလးေမြးဖြားႏနးသည မခကနး႐ငျဖစျပး ပညာတတေျမာကမႈႏနးသည လြတလပကနး႐ငျဖစသည။

သေတသနေတြ႕႐ခကမားမာ ေအာကတြင ေဖာျပထားသညအတငးျဖစသည။

ပညာတတေျမာကမႈႏနး နမပါးေသာလဥးေရတြင ကေလးေမြးဖြားႏနး ျမငမားသညက ေတြ႕႐ရသည။ ဆန႔ကငဘက

အားျဖင ပညာတတေျမာကမႈ ျမငမားေသာလဥးေရတြင ကေလးေမြးဖြားႏနး နမပါးသညက ေတြ႕႐ရသည။

မတညေသာ ႐ေထာငမားပါဝငေသာလညး ေျမယာအာမခခကကစၥတြင ေျမယာပငဆငခြင ႏင ေျမယာမမႈဟ၍ အဓက အဂၤါရပႏစခ ႐သည။ ေျမယာပငဆငခြငဆသညမာ ေျမယာတစကြကႏင ၄ငးေျမယာက ပငဆငေၾကာငး သကေသထႏငသၾကား ဆကႏြယခကပငျဖစသည။ သ႔ျဖစပါ၍ ေျမယာႏင လအၾကား႐ အဆပါ ဆကႏြယခက မညမခငမာသညက ဆေသာအခကက မတညျပး ေျမယာအာမခခကသည နမပါးႏငသည။ သ႔မဟတ ပမနျဖစႏငသည။ သ႔မဟတ ျမငမားႏငသည။ ဆန႔ကငဘကအားျဖင ေျမယာမမႈသည မညသညေျမယာကမ ပငဆငခြင သကေသမထႏငေသာသႏင သကဆငသည။ ထ႔ေၾကာင ေျမယာအာမခခကအား အဓက ကနး႐ငအျဖစ ယထားေသာ သေတသနစပကနးတစခတြင ၄ငးကနး႐င၏အဂၤါရပမားျဖစၾကေသာ ေျမယာပငဆငခြငႏင ေျမယာမမႈတ႔အား ေလလာဆနးစစရမည။ သေတသအေနႏင ေျမယာအာမခခက၏ အျခားေသာ အစတအပငးမားကလညး ဆနးစစေကာငး ဆနးစစပါမည။

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Very important note: these are the results for a specific context. In a context and

society different from this specific study, the influence of education on fertility might

be different.

CATEGORIES

It was seen in the previous section that variables can be either ‘independent’ or

‘dependent’. This distinction between ‘independent’ and ‘dependent’, however, does

not help the researcher measure variables.

Measuring a variable means creating categories for classifying persons, objects, or

abstract things about which information is collected. In many cases, categories are the

same as attributes that define the variable (as featured above in the table about age,

gender, etc.). In some cases, however, categories have to be created in order to make

possible the measurement of the variable and, most notably, its numerical

measurement.

To define ‘age’ as a variable only with attributes like ‘young’, ‘middle-aged’, or ‘old’

is too limited for a research project. The researcher has to create categories to define

what ‘young’, ‘middle-aged’, and ‘old’ mean in the context of the research. ‘Young’

may mean between 10 and 21 years in one research project or between 10 and 25 years

in another research project. The researcher must decide which categories better suit the

objectives of the research.

In short, the researcher has to remember that attributes are just the general features of a

variable. Categories, however, are created for the measurement of the variable.

There are two requirements for the creation of these categories:

These categories should be exhaustive. The number of categories has to be as

large as possible because all the persons, objects, or abstract things about which

information is collected must be classified within these categories.

These categories should be mutually exclusive: every person, object, or

abstract thing about which information is collected must fall into only one

category. This means that the categories that measure a variable can not

overlap.

When the researcher creates categories for measuring a variable, these categories can

be names, numbers, or intervals. These different types of categories mean that the

variable has different names.

When categories of the variable are only names, the variable is called a nominal level

variable.

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သတျပရနအလြနအေရးၾကးေသာအခက။ ။၄ငးတ႔မာ သးျခားအေနအထား တစခအတြငးမ ရလဒမား ျဖစၾကသည။ အဆပါေလလာခကႏင မတကြျပားေသာ အေနအထားတစရပ၊ လ႔အဖြ႕အစညး တစခအတြငးတြင ပညာတတေျမာကမႈႏနးမ ကေလးေမြးဖြားႏနးအေပၚ ၾသဇာသကေရာကပမာ ျခားနားမႈ ႐ေကာငး ႐ႏငပါသည။

အပစကြမား (CATEGORIES)

ကနး႐ငတစခသည ‘လြတလပ’သ႔မဟတ ‘မခ’ ျဖစႏငေၾကာငးက ေ႐႕တြင ျမငေတြ႕ခရျပးျဖစသည။ သ႔ေသာလညး အဆပါ ‘လြတလပ’ႏင ‘မခ’ၾကား ျခားနားခကသညကနး႐ငမားအားတငးတာရာတြငသေတသအတြကအသးမဝငေပ။ ကနး႐ငတစခအား တငးတာျခငးဆသညမာ အခကအလကမား စေဆာငးရ႐ထားသည လပဂၢလမား (သ႔) အရာဝတမား (သ႔) စတဇနာမမားအား အတနးအစား ခြေပးရနအပစကြ (categories) မားဖနတးေပးျခငးပင ျဖစသည။ ကစၥရပ ေတာေတာမားမားတြင အပစကြမားသည (ေ႐႕တြငေဖာျပထားေသာ အသက၊ လငအစ႐သျဖင ပါဝငေသာ ဇယားကြကအတငး) အဂၤါရပမားနညးတ ကနး႐ငအား အဓပၸါယဖြငဆသတမတေပးသည။ သ႔ေသာ အခ႕ေသာ ကစၥရပမားတြင ကနး႐င၊ အထးသျဖင ကနးဂဏနးမားအား တငးတာႏငေရးအတြက အပစကြမား ဖနတးေပးရန လအပေပသည။ ‘အသကအ႐ြယ’ အား ‘သကငယ’(သ႔) ‘သကလတ’(သ႔) ‘သကၾကး’ အဂၤါရပမားသာ႐သည ကနး႐ငတစခအျဖစသာ ဖြငဆသတမတပါက သေတသနလပငနးတစခအေနႏင ကဥးေျမာငးလြနးလသည။ သကဆငရာ သေတသန ေဘာငအတြငးဝယ ‘သကငယ’ ၊ ‘သကလတ’ ႏင ‘သကၾကး’ ဟသည မညသညက ဆလေၾကာငး အပစကြမား ဖနတးသတမတေပးရန လအပသည။ သေတသနစမကနး တစခတြင အသက ၁၀ ႏစမ ၂၁ ႏစ အတြငးက ‘သကငယ’ ဟဆလျခငး ျဖစႏငေသာလညး အျခားတစခတြင ၁၀ ႏစ မ ၂၅ ႏစ အတြငးက ဆလျခငး ျဖစႏငသည။ မညသည အပစကြသည သေတသန၏ ရညမနးခကႏင ပမကကညလမမည ဆေသာအခကက သေတသအေနႏင ဆးျဖတရ ေပမည။ အခပအားျဖငဆရေသာ အဂၤါရပမားသည ကနး႐င၏ ေယဘယလကၡဏာမသာ ျဖစေၾကာငးက သေတသအေနျဖင သတျပရန လအပသည။ အပစကြမားမာမ ကနး႐ငအား တငးတာရနအတြက ဖနတးထားျခငး ျဖစသည။ အဆပါ ကနး႐ငမား ဖနတးရနအတြက လအပခက ႏစခ ႐သည။

အဆပါ အပစကြမားသည ျခငႏငစြမး (exhaustive) ႐ရမည။ အခကအလကမား စေဆာငးရာ လပဂၢလ (သ႔) အရာဝတ (သ႔) စတဇနာမမားမာ အဆပါ အပစကြမား အတြငးတြင က႑ခြရမညျဖစေသာေၾကာင အပစကြမား၏ အေရအတြကမာ မားႏငသေလာက မားေစရမည ျဖစသည။

အဆပါ အပစကြမားသည တစခႏငတစခသးသန႔စ (mutually exclusive) ျဖစေနရမည။ အခကအလက စဆာငးရာ လပဂၢလတစဥးခငး (သ႔) အရာဝတတစခခငး (သ႔) စတဇနာမတစခခငးစသည အပစကြ တစခတညး အတြငးသ႔သာ ထညသြငး၍ ရႏငသည။ ဆလသညမာ ကနး႐ငတစခက တငးတာေသာ အပစကြမားသည တစခႏငတစခ ေရာျခငးထပျခငး မရေစရ။

သေတသသည ကနး႐ငတစခက တငးတာရနအတြက အပစကြမား ဖနတးေသာအခါ အဆပါ အပစကြမားမာ နာမညမား (သ႔) နပါတမား (သ႔) ၾကားတနဖးမား ျဖစႏငသည။ အဆပါ အပစကြေပါငးစ ႐ေနရျခငးမာ ကနး႐ငတြင နာမညေပါငးစ ႐ေနျခငးေၾကာင ျဖစသည။ ကနး႐င၏ အပစကြမားသည အမညခညးသကသက ျဖစေနေသာအခါ ထကနး႐ငအား နာမတနးကနး႐င (nominal

level variable) ဟေခၚသည။

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When categories of the variable are names, labels, and can be ordered in some kind of

ranking, the variable is called an ordinal level variable. The different categories also

have names (like the nominal level variable just mentioned), but ordinal level variables

can be ordered as having lower or higher values in relation to one another.

When categories of the variable under study have names, can be rank-ordered, and

represent standard intervals of measurement, the variable is called an interval level

variable or a ratio level variable. The only difference between the two terms ‘interval

level’ and ‘ratio level’ is that ‘ratio level’ has an absolute zero.

A research project examines the issue of migration into Yangon and tries to determine where the migrants come from. ‘Place of origin’ is one of the variables under study; the researcher has to create different categories that refer to geographical places. The categories for the variable ‘place of origin’ are geographical names: ‘Rakhine State’, Ayeyawaddi Division’, ‘Bago Division’, etc…

This way, the researcher can determine a percentage of how many people come to Yangon from Rakhine, how many come from Ayeyawaddi or Bago. This is the kind of data that quantitative research produces.

For qualitative research, the researcher can interview Rakhine migrants and examine their reasons for migrating to Yangon. The researcher can then compare these reasons with those mentioned by migrants coming from the Ayeyawaddi and Bago Divisions.

This is an example of a ‘nominal level variable’.

A research project examines youth’s support of political parties. The categories created for assessing ‘political support’ as the main variable of the study are the ones suggested here: (1) no support; (2) moderate political support; (3) active support; (4) formal membership; and (5) active membership. As opposed to the previous example in which ‘place of origin’ is ‘only’ a nominal level variable, here, in this example, the variable has different values attached to each of the categories going from no support to strong political support (‘active membership’). This is an example of an ‘ordinal level variable’.

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အပစကြမားသည အမညနာမသတမတခကမား ျဖစၾကျပး အစအစဥတစခချဖင စထား၍ ရႏငေသာအခါ အဆပါ ကနး႐ငအား အစဥတနးကနး႐င (ordinal level variable) ဟ ေခၚေဝၚသည။ အဆပါ မတညေသာ အပစကြမားမာ (ေ႐႕တြင ေဖာျပခသည နာမတနး ကနး႐ငကသ႔) အမညမားသာ ျဖစေသာလညး အစဥအတနး ကနး႐ငမားမာ တစခႏင တစခၾကား ဆကသြယခကတနဖး အနမအျမငအရ စစဥ၍ ရႏငသည။

ေလလာဆ ကနး႐င၏ အပစကြမားတြင အမည႐ျပး အစအစဥတစခခအတငး စဥထားႏငသညအျပင တငးတာခက၏ စျပၾကားမတက ကယစားျပေဖာျပႏငပါက အဆပါကနး႐ငအား ၾကားတနးကနး႐င (interval level variable) သ႔မဟတ အခးတနးကနး႐င (ratio level variable) ဟ ေခၚေဝၚသည။ ‘ၾကားတနး’ ႏင ‘အခးတနး’ ၾကား႐ တစခတညးေသာ ျခားနားခကမာ ‘အခးတနး’ သည အၾကြငးမ သညတနဖးတစခ ႐သည။

သေတသန စမကနးတစခသည ရနကနသ႔ ေ႐ႊ႕ေျပာငးေနထငမႈကစၥရပက ဆနးစစေလလာျပး ေ႐ႊ႕ေျပာငးေနထငသမား မညသညအရပေဒသမ လာေရာကၾကေၾကာငးက ပငးျခားသ႐ရန အားထတသညဆပါစ ႔။ ‘ခကျမပေဒသ’ သညေလလာ ရသည ကနး႐ငတစချဖစသည။ သေတသအေနႏင ပထဝဝင အရပေဒသမားက အမညနာမ ညႊနးဆသည အပစကြမား ဖနတးရေပမည။ ‘ခကျမပေဒသ’ ကနး႐ငအတြက အပစကြမားမာ ‘ရခငျပညနယ’ ၊ ‘ဧရာဝတတငး’ ၊ ‘ပခးတငး’ အစ႐ေသာ ပထဝဝင အမညနာမမားသာ ျဖစသည။ ဤနညးအားျဖင သေတသသည ရခငေဒသမ ရနကနသ႔ လာေသာ လဥးေရ ရာခငႏနး၊ ဧရာဝတတငး သ႔တညးမဟတ ပခးတငးမလာေသာလဥးေရ ရာခငႏနးက ပငးျခားသျမငႏငေပမည။ ဤသ႔ေသာ အခကအလကမးမာ အေရအတြက သေတသနမ လာျခငးျဖစသည။ အရညအေသြးသေတသနအတြကမ သေတသသည ရခငမေရႊ႕ေျပာငးလာသမားအား ရနကနသ႔ ေ႐ႊ႕ေျပာငးလာရျခငး အေၾကာငးက လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးမႈ ျပႏငသည။ သညေနာကတြင သေတသသည ၄ငးတ႔၏ ေျဖၾကားခကမားႏင ဧရာဝတ ႏင ပခးဘကမ ေျပာငးေ႐ႊ႕လာသမားထမ ေျဖၾကားခကမားက ႏငးယဥခနထးၾကညႏငေပမည။ ဤသညမာ ‘နာမတနးကနး႐င’ ၏ ဥပမာရပတစခ ျဖစသည။

သေတသန စမကနးတစခတြင လငယမား၏ ႏငငေရးပါတမားအေပၚ ေထာကခမႈအေၾကာငး ေလလာဆနးစစသညဆပါစ ႔။ ‘ႏငငေရးေထာကခမႈ’ အား အဓကေလလာရန ကနး႐ငအျဖစ ဖနတးလကေသာ အပစကြမားမာ - (၁) ေထာကချခငးမ႐ (၂) ႏငငေရးေထာကခမႈ အသငအတင (၃) တကၾကြစြာ ေထာကခမႈ (၄) တငးျပည ပါတဝင (၅) တကၾကြ ပါတဝင ‘ခကျမပေဒသ’အား နာမတနးကနးစဥ သကသကမသာ ေဖာျပေသာ ယခင ဥပမာႏင ျခားနားစြာ ဤဥပမာတြင ကနး႐ငသည ေထာကခမႈလးဝမ႐ျခငးမသည တကၾကြစြာ ေထာကခမႈ (‘တကၾကြပါတဝင’) အထ တစခခငးစအလက တနဖးျခားနားေသာ အပစကြမားစြာ ႐ေနသည။ ဤသညမာ ‘အစဥတနးကနး႐င’ ၏ ဥပမာရပတစချဖစသည။

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UNIT OF MEASUREMENT

A unit of measurement is a unit about which information is collected for a research

project. A unit of measurement will help to measure the variables that research projects

study. Units of measurement are the people, objects, or abstract things that researchers

will observe and describe during the research project. Typically, the unit of

measurement in social research is the individual person, but it may be a social group,

an organization, etc…The unit of measurement chosen by the team answers the ‘Who?’

question explained in the previous chapter: it is about choosing the type of population

most relevant for the variable that is measured by the research project.

Household income is often taken by research projects as an

independent variable because it influences other variables. It has

the following attributes: low, middle, and high. But the

researcher has to define what low, middle, and high means in the

context of the research project. The researcher has to create

categories which in turn help measure income.

For instance, a first category is for incomes strictly below 1

lakh; a second category is for incomes between at least 1 lakh and

strictly below 5 lakhs; a third category is for incomes between at

least 5 lakhs and strictly below 10 lakhs, etc… It is important to

note that the categories are created for only a specific project.

The number of categories and what each category means is very

often different from one research project to the other, unless the

researcher intends to compare two different contexts with the same

categories.

This is an example of an ‘interval level variable’.

If a research project focuses on the role of civil society organizations in Myanmar, the unit of measurement is the civil society organization.

If a research project examines the livelihood of Karen communities in the Ayeyawaddi Division, the researcher might find it relevant to select the Karen household or a Karen family living in one house as a unit of measurement. If a research project investigates employment opportunities for young Myanmar graduates, the unit of measurement is the individual (in this case, young Myanmar graduates).

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တငးတာေရးယနစ (UNIT OF MEASUREMENT)

တငးတာေရးယနစ တစခဟသည သေတသန လပငနးတစခအတြက မညသညအခကအလကမား စေဆာငးသနညး ဆေသာ သတမတခကတစခ ျဖစသည။ တငးတာေရးယနစတစခသည သေတသနစမကနးမားတြင ေလလာေနသည ကနး႐ငမားအား တငးတာရာတြင အကအညေပးသည။ တငးတာေရးယနစမားဟသည သေတသမား သေတသန လပငနးစဥအတြငး ေလလာပေဖာမညလမား (သ႔) အရာဝတမား (သ႔) စတဇနာမမား ျဖစၾကသည။ ပမနအားျဖင လမႈသေတသန နယပယတြင တငးတာေရးယနစဟသည လပဂၢလတစဥးခငးစ ျဖစေနတတေသာလညး လမႈအပစ တစခ၊ အဖြ႕အစညး တစခ စသညတ႔လညး ျဖစႏငသည။ သေတသနအဖြ႕ ေ႐ြးခယလကသည တငးတာေရးယနစသည ေ႐႕အခနးတြင ေဖာျပခသည ‘မညသ’ ဆေသာ ေမးခြနးက ေျဖၾကားသည။ စငစစအားျဖင သေတသန စမကနးတြင တငးတာမည ကနး႐ငအတြက သကဆငအကးဝငမည လဥးေရအမးအစားက ေ႐ြးခယျခငးပင ျဖစသည။

အမေထာငစဝငေငြသည အျခားကနး႐ငမားအား ၾသဇာလႊမးမးႏငေသာေၾကာင လြတလပကနး႐ငတစခအျဖစ သေတသနလပငနးမားတြင အမားအားျဖင ယေလ႐သည။ ၄ငးတြင အနမ၊ အလယႏင အျမငဟေသာ အဂၤါရပမား႐သည။ သ႔ေသာလညး သေတသအေနျဖင အနမ၊ အလယႏင အျမငဟသည သေတသနလပငနးေဘာငအတြငး မညသညက ဆလေၾကာငး ဖြငဆ႐ငးလငးရန လအပသည။ သေတသသည အပစကြမား ဖနတးေပးမသာ ဝငေငြက တငးတာရာတြင အေထာကအကျပေပလမမည။ ဥပမာအားျဖင ပထမအပစကြသည ေငြ ၁ သနးေအာက သသသာသာနညးပါးေသာ ဝငေငြအတြက၊ ဒတယအပစကြသည အနညးဆး ၁ သနးမ ၅ သနးေအာက သသသာသာ နညးပါးေသာ ဝငေငြအတြက၊ တတယအပစကြသည အနညးဆး ၅ သနးမ ၁၀ သနးေအာက သသသာသာနညးပါးေသာ ဝငေငြအတြက စသညျဖင … ။ သတျပရန အေရးၾကးသညမာ အဆပါ အပစကြမားသည တစခေသာ သေတသနလပငနးအတြကသာ သးသန႔ဖနတးထားျခငးျဖစသည။ သေတသအေနႏင ျခားနားေသာ အေျခအေနႏစရပက တညေသာ အပစကြမားျဖင ႏငးယဥေလလာသညမတပါး အပစကြအေရအတြကႏင အပစကြတစခခငးစ၏ ဆလရငးအဓပၸါယမာ သေတသနလပငနးတစခႏင တစခၾကား ကြာျခားသည။ ဤသညမာ ‘ၾကားတနးကနး႐င’၏ ဥပမာရပတစချဖစသည။

အကယ၍ သေတသနသည ျမနမာႏငင႐ လမႈအဖြ႕အစညးမားအခနး၏ က႑က အဓကေလလာသညဆပါက တငးတာေရး ယနစသည လမႈအဖြ႕အစညးျဖစသည။ အကယ၍ သေတသနသည ဧရာဝတတငး႐ ကရငအစအဖြ႕မားအေၾကာငးက ေလလာသညဆပါက သေတသအေနႏင ကရငအမေထာငစ (သ႔) အမတစအမတညးတြငေနထငေသာ ကရငမသားစတစစအား တငးတာေရးယနစအျဖစ ေ႐ြးခယမ သငေလာေပလမမည။ အကယ၍ သေတသနသည ဘြ႕ရျပး ျမနမာလငယမားအတြက အလပအကငအခြငအလမးမားအေၾကာငး စးစမးေလလာမည ဆပါက တငးတာေရးယနစသည လတစဥးခငးစ (ဘြ႕ရ ျမနမာလငယ) ျဖစေပလမမည။

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Choosing the right unit of measurement is crucial for conducting good research and for

the validity of the research.

RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF RESEARCH

The quality of a research project includes, but is not limited to, the validity and

reliability of the findings produced. High validity and reliability is achieved when units

of measurement, categories, variables, and research methods are adequately selected by

the research team.

To increase the validity of the findings, it is important for the researcher to ask

him/herself the following questions: Are the variable(s), categories, and units of

measurement adequately defined and selected with regards to the problem that is to

measured or investigated? In other words, can the researcher expect that his/her

definition of the variable(s) as well as his/her selection of categories and units of

measurement will produce data that adequately addresses the problem investigated?

To increase reliability of the findings, it is important for the researcher to ask

him/herself the following question: Does the definition of the variable(s) and selection

of categories and units of measurement enable the researcher to obtain consistent data

throughout the duration of the research?

Issues of validity and reliability will recur for the selection of the research method(s)

and the adequacy of the selected research method(s) with the topic investigated.

TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THIS CHAPTER ARE:

Quantitative research requires the identification of variable/variables that are

given some numerical measurement by the research;

Qualitative research may also measure a variable, but not in a numerical way; it

also investigates problems and concepts, evaluates their meaning, depth, and

physical manifestations;

Both quantitative and qualitative research require the precise definition of what

this/these variable(s) mean(s) in the context of the research project;

Both quantitative and qualitative research usually require the identification of

independent variable(s) and dependent variable(s);

Depending on the variable(s), the categories created for measuring the

variable(s) will be: (1) names, (2) ranking/degree linked to the variable, or (3)

regular intervals on a measurement scale;

Measurement of variables is made on the basis of units of measurement, the

most commonly used being (1) individuals, (2) households, or (3) social groups.

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သ႔ျဖစပါ၍ သေတသန ေကာငးမြနစြာ လပေဆာငရနႏင သေတသန အကးဝင ဆေလာမႈ႐ေစရန မနကနေသာ တငးတာေရး ယနစ ေ႐ြးခယေရးမာ အလြနတရာ အေရးၾကးလေပသည။ သေတသန၏ကးစားႏငစြမးႏငအကးဝငႏငစြမး သေတသန စမကနးတစခ၏ အရညအေသြးတြင ေတြ႕႐ခကမား၏ ကးစားႏငစြမးႏင အကးဝငႏငစြမး ဟ၍ အနညးဆး ပါ႐သည။ သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင တငးတာေရး ယနစမား၊ အပစကြမား၊ ကနး႐ငမားႏင သေတသန နညးလမးမားက အသငေတာဆး ေ႐ြးခယႏငမသာ ကးစားႏငစြမးႏင အကးဝငႏငစြမး ေကာငးမြနျမငမားႏငသည။ သေတသန ေတြ႔႐ခကမား ၏ အကးဝငႏငစြမး ျမငမားေစရန ေဖာျပပါ ေမးခြနးမားက သေတသအေနျဖင ၄ငးဘာသာ၄ငး ေမးျမနးရန လအပသည။ ကနး႐င(မား)၊ အပစကြမားႏင တငးတာေရး ယနစမားအား ေလလာမည ျပနာရပႏငယဥ၍ သငတငေလာကပတစြာ ဖြငဆ ေ႐ြးခယပါသေလာ။ တနညးဆေသာ သေတသ၏ ကနး႐ငမားႏင ပတသကျပး ဖြငဆလကသည ဖြငဆခက၊ အပစကြ ႏင တငးတာေရး ယနစမားအား ေ႐ြးခယလကပတ႔သည ေလလာသည ျပနာက ေျဖ႐ငးမည ေဒတာ အခကအလကမား ထြကေပၚလာေစလမမညဟ ၄ငးကယတင ေမာလငပါသေလာ။ ေတြ႕႐ခကမား၏ ကးစားႏငစြမး ျမငမားေစရနမာ သေတသအေနျဖင ေဖာျပပါ ေမးခြနးမားကယကယက ေမးရန အေရးၾကးသည။ ကနး႐င(မား)၏ အဓပၸါယဖြငဆခက၊ အပစကြႏင တငးတာေရးယနစမား ေ႐ြးခယပတ႔သည သေတသန ျပလပသည တေလာကလး သေတသအား တသမတတညးေသာ ေဒတာအခကအလကမား ေပးစြမးႏငပါမညေလာ။ အလားတပင သေသတန နညးလမး(မား) ေ႐ြးခယရာတြငႏင၊ ေ႐ြးခယလကေသာ သေတသနနညးလမး(မား) ႏင ေလလာမည ေခါငးစဥ လကေလာညေထြ ျဖစမျဖစ ဆရာတြငလညး အကးဝငႏငစြမးႏင ကးစားႏငစြမးက ထညသြငး စဥးစား ရေပမည။ အခနးတြငအဓကမတသားရမညအခကမားမာ -

အေရအတြက သေတသနတြင ကနးဂဏနး တငးတာသတမတခက ေပးထားေသာ ကနး႐င/ကနး႐ငမား ေဖာထတေပးရနလအပသည။

အရညအခငးသေတသနတြင ကနး႐ငတစခအား တငးတာေသာလညး ကနးဂဏနးမားျဖင မဟတေပ။ ျပနာ ရပႏင သေဘာတရားမားအား ေဖာထတေလလာရျပး ၄ငးတ႔၏ အဓပၸါယ၊ ေလးနကမႈႏင ႐ပပငးဆငရာ အသြင အျပငကလညး အကျဖတရေသးသည။

အေရအတြက သေတသနတြငျဖစေစ၊ အရညအခငး သေတသနတြငျဖစေစ အဆပါ ကနး႐င(မား) သည

သေတသန စမကနးေဘာငအတြငးတြင မညသ႔ အဓပၸါယဖြငဆျပ႒ာနးေၾကာငး အတအက ႐ငးလငးရန လအပသည။

အေရအတြကႏင အရညအခငး သေတသန ႏစရပလးတြင မညသညက လြတလပကနး႐င၊ မညသညက မခ ကနး႐င ျဖစေၾကာငးက ေဖာထတသတမတရန လအပသည။

ကနး႐င(မား) အေပၚ အေျချပျပး ၄ငးတ႔က တငးတာရန အပစကြမား ဖနတးရာတြင (၁) အမညနာမ (၂) ကနး႐ငႏင ပတသကဆကစပသည အဆင/ဒဂရ (၃) အတငးအတာတစခက ယသည ၾကားကတနဖးမား အတငး ဖနတးသည။

ကနး႐ငမားက တငးတာရာတြင တငးတာေရး ယနစမားက အေျချပျပး တငးတာသည။ အသးအမားဆး တငးတာေရး ယနစမားမာ (၁) လပဂၢလတစဥးစသ႔ (၂) အမေထာငစတစစစသ႔ (၃) လမႈအပစတစစစတ႔ ျဖစၾကသည။

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BASIC 3. BASELINE STUDY

THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT:

The importance of the baseline study as a means of collecting preliminary

information before implementing a social project; The collection of baseline information centered around five types of ‘capital’

(Human, Natural, Social, Physical, and Financial); The selection of baseline indicators which can be used for monitoring the

progress of a project.

______________________________________________________________________

BASELINE STUDY: GENERAL CONTEXT AND DEFINITION

A crucial problem in Myanmar (and, very often, elsewhere) is the lack of reliable

information. When beginning a social project, CSOs and NGOs often have very

little reliable information for implementing their projects. This can be even more

difficult when a project is implemented in the States of Myanmar where the

population is not predominantly Bamar. In these different States, the population has

a different culture, society, and history than in the Division of Myanmar. If the

project managers have a prior knowledge and understanding of how things work

there, the project is more likely to succeed in reaching its objectives.

It is particularly important that NGOs know the social and economic contexts in

which the projects are implemented. Use of local resources, farming techniques,

social structure of local communities, and weather conditions are crucial factors that

should be known before any project is implemented. These contexts or factors

should inform the way the project is designed and the way the project tries to reach

its objectives. If this information does not exist before starting the project, it should

be collected as part of a Baseline Study when the project starts.

The Baseline Study is not a research method: it uses different research methods to

address a particular problem or issue.

The purpose of the Baseline Study is to give detailed and reliable information

that can be used for monitoring the progress of a project during its

implementation and assessing its success when it is completed. Comparing data

collected at the beginning of the project and at the end makes it possible to

measure how much change has happened during the implementation of the

project.

When measuring how much change has happened during the project, the researcher

should try to determine the extent to which the change occurred because of the

project was implemented and the extent to which other factors may have influenced

also the change.

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အေျခခအဆင ၃. အေျချပစထားတငးတာေလလာမႈ ဤအခနးတြင

လမႈစမကနးမား အေကာငအထည မေဖာမ ပဏာမ သတငးအခကအလက စေဆာငးရန အတြက အေျချပစထား ေလလာခက ျပလပရန အေရးၾကးပ

(လသားဆငရာ၊ သဘာ၀ဆငရာ၊ လမႈေရးဆငရာ၊ ရပပငးဆငရာႏင ဘ႑ာေရးဆငရာ) ဟ၍ အရငးအႏး ငါးမးႏင ပတသကေသာ အေျချပစထား တငးတာမႈဆငရာ သတငးအခကအလကမား စေဆာငးပ

စမကနးတစရပ တးတကမႈ အေျခအေနအား ေစာငၾကညေလလာရာတြင အသးျပရန အေျချပစထား တငးတာမႈးဆငရာ အညႊနးကနးမား ေရြးခယပတ႔ ပါ၀ငပါသည။

_______________________________________________________________________________________ အေျချပစထားတငးတာေလလာမႈ။ ။အေထြေထြေနာကခႏငအဓပၸါယဖြငဆခက ျမနမာျပညႏငတကြ အျခားေသာ ေနရာအခ႕၌ အဓကႀကေတြ႔ရေလရေသာ ျပနာတစရပမာ အားကးအားထား ျပေလာကေသာ သတငးအခကအလကမား မရျခငးျဖစသည။ စမကနး တစရပစတငသညအခါ၌ စအကစအမား၊ အငနဂအမားအေနျဖင ၄ငးတ႔၏ စမကနး အေကာငအထည ေဖာႏငရန အားကအားထား ျပေလာကေသာ သတငးအခက အလက အနညးငယသာ ရတတသည။ ဗမာလမးအမားစ ေနထငရာမဟတသည ျပညနယမား၌ အေကာငအထည ေဖာရသာ စမကနးမးဆလင သာ၍ ဆးေသးသည။ ထျပညနယမား၌ ေနထငသမား အေနျဖင ျပညမ၌ေနေသာသမားႏင ယဥေကးမႈ၊ လအဖြ႕စညးႏင သမငးေၾကာငးမအစ ကြာျခားသည။ စမကနး မနေနဂာမား အေနျဖင ထအရပေဒသမားႏင ပတသက၍ တငႀကဗဟသတရထားျခငး၊ လပနညးလပငနးမား နားလညသေဘာေပါကထားျခငးတ႔ ရပါက စမကနးအေနျဖင ရညမနခကမား ျပညမေအာငျမငႏငပါသည။

အသကေမြး၀မးေၾကာငးမႈဆငရာ ကစၥရပမားအတြကမ အငနဂအမား အေနျဖင စမကနး အေကာငအထည ေဖာမညေဒသ၏ လမႈစးပြား၀နးကငအေၾကာငး သရထားရန အထးသျဖင အေရးႀကးပါသည။ ေဒသခ အရငးအျမစမား အသးျပပ၊ ထြနယကစက ပးမႈနညးလမးမား၊ ေဒသခလထ၏ လမႈအသကအအ ဖြ႕စညးမႈႏင မးေလ၀သ အေျခအေန စသညတ႔မာ စမကနးမား အေကာငအထည မေဖာမက ႀကတငသရထားသငသည အေရးပါေသာ အခကမား ျဖစပါသည။ စမကနး၏ ဒဇငးေရးဆြစမထားပ၊ စမကနး အေနျဖင ၄ငး၏ရညမနးခကမားအား ျပညမရန ႀကးစားပတ႔ႏင ပတသက၍လညး သထားသင ပါသည။ စမကနးဒဇငးေရးဆြစမထားပ၊ စမကနး အေနျဖင ၄ငး၏ရညမနးခကမားအား ျပညမေအာင ႀကးစားပတ႔တြင အေျခအေန ႏင အေၾကာငးတရားမားက သထားသငပါသည။ အကယ၍ စမကနး မစတငမ၌ ဤ သတငး အခကအလကမား မရ႐ေသးပါက စမကနး စတငသညအခါ ၄ငးတ႔အား အေျချပစထား တငးတာေလလာမႈ၏ အစတအပငး တစရပအေနျဖင စေဆာငးသငပါသည။

အေျချပစထား တငးတာေလလာမႈ ဆသညမာ သေတသနနညးလမး တစရပမဟတေပ။ ကစၥရပ (သ႔) ျပနာတစရပ အား ခဥးကပရန မတကြျပားေသာ သေတသန နညးလမးမားက အသးျပျခငး ျဖစပါသည။ အေျချပစထား တငးတာေလလာမႈ၏ ရညရြယခကမာ စမကနးတစရပ အေကာငအထည ေဖာစဥကာလအတြငး ျဖစေပၚ တးတကမႈမားက ေစာငၾကညေလလာရနေသာလညးေကာငး၊ စမကနးၿပးဆးသည ကာလ၌ ၄ငး၏ ေအာငျမငမႈအား သးသပ ရနအတြကသာလညးေကာငး လအပေသာ၊ အေသးစတက၍ အားထားရေလာကေသာ သတငးအခကအလကမား ေထာကပ ႏငရန ျဖစသည။ စမကနး အစပငးကာလ၌ ေကာကယထားေသာ ေဒတာအခကအလကမားႏင အဆးသတ ကာလ၌ စေဆာငးရရေသာ အခကအလကမား ႏႈႈငးယဥေလလာျခငးအားျဖင စမကနး အေကာငအထည ေဖာေနစဥ အေတာအတြငး ျဖစေပၚခေသာ ေျပာငးလတးတကမႈမားက တငးတာရန ျဖစသည။ စမကနးကာလအတြငး အေျပာငးအလမညမ ျဖစထြနးခသညက တငးတာသညအခါ သေတသအေနျဖင စမကနး အေကာငအထညေဖာျခငးေၾကာင ျဖစေပၚခသည ေျပာငးလမႈ အတငးအတာကလညးေကာငး၊ စမကနးေၾကာင မဟတ ေသာ အျခားအေၾကာငးအရာမား၏ လႊမးမးမႈေၾကာင ျဖစေပၚခေသာ ေျပာငးလမႈ အတငးအတာကလညးေကာငး သရ ဆးျဖတႏငရန လအပပါသည။

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The example below shows a graph made as part of a baseline study focusing on

livelihood. The project implemented by the organization seeks to positively change the

livelihood of the involved communities. The results of this change will be seen in the

sustainable livelihood outcomes and the increased security of the household at various

levels (see box in the right part).

Adapted from: http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x9371e/x9371e11.htm

To measure this positive change, however, the research team must first understand the

context (box on the left side). The team must also understand the five different types of

capitals which influence the life and future of the household (lower part of the

livelihood strategy in the center). The definition of ‘capital’, in this context, is all the

assets available to a household that the household can use to increase its welfare.

By conducting a Baseline Study, the research team can improve understanding of both

the context and the different types of capital as well as all other aspects of the

livelihood strategy shown in the above graph.

HOW TO CONDUCT A BASELINE STUDY A Baseline Study should be conducted as illustrated below:

Prepare a Baseline Plan

Conduct the Baseline Study according to the Baseline Plan

Analyze the collected data

Write a Baseline Report

HOUSEHOLD

HOUSEHOLD

Consumption

(eating, buying

goods, etc.)

Production &

Income

Human Capital Natural Capital Social Capital Physical Capital Financial Capital

Social Activities

(helping the community, self-help

groups, associations, etc.)

Livelihood Strategy

Natural Resources

Institutions

Infrastructure

History

Social Context

Economic Context

Demography

Sustainable

Livelihood

Outcomes

Context

Security of:

Food

Health

Water

Shelter

Education

Land

Community

cohesion

Personal safety

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ေအာကေဖာျပပါ ဥပမာတြင အေျချပစထား ေလလာခက၏ တစတတေဒသအျဖစ အသကေမြးလပငနးအထးျပ ဇယား ျပပ တစခ တညေဆာကထားပါသည။ စမကနး ေဖာေဆာငသည အဖြ႕အစညးသည စမကနးပါ ရပ႐ြာအစအဖြ႕မား၏ အသကေမြး ဝမးေကာငးမႈက အျပသေဘာ ေျပာငးလေစရန ရညသနသည။ အဆပါေျပာငးလမႈ၏ ရလဒမားက ေရရည တညတေသာ အသကေမြး၀မးေၾကာငးဆငရာ ျဖစထြနးသည အကးသြားမားႏင အမေထာငစ၏ အဆငအသးသး၌ တးတကလာေသာ ဖလမႈတ႔ (ညာဘကတြင ေဘာငခတ ေဖာျပထားသညအတငး) က ေတြ႕ျမငရပါသည။

http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x9371e11.htmမကးယေဖာျပပါသည။

သ႔ေသာ အဆပါ အျပသေဘာ ေျပာငးလမႈက တငးတာရန သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင ပတ၀နးကင အေနအထား (ဘယဘက တြင ေဘာငခတေဖာျပပါ အတငး) က ဥးစြာ နားလညထားရန လပါသည။ အမေထာငစ၏ ဘ၀ႏင အနာဂတအေပၚ လႊမးမး သကေရာကမႈ ရေသာ အရငးအႏး ငါးမး (အလယပ အသကေမြး၀မးေၾကာငးဗဟာ၏ ေအာကေျခပငး) ကလညး သေတသန အဖြ႕အေနျဖင နားလညထားရပါမည။ ဤအေျခအေနတြင ‘အရငးအႏး’ ၏အဓပၸါယမာ အမေထာငစက ပမ၍ ဖလေစရန အသးျပႏငသည ဥစၥာအားလးက ဆလသည။ အေျချပစထား တငးတာေလလာမႈတစရပ ျပလပျခငးအားျဖင သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင ပတ၀နးကင အေနအထားႏငတကြ ကြျပားေသာ အရငးအႏး အမးအစားမားအျပင ဂရပတြငေဖာျပပါအတငး သကေမြးဝမးေၾကာငးဆငရာဗဟာ၏ အျခားေသာ မကႏာစာမားအေၾကာငး ပမတးတကနားလညလာႏငပါသည။ အေျချပစထား တငးတာေလလာမႈတစရပ ျပလပပ အေျချပစထား တငးတာေလလာမႈတစရပက ေအာကတြင သရပေဖာျပသညအတငး ေဆာငရြကသငပါသည။

အေျခစထား အစအမတစရပ ျပငဆငပါ။

အေျချပစထား စမကနးအတငး တငးတာေလလာမႈျပပါ။

စေဆာငးရရေသာ အခကအလကမားက စစစေလလာပါ။

အေျချပစထား တငးတာေလလာမႈဆငရာ အစရငခစာ ေရးသားပါ။

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61

The Baseline Plan is drafted by the researcher who clarifies what information is needed

for the Baseline Study and what indicators are used to measure change. But before

explaining what the Baseline Plan consists of, let’s examine the type of information

needed.

Baseline

General

information

Themes for each type

of “capital”

Possible indicators for each type of “capital”

Human

Capital

Labour (1) (1) Rate of hired labour; (2) Rate of small landholder; (3) Emigration of

population; (4) etc.

Health and nutrition status (1) Main food items for daily diet (2) Ratio height/weight; (3)

Immunization against disease; (4) Ratio population/doctor; (5) etc.

Skills and knowledge (1) Male/Female literacy; (2) Apprenticeship (3) Attendance to training;

(4) etc.

Natural

Capital

Access to land (1) (1) Irrigated land; (2) Non-irrigated land; (3) Forest land; (4) etc.

Water (1) Number of wells within the village; (2) Free access to wells; (3)

Annual rainfall; (4) Irrigated area for farming; (5) etc.

Renewable and non-

renewable resources (1) Soil capability; (2) Rivers for fishing, washing, and other activities;

(3) etc.

Flora, forest, and wildlife (1) Free access to forests in proximity of residence; (2) Negotiated use of

forest resources; (3) Sustainability of forest management: (4) etc.

Social

Capital

Social network (1)Mills operated collectively among villagers; (2) Engagement with local

authorities; (3) etc.

Social trust (circle of trusted

people) (1) Self-help groups; (2) Religious associations; (3) Non-religious

associations; (4) etc.

Physical

Capital

Housing (1) Thatched house; (2) Wooden house; (3) Brick house; (4) Plastic tent;

(5) etc.

Vehicle & Infrastructure (1) Distance from home to work place; (2) Ownership of a vehicle; (3)

Condition of road infrastructure; (4) etc.

Equipment (1) Engine; (2) Farm mechanization; (3) etc.

Livestock (1) Cattle; (2) Poultry; (3) Pigs; (4) etc.

Financial

Capital

Savings (1) Cash in household; (2) Debt of household

Access to funding (1) Access to loans; (2) Access to micro-credit; (3) etc.

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အေျချပစထား အစအမတစရပက သေတသမ ျပစေရးဆြျခငးျဖစၿပး အေျချပစထား တငးတာေလလာမႈအတြက မညသည သတငးအခကအလကမား လအပသည၊ ေျပာငးလမႈက တငးတာရန မညသည အညႊနးကနးမား လအပ သညက ရငးရငးလငးလငး သထားရန လပါသည။ အေျချပစထား အစအမတစရပတြင မညသည႔အရာမား ပါ၀ငသည က ရငးလငးတငျပမႈ မျပလပမ လအပေသာ သတငးအခကအလက အမးအစားမားက ေလ႔လာၾကည႔ပါမည။

အေျချပစထား အေထြေထြ သတငးအခကအလက

“အရငးအႏး” တစမး စအတြကအေၾကာငးအရာက႑မား

“အရငးအႏး”တစမးစအတြကျဖစႏငေခရေသာအညႊနးကနးမား

လသား အရငးအႏး

လပအား (၁)လပသားငားရမးမႈႏႈနး(၂)အေသးစားေျမပငဆငသႏႈနး (၃) တငးတစပါးသ႔ေရႊ႕ေျပာငးေနထငသညလဥးေရ (၄)စသည

ကနးမာေရးႏင အာဟာရအေျခအေန

(၁)ေန႔စဥစားေသာကမႈအတြကအဓကအစားအစာမား(၂)အရပအျမင /ကယအေလးခနအခး(၃) ေရာဂါမားအတြကကာကြယေဆးထးႏထားမႈ (၄)လဥးေရ/ဆရာ၀နအခး(၅)စသည

ကၽြမးကငမႈမားႏငဗဟသတအသပညာ

(၁)ကား/မစာတတေျမာကမႈ(၂) အလပသငအျဖစလပကငျခငး (၃) သငတနးမားတကေရာကမႈ(၄)စသည

သဘာ၀ အရငးအႏး

ေျမယာပငဆငမႈ (၁) ဆညေရေသာကေျမ (၂) ဆညေျမာငးေရသြငးစကပးျခငးမရေသာ ေျမ(၃)သစေတာေျမ (၄) စသည

ေရ (၁)ေကးရြာတြငရေရတြငးအေရအတြက(၂)ေရတြငးမားအားလြတလပစြာသးစြႏငခြင႔ (၃)ႏစစဥမးေရခန (၄) ဆညေရသြငးစကပးဧရယာ(၅) စသည

ျပနလညျပညၿမႏင ျပနလညျဖညစြမးျခငးမရ ေသာအရငးအျမစမား

(၁) ေျမဆၾသဇာျဖစထြနးမႈ (၂) ငါးဖမးျခငး၊အ၀တေလာျခငးႏငအျခားေသာလပငနးေဆာငတာမားအတြကျမစမား(၃)စသည

ပနးမန၊သစေတာႏင သဘာ၀ေတာရငး

(၁)ေနထငရာအနးေဒသရသစေတာမားအားလြတလပစြာအသးျပႏငမႈ (၂) သစေတာရငးျမစမားအားညႏႈငး၍အသးျပမႈ (၃)ေရရညတညတမညသစေတာထနးသမးစမခန႕ခြမႈ(၄)စသည

လမႈေရး အရငးအႏး

လမႈကြနယက (၁)ရြာသားမားစေပါငးလပကငေသာစကရမား(၂) ေဒသဆငရာအာဏာပငမားႏငဆကဆေရး (၃)စသည

လမႈေရးယၾကညကးစားမႈ (အျပနအလနယၾကညသ လမားအသကအ၀နး)

(၁)ကယထကယထအစအဖြ႕မား(၂)ဘာသာေရးအသငးအဖြ႕မား (၃)ဘာသာေရးႏငမသကဆငေသာအသငးအဖြ႕မား (၄)စသည

ရပပငးဆင ရာအရငးအႏး

အမယာ (၁)သကကယမးအမ(၂)ပဥေထာငအမ(၃)တကအမ(၄)ပလတစတစတ (၅)စသည

ယာဥႏင အေျခခအေဆာကအဥး

(၂) အမမအလပသ႔အကြာအေ၀း(၂) ယာဥတစစးစးပငဆငမႈ (၃) လမးအေျခအေန (၄)စသည

ပစၥညးကရယာ (၁) အငဂင (၂) စကမႈလယယာသးစြႏငမႈ (၃)စသည

အမေမြးတရစၦာနစ (၁) ကၽြႏြား(၂)ၾကကဘ (၃)၀က (၄)စသည

ဘ႑ာေရး အရငးအႏး

စေဆာငးေငြ (၁)အမေထာငစရေငြသား (၂) အမေထာငစ၏ေၾကြးၿမ

ရနပေငြရရႏငမႈ (၁) ေငြေခးယႏငမႈ(၂)အေသးစားေငြေခးယႏငမႈ (၃)စသည

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63

IMPORTANT NOTE:

All types of indicators above in the table are mentioned for the purpose of

clarification only. They are not all necessary needed for a Baseline Study.

The selection of indicators is crucial for the research process. An indicator is one

aspect of a variable (see Chapter on ‘Qualitative and Quantitave Research’ for

definition of a variable). Because a research team studies how this variable varies,

the team has to consider which aspects of the variable are to be measured. An aspect

of a variable that can be measured is an indicator.

Baseline

Plan

Indicators

Selected

Data Collection

Methods

Location of Data

Collection

Time needed for

Data Collection

Human Capital

Natural Capital

Social Capital

Physical Capital

Financial Capital

Literacy is a variable. A research team has to decide how to measure literacy. This means that the team has to select a

range of indicators that the team thinks can measure the ‘literacy’ variable. If the research team measures level of knowledge among communities in remote mountainous areas, the indicators selected might be: (1) Level of school completed; (2) Reading proficiency; (3) Writing skills; and (4) Basic Math proficiency.

Note that the indicators for measuring knowledge can be different if the research team works in remote areas and in urban areas.

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အေရးႀကးမတခက။ ။ ၁။ ၁။ ၁။ အထကပါ ဇယားတြင ပါ၀ငေသာ အညႊနးကနးမားမာ ရငးလငးထင႐ားေစရန ရညရြယခကျဖငသာ ေဖာျပထားျခငး ျဖစပါသည။ အေျချပစထား တငးတာေလလာမႈတရပအတြက အကနလး လအပသညဟ မဆလပါ။ အညႊနးကနးမား ေရြးခယမႈသည သေတသန လပငနးစဥအတြက အေရးႀကးပါသည။ အညႊနးကနးတစခဆသညမာ ကနးရငတစခလး၏ ရႈေထာငတစရပျဖစပါသည။ (ကနးရငႏငပတသကေသာ အဓပၸါယဖြငဆမႈက အခနး (၂) တြင ၾကညပါ။) သေတသနအဖြ႕တစဖြ႕ အေနျဖင ကနးရငတစလး၏ ေျပာငးလမႈက ေလလာေသာေၾကာင အဆပါ ကနးရင အား မညသညရႈေထာငမ အေကာငးဆး တငးတာႏငမညဆသညက စဥးစားရပါမည။ ကနးရငတစခလးအား တငးတာေသာ ရႈေထာငတစရပသည အညႊနးကနး ျဖစပါသည။

အေျချပစထားတငးတာမႈအစအမ

ေရြးခယထားေသာအညႊနးကနးမား

အခကအလကေကာက ယမႈနညးလမးမား ေရြးခယထားေသာျပျခငးနညးလမးစသည)

အခကအလက ေကာကယရာအရပ ေဒသ

အခကအလကေကာကယမႈအတြကလအပေသာအခန

လသားအရငးအႏး

သဘာ၀အရငးအႏး

လမႈေရးအရငးအႏး

႐ပပငးဆငရာအရငးအႏး

ဘ႑ာေရးအရငးအႏး

“စာတတေျမာကမႈ” သညကနးရငတစလး ျဖစပါသည။ သ႔ေသာ သေတသနအဖြ႕တစရပအေနျဖင စာတတေျမာကမႈအား မညသ႔ တငးတာရမညက ဆးျဖတရပါမည။ ဆလသညမာ သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင “စာတတေျမာကမႈ” ဟေသာ ကနးရငအား တငးတာႏငမညဟထငသည အညႊနးကနးမားက ေရြးခယရပါမည။ အကယ၍ သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင ေ၀းလေခါငဖား ေတာငတနးေဒသမားမ လထ၏ အသပညာအဆငအတနးက တငးတာလပါက ေရြးခယႏငေသာအညႊနးကနးမားမာ (၁) တကေရာကျပးဆးခသညအတနး (၂) စာဖတႏငစြမး (၃) စာေရးႏငစြမး (၄) အေျခခအတြကအခကစြမးရညတ႔ျဖစၾကသည။ သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင ၿမ႕ျပဧရယာႏင ေကးလကေဒသမားေပၚ မတည၍ အသပညာက တငးတာေသာ အညႊနးကနးမား ေရြးခယရာတြင ကြျခားမႈရႏငသညက သတျပပါ။

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Selecting the right indicators for the Baseline Plan and, more generally, for the

Baseline Study is very important. These indicators can be used by the research

team to monitor the evolution of the socio-economic context during the project

implementation. They can also be used at the end of the project when an

assessment is made to determine whether the project has reached its objectives.

The next section gives further explanations of this issue.

A Baseline Study most often is based on quantitative data. But it can also rely on

qualitative data. Again the selection of one or other type of data depends on the

research topic and the human and financial resources available to the project. If

possible, the research team should try to use both quantitative and qualitative data

for the Baseline Study.

QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS OF THE BASELINE STUDY

Among the different indicators selected by the team, three indicators are taken

below as examples. These are examples only given for clarifying purposes. A

Baseline Study usually includes more indicators.

One indicator that can be chosen at the beginning of the project is the percentage of

farmers understanding the newly-revised land law. Understanding here could mean the

amount of right answers given by the farmers to a questionnaire about this new law.

The study (see graph below) shows that only 17% of the farmers of the three Divisions

that are part of the project understand the newly-revised land law at the beginning of

the project.

An organization implements a project on land security in three

Divisions of Myanmar. The purpose is to increase opportunities

for land security among small landholders. At the beginning of

the project, the research team discusses which indicators of

land security will be used as baseline information. These

indicators can then be used by the research team to monitor the

progress of the project.

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အေျချပစထားတငးတာမႈ အစအမတစရပ (Baseline Plan) ပ၍ၿခငေျပာရလင အေျချပစထားတငးတာမႈ တစရပလး အတြက မနကနစြာ အညႊနးကနးမား ေရြးခယႏငမႈမာ အလြနပငအေရးႀကးပါသည။ သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင ဤအညႊြနးကနးမားက အသးျပ၍ စမကနး အေကာငအထညေဖာစဥကာလအတြငး ျဖစထြနးတးတကလာေသာ လမႈစးပြား၀နးကင အေနအထားအား ေလလာေစာငၾကညပါသည။ စမကနး အဆးသတကာလတြငလညး အဆပါအညႊနးကနးမားကပင အသးျပ၍ စမကနးအေနျဖင ၎၏ရညမနးခကမား ျပညမမႈရမရက ဆနးစစမႈျပပါသည။ ဤအေၾကာငးအရာႏင ပတသက၍ ေနာကတြငပ၍ ရငးလငးမႈ ျပပါမည။ အေျချပစထား တငးတာေလလာမႈတစရပသည မားေသာအားျဖင အေရအတြကစထား ေဒတာ အခကအလကမား အေပၚ အေျချပပါသည။ သ႔ေသာ အရညအေသြးစထား ေဒတာမားအားလညး သးႏငပါသည။ မညသ႔ေသာ ေဒတာ အခကအလကမားအား ေရြးခယအသးျပမညဆသညမာ စမကနးအတြက ရႏငေသာ လအငအားႏင ဘ႑ာေရး အရငး အျမစမားအေပၚ မတညပါသည။ မညသည အရငးအျမစမား ရႏငသညျဖစေစ သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင အေျချပစထား တငးတာေလလာမႈအတြက အေရအတြကစထား အခကအလကမားေရာ၊ အရညအေသြးစထား ေဒတာအခက အလကမားပါ ႏစမးစလး အသးျပသငပါသည။ အေျချပစထား တငးတာေလလာမႈ၏ အေရအတြကဆငရာ ႐ႈေထာငမား

သေတသနအဖြ႕မ ေရြးခယထားေသာမတကြျပားသညအညႊနးကနးမားထမယခဥပမာအေနျဖငအညႊနးကနးသးခက ေအာကတြငေဖာျပထားပါသည။ဤအညႊနးကနးမားမာရငးလငးတငျပရနရညရြယခကျဖငသာေရြးခယထားျခငးျဖစပါသည။အေျချပစထားတငးတာေလလာမႈတစရပတြငယခထကပမားေသာအညႊနးကနးမားသးေလရပါသည။ စမကနးအစပငးတြင ေရြးခယထားေသာအညႊနးကနးတစရပမာအသစျပျပငျပဌါနးထားေသာ ေျမယာဥပေဒအား နားလညသညလယသမားမားရာခငႏႈနးျဖစသည။နားလညသေဘာေပါကျခငးဆသညမာဥပေဒအသစႏငပတသကျပး ျပလပထားသည ေမးခြနးလႊာပါ ေမးခြနးမားကလယသမားမားမညေ႐ြ႕မညမ ေျဖဆႏငသညက ဆလသည။ ေလလာမႈအရ (ေအာကေဖာျပပါဂရပပအတငး) စမကနး၏အစပငးကာလတြငအသစျပျပငျပဌါနးထားေသာေျမယာ ဥပေဒကနားလညသညလယသမားရာခငႏႈနးမာစမကနးဧရယာျဖစေသာတငးေဒသႀကးသးခ၌၁၇%ႏႈနးသာရသည။

အဖြ႕အစညး တစရပအေနျဖင ျမနမာႏငင၏ တငးေဒသႀကး သးခ၌ ေျမယာပငဆငမႈ အာမခခကႏင ပတသကေသာ စမကနးတစရပက အေကာငအထည ေဖာလကရသည။ တစပငတစႏင ေျမယာပငဆငသမား အတြက ေျမယာပငဆငမႈ အာမခခကဆငရာ အခြငအလမးမား တးျမငေပးႏငရန ရညရြယခကျဖင ျဖစသည။ စမကနး၏ အစပငးကာလ၌ သေတသနအဖြ႕သည ေျမယာပငဆငမႈ အာမခခကႏငပတသကေသာ မညသညအညႊနးကနးမားအား အေျချပစထား တငးတာမႈဆငရာ သတငးအခကအလကအျဖစ အသးျပမညက ေဆြးေႏြးရမည။ ေနာကပငးတြငလညး စမကနး၏ တးတကမႈမားက ေစာငၾကညရန ဤအညႊနးကနးမားကပင သးသြားမည ျဖစသည။

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(the time intervals shown here are only for clarification purposes;

any project has to decide which time intervals are the most relevant)

If the organization’s human and financial resources allow, researchers could possibly

ask the same question to the same number of farmers at the project’s mid-term. Then

the researchers could assess whether there is any progress. At the end of the project,

this could be done a third and final time. By comparing the percentage at the beginning

and end of the project, the indicator could show whether some progress is made on this

aspect of the project.

A second indicator that can be chosen is the number of self-help groups that were

created by the small landholders during the course of the project.

The field survey collects information about the second indicator at the beginning of the

project. The Baseline Study shows (see graph below) that only two self-help groups

exist at the beginning of the project.

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(ဤေနရာတြင ျပထားေသာ အခနကာလၾကားအကြာအေ၀းမားမာ ရငးလငးတငျပရန ရညရြယခကျဖငသာ ျပထားျခငးျဖစၿပး မညသည စမကနးမဆ အသငေလာဆးေသာ အခနကာလၾကားအကြာအေ၀းက ေရြးခယႏငပါသည။)

အကယ၍ အဖြ႕အစညး၏ လအငအားႏင ဘ႑ာေရးအငအား လေလာကပါက သေတသမားအေနျဖင စမကနး အလယပငး၌ တညေသာ လယသမား အေရအတြကအား တညေသာေမးခြနးမး ေမးႏငပါလမမည။ ဤသ႔အားျဖင သေတသမား အေနျဖင တးတကမႈရမရက ေလလာဆနးစစႏငပါသည။ စမကနး၏ အဆးသတ ကာလတြငမ ဤ ေလ႔လာမႈက တတယႏင႔ ေနာကဆးအၾကမ ထပမ ျပလပပါသည။ စမကနးႏင႔ အစဥးကာလႏင႔ စမကနး၏ အဆးသတ ကာလရ ရာခငႏႈနးမားအား ႏႈငးယဥေလလာၾကညျခငးျဖင စမကနး၏ ဤ႐ႈေထာငပငးဆငရာတြင တးတကမႈ တစတရာ ရမရက အညႊနးကနးက ျပဆႏငပါသည။ ေရြးခယထားေသာ ဒတယအညႊနးကနးတစရာမာ စမကနးကာလအတြငး တစပငတစႏင ေျမယာပငဆငသမားမ ဖြ႕စညးထားေသာ ကယထကယထ အပစမား အေရအတြက ျဖစပါသည။ စမကနး အစပငးကာလ၌ ဒတယအညႊနးကနးႏငပတသကေသာ သတငးအခကအလကမားက ကြငးဆငး စစတမး ေကာကယပါသည။ အေျချပစထားတငးတာေလလာမႈအရ (ေအာကေဖာျပပါဂရပအတငး) စမကနးအစပငးကာလတြင ကယထကယထ အပစႏစခသာလင ရပါသည။

Tပထမႏစ (စမကနးအစ) (စမကနးအလယပငး) (စမကနးအဆးသတကာလ)

၂၀ ၁၅ ၁၀ ၅

အညႊနးကနး၂(ယနစမာ (ကယထ-ကယထအပစမား)

Tဒတယႏစ T၀

၂၀

၄၀

၆၀

၈၀

စမကနးအစ စမကနးအလယပငး စမကနးအဆးသတကာလ ပထမႏစ ဒတယႏစ

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The data collected at the end of the project for the same indicator will show whether

there is some progress made on this aspect of the project in the three Divisions of the

country selected for the implementation of the project.

A third indicator that could be chosen is the number of applications submitted for land

registration.

The field survey collects information about this third indicator at the beginning of the

project. The Baseline Study (see graph below) shows that 20 applications were

submitted for land registration.

The data collected at the end of the project for the same indicator will show whether

there is some progress made on this aspect of the project.

The research team analyses the data both at the beginning and at the end of the project.

The team has to consider how much of the progress is directly related to the activities

implemented by the project. It also has to consider other factors which might have

influenced change as shown by the indicators.

QUALITATIVE ASPECTS OF THE BASELINE STUDY

Qualitative aspects of the Baseline Study focus on information that is not easily

understood by simply conducting quantitative research. Social structure of families,

farming techniques, or mode of subsistence may be best understood by conducting

qualitative research.

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ထအညႊနးကနးအတြငး စမကနးအဆးသတကာလ၌ ေကာကယရရေသာ အခကအလကမားအရ စမကနး အေကာင အထညဖာရန ေရြးခယထားေသာ တငးေဒသႀကးသးခ၌ စမကနး၏ ဤ႐ႈေထာငပငးဆငရာတြင တးတကမႈ တစစတစရာ ရမရ သရႏငပါသည။ ေရြးခယထားေသာ တတယေျမာက အညႊနးကနးမာ - ေျမယာမတပတငျခငးအတြက ေလာကထားေသာ ေလာကလႊာ အေရအတြက ျဖစပါသည။ ပထမႏင ဒတယ အညႊနးကနးမားကသ႔ပင စမကနးအစပငးကာလ၌ ဤတတယအညႊနးကနးႏင ပတသကေသာ သတငးအခကအလကမားက ကြငးဆငးစစတမး ေကာကယပါသည။ အေျချပစထား တငးတာေလလာမႈ အရ (ေအာက ေဖာျပပါ ဂရပအတငး) ေျမယာမတပတငျခငးအတြက ေလာကထားေသာ ေလာကလႊာအေရအတြကမာ ၂၀ျဖစပါသည။

ထအညႊနးကနးအတြက စမကနးအဆးသတကာလတြင ေကာကယရရေသာ အခကအလကမားအရ စမကနး၏ ဤ႐ႈေထာငပငးဆငရာတြင တးတကမႈ တစစတစရာ ရမရ သႏငပါသည။ သေသသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင စမကနးအစပငးႏင အဆးသတကာလ ေဒတာအခကအလကမားအား ေလလာဆနးစစ ပါသည။ သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင စမကနး အေကာငအထညေဖာျခငးဆငရာ လပငနး ေဆာငတာမားႏင တက႐က ပတသကမႈရေသာ တးတကမႈပမာဏက စစေဆးဆးျဖတရပါသည။ အညႊနးကနးမားကျပဆသညအတငး တးတကမႈ အေပၚ သကေရာကမႈရေသာ (စမကနးေၾကာငမဟတေသာ) အျခားေသာ အခကအလကမားကလညး ထညသြငး စဥးစားရပါသည။ အေျချပစထားတငးတာေလလာမႈ၏ အရညအေသြးဆငရာ ႐ႈေထာငမား အေျချပစထားတငးတာေလလာမႈ၏ အရညအေသြးဆငရာ ႐ႈေထာငအေနျဖင - အေရအတြကစထား သေတသန ျပရမ ျဖင႔ နားလညရနမလြယကေသာ အသကေမြး၀မးေၾကာငးမႈဆငရာ သတငးအခကအလကမားအေပၚ အာ႐ထားပါသည။ မသားစမား၏ လမႈအသကအၿမပစ၊ လယယာစကပးမႈနညးလမးမား၊ စားေသာကေနထင အသကေမြးမႈ ပစတ႔မာ အရညအေသြးစထား သေတသနအားျဖငသာ ေကာငးစြာ နားလညႏငပါသည။

၇၅၀ ၅၀၀ ၂၅၀ ၁၀၀

အညႊနးကနး၃(အေရအတြက) (ေျမယာမတပတငျခငးအတြက ေလာကထားေသာ ေလာကလႊာမား)

Tပထမႏစ Tဒတယႏစ

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In this case, literature review, focus group discussions, and key informants interviews

all are research methods that produce valuable baseline information.

TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THE CHAPTER ARE:

A Baseline Study serves to collect preliminary information about communities

that benefit from a social project;

Some of the information collected during the study should be used as indicators

that help the researchers monitor how much change happens during the project

implementation;

By collecting data about these indicators at the beginning, middle, and end of

the project implementation, the researcher assesses the extent to which the

changes that occurred during the project implementation are directly related to

the activities conducted by the project.

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ဤကစၥမးတြင ယခငမတတမးမတရာမားအား ေလလာျခငး၊ ဥးတညအပစေဆြးပြမား၊ အဓကသတငးေပးသမားအား ေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမႈျပျခငးတ႔မာ အဖးတနေသာ အေျချပစထားတငးတာမႈဆငရာ သတငးအခကအလကမား ရရေစသည သေတသန နညးလမးမား ျဖစပါသည။ အႏစခပရလင ဤအခနးတြင ပါ၀ငေသာ မတသားရန အဓကအခကမားမာ အေျချပစထား တငးတာေလလာမႈ တစရပသည အသကေမြး၀မးေၾကာငးဆငရာ စမကနးတစရပမ

အကးခစားရမည ရပရြာလထႏငပတသကေသာ ေရ႕ေျပးသတငးအခကအလကမား ေကာကယစေဆာငးပါသည။

ေလလာမႈျပစဥကာအတြငး စေဆာငးရရေသာ အခ႕ေသာသတငးအခကအလကမားအား အညႊနးကနးမားအျဖစ အသးျပသငၿပး ၎တ႔သည စမကနး အေကာငအထညေဖာစဥကာလအတြငး ျဖစထြနးေသာ ေျပာငးလမႈ အတငးအတာက သေတသမားက ေစာငၾကညႏငရန အေထာကအပ ျဖစေစပါသည။

အဆပါ အညႊနးကနးမားႏငပတသကေသာ အခကအလကမားအား စမကနး အေကာငအထညေဖာမႈ၏ အစပငး၊

အလယပငးႏင အဆးသတကာလတ႔၌ ေကာကယစေဆာငးျခငးအားျဖင သေတသအေနျဖင စမကနး ေဖာေဆာငရာ လပငနးေဆာငတာမားႏင တက႐ကပတသကမႈရေသာ အေျပာငးအလမား၏ ပမာဏ မညမ ရသညက စမကနးေဖာ ေဆာငစဥကာလအတြငး ဆနးစစေလလာႏငပါသည။

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BASIC 4. SURVEY RESEARCH (1)

THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT:

• The use of survey research for collecting data;

• The steps in formulating survey questionnaires;

• The best ways to conduct survey interviews.

______________________________________________________

This chapter is the first of two focusing on survey research.

SURVEY RESEARCH

Survey is a mode of observation frequently used in the social sciences. In a

survey, the researcher selects a sample of respondents and submits a standardized

questionnaire to them. Survey may be used for exploratory, descriptive, and

explanatory purposes. They are used in studies that have individual persons or

households as their unit of analysis.

Survey is the best method available when a social researcher has to collect

original data for describing a population too large to observe directly. Careful

sampling is concerned with selecting a group of respondents whose characteristics

in relationship to the topic of research reflect those of the larger population.

Survey is also an excellent method for measuring attitudes and orientations in a

large population. Standardized questionnaires provide data from all respondents in

the same form. Conducting survey research begins with formulating good

questions. It also requires careful preparation and detailed protocol writing.

The advantages of survey are the following: fairly quick, easy to perform, less

expensive, and adapted to chronic/indolent conditions. However, researchers also

need to acknowledge the limitations of survey. Surveys have limited capacity to

document the relationship between an issue and its root causes as they are all

measured at the same time.

PLANNING A SURVEY RESEARCH

• First, it is important to consider whether the information can be collected by

the survey. This is important, especially in the context of Myanmar, where

certain areas and questions are still highly sensitive.

• The next step is to lay out the objectives of the investigation. The objectives of

a survey should be specific, clear-cut, and unambiguous.

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အေျခခအဆင ၄. စစတမးသေတသန ( ၁ )

ဤပ႔ခခကတြင

• အခကအလက စေဆာငးရာတြင စစတမးသေတသနအား အသးျပပ

• စစတမးေမးခြနးလႊာမား ျပငဆငျပလပပ အဆငဆင

• စစတမးလေတြ႕ေမးျမနးခကမား ျပလပရန အေကာငးဆး နညးလမးမား ________________________________________________________________________

ဤအခနးသည စစတမးသေတသနက အဓကထားေဖာျပသည အခနးႏစခနးအနက ပထမအခနးျဖစသည။

စစတမးသေတသန

စစတမးဟသည တစတရာေသာ ရည႐ြယခကျဖင အေသးစတစစေဆးျခငး/ စမးသပျခငး/ ေထာကလမးျခငး လပငနးစဥ တစရပျဖစသည (ေအာကစဖ႔ဒအဂၤလပအဘဓာနမ)။ ၄ငးသည လမႈေရးသပၸတြင အသးမားေသာ ေလလာေရး ၾကားခနယတစခ ျဖစသည။ စစတမးျပလပရာတြင သေတသသည ေျဖၾကားေပးမည နမနာ လအပစတစစက ေ႐ြးခယျပး စကကျပးသား ေမးခြနးလႊာတစခ ေပးအပသည။ စစတမးအား ပဏာမစးစမးေရး၊ ေဖာျပညႊနးဆေရး၊ ႐ငးလငးတငျပေရး ရည႐ြယခကသးခစလးျဖင အသးျပႏငသည။ လပဂၢလတစဥးခငးစ (သ႔) အမေထာငစမားအား ဆစပငးေလလာေရး ယနစ အျဖစယေသာ ေလလာခကမားတြင ၄ငးတ႔အား အသးျပသည။ အဆပါ လပဂၢလတစဥးခငးစအား ေျဖၾကား ေပးမညသမား (respondents) ဟ ေခၚသည။

လမႈေရးသေတသတစဥးသည တက႐ကထေတြ႕ေလလာရန ၾကးမားမားျပားလြနးေသာ လဥးေရတစရပအား ေဖာျပႏငရန

အလ႔ငာ မလအခကအလကမား စေဆာငးေသာအခါ စစတမးေကာကယျခငးသည အေကာငးဆး နညးလမးျဖစသည။ ဂ႐တစကနမနာ စေဆာငးျခငးသည သေတသနေခါငးစဥအရ လဥးေရတစရပလးက ထငဟပႏငမည ဝေသသပင႐င ေျဖဆသမား ေ႐ြးခယေရးပင ျဖစသည။ စစတမးေကာကယျခငးသည ပမနထကပ၍ ၾကးမားေသာ လဥးေရတစရပ

အတြငးမ စတေနသေဘာထားမားႏင အေျခခယၾကညယဆခကမားက တငးတာရာတြင အလြနတရာ ေကာငးမြနေသာ

နညးလမးတစခလညး ျဖစသည။ စကကျပးသား ေမးခြနးလႊာမားသည ေျဖၾကားသမားထမ အခကအလကမားက ပစ

တစမးတညးျဖငရ႐ေစသည။ စစတမး သေတသနလပေဆာငျခငးမာ ေမးခြနးေကာငးမား ျပလပေရးမ စတငသည။ ဂ႐တစက ျပငဆငေရးႏင အေသးစတမၾကမး ေရးသားျခငးမား ျပလပရနလညးလအပသည။

စစတမး၏ အားသာခကမားမာ လငျမနျခငး၊ ျပလပရနလြယကျခငး၊ ေငြေၾကးအကနအကနညးျခငးႏင ဆးဝါးေသာ/

လပကငခငစတ မ႐ေသာ အေျခအေနမားတြင အသးျပႏငျခငးတ႔ ျဖစၾကသည။ သ႔ေသာလညး သေတသတ႔သည စစတမး၏

အကန႔အသတက သ႐ထားရနလညးလအပသည။ ျပနာရပႏငပငမအေၾကာငးတရာမားၾကားဆကႏြယမႈက မတတမး ျပရာတြင ၄ငးတ႔မာ တျပငနကတညး တငးတာရသညျဖစ၍ စစတမး၏ မတတမးျပႏငစြမးက အဟန႔အတား ျဖစေစသည။

စစတမးသေတသနတစခ ျပလပရန ျပငဆငျခငး

• ဥးစြာပထမ အခကအလကမားသည စစတမးနညးျဖငသာ စေဆာငးႏငျခငး ဟတမဟတ အေလးေပးစဥးစားရန

လအပသည။ ဤအခကသညအခ႕ေသာ ေနရာေဒသ၊ အခ႕ေသာ ေမးခြနးမားအတြက အကဆတ လြနးလေသး ေသာ ျမနမာႏငငအေနအထားတြင အထးအေရးၾကးသည။

• ေနာကတစဆငမာ စးစမးေလလာမႈ၏ ရညမနးခကမားက ထငသာျမငသာ ႐ေစျခငးပင ျဖစသည။ စစတမး ေကာကယ ျခငး၏ ရညမနးခကမားမာ တတပပ႐ရမည။ ႐ငးလငးျပတသားရမည။ ႐ပ႐ပေထြးေထြး မျဖစေစရ။

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• Survey research often implies that respondents give researchers information about

themselves that is not readily available. Questions can sometimes be embarrassing

for respondents. It is therefore important to carefully prepare the contents of the

questionnaire and try to minimize the risk of embarrassment.

• It is also important to take into account the “interviewer effect”. The interviewer

effect means that the respondent’s behaviour or answer changes because he or she

is being interviewed by an interviewer.

CONTENTS OF A SURVEY RESEARCH

Before starting the drafting of the survey form, the following steps should be considered by the researcher(s):

objectives of the survey and variables as starting points

clarification of the research question/topic

nature of sample: sample from specific categories of people or the general population

required sample size of the survey

interview technique to be used by the researcher(s)

KEY STEPS IN CARRYING OUT A SURVEY

The key steps in carrying out a survey include the following ones:

1. Decide whether a survey is necessary. If a survey is deemed necessary, then the following steps apply.

2. Define the survey objectives and the geographic target area to be included in the survey.

3. Determine what information is collected and from which population subgroup it is collected.

4. Gather the background information necessary for carrying out the survey and, if needed, meet with community leaders, local authorities and organizations that may be concerned with the survey.

5. Determine the most appropriate sampling method and sample size.

6. Determine the schedule for the survey and prepare supplies and equipment accordingly.

7. Design the survey form.

8. Design the surveyor's manual.

9. Select and train survey workers.

10. Test the survey forms and data collection procedures (pilot test) and improve them based on the results of the pilot test.

11. Collect the data by using the survey forms among the individuals who are part of the sample.

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• မားေသာအားျဖင တပါးသအား ေပးေလမ႐ေသာ ကယေရးကယတာ အခကအလကမားက စစတမး သေတသန

တြငမ ေျဖၾကားသမားက သေတသအား ေပးေလ႐သည။ ေမးခြနးမားသညတခါတရ ေျဖၾကားေပးမညသအတြက ေျဖဆရန႐ကစရာ ျဖစေနတတသည။ သ႔ျဖစပါ၍ ေမးခြနးလႊာပါအေၾကာငးအရာမားအား ေျဖၾကားမညသ႐က႐ြ႕ သြားေစမည ကစၥနညးႏငသမနညးေအာင ဂ႐တစကျပငဆငရန လအပသည။

• “လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးသ၏ ၾသဇာလႊမးမးမႈ” ကလညး အေရးတၾကးထညသြငးစဥးစားရန လအပသည။ လေတြ႕ ေမးျမနးသ၏ ၾသဇာလႊမးမးမႈဆသညမာ လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးသကယတင ေမးခြနးေမးလကေသာအခါ ေျဖၾကားသ၏

အမအယာႏင အေျဖေျပာငးလသြားျခငးက ဆလသည။

စစတမးသေတသနတြင ပါဝငေသာ အေၾကာငးအရာမား

စစတမးလႊာမျပစေသးခင သေတသ(မား) အေနျဖင ေအာကေဖာျပပါ အဆငမားအား စဥးစားရနလအပသည။

စစတမး၏ ရညမနးခကမားႏင ကနး႐ငမားအား စမတမားအျဖစ အသးျပျခငး

သေတသန ေမးခြနး/ေခါငးစဥအား ႐ငးလငးဖြငဆျခငး

နမနာ၏ သေဘာသဘာဝ — သးသန႔လအပစကြမားမ (သ႔) သာမနလဥးေရတစရပမနမနာ

စစတမးအတြက လအပေသာ နမနာအ႐ြယအစား

သေတသ(မား) အသးျပမည လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးနညး

စစတမးတစခေကာကယျခငး၏ အဓကအဆငမား

စစတမးတစခေကာကယျခငး၏ အဓကအဆငမားမာ ေအာကပါအတငးပငျဖစသည --

၁။ စစတမးေကာကယရန လမလဆးျဖတပါ။ အကယ၍စစတမးသည အမနတကယပင လအပပါက ေအာကပါ အဆငမားအတငး လပေဆာငပါ။

၂။ စစတမးရညမနးခကမားက ႐ငးလငးခကေပးျပး စစတမးျပလပမည ေဒသက စစတမးတြင ပါဝငေစရပါမည။

၃။ မညသ႔ေသာ အခကအလကမားက မညသညလဥးေရ အပစငယမ စေဆာငးရ႐သညက သတမတေပးပါ။

၄။ စစတမးေကာကယရန လအပေသာ ေနာကခအခကအလကအခ႕ စေဆာငးပါ။ လအပပါက စစတမးႏင

သကဆငေသာ ရပ႐ြာေခါငးေဆာင၊ ေဒသအာဏာပင၊အဖြ႕အစညးတ႔က ဆကသြယပါ။

၅။ အသငေတာဆးေသာ နမနာေကာကယနညးႏင နမနာအ႐ြယအစားက ဆးျဖတေ႐ြးခယပါ။

၆။ စစတမးေကာကယရန အခနဇယားသတမတျပး လအပေသာ ပစၥညးပစၥယမားက သငေတာသလ ျပငဆငပါ။

၇။ စစတမးလႊာပစခပါ။

၈။ စစတမးေကာကယမညသမားအတြက လကစြတစခ ေရးဆြပါ။

၉။ စစတမးေကာကယမညသမားအား ေ႐ြးခယျပး ေလကငသငၾကားေပးပါ။

၁၀။ စစတမးလႊာမားႏင အခကအလကေကာကယေရး လပငနးစဥအဆငဆင (ကနဥးစမးသပခက) တ႕က စမးသပ စစေဆးျပး ရ႐လာေသာ ရလဒမားအတငး ျပငဆငျပး ပမေကာငးမြနေအာင ျပလပပါ။

၁၁။ နမနာတြင အကးဝငေသာ ပဂၢလမားၾကားတြင စစတမးလႊာမား အသးျပျပး အခကအလကမား ေကာကယပါ။

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12. Enter the data and assess its quality.

The key steps are mentioned here for information only. They receive full

development in a second chapter of survey research. The rest of the present

chapter is about how to create a survey questionnaire.

CREATING A SURVEY FORM

It is important that questions in the survey form (questionnaire) are clear and easy to

understand. Suggestions for creating a survey form are:

construct a detailed outline according to information needed

check the relevance of asking this or these question(s)

consider relevant types of questions in relation to the information needed

use simple and everyday language

pay attention to the order of questions in a questionnaire: start with simple, non-

threatening questions directly related to the subject, and ask sensitive questions at

the end of the survey form.

QUESTIONNAIRES

A questionnaire is a set of questions on a form, submitted to a number of people in

order to collect responses from these people. Later, these responses will be analyzed

and turned into statistical information.

Types of questions

The questionnaire has two types of questions: open-ended and close-ended questions.

Open-Ended Questions: The respondent writes down his/her opinions and attitudes in

response to the question. The respondent expresses his/her ideas with his/her own

words. The resulting data are not necessarily uniform, making data analysis not so

easy. Moreover, the researcher(s) is not necessarily familiar with the facts/data.

For example: Responding to the question on “What is your favorite color?”, each

respondent writes down his/her favorite color. Then, each answer is coded and

associated with one color.

Close-Ended Questions: The respondent is asked to select an answer from a list

provided by the researcher. The choices are fixed and respondents choose from listed

items. Close-ended questions are quite popular in survey research. They result in more

uniform data, and they are easier to process and analyse. Close-ended questions require

the two following conditions:

the range of answers for the close-ended question that the respondent chooses from

has to be exhaustive: all possible answers have to be listed so that the respondent

can choose among them freely;

all the different answers have to be mutually exclusive. This means that the

respondent must feel that one and only one answer is the appropriate answer for

her/him.

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၁၂။ အခကအလကမား ျဖညသြငးျပး ၄ငးတ႔၏ အရညအေသြးက ဆနးစစပါ။

ဤေနရာတြင အဓကအဆငမားမာ အခကအလကအေနျဖင ေဖာျပျခငးသကသကမသာ ျဖစသည။ စစတမး သေတသန ဒတယအခနး တြင အျပညအစက ၾကညပါ။ လက႐အခနး၏ ကန႐ေနေသးေသာ အပငးတြင စစတမးေမးခြနးလႊာ အဘယသ႔ ျပလပသညကဆကလကေဖာျပပါမည။

စစတမးလႊာတစခ ျပလပျခငး

စစတမးလႊာ (ေမးခြနးလႊာ) တြငပါဝငေသာ ေမးခြနးမားမာ ႐ငးလငးျပး နားလညရလြယကေစရန အေရးၾကးသည။ စစတမးလႊာတစခ ျပလပရနေအတြက အၾကျပခကမားမာ --

လအပေသာ သတငးအခက အလကေပၚမတည၍ အေျခခ၍ ေကာကေၾကာငးအေသးစတ တညေဆာကပါ။

ဟေမးခြနးသည ေမးခြနးမား ေမးရာတြင သကဆငမႈ႐မ႐ သးသပပါ။

လအပေသာ သတငးအခကအလက ေပၚမတည၍ သကဆငေသာ ေမးခြနးအမးအစားမားက စဥးစားပါ။

႐း႐ငးေသာ ေန႔စဥသး ဘာသာစကားက အသးျပပါ။

ေမးခြနးလႊာတြင ပါဝငေသာ ေမးခြနးအစဥမာ -- ႐ငးလငးလြယက၍ အေၾကာငးအရာႏင တက႐ကသကဆငျပး ေျဖဆသ အထတအလန႔မျဖစေစမည ေမးခြနးမားႏင စတငပါ။ အကဆတေသာ ေမးခြနးမားအား စစတမးလႊာ၏

ေနာကဆးပငးမသာ ေမးပါ။

ေမးခြနးလႊာမား

ေမးခြနးလႊာဟသည လအမားထမ ေျဖၾကားခကမား ေကာကယရန ၄ငးတ႔အား ေပးအပထားသည ေမးခြနးတစစ

ပါဝငေသာ ပစစာ႐ြကျဖစသည။ ေနာကပငးတြင အဆပါ ေျဖၾကားခကမားသည စစစေလလာမညျဖစျပး စာရငးအငး အခကအလကမားအျဖစ ေျပာငးလပစမည ျဖစသည။

ေမးခြနးအမးအစားမား

ေမးခြနးလႊာတြင အပြငေမးခြနးႏင အပတေမးခြနးဟ၍ အမးအစားႏစမး႐သည။

အပြငေမးခြနးမား -- ေျဖဆသသည ၄ငး၏ထငျမငခကႏင သေဘာထားမားက ေမးခြနးေျဖၾကားရာတြင ခေရးသည။ ေျဖၾကားသသည ၄ငး၏ကယပငစကားလးျဖငသာ ေရးသားေဖာျပသည။ ရ႐လာေသာ အခကအလကမားမာ တစတစညး တညး မျဖစဘ အခကအလက ဆစပငးေလလာရာတြင လြယကလမမည မဟတေပ။ သညအျပငလညး သေတသ(တ႔)

အေနျဖင အေၾကာငးခငးရာ/အခကအလကတ႔ႏင ရငးႏးလမမည မဟတေပ။

ဥပမာအားျဖင “မညသညအေရာငက သငအႏစသကဆးျဖစသနညး?” ဟေသာ ေမးခြနးက ေျဖဆရာတြင ေျဖဆသတငး သည ၄ငးတ႔အႏစသကဆး အေရာငက ခေရးၾကေပမည။ ဤတြင အေျဖတစခခငးစသည အေရာငတစေရာငစႏင အမတအသား ျပႏငေပမည။ ခတဆက၍ ရႏငေပမည။

အပတေမးခြနးမား -- ေျဖဆသအေနႏင သေတသ ေပးထားေသာ စာရငးတစခပါ အေျဖတစခကသာ ေ႐ြးခယႏငသည။ ေ႐ြးခယမႈမာ သတမတထားျပးျဖစျပး ေျဖဆသသည စာရငးပါအရာမားကသာ ေ႐ြးခယရသည။ အပတေမးခြနးမားမာ

စစတမးသေတသနတြင အလြနလသးမားသည။ အဖြငေမးခြနးမားထက ပမျပး စစစညးစညးျဖစေသာ အခက အလကမား ရ႐ျပး လပငနးလပေဆာငရာတြငႏင သးသပေလလာရာတြင ပမလြယကေစသည။ အပတေမးခြနးမားတြင ေအာကပါ အေျခအေနႏစရပ လအပသည။

အပတေမးခြနးမားမ ေျဖဆသ ေ႐ြးခယရမည အေျဖစာရငးသည ျခငႏငစြမး႐ရမည။ ျဖစႏငသမ အေျဖအကနလး အား စာရငးတြင ပါဝငေစရမညျဖစျပး သ႔မသာ ေျဖဆသ လြတလြတလပလပ ေ႐ြးခယႏငေပမည။

မတျခားနားေသာ အေျဖမနသမ တစခႏငတစခ ေရာထပျခငး မ႐ေစရ။ ဆလသညမာ ေျဖဆသအေနႏင

တစခတညးေသာ အေျဖသည ၄ငး၏ အသငေတာဆး အေျဖျဖစေၾကာငး သ႐ေနေစရမည။

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For example: What is your marital status? Single (1); Married (2); Divorced (3);

Widow (4). Each respondent chooses one of these two answers, it is already pre-

coded.

The selection of open-ended questions or close-ended questions for the survey

form depends on the information that the researchers expects to get from the

respondents. A questionnaire usually mixes both types of questions.

Questions should be as simple as possible, meaning only one type of information

should be collected from one question. This will make analysis easier. Questions

should not be biased, should be neutral, and should not encourage the respondent

to select one particular answer.

Example of questions on ‘assessing the environmental awareness of young Myanmar

graduates.

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

Topic under

the study

Main and

associated research

questions

Information

required

Questions

To assess the

environmental

awareness of

young Myanmar

graduates

What is environmental

awareness? When you

use the term, what does

it mean to you?

Perception of

environmental

awareness;

How important is the

family and education

background for the

level of environmental

awareness

Q.1.1. How old are you?

Q.1.2. What degrees do you

hold?

Q.1.3. How many brothers

and sisters do you have?

How much are young

graduates

knowledgeable about

environmental

questions?

Awareness and interest

of young graduates in

general environment

issues;

Willingness to actively

participate in the debate

about environmental

protection

Q.2.1. How do you get your

knowledge about

environmental issues?

Newspapers, TV, friends,

others, if so: what are they?

Q.2.2. What is your view of

the government's policy on

dam building in the country?

Q.2.3. Would you consider

becoming a member of pro-

environment organization?

To what extent are

young graduates apply

their knowledge of the

environment in their

daily life?

To what extent does

their environmental

awareness have a

practical dimension?

Awareness of daily

practices contributing to

environmental

protection;

Capacity to encourage

people around to follow

similar practices

Q.3.1. How do you dispose of

batteries?

Q.3.2. How do you dispose of

plastic bags?

Q.3.3. Do you persuade your

friends not to use plastic

bags?

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ဥပမာ - “သငအမေထာငသည ဟတမဟတ ေျဖၾကားေပးပါ?” လလြတ (၁)၊ အမေထာငသည (၂)၊ တခလပ (၃)၊

မဆးဖ/မ (၅)။ ေျဖဆသတငး အေျဖတစခတညးကသာ ေ႐ြးခယရမညျပး ၄ငးမာတငၾက၍ ကဒအမးစားခြျခားျပး

ျဖစသည။

စစတမးလႊာအတြက အပြငေမးခြနး (သ႔မဟတ) အပတေမးခြနး ေ႐ြးခယေရးသည သေတသမားအေနျဖင ေျဖဆသမား ထမ မညသည အခကအလကမး ရယလသနညး ဆေသာအခကေပၚတြင မတညသည။ ပမနအားျဖင ေမးခြနးလႊာတစခ သည ေမးခြနးပစႏစမးစလး ေရာစပပါဝငေလ႐သည။

ေမးခြနးမားမာ တတႏငသမ ႐ငးလငးလြယကေစရမည။ ဆလသညမာ ေမးခြနးတစခမ အခကအလက အမးအစား တစခသာ စေဆာငးရယေစရမည။ ဤနညးျဖင စစစေလလာမႈက ပမလြယကေစမည။ ေမးခြနးမားသည ဘကလကမႈ မ႐ေစရ။ ဓမၼဓ႒ာနကရမညျဖစျပး ေျဖဆသအားတစတခေသာအေျဖက ေ႐ြးခယရန တကတြနးအားေပးမႈမး မ႐ေစ

သငေပ။

‘ဘြ႕ရျမနမာလငယမားၾကား သဘာဝပတဝနးကငဆငရာ နားလညကၽြမးဝငမႈအား ေလလာဆနးစစျခငး’ ဆငရာ ဥပမာ ေမးခြနးမား

အဆင၁ အဆင၂ အဆင၃ အဆင၄

ေလလာမည အေၾကာငးအရာ အဓကကျပး သကဆငမႈ႐ေသာ

သေတသနေမးခြနးမား လအပေသာ သတငးအခက

အလကမား ေမးခြနးမား

ဘြ႕ရျမနမာ လငယမားၾကား သဘာဝ ပတဝနးကငဆငရာ

နားလညကၽြမးဝငမႈအား ေလလာဆနးစစရန

သဘာဝပတဝနးကငဆငရာ

နားလညကၽြမးဝငမႈဆသညမာ

အဘယနညး။ ထစကားလးအား သငအသးျပေသာအခါမညသည

အဓပၸါယျဖင အသးျပသနညး။

သဘာဝပတဝနးကငဆငရာ

နားလညကၽြမးဝငမႈႏင ပတသက

ေသာအျမင။ ပတဝနးကငဆငရာ နားလည

ကၽြမးဝငမႈ အဆငအတနးတြင

မသားစႏင ပညာေရးေနာကခတ႔ မညမအထ အေရးၾကးပ

ေမး။ ၁။ ၁။ အသကမညမ႐ျပနညး။

ေမး။ ၁။ ၂။ မညသညဘြ႕ဒဂရမား ပငဆငထားသနညး။

ေမး။ ၁။ ၃။ ေမြးခငးမညမ႐သနညး။

ဘြ႕ရလငယမား သဘာဝ

ပတဝနးကငဆငရာ ေမးခြနးမားႏင ပတသကျပး မညမအထဗဟသတ

႐ၾကသနညး။

ေယဘယသဘာဝ

ပတဝနးကငျဖစစဥမားအေပၚ ဘြ႕ရလငယမား၏

နားလညကၽြမးဝငမႈႏင စတပါဝငစားမႈ။ သဘာဝပတဝနးကင

ထနးသမးကာကြယေရးဆငရာ

စကားရညလပြမားတြင

တကၾကြစြာပါဝငရန

စတအားထကသနမႈ

ေမး။ ၂။ ၁။ သဘာဝပတဝနးကငဆငရာ

ကစၥရပမားႏင ပတသကေသာ

ဗဟသတမားက မညသ႔မညပ

ဆညးပးသနညး။ သတငးစာ၊ တဗြ၊ မတေဆြမား၊ အျခား။ အျခားဆလင ၄ငးမာအဘယနညး။

ေမး။ ၂။ ၂။ တငးျပညအတြငး ေရေလာင တမေဆာကလပမႈႏင ပတသကေသာ

အစးရမဝါဒအေပၚ သငမညသ႔ ယဆ

သနညး။

ေမး။ ၂။ ၃။ သဘာဝပတဝနးကင

ထနးသမးေစာငေ႐ာကေရး အဖြ႕ဝင တစဥးျဖစလာရန အၾကအစည

႐ပါသလား။ ဘြ႕ရလငယမား သဘာဝ

ပတဝနးကငဆငရာအသဉာဏက

ေန႔စဥဘဝတြငမညသ႔ေသာအတငးအတာအထအသးခၾကသနညး။ သဘာဝပတဝနးကငဆငရာ၄ငးတ႔၏သ႐နားလညထားမႈမာမညမအထလကေတြ႕ေဘာငဝငသနညး။

သဘာဝပတဝနးကင

ကာကြယေရးက

အေထာကအကျပေစမည ေန႔စဥ

ေဆာင႐ြကခကမားႏငစပလဥး ျပး နားလညကၽြမးဝငမႈ။ အလားတျပမႈ ေဆာင႐ြကရန

နးစပရာလမားအား စည႐းႏငစြမးရည။

ေမး။ ၃။ ၁။ ဓါတခမားအား မညသ႔ စြန႔ပစေလ႐သနညး။ ေမး။ ၃။ ၂။ ပလတစတစအတမားအား မညသ႔ စြန႔ပစေလ႐သနညး။

ေမး။ ၃။ ၃။ မတေဆြမားအား ပလတစတစအတ အသးမျပရန

စညး႐းပါသလား။

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CONCLUSION

Surveys gather data at a single point in time. They are cross-sectional surveys.

Therefore, data from a single survey cannot be used to document trends. For

monitoring changes in information, behavior, or activities, the same data have to be

gathered continuously over time. Only then, trends can be followed based on collected

data. Moreover, surveys collect data on possible contributing factors as well as data on

the examined problem. However, it is often difficult to tell which came first. To better

understand problems in a population, additional information about the causes must be

obtained by other means, such as qualitative assessment techniques.

TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THIS CHAPTER ARE:

The survey form usually includes a variety of types of questions (both open-

ended and close-ended questions);

The order of questions grouped around specific themes in a survey form is

important and should help the data analysis;

The survey form has to use everyday language in order for the questions to be

easily understood by everyone.

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နဂးခပ

စစတမးမားသည တစၾကမတြင အခကအလကတစခသာ ေကာကယသည။ ၄ငးတ႔မာ ကန႔လန႔ျဖတ စစတမးမား (cross-

sectional surveys) ျဖစၾကသည။ သ႔ျဖစေသာေၾကာင စစတမးတစရပတညးမ အခကအလကမားသည ျဖစစဥလားရာမားအား မတတမး တငရာတြင အသးမျပႏငေခ။ သတငးအခကအလကမား (သ႔) အျပအမမား (သ႔) လပေဆာငခကမားမ ေျပာငးလမႈ မားအား ေစာငၾကညေလလာရန တစမးတညးေသာ အခကအလကမားကပင စဥဆကမျပတ ေကာကယေနရမည။ သ႔မသာ ျဖစစဥလားရာမားအား စေဆာငးရ႐ေသာ အခကအလကမားအေပၚ အေျခခ၍ လကႏငေပမည။ သညအျပငလညး စစတမး သည ျဖစတနရာေသာ အေၾကာငးတရားမားအေပၚ အခကအလက ေကာကယသညနညးတ ေလလာေနသည ျပနာရပ ေပၚတြငလညး အခကအလကေကာကယသည။ သ႔ေသာလညး ၄ငးတ႔အနက မညသညက အရငလာသနညးဆေသာ အခကမာ ေျပာရနခကခသည။ လဥးေရတစရပတြင ျဖစပြားေနေသာ ျပနာရပမားက ပမနားလညရန အလ႔ငာ အရညအေသြး ဆနးစစ ေလလာနညးလမးမားကသ႔ အျခားနညးလမးမား အသးျပျပး အေၾကာငးတရားမားႏင ပတသကေသာ ေနာကတး သတငး အခကအလကမား ရယႏငရနလအပသည။ အခပအားျဖင ဤအခနးတြင အဓကမတသားရန လအပေသာ အခကအလကမားမာ

စစတမးပစတစခတြင ပမနအားျဖင ေမးခြနးအမးအစားေပါငးစ (အပြငေရာ အပတပါ) ပါဝငေလ႐သည။

စစတမးပစတစခတြင တစတရာေသာ အေၾကာငးျပခကျဖင ဖြ႕စညးတညေဆာကေသာ ေမးခြနးအစဥသည

အေရးၾကးျပး အခကအလက စစစေလလာေရးတြင အေထာကအကျပသည။

ေန႔စဥသးစကားမားက အသးျပမသာ စစတမးပစပါ ေမးခြနးမားက နားလညရန လြယကမည။

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BASIC 5. SURVEY RESEARCH (2)

THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT:

• The key steps in carrying out a survey;

• The detailed presentation of each of these steps;

• Guidance on how these steps may be completed.

______________________________________________________________________

INTRODUCTION

Carrying out a survey requires many skills, much patience, and a substantial investment

of time. But, when the survey is well conducted, the value of the survey will far

outweigh its costs. The first presentation about the survey method offered guidance on

how to create a survey form, how to formulate and choose the different type of

questions, and how to order them in a questionnaire. This second presentation about the

survey method is less about the questionnaire itself than about how to conduct survey

research and to use survey forms during the overall process of survey research.

KEY STEPS IN CARRYING OUT A SURVEY

The key steps in carrying out a survey include the following:

1. Decide whether a survey is necessary. If a survey is deemed necessary, then the

following steps will apply.

2. Define the survey objectives and the geographic target area to be included in the

survey.

3. Determine the information to be collected and the population subgroup from which it

will be collected.

4. Gather background information necessary for carrying out the survey and, if needed,

meet with community leaders, local authorities and organizations that may be

concerned with the survey.

5. Determine the most appropriate sampling method and sample size.

6. Select the sample to be used for the survey.

7. Determine the schedule of the survey and prepare supplies and equipment

accordingly.

8. Design the survey form (see previous chapter on ‘Survey Research 1’).

9. Design the surveyor's manual.

10. Select and train survey workers.

11. Test the survey forms and data collection procedures (pilot test) and improve them

based on the results of the pilot test.

12. Collect the data by using the survey forms among the individuals who are part of

the sample.

13. Enter the data and assess its quality.

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အေျခခအဆင ၅. စစတမး ေကာကယသေတသနျပျခငး (၂ ) ဤအခနးတြင

စစတနးတစရပ ေကာကယရာ၌ ပါ၀ငေသာ အဓကအဆင႔မား

ထအဆင႔တစဆင႔ခငးစႏင႔ ပတသတ၍ အေသးစတတငျပမႈ

ထအဆင႔မားက လပေဆာငပႏင႔ပတသတေသာ လမးညႊနခကတ႕ ပါ၀ငပါသည။

_____________________________________________________________________________________ မတဆက စစတမးတစရပ ေကာကယရာတြင အရညအခငးရမႈ၊ စတရညသညးခႏငမႈႏင႔ အခနေပးႏငမႈတ႔ မားစြာလအပပါသည။ သ႔ေသာစစတမးတစရပက ေကာငးမြနစြာ ေကာကယႏငပါက အဆပါစစတမး၏ တနဖးသည ေပးလကရေသာ စရတ စကမားထက မားစြာသာလြနပါသည။ စစတမးေကာကယမႈ နညးလမးႏင႔ ပတသတေသာ ပထမတငျပမႈသည စစတမး ပစတစရပ ျပလပပ၊ ကြျပားေသာ ေမးခြနးအမးမးအား ေရြးခယေမးျမနးပႏင႔ ေမးခြနးလႊာတြင ထေမးခြနးမားအား စစဥ ေနရာခပတ႔အေၾကာငး ညႊနၾကားျပသမႈ ျဖစပါသည။ ဤစစတမးေကာကယနညးအေၾကာငး ဒတယေျမာက တငျပခက တြင ေမးခြနးလႊာ အေၾကာငးနညးနညး၊ စစတမးသေတသန ျပလပပႏင စစတမးေကာကယစဥ အတြငး ေမးခြနးလႊာအား မညသ႔အသးျပရပ အေၾကာငးက မားမားေဆြးေႏြးထားသည။ စစတမးတစရပေကာကယရာတြင ပါ၀ငေသာအဓကအဆင႔မား စစတမး တစရပေကာကယရာတြင ပါ၀ငေသာ အဓကအဆင႔မားတြင ေအာကပါတ႔ပါ၀ငသည။

၁။ စစတမးတစရပေကာကယရန လအပမႈ ရမရ ဆးျဖတပါ။ စစတမးတစရပ ေကာကယရန လအပသညဟ ယဆပါက ေအာကပါအဆင႔မားအတငး လပေဆာငပါ။

၂။ စစတမး၏ ရညရြယခကမားႏင႔ စစတမးေကာကယရာတြင ပါ၀ငမည႔ ဥးတညခကထားေသာ သတမတနယေျမ ဧရယာက ေဖာထတသတမတပါ။

၃။ မညသည႔ သတငးအခက အလကစေဆာငးမည၊ မညသည႔ အပစခြလဥးေရ အပစထမ ေကာကယမည ဆသညက သတမတပါ။

၄။ စစတမးေကာကယရန လအပေသာ ေနာကခ သတငးအခကအလကမား စေဆာငးပါ။ လအပပါက စစတမးႏင႔ သကဆငမႈရေသာ ရပရြာေခါငးေဆာငမား၊ ေဒသဆငရာအာဏာပငမား၊ အဖြ႔အစညးမားႏင႔ ေတြ႔ဆပါ။

၅။ အသင႔ေလာဆးေသာ နမနာေကာကယမႈနညးလမးက သတမတပါ။

၆။ စစတမးအတြက အသးျပမည နမနာမား ေရြးခယပါ။

၇။ စစတမးေကာကယေရး အစအစဥတစရပ သတမတျပး လအပေသာ အေထာကအပ႔ႏင႔ ပစၥညးကရယာမား ျပငဆငပါ။

၈။ စစတမးပစ (Survey Form) အား ဒဇငးေရးဆြပါ။ (ျပးခ႔ေသာအခနး ‘စစတမးေကာကယ သေတသနျပျခငး - ၁’ က ၾကညပါ။)

၉။ စစတမးေကာကယသ၏ လကစြမတရပက ေရးဆြျပငဆငပါ။

၁၀။ စစတမးေကာကယမည႔ ၀နထမးမားအား ေရြးခယ၍ ေလ႔ကင႔ေပးပါ။

၁၁။ စစတမးပစမားႏင႔ ေဒတာအခက အလကေကာကယျခငး အစအစဥမားအား ပဏာမစမးသပမႈ (Pilot test) ျပလပၾကည႔ပါ။ ထပဏာမ စမးသပမႈမ ထြကေပၚလာေသာ ရလဒမားက အေျချပ၍ ပမေကာငးမြနေအာင ျပငဆငပါ။

၁၂။ နမနာေကာကယမႈတြင ပါ၀ငသည႔ လပဂၢလမားအား စစတမးပစမား အသးျပ၍ ေဒတာ ေကာကယပါ။

၁၃။ ေဒတာအခကအလကမား မတတမးသြငးျပး အရညအေသြးက စစေဆးပါ။

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14. Disseminate findings in presentations and reports.

Although listed roughly in order of their execution, some of the tasks will have to be

done simultaneously or in a different order in some circumstances.

DETAILED PRESENTATION OF THE KEY STEPS

1. Decide whether a survey is necessary

The decision to undertake a survey is usually made on the assumption that the results

of the survey will help to assess the extent of a problem. It also assumes that the results

of the survey will provide the basis upon which action can be taken in order to resolve

this problem. The decision to conduct a survey can be done with local, national

government authorities, and other partner agencies. This depends on different criteria

like financial, material, and human resources.

Whatever decision is eventually taken about developing a partnership or conducting the

survey independently, it is important to share information about when and where the

survey is undertaken to prevent unnecessary duplication and overlap of surveys. Before

starting a survey, persons in charge of conducting it will need to answer the following

questions:

• Will the results be part of a strategy aimed at improving an existing situation? In other

words, are the results crucial for decision making?

• Will the results be used as a baseline survey? In other words, are the survey results

going to be used to monitor and assess a project?

• Is the targeted population accessible?

Unless these three prerequisites are fulfilled, there is probably insufficient reason to

undertake a survey. Other data collection techniques may be more appropriate and

efficient.

2. Define the survey objectives and the geographic target area to be included in

the survey

The objectives of the survey must be clearly stated before starting the survey. Precise

and clear objectives will make it much easier for the survey team, the collaborating

organizations, the survey population, and donors to understand what the survey will try

to achieve. Clear objectives will also make the analysis of survey data much easier.

Often, a survey is undertaken to fulfill the following types of objectives:

• To measure the proportion of individuals in specific groups;

• To measure the coverage of programs - that is, the proportion of individuals in

specific groups who are the beneficiaries of a program. These results can measure

whether a program is reaching the intended beneficiaries;

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၁၄။ ေလ႔လာေတြ႔ရမႈမားက အစရငခစာမားႏင႔ တငဆကျပသမႈမားအားျဖင ျဖန႔ေ၀ပါ။

စစတမးေကာကယ လပေဆာငပ အဆင႔ဆင႔အား အၾကမးဖဥး စာရငးျပထားျခငးျဖစေသာလညး အခ႕လပငနး ေဆာငတာ မားသည တစျပငနကတညး လပေဆာငရျခငးမး ရသက႔သ႔ အခ႕အေျခအေနမားတြငလညး အစအစဥ အတငး မဟတသည လညးရပါသည။ အဓက အဆင႔တဆင႔ခငးစႏင႔ ပတသတေသာ အေသးစတတငျပမႈ ၁။ စစတမးတစရပ ေကာကယရန လအပမႈ ရမရ ဆးျဖတပါ။ စစတမးမထြကေပၚလာေသာ ရလဒမားအေနျဖင ျပနာတစရပ၏ တစစတတစေဒသအား ကညေျဖရငးႏငသည ဟေသာ ယဆခကအေပၚ အေျခခ၍ စစတမးတစရပ ေကာကယရန ဆးျဖတခကအား ျပလပရေလ႔ရသည။ စစတမး၏ ရလဒမား သည အဆပါ ျပနာရပက ေျဖရငးႏငရန အေျခအေနတစရပ ဖနတးေပးႏငသညဟ ယဆ၍လညး လပေဆာငေလ ရသည။ စစတမးတစရပ ေကာကယရန ဆးျဖတရျခငးက ေဒသဆငရာ (သ႕) နငငေတာအဆင႔ အစးရအာဏာပငမားႏင႔ တြဖက၍ေသာလညးေကာငး၊ အျခား မတဖကေအဂငစမားႏင႔ တြဖက၍ ေသာလညးေကာငး ျပလပရေလ႔ရသည။ ဘ႑ာေရး အေျခအေန၊ လအပေသာ ပစၥညးမားႏင႔ လသားရငးျမစ စသည႔ အမးမးေသာ သတမတခကတ႔အေပၚ မတည၍ ဆးျဖတရေလ႔ရသည။

မတဖကအဖြ႔အစညးႏင႔ တးျမင႔လကတြ ေဆာငရြကရနေသာလညးေကာငး၊ စစတမးအား သးျခားလြတလပစြာ လပေဆာငျခငးေသာလညးေကာငး မညသ႔ပင ဆးျဖတခကခ လပေဆာငသညျဖစေစ၊ မညသည႔အခန၊ မညသည႔ ေနရာ၌ စစတမးေကာကယမညဆသည႔ သတငးအခကအလကအား ျဖန႔ေ၀အသေပးရန အေရးၾကးပါသည။ သ႔မသာ မလအပဘ စစတမးမား ထပမျပလပမျခငး၊ စစတမးမား တညတကဆငေနျခငးတ႔က ကာကြယႏငေပမည။ စစတမး တစရပ မစတငမ ထစစတမးအတြက တာ၀နရသမား အေနျဖင႔ ေအာကပါေမးခြနးမားက ေျဖဆႏငရန လအပေပမည။ ရလဒမားသည လကရအေျခအေနတရပအား တးတကေစရန ရညရြယလပေဆာငသည႔ မဟာဗဟာတရပ၏ အစတအပငး

တစရပ ျဖစလမ႔မညလား။ တနညးအားျဖင႔ ရလဒမားသည စမကနးအား ေစာငၾကညေလလာရန အသးျပပါမညလား။ ရလဒမားအေနျဖင႔ အေျချပစထား တငးတာေလ႔လာမႈျပႏငေသာ စစတမးတရပ ( Baseline Survey ) အျဖစ

အသးျပႏငသလား။ တနညးအားျဖင႔ စစတမးရလဒမားအား လပငနးအေကာငအထညေဖာရန အသးျပမညလား။ အကးသကေရာကမႈရေသာလဥးေရအပစအားေလ႔လာမႈျပႏငသလား။

ဤတငၾကစဥးစားစရာ အခကသးရပမျပည႔မပါက စစတမးတစရပေကာကယရန ကးေၾကာငးခငလမႈမာ မလေလာက ေပ။ အျခားေသာ အခကအလက စေဆာငးပနညးလမးမား သးျခငးသည ပ၍သင႔ေလာ အဆငေျပေပလမ႔မည။ ၂။ စစတမး၏ ရညရြယခကမားႏင႔ စစတမးေကာကယရာတြင ပါ၀ငမည႔ ဥးတညခကထားေသာ သတမတနယေျမ ဧရယာအား ေဖာထတသတမတပါ။ စစတမးတစရပ မစတငမ ထစစတမးေကာကယရျခငး၏ ရညရြယခကမားက ရငးလငးစြာ ေဖာျပရမည။ တက၍ ရငးလငးေသာ ဥးတညခကမားအေနျဖင႔ စစတမးေကာကယမည႔အဖြ႔၊ လကတြေဆာငရြကသည႔ အဖြ႔အစညးမား၊ စစတမး ေကာကယခရမည႔ လထၾကးႏင႔ အလရငမားအား စစတမးအေနျဖင႔ မညသညက အေကာငအထည ေဖာမည ဆသည႔ အခကအား အလြယတက နားလညေစပါသည။ ရငးလငးေသာ ဥးတညခကမားအားျဖင႔ စစတမးေဒတာ အခကအလကမားအားလညး ပမလြယကစြာ စစစေလ႔လာမႈ ျပႏငေစသည။ မၾကာခဏ ဆသလပင စစတမးတစရပ အေနျဖင႔ ေအာကေဖာျပပါ ဥးတညခက အမးအစားမားအား ျပည႔မရန ေဆာငရြကရေလ႔ရသည။ အခ႕ ေသာ အပစမားရ လပဂၢလမား၏ အခးအစားက ေလ႔လာတငးတာရန လပငနးစစဥမား၏ လႊမးျခမႈက တငးတာရန - ဆလသညမာ - လပငနးအစအစဥ တစရပ၏ အကးေကးဇး ခစား

သမားျဖစေသာ အခ႕ေသာ အပစမားရ လပဂၢလမား၏ အခးအစားက တငးတာရန ဤရလဒမားသည လပငနး အစအစဥ တစရပ အေနျဖင႔ ရညရြယေသာ အကးေကးဇး ခစားသမားအား လကလမးမ လႊမးျခမႈ ရမရက တငးတာ ႏငသည။

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• To establish a baseline (see Chapter on ‘Baseline Study’). Changes throughout time can be compared against this baseline by carrying out a follow-up survey. The data produced by the follow-up survey can be used to measure the effectiveness of a program. However, there may be many factors that can influence change throughout time in addition to the implementation of a specific program.

The area in which the survey should be conducted must be defined carefully. The area from which the survey sample is selected is the only area to which survey results can be generalized. The researchers will not be able to say anything about an area or population that was not selected for the survey sample.

3. Determine the information to be collected and the population sub-group from which it will be collected

In large part, the information collected in the survey will be decided when formulating the survey objectives. However, additional information may be included in the list of major objectives.

At this point the researcher will also need to decide what age group to measure.

When making the list of data to collect, the researcher should remember that data collection requires time and money. Survey workers should therefore not be over-burdened by collecting information which will not be analyzed or not used to improve the condition of the population.

4. Gather background information necessary for carrying out the survey and meet

with concerned community leaders, local authorities, and organizations

Many types of information are necessary to plan a survey. A good variety of

information can be gathered from discussions with community leaders, from reports of

prior assessments, or from other sources. To begin designing the survey, it is advisable

to determine the sampling method (see Chapter on ‘Sampling: Probability Sampling’).

It is necessary to obtain information about available data at the local, regional and

national levels.

It is absolutely essential to meet with community leaders and local authorities during

the survey planning process and data collection. During the visit, the researcher should:

Make sure the community fully understands the objectives of the survey. If the

population does not understand why the survey will be conducted, they may not

cooperate with data collection.

Agree on the dates of the actual survey with the community and local

authorities to avoid conflict with other community activities, such as major

holidays and market days.

Obtain information on security and access in the survey area.

Obtain letters of permission from the local authorities, addressed to the district

or village leaders, stating that the research team will be visiting. The letters

should explain why the researchers are conducting a survey and contain a

request for the population's cooperation.

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အေျချပစထားတငးတာ ေလ႔လာမႈတစရပ ( baseline ) ျပဌာနးႏငရန၊ ( အခနး '၃' ပါ " အေျချပစထား တငးတာ ေလ႔လာမႈ " ကၾကည႔ပါ ) အခနကာလအလက ေျပာငးလမႈမားအား ေနာကဆကတြ စစတမးတစရပ ေကာကယ၍ အဆပါ အေျချပစအားျဖင႔ ႏႈငးယဥေလ႔လာႏငပါသည။ ေနာကဆကတြ စစတမးမရရေသာ ေဒတာ အခကအလက မားသည လပငနးအစအစဥတစရပ၏ ထေရာကမႈက တငးတာရာတြင အသးျပႏငသည။ သ႔ေသာ လပငနး အစအစဥတစရပအား အေကာငအထည ေဖာမႈေၾကာင႔ ျဖစေပၚလာေသာ ေျပာငးလမႈမားအျပင အျခားေသာ အခကမားစြာသညလညး ကာလအလက ေျပာငးလမႈအေပၚ လႊမးမးသကေရာကႏငပါသည။

စစတမးေကာကယမႈျပမည႔ ဧရယာနယပယအားလညး သတျပ၍ သတမတသင႔ပါသည။ စစတမးမနမနာမား ေရြးခယ ေကာကယမႈျပသည႔ ဧရယာသာလင စစတမး၏ ရလဒမားအား ေကာကခကဆြမတခကျပႏငသည႔ ဧရယာ ျဖစပါသည။ သေတသမားအေနျဖင႔ စစတမးမ နမနာေကာကယျခငး မျပလပသည႔ ဧရယာ (သ႔) လဥးေရအပစႏင႔ ပတသက၍ မညသည႔အရာမ ေျပာႏငမည မဟတေခ။

၃။ မညသည႔ သတငးအခကအလကမား ေကာကယမည၊ မညသည႔ လဥးေရအပစခြမ ေကာကယမည ဆသညက သတမတပါ၊

မားေသာအားျဖင႔ စစတမးမ မညသည႔သတငးအခကအလကမား ေကာကယမညဆသညက စစတမး၏ ဥးတညခက မား သတမတေဖာထတသည႔အခါ၌ ဆးျဖတေလ႔ရသည။ သ႔ေသာ အဓက ဥးတညမား စာရငးတြင အျခားေသာ ထပေဆာငး သတငးအခကအလကမား ပါ၀ငေကာငးပါ၀ငေပလမ႔မည။ ဤတြင သေတသအေနျဖင႔ မညသည႔ အသက အရြယအပစအား တငးတာေလ႔လာမႈ ျပလပမညဆသည႔ အခကအားလညး ဆးျဖတရန လေကာငးလေပမည။ ေကာကယမည႔ ေဒတာအခကစာရငးအား ျပစသည႔အခါ၌ သေတသအေနျဖင႔ ေဒတာေကာကယမႈသည ေငြေၾကးႏင႔ အခန လအပေၾကာငး သတခပသင႔သည။ သ႔အတြကေၾကာင႔ စစစအသးျပမည မဟတသည႔ သတငးအခကအလက မား ( သ႔ ) လဥးေရအပစ၏ အေျခအေန တးတကမႈ ရေစရန အသးျပမညမဟတသည႔ သတငးအခကအလကမားအား ေကာကခငးျခငးျဖင႔ စစတမးေကာကသ ၀နထမးမားအား ၀နမပေစသင႔ေပ။ ၄။ စစတမးေကာကယရန လအပေသာ ေနာကခ သတငးအခကအလကမား စဆာငးပါ။ သကဆငရာ ရပရြာေခါငးေဆာငမား၊ ေဒသဆငရာ အာဏာပငမား၊ အဖြ႔အစညးမားႏင႔ ေတြ႔ဆပါ။

စစတမးတစရပ စမေဆာငရြကရနအတြက သတငးအခကအလက အမးအစားမားစြာ လအပပါသည။ ရပရြာေခါငးဆာင မားျဖင႔ ေဆြးေႏြးျခငး၊ ယခငေဆာငရြကခ႔သည အစရငခစာမား၊ သ႔မဟတ အျခားရငးျမစမားမ စလငေသာ သတငးအခက အလကမား စေဆာငးရရႏငပါသည။ စစတမးတစရပက ဒဇငးဆြျခငး စတငမညဆပါက မညသည႔ နမနာေကာကယျခငး နညးလမးက အသးျပမညဟ ဆးျဖတရန လအပေၾကာငး အၾကျပလပါသည။ ရပေကး၊ တငးေဒသၾကးႏင႔ ႏငငအဆင႔မား ၌ မညက႔သ႔ေသာ ေဒတာမား ရရႏငသညဟေသာ သတငးအခကအလကလညး ရရထားရန လအပပါသည။ စစတမးအတြက စမကနး ခမတစဥအဆင႔မားႏင႔ ေဒတာေကာကယစဥ အေတာအတြငး၌ ရပရြာေခါငးေဆာငမားႏင႔ ေဒသဆငရာ အာဏာပငမားႏင႔ ေတြ႔ဆရန လး၀အေရးၾကးပါသည။ ထသ႔ ေတြ႔ဆစဥ သေတသအေနျဖင႔

လထသည စစတမး၏ ရညရြယခကမားအား အျပည႔အ၀နားလညမႈရရေစရန ျပလပရပါမည။ အကယ၍ လထသည အဘယေၾကာင႔ စစတမးေကာကရသညက နားမလညပါက ေဒတာေကာကယသည႔အခါ ပးေပါငး ပါ၀ငမႈ ရမညမဟတေခ။

လကေတြ႔ စစတမးေကာကယမည႔ ရကစြမားအား လထႏင႔ ေဒသဆငရာ အာဏာပငမားႏင႔ သေဘာတညမႈ ရယထားျခငးျဖင႔ အဓကအားလပရကမား၊ ေစးေန႔မား စသည႔ အျခားေသာ လထႏင႔ သကဆငသည႔ ရကစြ မားအား မတကဆငေစရန ေရာငရားႏငမည ျဖစသည။

စစတမးေကာကယမည႔ ဧရယာေဒသ၏ လျခေရးႏင႔ ခရးသြားလာႏငေသာ အေျခအေနႏင႔ဆငေသာ သတငး အခကအလက ရယထားပါ။

ခရငႏင႔ ေကးရြာေခါငးေဆာငမားထသ႕ သေတသနအဖြ႕ လာေရာကမည ျဖစေၾကာငး အေၾကာငးၾကားျပး ေဒသဆငရာ အာဏာပငမားထမ စာျဖင႔ေရးသားထားေသာ ခြင႔ျပခကကရယပါ။ ထစာတြင သေတသနအဖြ႔ အေနျဖင႔ အဘယေၾကာင႔ စစတမးတစရပ ေကာကယရျခငးျဖစေၾကာငး ရငးျပထားရန လအပျပး လထႏင႔ ပးေပါငးပါ၀ငမႈက အကအည ေတာငးခေၾကာငးလညး ေဖာျပပါရသင႔သည။

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If needed, national and local government officials should be consulted regarding the

necessary permits and clearances. Ethical review by an institutional review board

may be required for survey procedures.

5. Determine the appropriate sampling method and sample size.

For the appropriate sampling method, please refer to the ‘Sampling: Probability

Sampling’ chapter. Sample size determination depends on the population under

study, the aim of the survey, type of survey: qualitative or quantitative survey and

budget allotment. Detailed explanation on sample size calculation is beyond the

scope of this manual.

6. Select the sample

Once the type of sampling is selected and the desired sample size is determined, the sample

(individuals, children, households, etc.) to be included in the survey can be selected.

For detailed explanations, please refer to the ‘Sampling: Probability Sampling’ chapter.

7. Determine the schedule for the survey and prepare supplies and equipment

The exact dates of the survey should be chosen to determine when survey workers,

supplies, and equipment are needed. The researchers should consult with

community leaders to determine the best times to conduct the survey.

That way, time conflicts can be avoided between the survey and market days, local

celebrations, or other times when people may be absent. The agricultural calendar

should be taken into consideration because women may be in the fields for most of

the day during certain seasons. The survey schedule should allocate time for

preparation, training, pilot testing, community mobilization, data collection, data

analysis and report writing.

Moreover, the researchers should take into account the period of the year when the

survey is conducted and interpret survey results with this point in mind. If the

results of a survey are compared with those of a previous survey, it will be

important to try to conduct both surveys at the same time of the year so as to

eliminate potential discrepancies associated with seasonal variation.

Once the sample size has been calculated, the researchers can determine the type

and quantity of supplies needed. The research team should make a complete list of

supplies and equipment required during the survey.

8. Design the data collection form and surveyor's manual

The list of data to be collected by survey workers in the field must now be put into a

paper-size format. This includes writing out the specific questions to ask survey

respondents and creating specific places on the data collection form to record the

data. The data collection form should be organized clearly to facilitate ease of use

by survey workers. The questions or description of the data to be collected are

featured on the left side of the form and are numbered so that survey workers can

easily find their place when interviewing a respondent. All the data is recorded on

the right side of the form.

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အကယ၍ လအပခ႔ပါက လအပေသာ ပါမစမားႏင႔ ခြင႔ျပခကမား ရရရန ႏငငေတာအဆင႔ႏင ေဒသဆငရာ အစးရ အရာရမားႏင ေတြ႔ဆညႏႈငးသင႔သည။ စစတမးေကာကယမႈဆငရာ လပငနးစဥမားအား စစစေရး ဘတအဖြ႔တစရပျဖင႔ ကင႔၀တပငးဆငရာ စစစမႈျပလပရန လေကာငးလေပမည။

၅။ သင႔ေလာေသာ နမနာေကာကယမႈနညးႏင နမနာအ႐ြယအစားက သတမတပါ။

သငေတာသည နမနာေကာကယနညးအတြက ေကးဇးျပ၍ "နမနာေကာကယျခငး" အခနးက ေလ႔လာပါရန။ ေလလာမည လဥးေရ၊ စစတမးေကာကယသည ရည႐ြယခက၊ စစတမးအမးအစား (အရညအခငးနညး၊ အေရအတြကနညး) ႏင ဘ႑ာေရး အေျခအေနတ႔ေပၚတြင မတညျပး နမနာအ႐ြယအစားက ဆးျဖတသတမတရမည။ နမနာအ႐ြယအစားႏင ပတသကျပး အေသးစတ ႐ငးလငးပါက ဤလကစြစာအပပါ အေၾကာငးအရာထက ျပန႔ကားသြားလမမည။

၆။ နမနာမား ေရြးခယပါ။

နမနာေကာကယမည နညးလမးမားအား ေရြးခယျပး၍ နမနာအပစအရြယအစားအား သတမတျပးေသာအခါ စစတမးတြင ပါဝငမည နမနာမား လပဂၢလမား၊ ကေလးမား၊ အမေထာငစမား စသညတ႔က) ေရြးခယပါ။

အေသးစတ ရငးလငးျပဆမႈအတြက ေကးဇးျပ၍ “နမနာေကာကယျခငး” အခနးက ၾကညရပါ။

၇။ စစတမးေကာကယေရး အစအစဥတရပ သတမတျပး လအပေသာ အေထာကအပ႔မားႏင႔ ပစၥညးကရယာမား ျပငဆငပါ။

မညသည႔အခနတြင စ၍စစတမးေကာကယသ ၀နထမးမား၊ အေထာကအပ႔ပစၥညး ကရယာမား လအပမညက သတမတျပး စစတမးေကာကယေရးႏင႔ ပတသကေသာ ရကစြမား အတအက ေရြးခယသတမတႏငရန ရပရြာေခါငးေဆာငမားႏင႔ တငပင သင႔သည။

ဤသ႔ျဖင႔ စစတမးေကာကယျခငးႏင႔ ေစးေန႔မား၊ ရပရြာပြေတာေန႔မားႏင႔ လအမား မရႏငသည႔ေန႔မား တကဆငမႈ မရေစရန ေရာငရားႏငမညျဖစသည။ စကပးေရး ရာသျပကၡဒနကလညး ထည႔သြငးစဥးစားသင႔သည။ အဘယေၾကာင႔ဆေသာ အခ႕ ရာသမား၌ အမးသမးမားသည ယာေတာမား၌ တစေနကနလလ ရတတၾကေသာေၾကာင႔ ျဖစသည။ စစတမး ေကာကယမႈ အစအစဥတြင စစတမးအတြက ျပငဆငျခငး၊ ေလ႔ကင႔သငၾကားေပးျခငး၊ ပဏာမစမးသပမႈ ျပလပျခငး၊ စစတမးအတြက ရပရြာလထက စညးရးစဖြ႔ အသင႔ျပငျခငး၊ ေဒတာေကာကယျခငး၊ ေဒတာမား စစစသးသပျခငးႏင႔ အစရငခစာ ေရးသားျခငး တ႔အတြက အခနမား ခြေ၀ခမတရန လအပပါသည။

၄ငးအျပင သေတသမားအေနျဖင႔ စစတမးေကာကယမႈျပသည႔ အခနသည ႏစတစနစ၏ မညသည႔ကာလ ျဖစသညက သတျပသင႔ျပး စစတမးရလဒမားအား အဓပၸါယဖြင႔ဆသည႔အခါ ဤအခကက ထည႔သြငးစဥးစားရန လပါသည။ အကယ၍ စစတမးတစခ၏ ရလဒမားအား ယခငျပလပခ႔ဖးသည႔ စစတမး၏ ရလဒမားႏင႔ ႏႈငးယဥျပလပမညဆပါက ထစစတမး ႏစရပစလးသည ႏစတစႏစ၏ ကာလတအခနမား၌ ျပလပထားျခငး ျဖစရနလအပသည။ သ႔မသာ ကာလရာသ ကြာျခားမႈ ေၾကာင ျဖစေပၚႏငေသာ ကြျပားမႈမားက ေရာငရားႏငမည ျဖစသည။ နမနာ အပစအရြယအစားက တြကခကျပးေသာအခါ သေတသမားအေနျဖင႔ မညသည အေထာကအကပစၥညးမား မညမ ပမာဏ လအပသညက စဥးစားသတမတရန လအပသည။ သေတသနအဖြ႔အေနျဖင႔ စစတမးေကာကယစဥ ကာလအတြငး လအပသည႔ အသးအေဆာငႏင႔ ပစၥညးမားက စာရငးတစခ ျပလပသင႔သည။ ၈။ ေဒတာေကာကယျခငး ေဖာငပစႏင႔ စစတမးေကာကယသ၏ လကစြမႈတ႕က ဒဇငးေရးဆြ ျပငဆငပါ။

စစတမးေကာကယမည႔ ၀နထမးမား လကေတြ႕ကြငးဆငးေကာကယမည ေဒတာအခကအလကစာရငးက ယခအခါ စာရြက ေပၚ ခမတျပစရမည႔ အခနျဖစသည။ ဤသ႔ေဆာငရြကရာတြင စစတမးက ေျဖဆမည႔သမားအား ေမးျမနးမည႔ ေမးခြနးမား ခေရးျခငးႏင႔ အေျဖမား ေရးသြငးမတသားရန ေဒတာေဖာငပစတြင ေနရာလြတမား သတမတခနထားျခငးတ႔ ပါ၀ငသည။ ကြငးဆငးေကာကယမည ၀နထမးမား အသးျပရလြယကေစရန ေဒတာအခက အလကစေဆာငးေရးသြငးသည႔ ေဖာငပစ သည ရငးရငးလငးလငး သပသပရပရပ ရသင႔သည။ ေမးခြနးမား (သ႕) ေကာကယမည႔ ေဒတာအေၾကာငး ဖြင႔ဆခကတ႕က ေဖာငပစ၏ ဘယဘကျခမးတြင စတငသတမတထားျပး နပါတမား ေရးထားေပးျခငးျဖင႔ စစတမးေကာကယသည႔ ၀နထမး မားအေနျဖင႔ ေျဖဆသအား အငတာဗးသည႔အခါ ထအရာမားက အလြယတက ရာေတြ႕ႏငေပသည။ ေဒတာ အခကအလက မား အားလးကမ ေဖာငပစ၏ ညာဘကျခမးတြင ေရးသြငးရမညျဖစသည။

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It is important to keep data collection forms open and uncluttered so that survey

workers can find each question easily during the interview and likewise can easily

determine where to record each item of information.

If the survey is large-scale and involves the participation of many survey workers, the

researchers might have to create a “surveyor's manual” as a guide for the survey teams

while working in the field. It could also describe the technique for collection of

biologic specimens or field laboratory testing methods.

9. Select and train survey workers

If the survey is a large-scale one, the research team should make a list of all the tasks to

be performed by the survey workers when they collect the survey data. Next, the team

decides what type of workers is needed to perform each of these tasks. One survey

worker may be able to do more than one task. Cultural factors may also play a role in

selecting survey workers and assigning their tasks.

All members performing a specific task should undergo the same training in that task,

regardless of their former experience; this will ensure standardization of methods. The

survey training usually takes 2 to 5 days and should include:

1) A clear explanation of the survey objectives.

2) An explanation of the sampling method. This should stress the importance of

selecting proper units of analysis to ensure a representative sample.

3) A demonstration and practice of measurements.

4) An explanation and discussion of the questionnaire questions. This will ensure that

the questions are phrased correctly and that each interviewer understands what data the

survey researchers wish to collect with each question. Role-play exercises are useful in

practicing interviews.

5) A pilot test in the field. A pilot test is an essential component to the training and

should test all components of survey data collection under realistic conditions. Data

collected during the pilot test should not be used in the analysis of the survey results.

10. Field test data collection forms and data collection procedures

Pilot testing should be conducted during the training to give survey workers practical

experience in all aspects of data collection and survey methodology before they embark

on actual data collection. This pilot testing should include the following:

1) Pre-testing the survey questions. Comments by both those interviewed and the

survey workers who conducted the interviews can greatly improve the questions.

2) Sampling unit. The team should practice selecting the sampling unit.

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ေဒတာေကာကယသည႔ ေဖာငမားမာ ရငးလငး ျမငသာျပး ရႈပေထြးမႈမရေစရန အေရးၾကးသည။ သ႔မသာ

စစတမးေကာကယသ ၀နထမးမားသည အငတာဗးစဥ ကာလ အတြငး သကဆငရာ ေမးခြနးမားက လြယလင႔တက

ရာေတြ႔ႏငျပး အေျဖမားကလညး မညသည႔ေနရာတြင ေရးသြငးမတသား ရမညက သႏငေပမည။

အကယ၍ စစတမးေကာကယသည ၀နထမးမားစြာပါ၀ငသည အၾကးစားစစတမးေကာကယရျခငးမး ျဖစပါက သေတသမား အေနျဖင႔ စစတမးေကာကယသည႔အဖြ႔မား ကြငးဆငးရာတြင လမးညႊနအျဖစအသးျပႏငရန "စစတမးေကာကယသလကစြ" က ေရးသားျပစရန လအပေပလမ႔မည။ ၄ငးတြငဇ၀ေဗဒဆငရာ နမနာအမးအစားမား စေဆာငးျခငး နညးလမး ( သ႕ ) ကြငးဆငးဓာတခြစမးသပမႈနညးလမးမား စသညတ႔က႔သ႔ ေဖာျပပါရႏငပါသည။

၉။စစတမးေကာကယမည႔၀နထမးမား ေရြးခယေလ႔ကင႔ေပးပါ။

အကယ၍ အၾကးစားစစတမးေကာကယျခငးမး ျဖစပါက သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင႔ စစတမးေကာကယသ၀နထမးမား ကြငးဆငး၍ စစတမးဆငရာ ေဒတာအခကအလကမား ေကာကယမႈက လပေဆာငႏငရန လအပေသာ လပငနးမား အားလးက စာရငးျပစသင႔သည။ ထ႔ေနာက အဆပါလပငနးမားအား လပေဆာငႏငရန မညက႔သ႔ေသာ ၀နထမးမား လအပသညက ဆးျဖတရပါမည။ စစတမးေကာကယ သ၀နထမးတစဥးအေနျဖင႔ အလပတစမးထကပ၍ လပေဆာငႏင ေပလမ႔မည။ စစတမးေကာကယသ၀နထမးမား ေရြးခယတာ၀နေပးရာ၌ ယဥေကးမႈဆငရာ အခကအလကမားသည လညး အခနက႑တစရပအေနျဖင႔ ပါ၀ငေပသည။

လပငနးတစခက ေဆာငရြကရမည႔သအားလးတ႔အား ၄ငးတ႔၌ ယခငအေတြ႔အၾကမညမရသညပငျဖစေစ ပစတ ေလ႔ကင႔သငၾကားေပးျခငးက ျပလပရမည။ သ႕မသာ စစတမးေကာကယမည႔ နညးလမးမားႏင႔ ပတသက၍ တေျပးညတညေသာ အဆင႔အတနးမားက ရရမညျဖစသည။ စစတမးေကာကယ၍ ေလ႔ကင႔သငၾကားေပးရာ၌ ပမနအားျဖင႔ ၂ ရကမ ၉ ရကထ ၾကာျမင႔တတျပး ေအာကပါတ႕ပါ၀ငသင႔ပါသည။ ( ၁ ) စစတမးေကာကယရျခငး ရညရြယခကမားက ေသခာရငးလငးေျပာျပျခငး။ ( ၂ ) နမနာ ေကာကယနညးက ရငးလငး ျပသျခငး။ ကယစားျပနမနာ အစတစရပရရရနအတြက ဆေလာေသာ ေလ႔လာမႈယနစမား ( Units of analysis ) ေရြးခယရန အေရးၾကးေၾကာငး အသေပးေျပာဆရမည။ ( ၃ ) တငးထြာေလ႔လာမႈမားအား သရပျပ၍ ေလ႔ကင႔ျခငး။ ( ၄ ) ေမးခြနးလႊာရ ေမးခြနးမားအား ရငးလငးေဆြးေႏြးျခငး။ ဤသ႔ ျပလပျခငးအားျဖင႔ ေမးခြနးမားသညမနကနေသာ အသး အႏႈနးမား သးစြထားသည ေသခာမႈရေစျပးအငတာဗး ေမးမည႔သမားသညလညး စစတမးေကာကယသ သေတသမားက မညသည႔ေမးခြနးမားအတြက မညက႔သ႕ေသာ ေဒတာအခကအလကမား လခငသညက နားလညသေဘာေပါကေစပါသည။ အခနးက႑အလက သရပေဆာငေလ႔ကင႔မႈမားသညလညး အငတာဗးေမးျမနးျခငးအတြက ေလ႔ကင႔ရာတြင အသး၀ငပါသည။ ( ၅ ) ကြငးဆငး၍ ပဏာမစမးသပမႈျပျခငး။ ဤေရ႕ေျပးစမးသပမႈျပျခငးသည ေလ႔ကင႔သငၾကားေပးမႈ၏ အေရးပါေသာ အစတအပငးတစရပ ျဖစသည။ စစတမးမအခကအလက ေကာကယျခငးဆငရာ အစတအပငးအားလးက လကေတြ႔ အေျခအေနမား၌ စမးသပမႈ ျပသင႔သည။ ပဏာမစမးသပမ ရရလာေသာ အခကအလကမားကမ စစတမး၏ ရလဒ မားအား ေလ႔လာစစစမႈျပရာ၌ အသးမျပသင႔ေပ။

၁၀။ေဒတာအခကအလကေကာကယျခငးဆငရာ ေဖာငပစမားႏင႔ လပငနးစဥမားအား ကြငးဆငးစမးသပမႈျပပါ။

စစတမးေကာကယမည႔ ၀နထမးမားအား အမနတကယ ေဒတာေကာကယမႈမတငမ စစတမးေကာကယမႈနညးလမးႏင႔ ပတသက၍ေသာလညးေကာငး၊ အခကအလကေကာကယျခငးဆငရာ ရႈေထာင႔ေပါငစတ႔အား လကေတြ႔ အေတြ႔အၾက ရေစရနေသာလညးေကာငး ကြငးဆငး၍ ပဏာမစမးသပမႈျပျခငးအား ေလ႔ကင႔သငၾကားမႈျပစဥအတြငး ထည႔သြငး ျပလပသင႔သည။ ဤသ႕ေရ႕ေျပးစမးသပမႈျပရာတြင ေအာကပါအခကတ႔ ပါ၀ငသင႔သည။

(၁) စစတမးေကာကမည႔ေမးခြနးမားအား ၾကတငစစေဆးမႈျပျခငး။ အငတာဗးေျဖဆသမားႏင အငတာဗးျပလပသည႔ ၀နထမးမား၏အၾကျပခကမားသည ေမးခြနးမားအား ပမေကာငးမြနေစရန မားစြာအေထာကအကျဖစေစပါသည။

(၂) နမနာေလ႔လာမႈယနစ။ စစတမးေကာကမည႔အဖြ႕သည နမနာေလ႔လာမႈယနစမား ေရြးခယျခငးက လကေတြ႔ ေလ႔ကငသင႔သည။

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3) Taking and recording measurements correctly in the field. Survey workers should

practice measurements as a team in order to determine which worker should perform

each specific task.

4) Introducing the survey and completing the data collection form. All survey

workers should be well acquainted with the data collection form and the surveyor's

manual. It will often be necessary to revise the form and the surveyor's manual after

pilot testing.

Pilot testing should not take place in a location where the proper survey will take

place, but in a similar community. For example, the survey team could go to a

neighboring village that has not been selected during the sampling. The survey team

should not forget to get a permission letter from local authorities, even for field

testing.

At the end of the pilot test, the team members, team supervisors, and survey

managers should discuss all aspects of the data collection. The pilot test will also

provide an estimate of how long the data collection will take for each survey subject

and for a household as a whole. After collecting information from the first few

households in the actual survey, the teams will become much more efficient and

accurate.

11. Collect the data

Data collection will differ for each survey. In small, compact populations, all survey

teams may be able to reconvene each evening to discuss questions or difficulties.

Surveys over wider areas may require teams to operate independently for days or

weeks. Ideally, there should be some means of communication among teams and

between teams and the survey research team in order for the questions and

difficulties to be answered and corrected in a standard way for all teams. If

communications are unavailable, the survey manager should provide answers to

anticipated questions during the survey training and in the survey manual.

12. Enter the data and assess its quality

In order to analyze survey data on a computer, the data from the paper data

collection forms must be typed into a database program. The softwares most

commonly used in data entry are EpiData and Microsoft Excel. The softwares most

commonly used in data analysis are EpiInfo and SPSS.

After the data is entered, there are two common quality-check methods:

1) Enter data twice into two different databases and compare the two resulting

databases. If discrepancies are found between the databases, the paper data

collection forms should be consulted to determine the correct value.

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(၃) ကြငးဆငး၍ ေလ႔လာတငးထြာမႈမားအား မနကနစြာ ေရးသြငးမတယျခငး။ စစတမးေကာကယမည႔ ၀နထမးမား

အေနျဖင႔ မညသက မညသည႔လပငနး လပေဆာငမညဆသညက သတမတႏငရန အသငးအဖြ႕အလက တငးထြာ

ေလ႔လာမႈျပျခငးအား လကေတြ႔ေလ႔ကင႔သင႔သည။

(၄) စစတမးအား မတဆကေပးျခငးႏင႔ အခကအလကေကာကယမႈ ေဖာငပစအားျဖည႔သြငးျခငး။ စစတမးေကာကယမည႔ ၀နထမးမားအားလးသည အခကအလကမားေကာကယမည႔ေဖာငပစႏင႔ စစတမးေကာကယသလကစြတ႔အား ေကာငးစြာ ရငးႏးျပးျဖစသင႔သည။ ပဏာမစမးသပေကာကယမႈျပျပးသည႔ အခါတငးလပင ဤေဖာငပစႏင႔ စစတမးေကာကယသ လကစြတ႔အား ျပငဆငျဖည႔စြကရန လအပေလ႔ရသည။

ပဏာမစမးသပမႈျပလပျခငးက အမနတကယစစတမးေကာကယမည႔အရပ၌ မလပသင႔ဘ ပစတရပရြာမး၌သာ ျပလပသင႔သည။ ဥပမာ - စစတမးေကာကယမည႔အဖြ႕သည နမနာေကာကယျခငးအတြက ေရြးခယရာတြငမပါ၀ငသည႔ အနးပတ၀နးကင ေကးရြာတစရြာသ႔ သြားေရာကႏငသည။ ဤက႔သ႔ ကြငးဆငးစမးသပမႈျပလပျခငးအတြကပင ေဒသ ဆငရာ အာဏာပငတ႔ထမ ခြင႔ျပခကေတာငးခရန မေမ႔သင႔ေပ။ ပဏာမစမးသပမႈအဆးသတကာလ၌ စစတမးေကာကယသအဖြ႕၀ငမား၊ ၾကးၾကပသမားႏင႔ မနေနဂာမားသည အခကအလက ေကာကယျခငးႏင႔ပတသက၍ ရႈေထာင႔စက အတအကြ ေဆြးေႏြးတငပငသင႔သည။ ဤပဏာမ စမးသပမႈမ စစတမးေကာကယရမည လတစဥးခငးစအတြကေသာလညးေကာငး၊ အမေထာငစ တစခလးအတြက ေသာလညးေကာငး အခနမညမၾကာမညက ခန႔မနးရရႏငသည။ အမနတကယ စစတမးေကာကယမႈ ျပရာတြငလညး ပထမအမေျခအနညးငယမ သတငးအခကအလကမား ေကာကယျပးသည႔အခါ စစတမး ေကာကယသည႔အဖြ႕မား အေနျဖင႔ ပ၍ကြမးကငတကလာေပလမ႔မည။ ၁၁။အခကအလကမားစေဆာငးေကာကယပါ။ စစတမးတစခခငးအလက အခကအလကေကာကယမႈသည ကြျပားမညျဖစသည။ စစတမးေကာကယခရမည လဥးေရ အပစသည တစစတစစညးတညးရျပး မားျပားျခငးမရပါက စစတမးေကာကယသည႔ အဖြ႔အားလးအေနျဖင႔ ညေနတငး ျပနလညဆေတြ႔ျပး ေမးခြနးမား၊ အခကအခမားႏင႔ပတသတ၍ တငပငေဆြးေႏြးႏငၾကေပမည။ အလမးကယေသာ အရပေဒသမား၌ ျပလပရေသာ စစတမးမားအတြကမ စစတမးေကာကယသညအဖြ႕မားအေနျဖင႔ ရကေပါငးမားစြာ၊ သတငးစႏႈနးအရ ေျပာရလငမ စစတမးေကာကယသည႔ အဖြ႔ အခငးခငးၾကားတြငေသာလညးေကာငး၊ စစတမး ေကာကယသည႔အဖြ႕မားႏင႔ သေတသအဖြ႕တ႔ၾကားတြငေသာလညးေကာငး တနညးနညးျဖင႔ ဆကသြယရရႏငရန ေဆာငရြကထားသင႔သည။ သ႔မသာအခကအခမား၊ ေမးခြနးမားႏင႔ပတသက၍ အၾကေပးေျဖၾကားမႈမား၊ ျပငဆင ေဆာငရြကမႈမားက စစတမးေကာကသည႔ အဖြ႕မားအားလးအၾကား တေျပးညေဆာငရြကမျပႏငေပမည။ အကယ၍ မညသည႔နညးႏင႔မ ဆကသြယေရးျပလပရန အဆငမေျပပါက စစတမးေကာကယသ မနေနဂာအေနျဖင႔ စစတမး အတြက ေလ႔ကင႔သငၾကားမႈျပစဥကာလအတြငးေသာလညးေကာငး၊ စစတမးေကာကယသ လကစြတြငေသာလညး ေကာငး ေပၚေပါကလာႏငေသာေမးခြနးမားအတြက အေျဖမားက ထည႔သြငးေရးသား သငၾကားထားသင႔သည။

၁၂။အခကအလကမားေရသြငး၍၄ငးတ႕၏အရညအေသြးကသးသပပါ။

စစတမးေကာကယထားသည႔ အခကအလကမားအား ကြနပတာတြငစစစေလ႔လာမႈျပရနအတြက စာရြကေဖာငပစမားျဖင႔ ေကာကယထားသည႔ အခကအလကမားအား၊ အခကအလက စေဆာငးထားရသည႔ပရဂရမ (database program) သ႔ ထည႔သြငးယရမည ျဖစသည။ ေဒတာထည႔သြငးျခငးအတြက လသးမားဆး ေဆာဖ႔၀မားမာ Epi Data ႏင႔ Microsoft Excel တ႕ ျဖစျပး ေဒတာစစစေလ႔လာမႈအတြကအသးမားသည႔ ေဆာဖ႔၀တ႕မာ Epi Info ႏင႔ SPSS တ႕ျဖစသည။

ေဒတာမားထည႔သြငးျပးပါက အသးမားသည႔ အရညအေသြးစစစမႈနညးလမး ႏစရပရပါသည။

၁) ေဒတာမားအား ႏစၾကမစခြျပး မတညသည႔ database ႏစခအတြငးသ႕ထည႔သြငးကာ database မား၏ ရလဒက ႏႈငးယဥၾကည႔ပါ။ အကယ၍ database မားအၾကား ကြာဟကြလြခကမား ေတြ႕ရပါက ေဒတာ ေကာကယထားသည႔ စာရြကေဖာငပစမားက ျပနလညၾကည႔ရႈျပး တနဘးအမနက ေရြးခယဆးျဖတပါ။

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2) Alternatively, the data can be entered into the computer only once, and then each

record in the database compared to the paper data collection form to check for errors.

This is often faster than entering the data twice.

Once the data are entered and checked, preliminary analysis should be done to assess

the quality of the data. These analyses can be included in the final report to

demonstrate the precision and accuracy of the survey results.

13. Analyze the data and present the results

Please refer to the Qualitative and Quantitative Data Analysis Chapters.

14. Disseminate findings in presentations and reports

The final part of a survey is presenting the findings on the occasion of oral

presentations and through a final report. Often, distribution of a preliminary report of

the key findings is recommended as soon as data analysis is completed because a final

report may take a long time to complete. The results of the survey should be presented

in a standardized format in order to enable easy comparisons between the results of

different surveys.

TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THIS CHAPTER ARE:

The pilot questionnaire should be tested before actually conducting the survey;

The survey workers should be trained before they conduct the survey, this

should be done using the surveyors’ manual;

The full-scale survey should be conducted with the prior knowledge of

authorities concerned and during a time schedule that does not conflict with

local activities.

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၂ ) ေနာကတစနညးအေနျဖင႔ ေဒတာမားက ကြနပတာအတြငးသ႔ တစၾကမသာထည႔သြငးျပး database ၏ record (မတတမး) တစခခငးစအလကအား ေဒတာ ေကာကယထားသည႔စာရြကေဖာငမား ျဖင႔တကဆငစစေဆးကာ အမားမားကရာေဖြပါ။ ဤနညးသည ေဒတာမားႏစၾကမထည႔သြငးရျခငးထက ပမျမနဆန ေလ႔ရပါသည။ ေဒတာမားက စစေဆး၍ ထည႔သြငးျပးေသာအခါ ေဒတာမား၏ အရညအေသြးက သးသပရနအတြက ေရ႕ေျပး စစစေလ႔လာမႈက ျပလပသင႔သည။ ထေလ႔လာစစစခကမားအား အဆးသတ အစရငခစာတြင ထည႔သြငးကာ စစတမးရလဒမား၏ တကမနကနမႈက စာဖတသမားအား တငျပႏငသည။ ၁၃။ေဒတာအခကအလကမားစစစသးသပမႈျပလပ၍ရလဒမားအားတငျပပါ။

ေကးဇးျပ၍ အရညအေသြးစထားႏင႔အေရအတြကစထား ေဒတာမား အားစစစသးသပျခငး အခနးမားကၾကည႔ရႈပါ။ ၁၄။အစရငခစာမား၊ တငဆကျပသမႈမားအားျဖင႔ ေလ႔လာေတြ႔ရခကမားအား ျဖန႔ေ၀ပါ။

စစတမးတစရပ၏ ေနာကဆးအပငးမာ အဆးသတအစရငခစာ တစေစာငအားျဖင႔ ေသာလညးေကာငး၊ ႏႈတျဖင႔တငျပ အစရငချခငးမားအားျဖင႔ ေသာလညးေကာငး ေလ႔လာေတြ႕ရခကမားအား ေရ႕ေျပးအစရငခစာ တစေစာငေရး၍ ျဖန႔ေ၀ေပး ထားရန အၾကျပလပါသည။ အဘယေၾကာင႔ဆေသာ အဆးသတအစရငခစာ ေရးသားတငသြငးရျခငးသည အခနကာလ တစခအထ ၾကာျမင႔ႏငေသာေၾကာင ျဖစသည။ စစတမး၏ ရလဒမားအား စသတမတထားေသာ ပစတစချဖင႔ တငျပသင႔ သည။ သ႔မသာ အျခားေသာစစတမးမား၏ ရလဒမားႏင႔ ႏႈငးယဥေလ႔လာရာတြင လြယကမႈရေပလမ႔မည။

အႏစခပရလင၊ ဤအခနးတြငပါ၀ငေသာ အဓကမတသားရန အခကမားမာ

ပဏာမစမးသပမႈေမးခြနးလႊာအား အမနတကယ စစတမးေကာကယျခငးမျပမ စမးသပေကာကယသင႔သည။

စစတမးေကာကယသလကစြစာမအား အသးျပ၍ စစတမးေကာကယမည႔ ၀နထမးမားအား စစတမး ေကာကယျခငးမျပမ ေလ႔ကင႔သငၾကားေပးသင႔သည။

တငးျပည႔ကပျပည႔စစတမးေကာကယမႈအား သကဆငရာအဏာပငမား သရခြငျပျပးမသာ လပေဆာငသငျပး ေဒသခမား၏ လပငနးေဆာငတာမားႏင႔ တကဆငမႈမရေသာ အခနဇယားျဖင႔သာ လပေဆာငသင႔သည။

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BASIC 6. SAMPLING: NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT:

The use of a relatively easy method of sampling, i.e. non-probability sampling;

Different methods for non-probability sampling;

The advantages and disadvantages of non-probability sampling.

______________________________________________________________________

SAMPLING

Sampling is about the proper way to select a few representative people for study and discover things that apply to a large population which cannot be studied as a whole. In other words, it is about learning something about a large population without having to study every member of this population. Understanding the logic of sampling is essential to doing social research. It is a research method, a research technique. It is a means to an end (i.e. the production of research findings).

Choosing an appropriate sample and sampling technique is a careful decision taken after considering many methodological, practical, and ethical issues. It has to do with two issues explained in the first two chapters: the “Who?” question and the issue of unit of measurement. It also related to how much of this population it is relevant to include in the study and how this part of the population will be surveyed. This chapter explains the issue of non-probability sampling in detail. Although sampling and probability sampling are explained in a subsequent chapter, both types of samplings are generally introduced here.

PROBABILITY SAMPLES Probability samples are samples in which every element of a population (whether it is

an individual or a household) has a known chance of being included. In other words,

every individual or object in the population of interest has equal chance of being

chosen for the study.

Probability samples are usually more representative than non-probability samples of

the populations. Because of this, probability samples tend to increase the possibility of

generalizing the results about the entire population. In probability sampling, every

individual or object in the population of interest has equal chance of being chosen for

study. For example, when selecting a probability sampling for a study of primary

school students in Yangon, all primary school students in Yangon have an equal chance

of being chosen for the study.

In many cases, probability samples are only used for large-scale surveys, something

that cannot be done by organizations with limited human resources and financial

capacities. The idea behind probability sampling is to provide useful and representative

descriptions of the total population. A sample of individuals from the population under

study must contain essentially the same variations that exist in the entire population.

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLES Non-probability sampling is used when there is no available sampling frame for a

population. It is also used when a probabilistic approach is not necessary. Non-

probability samples are those in which representative members of a population have an

unknown (or perhaps no) chance of being selected. Non-probability samplings are

useful when the researcher has limited resources. They are also useful for qualitative

research.

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အေျခခအဆင ၆. နမနာေကာကယျခငး - ျဖစတနစြမးနညး (န) နမနာ ေကာကယျခငး

ဤပ႔ခခကသည

အတနငယလြယကေသာ နမနာေကာကယနညး (ျဖစတနစြမးနညး နမနာေကာကယနညး) အား အသးျပပ ျဖစတနစြမးနညး နမနာစေဆာငးရာတြင အသးျပေသာ နညးအမးမး ျဖစတနစြမးနညး နမနာေကာကယျခငး၏ အားသာခကႏင အားနညးခကမား

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

နမနာေကာကယျခငး နမနာေကာကယျခငးဟသညမာ တစခလးအေနျဖင ေလလာရနမျဖစႏငေသာ လဥးေရတစရပအား ကယစားျပမည အရာမားက ႐ာေဖြျပး၊ ကယစားလယအခ႕က ေ႐ြးခယေလလာရန သငေတာသညနညးလမးက ဆလျခငးျဖစသည။ လဥးေရၾကးတစရပလးမ တစခခကနားလညေအာင ေလလာရာတြင လဥးေရတစရပလးပါ တစဥးတစေယာကခငးစက လကေလလာရနမလသည နညးလမး ဟလညး တစနညးဆႏငသည။ လမႈသေတသန ျပလပရာတြငနမနာ ေကာကယသည သေဘာတရားက နားလညရနလအပသည။ ၄ငးမာ သေတသနလပထးတစရပ၊ နညးလမးတစရပျဖစသည။ (သေတသန ေတြ႕႐ခကမားရ႐ေစမည) ေလကားထစတစခလညး ျဖစသည။ သငေလာမည နမနာႏင နမနာေကာကယနညးစနစက ေ႐ြးခယရာတြင လပထးလပနညးပငး၊ လကေတြ႕ပငး၊ ကငဝတပငး အစ႐ေသာ ကစၥရပေပါငး ေျမာကျမားစြာက စဥးစားသးသပျပးမသာ ဂ႐တစကဆးျဖတေ႐ြးခယသည။ ဤသ႔ျပလပရန ေ႐႕ပငးအခနးႏစခနးတြင ေဖာျပခသည “ဘယသ”ဆေသာ ေမးခြနးနင တငးတာေရးယနစ အစ႐သည ကစၥရပႏစခႏင ခနထး စဥးစားရပါမည။ လဥးေရအတြငး႐မညမသည ေလလာရနအကးဝငသနညးဆေသာအခက၊ အဆပါ ေလလာရန အကးဝငသည လဥးေရအစတအပငးက မညသ႔ စစတမးေကာကယမညနညးဆေသာ အခကတ႔ႏငလညး သကဆငပါသည။ ယခအခနးတြင ျဖစတနစြမးနညး နမနာေကာကယျခငး အေၾကာငးက အေသးစတ႐ငးျပထားသည။ နမနာေကာကယျခငးႏင ျဖစတနစြမးနမနာ ေကာကယျခငး အေၾကာငးက ေနာငလာမည (အလယအလတအဆင) အခနးမားတြင အစဥလက႐ငးျပထားေသာလညး နမနာ စေဆာငးပ ႏစခစလးႏင ပတသက၍ အနညးငယမက ဤအခနးတြင ေယဘယမတဆကေပးထားသည။

ျဖစတနစြမးနမနာမား ျဖစတနစြမးနမနာတြင လဥးေရတစရပလးမ ပါဝငဖြ႕စညးသမအရာ (element) တစခခငးစ (ပဂၢလတစဥးတစေယာကျဖစေစ အမေထာငစတစစျဖစေစ) အေနျဖင ေသခာေပါကပါဝငရန အခြငအေရး႐သည။ တစနညးဆေသာ သေတသေလလာရန စတပါဝငစားသည လဥးေရတစရပလးမ ပဂၢလတစဥးခငးစ သ႔မဟတ ဝတတစခခငးစသည ေလလာမႈအတြက ေ႐ြးခယခ ႏငစရာ ညတညမအခြငအလမး႐ေနျခငးျဖစသည။ ျဖစတနစြမးနမနာမားသည ျဖစတနစြမးနညးနမနာမားထကပျပး လဥးေရတစရပလးအား ကယစားျပႏငသည။ သ႔ျဖစ ေသာေၾကာင ျဖစတနစြမးနမနာမားသည သေတသနရလဒအား လဥးေရတစရပလးႏငယဥျပး ျခငၾကည၍ ရႏငစရာ အခြငအလမး ပမားသည။ ျဖစတနရာနမနာ ေကာကယနညးတြင ေလလာမည လဥးေရတစရပလးမ ပဂၢလတငး (သ႔) ဝတတငး ေလလာခကတြင ညတညမ ပါဝငႏငစရာ႐သည။ ဥပမာ ရနကနမ မလတနး ေကာငးသားမားႏင သကဆင ေသာ ေလလာခကတစရပအတြက ျဖစတနစြမးနမနာစေဆာငးရာတြင ရနကန႐ မလတနး ေကာငးသား အားလးတြင ေလလာခကအတြက ေ႐ြးခယခရႏငစရာ အခြငအလမး ညတမတ႐သည။ မားေသာအားျဖင ျဖစတနစြမးနမနာမားသည စစတမးမား ကယကယျပန႔ျပန႔ ေကာကယသညအခါမးတြငသာ အသးျပ သည။ လအငအား ေငြေၾကးအငအား ေတာငတငးမႈမ႐ေသာ အဖြ႕အစညးမားတြင ၄ငးနညးအား အသးျပရန မတတႏင ေခ။ ျဖစတနစြမးနမနာေကာကယရျခငး၏ ရည႐ြယခကမာ လဥးေရတစရပလးက ကယစားျပျပး အသးလညးတည ေသာ ရညညႊနးဝေသသမား (descriptions) ေပးစြမးႏငေရးျဖစသည။ ေလလာဆ လဥးေရမ ရ႐လာေသာ နမနာ ပဂၢလမားတြင အဆပါလဥးေရတစရပလး၏ ထးျခားစ႐ကလကၡဏာမား (variations) ပါ႐ရန လအပသည။ ျဖစတနစြမးနညးနမနာမား လဥးေရတစရပအတြက နမနာေကာကယရန ေဘာငသြငး၍/ပစခ၍မရႏငေသာအခါတြင ျဖစတနစြမးနညး နမနာ ေကာကယနညးက အသးျပသည။ ျဖစတနရာ အေကာကအယနညးနာ (probabilistic approach) အသးျပရန မလအပေသာ အခါမးတြငလညး ၄ငးနညးကသာ အသးျပသည။ ျဖစတနစြမးနညးနမနာမားတြင ေလလာမညလဥးေရမ ကယစားလယမားမာ အေ႐ြးခယခရႏငစရာ အခြငအလမးကနေသခာစြာ မ႐ေပ။ (သ႔မဟတအခြငအလမးလးဝမ႐ေခ)။ သေတသတြင ေငြအငအားလအငအား (resources) နညးပါးေနပါက ျဖစတနစြမးနညးနမနာေကာကယနညးမာ အလြန အသးတညသည။ အရညအေသြးသေတသနအတြကလညး ၄ငးနညးမားမာ အလြနအသးဝငသည။

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Common techniques of non-probability sampling are: (1) convenience sampling; (2)

purposive/judgmental sampling; (3) snowball sampling; and (4) quota sampling.

(1) In convenience sampling, collection of samples is based on the individuals or

units of measurement (sampling unit) that happen to be available at the time of data

collection.

(2) In purposive sampling, informants are hand-picked by the researcher based on

the assumption that these informants represent typical or interesting cases for the

study.

(3) In snowball sampling, building up a sample is by collecting preliminary

information about a specific population. It starts with one or two informants of a

specific population and continues to identify other members of the same population.

(4) In quota sampling, collection of samples is based on the proportion of sub-

groups of individuals needed to represent similar proportions of the entire

population. By using this sampling technique, the researcher makes sure that a

certain number of sample units from different categories with specific characteristic

appear in the sample so that all of these characteristics are represented.

Convenience sampling

In convenience sampling, the individuals or units of measurement (sampling

unit) that happen to be available at the time of data collection are selected as a

sample. It is the most convenient method for non-probability sampling. It is not

frequently used in social research, but more in medical studies.

Suppose that the topic of a research project is about patients’ satisfaction with

health care providers in Yangon public hospitals. The researcher visits several

Yangon public hospitals and picks up as many patients as needed for the research.

Some patients surveyed are in a severe health condition while others are.

Convenience sampling will build on the group of patients with various conditions to

study their opinion on the quality of care at different hospitals.

In the example shown above, the researcher chooses patients in the hallway of the

hospital (in circle) as convenience samples. Their characteristics may or may not be

different from those hospitalized or from those who have come to the public hospital.

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အသးမားေသာ ျဖစတနစြမးနညး နမနာေကာကယနညးမားမာ – (၁) လြယကသကသာ နမနာ ေကာကယနညး၊ (၂) စစစေ႐ြးခယ နမနာေကာကယနညး (purposive/judgmental sampling)၊(၃) ႏငးခ/ႏငးလး နမနာေကာကယနညး (snowball sampling)၊ (၄) အခးက နမနာေကာကယနညး စနစ (quota sampling) တ႔ ျဖစၾကသည။ (၁) လြယကသကသာ နမနာ ေကာကယနညးတြင ေကာကယစေဆာငးထားေသာ နမနာမားမာ အခကအလက စေဆာငးစဥ လကလမးမႏငသမ လပဂၢလတစေယာကခငးစ (သ႔) တငးတာေရးယနစ (စေဆာငးေရးယနစ) တစခ ခငးစက အေျချပသည။ (၂) စစစေ႐ြးခယနမနာေကာကယနညးတြင အခကအလကေပးစြမးႏငသမား (informants) အား ေ႐ြးခယရာတြင ေလလာမည ေဘာငဝငေသာ (သ႔) စတဝငစားစရာ ကစၥရပမားက ကယစားျပသညဟ ယဆထားသမားက သေတသ ကယတင ေ႐ြးခယသည။ (၃)ႏငးလးနမနာေကာကယနညးတြင သတမတထားေသာ လဥးေရတစရပ၏ ပဏာမသတငးအခကအလကမားက စေဆာငးျခငးျဖင နမနာတစခက တညေဆာကသည။ အခကအလကေပးႏငသတစဥးစ ႏစဥးစမစတငျပး အဆပါ လဥးေရအတြငး႐ အျခားသမားကပါ ဆကလက ေဖာထတသြားျခငးျဖစသည။ (၄) အခးကနမနာေကာကယနညးစနစတြင နမနာစေဆာငးပမာ လဥးေရတစရပလးက အခးက ကယစားျပေပးႏငမည အပစကြ အခးပမာဏတစခတြင အေျချပသည။ ဤနညးအားအသးျပျခငးျဖင သေတသသည ထးျခား ဝေသသ လကၡဏာ ႐ျပး မတညေသာ မးတအပစကြမားမ နမနာယနစမားက အေရအတြကတစခအထ စေဆာငးႏငမညျဖစျပး ၄ငးနမနာမားတြင အဆပါ ထးျခားဝေသသလကၡဏာမား ေပၚလြငေနမညျဖစသည။ သ႔မသာ ယငးနမနာမားသည ထးျခားဝေသသလကၡဏာ အကနလးက ကယစားျပႏငမည ျဖစသည။

လြယကသကသာနမနာေကာကယနညး

လြယကသကသာ နမနာေကာကယနညးတြင အခကအလကစေဆာငးစဥ လကလမးမေသာ လပဂၢလမား (သ႔) တငးတာေရးယနစမား (နမနာယနစ) အား နမနာတစခအျဖစ ေ႐ြးခယသည။ ၄ငးမာ ျဖစတနစြမးနညးနမနာေကာကယနညးတြင အသကသာဆး နညးလမးပင ျဖစသည။ ၄ငးအား လမႈသေတသနတြင မားမားစားစား သးေလမ႐ဘ ေဆးဘကဆငရာ ေလလာမႈမားတြငသာ ပ၍အသးျပေလ ႐ၾကသည။ ဥပမာ ရနကနျပညသ႔ေဆး႐မား႐ ကနးမာေရးဝနေဆာငမႈ ေပးေနသမားႏင ပတသကျပး လနာမား၏ စတတငးကမႈက သေတသနလပသည ဆပါစ႔။ သေတသသည ရနကနျမ႕႐ ေျမာကျမားလစြာေသာ ေဆး႐မားသ႔ သြားျပး သေတသနအတြက လအပသမ လနာအေရတြကက ေ႐ြးခယႏငသည။ စစတမးေကာကယထားေသာ လနာမားတြင အခ႕မာေရာဂါသညးထနျပး အခ႕မာ ေရာဂါမသညးထနေခ။ လြယကသကသာ နမနာေကာကယနညးသည အနာေရာဂါ အေျခအေနအမးမး႐ၾကေသာ လနာအပစကဖနတးေပးႏငျပး ေဆး႐ေပါငးစမ ကနးမာေရးေစာငေ႐ာကမႈ အရည အေသြးအေပၚ ၄ငးတ႔႐ျမငပက ေလလာခြငရေစသည။

ဤဥပမာတြင သေတသသည ေဆး႐ေဟာခနးတစေလာကမ လနာမားအား လြယကသကသာ နမနာမားအျဖစ ေ႐ြးခယသည (ပတြင အနျဖငျပထားသည)။ ၄ငးတ႔၏ လကၡဏာရပမားမာ ေဆး႐တြင ကသမႈခေနၾကေသာ လနာမား (သ႔) ျပညသ႔ေဆး႐သ႔ လာေရာကကသမႈ ခေသာလနာမားႏင ကြျခားမႈ႐သလ တညမႈလညး႐ႏငသည။

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The advantages of this technique are primarily convenience and economy.

The disadvantages are: (1) the evidence obtained from the data will be somewhat

biased; and (2) the data obtained from the sample cannot be generalized to an entire

population.

Purposive sampling

In purposive sampling, informants are hand-picked by the researcher based on

the assumption that these informants represent typical or interesting cases for the study.

The selection of informants matches a certain profile of individuals who are expected

to produce relevant data once they are surveyed. Interview techniques such as In-depth

Interview (IDI) and Key Informant Interview (KII) frequently use purposive sampling

in qualitative research.

For example, suppose that a researcher would like to know the characteristics of

successful young people (aged 18-25 year) who have created their own business or

companies without the help of their parents. The researcher will identify a sample of

young people meeting these criteria through various channels: he/she will ask around

him/her for recommendations, read newspapers about successful business ventures and

their owners, and go the UMFCCI, etc. In this way, the researcher will be able to build

a sample of successful young individuals and conduct research on the primary sources

of their business successes.

In this example, the researcher identified successful young businessmen and women (in

circle), among businesspeople, through a business organization. Then they invited them

to participate in the research.

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၄ငးနညးလမး၏ အားသာခကမာ အေျခခအားျဖင လြယကျပး ေငြေၾကးအကနအကနညးသည။ အားနညးခကမားမာ (၁) အခကအလကမားမ ရ႐ေသာ သကေသအေထာကအထားမားမာ အနညးငယ ဘကလကမႈ ႐ႏငသည။ ဓမၼဓ႒ာနကရနခကခသည။ (၂) နမနာမားမရ႐လာေသာ အခကအလကမားအား လဥးေရတစရပလးႏင ခနထးျပး ေယဘယျပဆရန ခကခသည။

စစစေ႐ြးခယနမနာေကာကယနညး

စစစေ႐ြးခယ နမနာေကာကယနညးတြင အခကအလက ေပးစြမးႏငသမား (informants) အား ေ႐ြးခယရာတြင ေလလာမည ေဘာငဝငေသာ (သ႔) စတဝငစားစရာ ကစၥရပမားက ကယစားျပသညဟ ယဆထားသမားက သေတသ ကယတင ေ႐ြးခယသည။ အခကအလကေပးစြမးႏငသမားက ေ႐ြးခယရာတြင စစတမးေကာကယသညအခါ သကဆင သည အခကအလကမားက ေပးစြမးမညသဟ ယဆထားသမားက ေ႐ြးခယသည။ အေသးစတေမးျမနးနညး (In-depth

Interview-IDI) ႏင အဓကအခကအလကေပးႏငသမားအား ေမးျမနးနညး (Key Informant Interview-KII) အစ႐ေသာ လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးနညးမားမာ အရညအေသြး သေတသနမ စစစေ႐ြးခယနမနာေကာကယနညးတြင အသးမားသည။

ဥပမာ သေတသသည မဘအပထနးသ၏ အကအညမပါဘ စးပြားေရးလပငနး သ႔မဟတ ကမၼဏထေထာငႏငသည (အသက၁၈-၂၅ႏစအတြငး႐) ေအာငျမငေသာ လငယမား၏ စ႐ကလကၡဏာမားအေၾကာငးက သ႐လသညဆပါစ႔။ သေတသအေနႏင အဆပါစႏနးမားျဖင ကကညေသာ လငယနမနာတစစအား နညးလမးေပါငးစသးျပး ေဖာထတရေပမည။ ၄ငးအေနျဖင ပတဝနးကငတြင အဆပါစႏနးမားႏင ကကညသအေၾကာငးက ေမးျမနးစစမးျခငး၊ ေအာငျမငေသာ စြန႔ဥး စးပြားေရး လပငနးမားႏင ဥးေဆာငသမားအေၾကာငးက သတငးစာတြင ဖတ႐ေလလာျခငး၊ ကနသညမားႏင စကမႈလကမႈ လပငနး႐ငမား အသငး (UMFCCI) သ႔ သြားေရာကစစမးျခငး စသညတ႔ ျပလပႏငသည။ ဤနညးျဖင သေတသသည ေအာငျမငေသာ လငယမားပါဝငသည နမနာတစခ တညေဆာကယႏငျပး ၄ငးတ႔ ေအာငျမငရသည အဓက အေၾကာငး တရားမားက သေတသန ျပလပႏငေပမည။

ဤဥပမာတြင သေတသသည (ပတြငအနျဖငျပထားသည) ေအာငျမငေသာ လငယစးပြားေရး လပငနး႐ငမားအား စးပြားေရး လပငနး႐ငမားၾကား၊ စးပြားေရးလပငနးအဖြ႕အစညးမားမ ေဖာထတေ႐ြးခယသည။ ျပးေနာက ၄ငးတ႔အား သေတသနတြင ပါဝငရန ဖတၾကားသည။

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The advantages of purposive sampling are: (1) it doesn’t involve any random selection

process; (2) it is less costly and more readily accessible to the researcher; and (3) it

guarantees that all relevant aspects of the research topic are included.

The disadvantages of purposive sampling are: (1) too much emphasis is placed on the

ability of the investigator to assess which elements are typical and which are not; (2) as

it is not random sampling, this method requires extensive preliminary information

about the population that a researcher plans to study; and (3) like other non-probability

sampling techniques, the evidence resulting from a study using purposive sampling can

be used legitimely for this study only. In other words, it cannot be generalized to the

entire population.

Snowball sampling

The main feature of snowball sampling is about building up a sample by

collecting preliminary information about a specific population. Snowball sampling is

useful when the researcher needs to locate key informants or critical cases. Snowball

sampling is also used when a population listing or census are not available. It relies on

previously identified members of a specific population to identify other members of the

same population. It starts with one or two informants of a specific population who

experience difficulties or do not live typical lives, i.e. female sex workers (FSW) or

people who inject drugs (PWID). Snowball sampling is used frequently in qualitative

research and field research.

For example, suppose that research topic is about widows formerly married to People

living with HIV (PLHIV), i.e. women who lost their husband to HIV infection. The

researcher will first have to ask around her/him about widows formerly married to a

PLHIV husband, as data about this issue does not exist. After a first contact with a

widow, the researcher will probably get to know other widows in the same case

through self-help groups and therefore be able to build a sample of informants for the

research project.

In this example, the researcher first contacts a widow of PLHIV (an informant of a

specific population) and then identifies other members of the same population, and so

on until the researcher reaches the required sample size.

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စစစေ႐ြးခယနမနာေကာကယနညး၏ အားသာခကမားမာ (၁) ၾကရာကပနး ေ႐ြးခယမႈမး မဟတေပ။ (၂) ေငြကန ေၾကးက နညးျပး သေတသလညး လြယတငတက တတႏငသည။ (၃) သကဆငရာ / အကးဝငသည အခကအလက အစတအပငးဟသမ ပါဝငေစရန အာမခခက႐သည။ စစစေ႐ြးခယ နမနာေကာကယနညး၏ အားနညးခကမားမာ (၁) မညသညက စႏနးႏငကကညျပး မညသညက မကကညသညက ဆနးစစႏငသည သေတသ၏ စြမးရညပငးက အသားေပးလြနးသည။ (၂) ကပနးနမနာေကာကျခငး မဟတေသာေၾကာင ၄ငးနညးလမးတြင သေတသေလလာရန ရည႐ြယသည လဥးေရႏငပတသကေသာ ပဏာမအခကအလကမား ပျပးလအပသည။ (၃) အျခားေသာ ျဖစတနစြမးနညး နမနာေကာကယနညးမားကသ႔ပင စစစေ႐ြးခယ နမနာေကာကယနညးက အသးျပသည ေလလာခကမ ေပၚထြက လာေသာ သကေသအေထာကအထားမားမာ ၄ငးေလလာခကတြငသာ အသးျပရန အကးဝငသည။ တနညးဆေသာ လဥးေရတစရပလးႏင ခနထးျပး ေယဘယဖြငဆ ေကာကခကခရနမျဖစႏငေခ။

ႏငးလးနမနာေကာကယနညး

ႏငးလးနမနာကာကယနညး၏ ထးျခားခကမာ သကဆငရာလဥးေရတစရပ၏ ပဏာမသတငး အခကအလကမားက စေဆာငးျခငးျဖင နမနာတစခက တညေဆာကယျခငး ျဖစသည။ ႏငးလးနမနာေကာကယနညးသည သေတသအတြက အေရးပါ ေသာ အခကအလက ေပးႏငမညသမား (သ႔) အထငကရကစၥရပမားက ႐ာေဖြေထာကလမးရာတြင အသးဝငသည။ လဥးေရအား စာရငးဇယားျပလပထားမႈ (သ႔) သနးေခါငစာရငးေကာကယထားမႈ မရ႐ႏငပါက ႏငးလးနမနာနညးကပင အသးျပသည။ ၄ငးနညးသည သကဆငရာလဥးေရတစရပအတြငး လကဥးမဆြက ေတြ႕႐ထားျပးသားသမားက အေၾကာငးျပျပး ၄ငးလဥးေရ၌ ပင ပါဝငေသာအျခားသမားအား ေဖာထတျခငးပင ျဖစသည။ အမးသမးလငလပသားမား သ႔တညးမဟတ မးယစေဆး အေၾကာထ ထးသြငးသမား စသတ႔ကသ႔ ကဥးထကပထ ကေရာကေနသမား (ဝါ) သမ႐းကဘဝျဖင ေနထငခြင မရၾကသမား စသည ထးျခားေသာ လဥးေရတစရပမ အခကအလကေပးႏငသ တစေယာကစႏစေယာကစျဖင စတငႏငသည။ ႏငးခနမနာ ေကာကယနညးသည အရညအေသြးသေတသနႏင ကြငးဆငးသေတသနမားတြင ၾကမဖနမားစြာအသးျပေလ႐သည။

ဥပမာ သေတသန အေၾကာငးအရာသည HIV ေဝဒနာသညႏင ေပါငးသငးေနထငခဖးေသာ မဆးမမား (HIV ကးစကပး ေၾကာင ဆးပါးသြားေသာ လငေယာကားျဖစသ၏ ကနရစသမနးမမား) အေၾကာငး ျဖစသညဆပါစ႔။ အဆပါကစၥရပႏင ပတသကေသာ အခကအလက တစတရာမ႐ေသးေသာေၾကာင သေတသသည ဥးစြာပထမ နးစပရာ ပတဝနးကငတြင HIV ေရာဂါသည ေယာကားႏင ေပါငးသငးေနထငခဖးေသာ မဆးမမားအေၾကာငးက ေမးျမနးစစမးရမည။ အဆပါ မဆးမ တစေယာကႏင ဥးဆးဆကသြယျပးသညေနာက၌ သေတသသည အျပနအလန ေဖးမကညေရး အပစမားမ တဆင အလားတ မဆးမမားက သကၽြမးလာျပး သေတသနလပငနးစဥအတြက အခကအလကေပးႏငသ နမနာတစစ တညေဆာက လာႏငမည။

ဤဥပမာတြင သေတသအေနႏင HIV ေရာဂါသည ေယာကား၏ ကနရစသဇနး (အနျဖင ျပထားသည သကဆငရာ လဥးေရမ အခကအလက ေပးႏငသတစဥး) ႏင ဥးစြာ အဆကအသြယလပျပး အဆပါ လဥးေရမ အျခားသမားက ေဖာထတရမည။ ဤနညးျဖင လအပေသာ နမနာအေရအတြက အ႐ြယအစားသ႔ ေရာက႐လာသည။

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The advantages of snowball sampling are: (1) it makes easier to study under-

explored communities or groups of people; and (2) it also helps to develop an

understanding of how a community or a group of people share similar experiences,

lives, and jobs.

The disadvantages of snowball sampling are: (1) the making of the sampling may

use a lot of the researcher’s time before actually being able to conduct the research;

(2) the sampling technique is difficult to apply when the sample exceeds certain

limits; and (3) the findings can’t be generalized to the population.

.

Quota sampling

The main feature of ‘quota sampling’ is that of a convenience sampling

within groups of the population. It is based on the proportion of sub-groups of

individuals needed to represent similar proportions in the entire population. By using

this sampling technique, a researcher makes sure that a certain number of sample

units from different categories with specific characteristic appear in sample so that

all these characteristics are represented. To be able to use quota sampling, census

records must be up to date in order to obtain accurate proportion. It is used with

great caution in social research.

For example, a researcher is interested in the attitudes of members of different

religions towards the encouragement of formal education in Mandalay Region. It is

estimated that 5% of the population in Myanmar is Hindu. However, in the

Mandalay Region, the exact percentage of the Hindu population is not known.

Therefore, there may be a risk of miscounting the Hindu population. To ensure their

inclusion, the researcher can set a quota of 5% Hindu for the sample. The sample

will not be representative of the actual proportion in the Mandalay Region

population. The findings may limit generalization to the regional population. But

quota sampling guarantees that the views of Hindus are represented in the survey.

In this example, the researcher identifies quota samples (in circle) from populations

representing each religion (a religion is represented by a quadrant) in order for the

views of every religion to be reflected in the survey.

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ႏငးခနမနာေကာကယနညး၏ အားသာခကမားမာ (၁) စးစမး႐ာေဖြမည အစအဖြ႕မား (ဝါ) လအပစမားအား ေလလာရာ တြင လြယကေစသည။ (၂) ဆငတေသာ အေတြ႕အၾက၊ ဘဝႏင အလပအကငမားက အစအဖြ႕တစခ (သ႔) လအပစ တစစ မညသ႔မညပေဝမထားသညက နားလညေစသည။ ႏငးခနမနာေကာကယနညး၏ အားနညးခကမားမာ (၁) သေတသန မလပမနမနာေကာကယရငးျဖငသာ သေတသ၏ အခနေတာေတာမားမား ကနသြားႏငသည။ (၂) နမနာ အေရအတြကသည သတမတထားေသာ အ႐ြယအစားထက ေကာလြနသြားပါက အဆပါနမနာေကာကယနညးအား အသးျပရန ခကခသြားသည (၃) ေတြ႕႐ခကမားျဖင လဥးေရတစရပလးအား ေယဘယျပ ေကာကခကဆြရန မျဖစႏင ေပ။

အခးကနမနာေကာကယျခငး

‘အခးကနမနာေကာကယနညး’ ၏ ထးျခားခကမာ လဥးေရတစရပ႐ အပစမားအတြငး လြယကသကသာ နမနာေကာကယနညးတစနညး ျဖစသည။ ၄ငးနညးမာ လဥးေရတစရပလး႐ အပစကြမားအား ညတညမ ကယစားျပမည အခးအစားေပၚတြင အေျချပသည။ ထနမနာ စေဆာငးနညးအား အသးျပျခငးျဖင သေတသသည အစားစားေသာ မးတအပစကြမား၏ ဝေသသထးမား ပါဝငျပး ကယစားျပႏငေသာ နမနာယနစ အေရအတြကတစခက ကနေသခာစြာ ရ႐ႏငမည ျဖစသည။ အခးကနမနာေကာကယမႈက အသးျပႏငရနအလ႔ငာ သနးေခါငစာရငး အခက အလကမားမာ ေခတမေနမသာ တကေသာ အခးပမာဏက ရ႐ႏငမည ျဖစသည။ လမႈေရး သေတသနတြင ၄ငး နညးနာအား သတၾကးစြာထားျပး အသးျပေလ႐သည။

ဥပမာ မႏေလးတငးေဒသၾကး႐ ဘာသာေပါငးစမ လမား၏ ေကာငးပညာေရး အားေပးမႈအေပၚ ထား႐ေသာ စတသေဘာ ထားႏင ပတသကျပး သေတသတစေယာကအေနႏင စတဝငစားသည ဆပါစ႔။ ခန႔မနးခကအရ ျမနမာတစႏငငလးတြင ဟႏၵဘာသာဝငဥးေရ ၅% မ႐သည။ သ႔ေသာလညး မႏေလးတငး ေဒသၾကး႐ ဟႏၵဘာသာဝင ရာခငႏနးက မသ႐ရေသာၾကာင သေတသအေနျဖင ဟႏၵလဥးေရက မားယြငးေရတြကလကႏငသည။ ၄ငးတ႔မၾကြငးမကနဘ ပါဝငေစရန သေတသအေနျဖင ဟႏၵ ၅% အခးက ထညသြငးႏငသည။ ယငးနမနာသည မႏေလးတငးေဒသၾကး၏ လဥးေရ အခးအစားအမနက ကယစားျပမညမဟတေပ။ ေတြ႕႐ခကမားမာလညး အဆပါ တငးေဒသၾကးတစခလးႏင ယဥ၍ ေယဘယ ျပေကာကခကဆြရန ခကခေပမည။ သ႔ေသာ စစတမးတြင ဟႏၵဘာသာဝငမား၏ အျမငလညး ကယစားျပပါဝငေစရနမ အခးကနမနာေကာကယနညးက အာမခႏငသည။

ဤဥပမာတြင သေတသသည (ပတြငအနျဖငျပထားေသာ) အခးကနမနာမားအား ဘာသာတစခခငးစက ကယစားျပ သည လဥးေရမ ေဖာထတေ႐ြးခယျခငးျဖင ဘာသာတစခခငးစ၏ (ဘာသာတစခခငးစအား မဥးမားျဖင ပငးျခားျပထား သည။) ထငျမငယဆခကမားသည စစတမးတြင ထငဟပလာသည။

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The advantages of quota sampling are: (1) it is considerably less costly than most other

sampling methods; (2) it can be quickly administered; and (3) it guarantees the

inclusion of certain types of people in the sample.

The disadvantages of quota sampling are: (1) it gives too much opportunity for the

researcher to select the most accessible information needed for study as the researcher

may even select his/her friends. The researcher has to remember that the most

accessible elements are not necessarily the typical elements of the population under

study; and (2) the findings can’t be generalized to the population.

TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THIS CHAPTER ARE:

Non-probability samples are those in which members of the population have an

unknown (or perhaps no) chance of being selected;

Convenience sampling is usually used in studies which focus on a specific

population that can be easily identified and select from this population a sample of

individuals or households;

Purposive sampling means that the researcher hand-picks individuals or households

based on the features or experiences that the researcher intends to study;

Snowball sampling is about creating a sampling from a network of people sharing

similar features or experiences. This network is created during the research process;

Quota sampling is about sampling groups of individuals or households based on

their known proportion in the entire population.

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အခးကနမနာေကာကယနညး၏ အားသာခကမားမာ (၁) ၄ငးနညးသည အျခားေသာ နမနာေကာကယနညးမားထက အလြန တရာ ေငြကနေၾကးက သကသာသည။ (၂) လပငနးလပေဆာငရာတြင လငျမနသည။ (၃) သတမတထားသည လအမးအစားမား နမနာတြင ပါဝငေစရန အာမခခက႐သည။ အခးကနမနာေကာကယနညး၏ အားနညးခကမားမာ (၁) သေတသသည ၄ငး၏ မတေဆြကပင နမနာအျဖစ ေ႐ြးခယႏငသည ျဖစေသာေၾကာင ေလလာခကအတြက လကလမးအမႏငဆး ေသာ အရာမားက ေ႐ြးခယရန သေတသအား အခြငအေရး ေပးလြနးရာ ေရာကသည။ လကလမးအမႏငဆး အရာမားမာ ေလလာဆ လဥးေရမ သမ႐းက ဖြ႕စညးပါဝငသည အရာမား ျဖစရနမလအပေၾကာငးက သေတသအေနႏင သတထားရန လအပသည။ (၂) ေတြ႕႐ခကမားအား လဥးေရတစရပလးသ႔ ခနထးျပး ေယဘယျပ ေကာကခကဆြရန မျဖစႏငေခ။

အခပဆရေသာ ဤအခနးတြင မတသားစရာ အဓကအခကမားမာ

ျဖစတနစြမးနညးနမနာတြင ေလလာမညလဥးေရတြင ပါဝငသမားမာ အေ႐ြးခယခရႏငစရာ အခြငအလမး ကနေသခာစြာမ႐ေပ။ (သ႔မဟတအခြငအလမးလးဝမ႐ေခ)။

လြယလငတက ႐ာေဖြေဖာထတ၍ ရႏငေသာ လဥးေရတစရပေပၚတြင အာ႐စကေသာ ေလလာခကမားတြင လြယကသကသာ နမနာေကာကယနညးက အသးျပေလ႐ျပး နမနာပဂၢလမားႏင အမေထာငစမားအား ၄ငး လဥးေရမသာ ေ႐ြးခယေလ႐သည။

စစစေ႐ြးခယ နမနာေကာကယနညးဆသညမာ သေတသမ ၄ငးေလလာလေသာ စ႐ကလကၡဏာ၊ ၄ငး ေလလာလေသာ အေတြ႕အၾကက အေျခခ၍ လပဂၢလ (သ႔) အမေထာငစမားအား ေ႐ြးခယျခငးျဖစသည။

ႏငးလးနမနာေကာကယနညးမာ တညေသာ စ႐ကလကၡဏာ (သ႔) တညေသာ အေတြ႕အၾက႐ေသာ လ႔အသငးအဝငး တစခမ နမနာစေဆာငးမႈျပလပျခငး ျဖစသည။ အဆပါ အသငးအဝငးအား သေတသန လပငနးစဥအတြငး ဖနတးသည။

အခးကနမနာ ေ႐ြးခယျခငးဆသညမာ လပဂၢလ (သ႔) အမေထာငစ အပစမား အား လဥးေရတစရပလးမ သကဆငရာ အခးအလက နမနာေကာကယျခငး ျဖစသည။

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BASIC 7. SAMPLING: PROBABILITY SAMPLING

THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT:

The use of an advanced method of sampling, i.e. probability sampling;

The different methods used for probability sampling;

The advantages and disadvantages of using probability sampling.

______________________________________________________________________

SAMPLING

Sampling is the proper way of selecting a limited number of persons for study and

discover things that apply to a large population which cannot be studied as a whole. In

other words, it is about learning something about a large population without having to

study every member of this population. Understanding the logic of sampling is

essential to doing social research. It is a research method, a research technique. It is a

means to an end (i.e. the production of research findings).

PURPOSE OF SAMPLING

The purpose of sampling is to ensure that the findings in study accurately represent

what is going on in the population of interest and to generalize findings from sample to

population. There are two types of sampling: probability sampling and non-probability

sampling (See Chapter on ‘Non-Probability Sampling’).

Generally-speaking, social science research using qualitative methods apply non-

probability sampling while biological and epidemiological research using quantitative

methods apply probability sampling. Non-probability samplings are useful when the

researcher has limited resources.

SAMPLING UNIT

Before starting the research project, it is important to define the sampling unit. The

decision about how to define the basic sampling unit depends on what information is

available or needed before beginning the sampling. For example, in studying child

literacy, some villages or refugee camps may have lists of children under 5 years of

age. In such cases, it may be easier to directly select children for the survey. However,

in most cases, the basic sampling unit is the household because households may be

listed in registration databases or because households are easier to identify and select

after arriving at the site under study.

SAMPLING FRAME

Sampling frame is a complete list of sampling units for the entire population. For

example, it can be a complete list of households or children at the site. The ward or

village administrative office has this kind of list, which can be used as the sampling

frame.

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အေျခခအဆင ၇. နမနာေကာကယနညး - ျဖစတနစြမး နမနာေကာကယျခငး ဤအခနးတြင

နမနာေကာကယျခငး အဆငျမငနညးလမး တစရပအား အသးျပပ။ ဥပမာ-ျဖစတနစြမးနမနာေကာကယနညး ျဖစတနစြမးနမနာေကာကယနညးတြင အသးျပေသာ နညးလမးအမးမး ျဖစတနစြမးနမနာေကာကယနညး အသးျပျခငး၏ အားသာခကမားႏင အားနညးခကမားတ႔ ပါ၀ငပါသည။

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

နမနာေကာကယျခငး နမနာေကာကယျခငးဆသညမာ ေလလာရနအလ႔ငာ လနညးစတစရပအား သငေလာေသာ နညးလမးတစချဖင

ေရြးခယျခငးျဖစၿပး ၄ငးမတဆင အားလးအား ေလလာမႈျပလပရန မလြယကေသာ လအမားစႀကးႏငပတသကေသာ အေၾကာငးအရာမားအား ေလလာေဖာထတရျခငး ျဖစသည။ တစနညးဆရလင လမားစႀကးတစရပလးအား တစဥးခငး ေလလာရနမလဘ ထလစႀကးႏငပတသက၍ ေလလာျခငး ျဖစသည။ နမနာေကာကယျခငးႏင ပတသကေသာ ယတေဗဒအား နားလညထားျခငးသည လမႈေရးသေတသန လပေဆာငရာတြင အေရးပါပါသည။ ၄ငးမာ သေတသန နညးလမးတစရပ၊ နညးပညာတစရပပင ျဖစပါသည။ သေတသန၏ အႏမပနးတင (ဆလသညမာ-သေတသနမ ရာေဖြေတြ႕ ရမႈမား) သ႔ ေရာကရရန ၾကားခနညးလမးပင ျဖစပါသည။

နမနာေကာကယရျခငး၏ရညရြယခက နမနာေကာကယရျခငး၏ ရညရြယခကမာ ေလလာမႈမ ရာေဖြေတြ႔ရခကမားသည ရညရြယထားသည (လ) အပစႀကး တစခလးအား တကစြာ ကယစားျပေၾကာငး ေသခာမႈရေစရနျဖစၿပး၊ နမနာအပစငယ၏ ရာေဖြရာေဖြေတြ႔ရမႈမားမသည (လ) အပစႀကးတစခလးႏင ပတသက၍ ေကာကခကဆြယရန ျဖစသည။ ေယဘယအေနျဖင- နမနာေကာကယျခငးတြင - ျဖစတနစြမး နမနာေကာကယနညး (Probability Sampling) ႏင ျဖစတနစြမးနညးေသာ နမနာေကာကယနညး (Non-Probability Sampling) ဟ၍ ႏစမးရပါသည။ ၿခငေျပာရလငမ လမႈေရးသပၸ သေတသနပငးဆငရာတြင ျဖစတနစြမးနညးေသာ နမနာေကာကယနညး (Non-Probability Sampling) က သးေသာအရညအေသြးစထား ေလလာမႈမးက ျပလပေလရၿပး၊ ဇ၀ေဗဒဆငရာႏင ကးစကေရာဂါ ျပန႔ပြားမႈ ပငးဆငရာ သေတသနမး၌ ျဖစတနစြမးနမနာ ေကာကယနညး Probability Sampling က အသးျပေသာ အေရအတြက စထားေလလာမႈမးက အသးျပပါသည။ သေတသအေနျဖင အကန႔အသတျဖငသာရေသာ အရငးအျမစမးက အသးျပ ရသည အခါ၌ ျဖစတနစြမးနညးေသာ နမနာေကာကယနညးမား (Non-Probability Sampling) မာ အသး၀ငပါသည။

နမနာေကာကယမႈဆငရာယနစ (Sampling Unit) သေတသနတစရပ မစတငမ နမနာေကာကယမႈဆငရာ ယနစက ေဖာထတသတမတရန အေရးႀကးပါသည။ ဤ အေျခခကေသာ နမနာေကာကယမႈဆငရာ ယနစက မညသ႔သတမတမညဟေသာ ဆးျဖတခကမာ နမနာေကာကယမႈ မစတငမ မညသည သတငးအခကအလကမား လအပမႈရသည (သ႔) ရႏငေခရသည ဟေသာ အခကေပၚ မတည ပါသည။ ဥပမာဆရလင ကေလးမား အဟာရခ႕တ႔မႈက ေလလာရာ၌ အခ႕ေသာ ေကးရြာမား (သ႔) ဒကၡသည စခနးမား ၌ အသက ၅ ႏစေအာက ကေလးစာရငး ရေကာငးရႏငပါသည။ ထသ႔ရလင စစတမးအတြက ကေလးမားက လြယလင တက တကရက ေရြးခယႏငေပမည။ သ႔ေသာကစၥရပ ေတာေတာမားမား၌မ အမေထာငစမားကသာ စာရငးသြငး မတထားေလ ရသျဖင လညးေကာငး၊ အရပေဒသတစခသ႔ ေလလာရန ေရာကရသည အခါ၌ အမေထာငစမားသည လြယကစြာ ေဖာထတ သတမတႏငသျဖငလညးေကာငး အေျခခနမနာေကာကယမႈ ယနစမာ အမေထာငစမား ျဖစေလရသည။

နမနာေကာကယမႈဆငရာ အေျခခစာရငး (Sampling Frame) နမနာေကာကယမႈဆငရာ အေျခခစာရငးဆသညမာ (လ)အပစႀကးတစခလးအတြက နမနာ ေကာကယမႈဆငရာ ယနစမား၏ ျပညစေသာ စာရငးတစခ ျဖစသည။ ဥပမာအားျဖင အာဟာရခ႕တမႈႏင ပတသက၍ ေလလာမည ေနရာေဒသ၏ ကေလးမား (သ႔) အမေထာငစမားစာရငး အျပညအစ ျဖစသည။ ရပကြက (သ႔) ေကးရြာအပခပေရး႐း မား၌ ဤကသ႔ေသာ နမနာေကာကယမႈဆငရာ အေျခခစာရငးအျဖစ သးႏငေသာ စာရငးမး ရပါသည။

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REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE A representative sample is a sample which has all the important characteristics of a

population. A required sample is drawn from a representative sample and statistical

inference is drawn from the obtained findings.

PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Probability samples are those in which every element of population has a known chance of being included. In other words, every individual or object in the population of interest has an equal chance of being chosen for the study.

Non-probability sampling is used when there is no sampling frame for an available population. It is also used when a probabilistic approach is not necessary. Non-probability samples are those in which members of the population have an unknown (or perhaps no) chance of being selected.

Probability samples are usually more representative than non-probability samples of the populations. Because of this, probability samples tend to increase the possibility of generalizing the results to the entire population. In probability sampling, every individual or object in the population of interest has an equal chance of being chosen for study. For example, when a selection is made about primary school students in Yangon, all primary school students in Yangon have equal chance of being chosen for the study.

The idea behind probability sampling is to provide useful and representative descriptions of the total population. A sample of individuals from the population under study must contain essentially the same variations that exist in the entire population. In many cases, probability samples are only used for large-scale surveys, something that cannot be done by organizations with limited human resources and financial capacity.

There are different sampling techniques that will have to be chosen depending on the situation under study. Commonly-used probability sampling techniques are: (1) Simple Random Sampling (SRS); (2) systematic random sampling; (3) stratified sampling; (4) cluster sampling; and (5) multi-stage sampling.

SIMPLE OR SYSTEMATIC RANDOM SAMPLING (SRS)

If a complete list of sampling units (households or children) is available for the entire population, the researcher can choose a sample by Simple or Systematic Random Sampling (SRS).

In SRS, individual basic sampling units are chosen directly from a list of all eligible basic sampling units (sampling frame).

Systematic random sampling can be done on the ground without having a list of all

basic sampling units. If the actual houses are arranged in some order and the total

number of households is known, then a sampling interval (n) can be calculated. The

sampling interval is derived from the calculation of the complete sampling units

divided by required sample size. The first household is randomly selected. Then,

every nth

household can be selected by walking or driving through the population

and counting houses.

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ကယစားျပနမနာ (Representative Sample) ကယစားျပနမနာတစရပ ဆသညမာ (လ) အပစႀကး၏ အေရးႀကးေသာ ၀ေသသလကၡဏာ အားလးပါ၀ငေသာ နမနာ အစတစရပျဖစသည။ လအပေသာနမနာအစက ဤကယစားျပနမနာအပစမ ထတႏတေကာကယႏငၿပး ေပၚထြကလာ သည ႐ာေဖြေတြ႕ရခကမားအား စာရငးအငးဆငရာ ေကာကခကမား ခမတယႏငသည။

ျဖစတနစြမးနမနာေကာကယနညး (Probability Sampling) ျဖစတနစြမးနမနာမား ဆသညမာ (လ)ဥးေရအပစႀကး၏ အစတအပငးတစခခငးစတငးသည နမနာအစတြင ပါ၀င ႏငေခရျခငးက ဆလသည။ တစနညးဆရလင လဥးေရအပစႀကး၏ တစဥးခငးစ (သ႔) တစခခငးစတငးသည ေလလာမႈအတြက ေရြးခယခရမႈတြင တညေသာ အခြငအလမး ရျခငးျဖစသည။ လဥးေရအပစႀကးတစခလးအတြက နမနာေကာကယမႈဆငရာ အေျခခစာရငး (Sampling Frame) မရလင ျဖစတနစြမးနညးေသာ နမနာေကာကယနညး (non-Probability Sampling) က အသးျပသည။ ျဖစတနစြမးနညးလမးက အသးျပရန မလအပပါကလညး ဤနညးက အသးျပပါသည။ ျဖစတနစြမးနညးေသာနမနာ (non-Probability Samples) ဆသညမာ ေလလာမည လဥးေရးအပစႀကး၏ အဖြ႔၀ငမားအေနျဖင ေရြးခယခရမႈတြင ပါ၀ငႏငရန အခြငအလမး မေရရာေသာ၊ မသေသာ အေျခအေနျဖစသည။ ျဖစတနစြမး နမနာမားသည ျဖစတနစြမးနညးေသာ နမနာမားထကစာလင လဥးေရအပစႀကးတစခလးက ပ၍ ကယစားျပ ေလရသည။ သ႔အတြကေၾကာငပင ျဖစတနစြမးနမနာမားသည ေလလာမညဥးေရအပစႀကးတစခလးႏင ပတသကေသာ ရလဒမားက ေကာကခကဆြယႏငေခ ပျမငမားပါသည။ ျဖစတနစြမး နမနာေကာကယနညးတြင ေလလာမည အပစႀကး၏ အဖြ႔၀ငတငးသည ေလလာမႈအတြက ေရြးခယခရမႈတြင တညေသာ အခြငအလမးရၾကသည။ ဥပမာ- ရနကနၿမ႕ရမလတနး ေကာငးသားမားတြင ေရြးခယမႈျပလပမညဆပါက ရနကနၿမ႕ရ မလတနး ေကာငးသားအားလး (သ႔) တစဥးခငးစတငး သည ေလလာမႈ အတြက ေရြးခယခရမႈတြင တညေသာ အခြငအလမးမား ရၾကသည။ ျဖစတနစြမး နမနာေကာကယရျခငး၏ ရညရြယခကမာ လဥးေရးအပစႀကးတစခလးႏင ပတသက၍ အသး၀င၍ ကယစားျပေသာ ဖြငဆခကမား ေဖာထတႏငရန ျဖစသည။ ေလလာမည လဥးေရအပစႀကးမ ေကာကယထားေသာ နမနာလနညးစသည ထအပစႀကးတစခလးတြင ပါ၀ငသည ၀ေသသမားႏင ထးျခားကြျပားစလငမႈတ႔ ပါ၀ငရမညျဖစသည။ ကစၥရပေတာမားမားတြငမ ျဖစတနစြမးနမနာေကာကယျခငးက အႀကးစား စစတမးေကာကယမႈ မားတြငသာ အသးျပၾကၿပး ေငြေၾကးႏင လအငအားအကန႔အသတရေသာ အဖြ႔အစညးငယမားအေနျဖင လပေဆာင ႏငျခငး မရေခ။ နမနာေကာကယမႈနညးလမးအမးမးရၿပး ေလလာမႈျပမည အေနအထားေပၚမတည၍ ေရြးခယအသးျပႏငသည။ အမားအား ျဖင အသးျပၾကေသာ ျဖစတနစြမးနမနာေကာကယနညးမားမာ - (၁) ႐းရငးေသာ ကပနးနမနာေကာကယနညး (Simple Random Sampling –SRS) - (၂) စနစတကရေသာ ကပနးနမနာ ေကာကယနညး (Systematic Random Sampling) -(၃) အပစတစခက ဥးတညသတမတ၍ နမနာေကာကယနညး (Stratified Sampling) -(၄) မးတအပစနမနာေကာကယနညး (Cluster Sampling) ႏင - (၅) အလႊာစအဆငတနးစမ နမနာေကာကယနညး (multi-stage sampling) တ႔ ျဖစၾကသည။

႐းရငးေသာ (သ႔) စနစတကရေသာ ကပနးနမနာေကာကယျခငး လဥးေရအပစႀကးတစခလးအတြက နမနာေကာကယမႈယနစမား (အမေထာငစမား၊ကေလးငယမားစသည) ျပညစေသာ စာရငးတစရပရခလင သေတသအေနျဖင ႐းရငးေသာ ကပနးနမနာ ေကာကယျခငး (သ႔) စနစတကရေသာ ကပနး နမနာ ေကာကယနညး (SRS) က အသးျပ၍ နမနာ အစတစရပက ေရြးခယႏငသည။ ဤ SRS နညးတြငအေျခခ နမနာေကာကယမႈ ဆငရာယနစတစချခငးစသည အေျခခနမနာေကာကယျခငး ယနစမား တြင အားလး အကး၀ငေသာ စာရငးတစရပ (နမနာေကာကယမႈဆငရာ အေျခခစာရငး Sampling Frame) မ တကရက ေရြးခယ ေကာကယႏငသည။ စနစတက ကပနးနမနာ ေကာကယနညးတြငမ အေျခခနမနာေကာကယျခငး ယနစအားလးပါ၀ငသည စာရငးတစရပ ရစရာမလဘ ေကာကယႏငသည။ လကေတြ႔တြငအမမားသည အစအစဥတကတညရၿပး၊ အမေထာငစမား၏ စစေပါငး အေရအတြကက သပါက နမနာေကာကယမႈ ၾကားခအကြာအေ၀းပမာဏ Sampling Interval (n) က တြကခကႏင သည။ ဤနမနာေကာကယမႈ ၾကားခအကြာအေ၀းသည နမနာေကာကယမႈဆငရာ ယနစအေရအတြကမားအား လအပသည နမနာအစအရြယအစား (Sample size) ျဖငစားျခငးျဖင တြကခကရရႏငသည။ ပထမဆးေသာ အမေထာငစကမ ကပနးေရြးခယ လကပါ။ ထ႔ေနာက nthအႀကမေျမာက အမေထာငစတငးက လမးေလာကရငး (သ႔) ကားေမာငးရငး အမမားအား ေရတြကသြားျဖငးျဖင ေရြးခယႏငသည။

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Simple random sampling

Simple random sampling is the process in which each sampling unit (child, individual,

or household) is selected one after another from a list of eligible sampling units

(sampling frame). Simple random sampling can be done in many ways, but it requires a

complete list of all the basic sampling units in a population.

a) The prototypical method for simple random sampling is to write the name of each

household, individual, or child on a piece of paper, then put all the pieces of paper in a

bowl and randomly select as many pieces of paper as the number of households,

individuals, or children needed for the survey. If there are 10,000 households in the

population, however, it would take a very long time to write all the names on the

10,000 pieces of paper.

b) Another way is to number the households. Then random numbers between 1 and the

total number of basic sampling units are selected from a random number table (shown

below) or generated on a calculator or computer. The household which has the same

number as the random number is included in the sample. The quantity of random

numbers selected equals the desired number of sampling units, as determined by the

sample size calculation.

In this example, we have 25 people (17 happy, 4 neither happy nor unhappy, and 4

unhappy). Five simple random samples are selected from that population. Everyone

has an equal chance of being selected into the sample. The resulting sampling is: 3

happy persons, 1 person neither happy nor unhappy, and 1 unhappy. With the simple

random sampling technique, the resulting sample has proportions similar to the

population.

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႐းရငးေသာ ကပနးနမနာ ေကာကယနညး (Simple Random Sampling) ႐းရငးေသာ ကပနးနမနာ ေကာကယနညးဆသညမာ နမနာေကာကယမႈဆငရာ ယနစ (ကေလး၊ လပဂၢလ၊ အမေထာငစ စသည) က နမနာေကာကယမႈဆငရာ ယနစမားအားလး အကး၀ငေသာ စာရငး (နမနာ ေကာကယမႈ ဆငရာ အေျခခစာရငး Sampling Frame) မ တစႀကမလင တစခစ ေရြးခယေကာကယႏငသည။ ႐းရငးေသာ ကပနးနမနာ ေကာကယျခငးက နညးလမးအမးမးျဖင ျပလပႏငသည။ သ႔ေသာ လဥးေရအပစႀကး တစခလး၏ အေျခခနမနာ ေကာကယမႈဆငရာ ယနစမားအားလး၏ ျပညစေသာ စာရငးတစရပ လအပပါသည။

(က) ႐းရငးေသာ ကပနးနမနာ ေကာကယမႈဆငရာ နမနာပစငယ နညးလမးတစရပအေနျဖင အမေထာငစ၊ လပဂၢလ (သ႔) ကေလးငယတစဥးစ၏ အမညမားက စာရြကငယမားတြင ခေရးၿပး ထစာရြကငယအားလးက ပနးကနလးတစခတြငထည၍ စစတမးအတြကလအပသည အမေထာငစမား၊ လပဂၢလမား၊ ကေလးငယမား အေရအတြကက ကပနးေရြးခယယျခငးျဖင ျပလပ ႏငသည။ သ႔ေသာ အကယ၍ လဥးေရအပစႀကးတစခလးအေနျဖင အမေထာငစေပါငး ၁၀,၀၀၀ ရပါက ထ တစေသာငးလး၏ အမညမားအား စာရြကငယမားတြင ခေရးရျခငးသည အခနမားစြာ ယေပလမမည။ (ခ) အျခားနညးတစခမာ အမေထာငစမားအား အမတစဥသတမတေပးျခငး ျဖစသည။ ထ႔ေနာက တစႏင အေျခခ နမနာ ေကာကယမႈယနစ စစေပါငး အေရအတြကၾကား ကပနးအမတစဥမားက ကပနးအမတစဥ ဇယားတစခ (ေအာကတြင ေဖာျပပါ အတငး) သ႔မဟတ ဂဏနးေပါငးစက သ႔မဟတ ကြနပတာျဖင ေရြးထတယႏငသည။ ကပနးအမတစဥႏင တေသာ အမေထာငစနပါတက နမနာအစတြင ထညသြငးပါ။ ေရြးခယလကေသာ ကပနးအမတစဥမား၏ အေရအတြက သည နမနာအပစ အရြယအစား တြကခကမႈမရရေသာ လအပေသာနမနာ ေကာကယမႈဆငရာ ယနစအေရအတြကႏင တညသညအထ ေကာကယရမည။

ရး႐ငးေသာကပနးနမနာေကာကယျခငး

လဥးေရအပစအေရအတြကစစေပါငး နမနာေကာကယမႈနညးလမး နမနာရလဒ

သးသန႔အမတစဥမားသတမတေပးထားေသာ

လဥးေရစစေပါငး

ကပနးနပါတေရြးခယျခငး

လဥးေရအပစစစေပါငးတြငပါ၀ငသ

တစဥးခငးစတငးသညနမနာအပစ

တြငပါ၀ငႏငရနတညေသာ

အခြငအေရးရၾကသည။

ဤဥပမာတြင လ ၂၅ ဥး (ေပာရႊငသ (၁၇) ဥး၊ ေပာသညလညးမဟတ မေပာသညလညးမဟတသ (၄) ဥးႏင မေပာရႊငသ (၄) ဥး ရပါသည။ ထလဥးေရ စစေပါငးမ ႐းရငးေသာ ကပနးနမနာ ေ႐ြးခယမႈျဖင နမနာအပစငယငါးဥး ေရြးခယရရပါသည။ လအပစစစေပါငးတြင ပါ၀ငေသာ အေယာကစတငးသည နမနာအပစတြင ပါ၀ငႏငရန တညေသာ အခြငအေရး ရၾကပါသည။ နမနာေကာကယမႈ ရလဒအေနျဖင ေပာရႊငသ (၃) ဥး၊ ေပာသညလညးမဟတ မေပာသည လညး မဟတသ (၁)ဥး၊ မေပာရႊငသ (၁) ဥး ဟ၍ ရရပါသည။ ႐းရငးေသာ ကပနးနမနာေကာကယမႈနညးျဖင ရရ လာေသာ နမနာအပစငယသည လဥးေရ စစေပါငးအပစႀကးႏင အလားတ အခးက ရလဒ ေပၚထြကလာပါသည။

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The advantages of Simple Random Sampling are: (1) all elements in the population

have an equal and independent chance of being included; (2) it reflects all important

segments of the population; (3) it serves as a foundation upon which all types of

random samples are based.

The disadvantages of Simple Random Sampling are: (1) it does not fully exploit the

knowledge of the researcher concerning the population; and (2) it does not guarantee

that certain elements existing in small numbers will be included in any given sample.

Systematic random sampling

Systematic Random Sampling is an alternate method to random sampling. It may be

much easier to use when the population is large. Systematic random sampling selects

one household at random, then selects every nth

household thereafter, where “n” equals

the sampling interval. The sampling interval is derived from the calculation of total

number of sampling units in the population divided by the desired sample size. The

first household is selected by choosing a random number between 1 and the sampling

interval. Then the sampling interval is added to that number to select the next sampling

unit. For all subsequent selections, the sampling interval is added until the end of the

list of sampling units is reached. In systematic random sampling, every member of the

sample frame has an equal chance of being selected into the sample.

For example, if there are 10,000 households in the population and a sample of 1,000

households is needed, the sampling interval is 10 (10,000 divided by 1,000). A random

number between 1 and 10, the sampling interval in this example, is chosen to select the

first household. Let us say that 3 was the random number. The second household is

selected by adding the sampling interval of 10 to the random start of 3 to choose

household number 13. Then 10 is added to this number to select household number 23,

and so on.

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႐းရငးေသာ ကပနးနမနာေကာကယျခငး၏ အားသာခကမားမာ - (၁) လဥးေရစစေပါငးတြင ပါ၀ငသ အေယာကစတငး သည ေရြးခယခရမႈအတြက သးျခားလြတလပ၍ တညေသာ အခြငအေရး ရၾကသည။ (၂) လဥးေရစစေပါငး၏ အေရးပါေသာ အစတအပငးမား အားလးက ထငဟပကယစားျပသည။ (၃) ကပနးနမနာအားလး အေျချပႏငသည အတျမစလညး ျဖစသည။ အားနညးခကမား အေနႏငမ (၁) လဥးေရအပစႀကးႏင ပတသကေသာ သေတသ၏ အသပညာက အကနထတ၍ အသးျပႏငျခငး မရေျခ။ (၂) ေကာကယမညနမနာအပစတြင လဥးေရ အပစႀကးရ အေရအတြကနညးေသာ အခ႕ အပစခြငယမားမ အဖြ႕၀ငမား ပါ၀ငမညဟ အာမခခက မေပးႏငေခ။

စနစတက ကပနးနမနာ ေကာကယနညး (Systematic Random Sampling) စနစတက ကပနးနမနာေကာကယနညးသည ကပနးနမနာေကာကယျခငး အျခားနညးတစခပင ျဖစသည။ စစေပါငး လဥးေရ အပစသည ႀကးမားလငလညး အလြယတက အသးျပႏငသည။ စနစတက ကပနးနမနာ ေကာကယနညး အေနျဖင ဥးစြာအမေထာငစတစခက ကပနးေရြးခယလကသည။ ထ႕ေနာက 'n' အၾကမေျမာက အမေထာငစတငးအား ဆကလက ေရြးခယသည။ ဤေနရာတြင ‘n’ ဆသညမာ နမနာေကာကယျခငး ၾကားခ အကြာအေ၀းျဖစသည။ ဤနမနာေကာကယျခငး ၾကားခ အကြာအေ၀းက လဥးေရစစေပါငးတြင ပါ၀ငသည နမနာေကာကယျခငး ယနစအေရ အတြက စစေပါငးအား လအပသည နမနာအပစငယ အရြယအစား ပမာဏျဖင စားျခငးျဖင တြကခကယႏငသည။ ပထမဆး ေသာ အမေထာငစက အမတစဥတစႏင နမနာေကာကယျခငး ၾကားခ အကြာအေ၀း 'n' ၾကားရ ကပနး အမတစဥတစခ ေရြးခယျခငးျဖင ရရႏငသည။ ထ႔ေနာက နမနာေကာကယျခငး ၾကားခအကြာအေ၀း 'n' က ထပေပါငးထညသြားျခငးျဖင ေနာကထပ နမနာေကာကယမႈ ယနစတစခ ထပမ ရရပါသည။ ေနာကထပ ေရြးခယေကာကယမႈ အားလးအတြက နမနာ ေကာကယျခငး ၾကားခအကြာအေ၀းက နမနာေကာကယမႈ ယနစစာရငးကနသညအထ ထပေပါငးထညသြားျခငးျဖင ျပလပႏငပါသည။ စနစတက ကပနးနမနာေကာကယျခငးတြင နမနာေကာကယျခငးဆငရာ အေျခခစာရငး (Sample Frame) မ အဖြ႕၀ငအားလးအေနျဖင နမနာေရြးခယခရမႈအတြက တညေသာ အခြငအေရးရၾကသည။

ဥပမာ - စစေပါငး အမေထာငစ ၁၀,၀၀၀ အတြက နမနာ အေရအတြက ၁၀၀၀ ေကာကယမညဆပါက နမနာ ေကာကယျခငး ၾကားခ အကြာအေ၀းသည (၁၀) (၁၀,၀၀၀ အား ၁,၀၀၀ ျဖင စားျခငး) ျဖစသည။ အမတစဥ ၁ ႏင ဤ ဥပမာ၏ နမနာ ေကာကယျခငး ၾကားခ အကြာအေ၀း (၁၀) ၾကားရ ကပနးနပါတတစခက ေရြးခယျခငးအားျဖင ပထမ ဥးဆးေသာ အမေထာငစက ေရြးခယရရသည။ ဤေနရာတြင ကပနးနပါတသည (၃) ဟ ဆၾကပါစ႔။ ဒတယ အမေထာငစသည အဆပါနပါတ (၃) အား နမနာၾကားခအကြာအေ၀း (၁၀) ထပေပါငးထညျခငးျဖင ရရလာေသာ အမေထာငစ အမတစဥ (၁၃) ျဖစသည။ ထ႕ေနာက ထပမ၍ (၁၀) ေပါငးထညျခငးျဖင (၂၃၊ ၃၃) စသညျဖင အမေထာငစ အမတစဥမား ဆကလက ရရမည ျဖစသည။

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In this example, we have 25 people and the desired sample size is 5. Sampling interval

is therefore 25/5 = 5. A random starting point is chosen as 3. Therefore, the sampling

interval of 5 is added to the random starting point and the selection is done via

skipping sampling interval: 3, 8, 13, 18, and 23.

However, in many cases, like most areas in Myanmar, no list of all children,

individuals, or households exists, and the dwellings are not arranged in neat rows. In

such populations, survey workers may need to use cluster sampling. Many

organizations, especially those working in emergency situations, are very familiar with

cluster sampling.

CLUSTER SAMPLING AND MULTI-STAGE SAMPLING

Cluster sampling is a sampling method in which the first sampling step involves

selecting groups of persons or households instead of sampling persons or households

directly. If there is no list of all the sampling units in the population and the houses are

not placed in a regular order, the researcher may have to do a cluster sampling.

Cluster sampling is done very frequently because it allows random sampling in

situations where simple or systematic random sampling of households is either not

possible or inefficient.

For example, the researcher may choose a sample of villages in a state as the first

stage of sampling because there is no list of households for the entire State. Once the

researcher arrives at each selected village, he/she then selects a sample of households

within that village. The only long-distance travel of the survey teams is between

clusters. If simple or systematic random sampling had been used, each basic sampling

unit might be quite far apart, resulting in substantial travel to visit each one.

Cluster sampling

Cluster sampling is used in large geographically disperse populations, where no

accurate list of households is available for the entire population and households cannot

be visited systematically.

This is the most common situation in most populations. Cluster sampling is often more

convenient and uses fewer resources for transport than simple random sampling

because a cluster design reduces the distance the survey team has to travel between

households. However, cluster surveys often need larger sample sizes because they are

by nature less precise than surveys of the same sample size done with simple or

systematic random sampling.

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ဤဥပမာတြင လဥးေရစစေပါငး ၂၅ဥး ရၿပး လအပေသာ နမနာအပစအရြယအစားမာ ၅ ျဖစသည။ ထ႕ေၾကာင နမနာ ၾကားခ အကြာအေ၀းမာ၂၅/၅ = ၅ ျဖစသည။ ကပနး စမတတစခ ေရြးခယလကေသာ အခါ (၃) ရသည ဆပါစ႕။ ထ႕ အတြကေၾကာင နမနာၾကားခ အကြာအေ၀း (၅) က ကပနးစမတတြင ထပထညေပါငးျခငး စသညျဖင နမနာၾကားခ အကြာအေ၀းမားျခား၍ ၃၊ ၈၊ ၁၃၊ ၁၈ ႏင ၂၃ ဟ၍ နမနာအပစ ရရသည။

သ႕ေသာ ျမနမာျပညနယပယေတာေတာမားမား၌ ကေလးမား၊ လပဂၢလမားႏင အမေထာငစမားအားလး၏ စာရငး မရေပ။ အမေျခမားသညလညး ညညာတနးစ၍ ရမေနၾကေခ။ ထကသ႕ေသာ အေျခအေနမး၌ စစတမး ေကာကယသ ၀နထမးမား အေနျဖင မးတအပစနမနာ ေကာကယျခငး (Cluster Sampling) ကအသးျပရန လေပမည။ အဖြ႕အစညး အေတာမားမား အထးသျဖင အေရးေပၚ အေျခအေနမားတြင လပကငရေသာ အဖြ႕အစညးမားအေနျဖင ဤမးတအပစနမနာေကာကယျခငးႏင ရငးႏးၿပး ျဖစေပလမမည။ မးတအပစ နမနာေကာကယျခငး (Cluster Sampling) ႏင အလႊာစ၊ အဆငတနးစမ နမနာေကာကယျခငး (Multi-stage Sampling)

မးတအပစ နမနာေကာကယနညးတြင ပထမအဆင နမနာေကာကယရာ၌ လပဂၢလမား၊ အမေထာငစမားက တက႐က နမနာေကာကယျခငး မဟတဘ လအပစမား၊ အမေထာငစအပစမားက ေရြးခယေကာကယရသည နညးတစခ ျဖစသည။ စစေပါငး လဥးေရအပစႀကးတြင နမနာေကာကယျခငးဆငရာ ယနစအားလး၏ စာရငးမရသည အခါ၌ လညးေကာငး၊ အမေျခမားသည ပမနအစအစဥတကမရသည အခါ၌လညးေကာငး သေတသအေနျဖင မးတအပစ နမနာ ေကာကယျခငးက ျပလပရေပလမမည။႐းရငးေသာနမနာေကာကယနညး (သ႕) စနစတက နမနာေကာကယ နညးမားသးရန အေျခအေနမေပးျခငး၊ မလေလာကျခငးတ႕ ျဖစသညအခါ၌ ကပနးေရြးခယ နမနာ ေကာကယႏငရန အတြက အမးတအပစ နမနာေကာကယျခငးက မၾကာခဏဆသလသးရေလရသည။ ဥပမာ - သေတသအေနျဖင ျပညနယတစခလး၏ အမေထာငစစာရငး မရႏငသညအခါ နမနာေကာကယရန ပထမ အဆင အေနျဖင ထျပညနယရ ေကးရြာအခ႕က နမနာအပစအျဖစ ေရြးခယရေပမည။ ထ႕ေနာကေရြးခယထားသည ေကးရြာ တစရြာသ႕ ေရာကသညအခါ ထရြာမ အမေထာငစမားက နမနာအပစအျဖစ ထပမေရြးခယရသည။ ဤကစၥတြင စစတမး ေကာကယသည အဖြ႕အေနျဖင အမားဆးသြားရသည ခရးအကြာအေ၀းမာ မးတအပစ Cluster မားျဖစသည ေကးရြာ မားၾကားအကြာအေ၀းျဖစသည။ အကယ၍မား ႐းရငးေသာ ကပနးနမနာေကာကယနညး (သ႕) စနစတက ကပနးနမနာ ေကာကယနညးက အသးျပခပါက အေျခခနမနာ ေကာကယမႈယနစ တစခခငးစသည အလြနကြာေ၀းႏငၿပး တစေနရာ စသ႕ ေရာကရရန ခရးသြားခန အေတာေပးရလမမည။

မးတအပစနမနာေကာကယနညး (Cluster Sampling) မးတအပစ နမနာေကာကယနညးက လဥးေရစစေပါငး၏ တကေသာ အမေထာငစစာရငး မရႏငေသာ ေရေျမအေန အထားအရ အလမးကြာ ကျပန႔လကရေသာ လဥးေရ အပစမားတြငလညးေကာငး၊ အမေထာငစမားအား စနစတက သြားေရာကႏငျခငးမရသည အေျခအေနတြငလညးေကာငး အသးျပသည။ ဤအေျခအေနမးသည လဥးေရအပစေတာေတာမားမားတြင ေတြ႕ရတတသည အေျခအေနမးျဖစသည။ မးတအပစ နမနာေကာကယနညးသည ပ၍အဆငေျပလြယကၿပး ႐းရငးေသာ ကပနးနမနာေကာကယျခငးထက ခရးသြားလာေရးတြင ပ၍ စရတသကသာသည။ အဘယေၾကာငဆေသာ မးတအပစ ေရြးခယမႈပစေၾကာင စစတမးေကာကယသည အဖြ႕ အေနျဖင အမေထာငစမားအၾကား ခရးျပရသည အကြာအေ၀းမားစြာ ေလာနညးသြားသည။ သ႕ေသာမးတအပစ စစတမး ေကာကယရာတြင ႐းရငးေသာ ကပနးနမနာေကာကယနညး (သ႕) စနစတက ကပနးနမနာ ေကာကယနညးတ႕ ထက သဘာ၀အားျဖင တကမႈ ပနညးပါးေသာေၾကာင ပ၍ႀကးမားေသာ နမနာအစပမာဏက အသးျပရန လအပေလ ရသည။

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In this example, we have 5 clusters (populations in groups) and we need 5 samples from which to choose. First, we randomly select two clusters and then 5 samples from the selected clusters that were randomly chosen. In cluster sampling, every cluster in the population has an equal chance of being selected in the sample and every cluster member has an equal chance of being selected from that cluster.

The advantages of cluster sampling are: (1) it is much easier to apply in large population; (2) it reduces the travel time and cost; and (3) it is flexible.

The disadvantages of cluster sampling are: (1) there is no way to ensure that each sampling unit included in an area sample will be of equal size; and (2) it is difficult to ensure that individuals included in one cluster are independent of other randomly drawn clusters.

Multi-stage sampling

When using cluster sampling, the sampling is split into multiple stages. In most cluster surveys, there are two stages of sampling:

1) The first stage of sampling is about selections of geographic areas within the population to be surveyed. These geographic areas may consist of political subdivisions, such as districts, townships, villages/wards or other defined areas.

2) The second stage of sampling chooses, within each selected area, the households to be included in the survey.

Stratified Random sampling

Stratified sampling allows the researcher to allocate samples from different stratums. Every member of each stratum in the population has an equal chance of being selected into the sample.

For example, let's say a researcher surveys youth violence and wants to study views about this problem from youth, parents, and educators; this means that the researcher needs to come up with separate population from each of these groups, therefore the researcher chooses a stratified sampling.

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မးတအပစနမနာေကာကယျခငး လဥးေရစစေပါငး နမနာေကာကယနညး ရရလာေသာနမနာအပစ

အပစမားအလကရေသာ လဥးေရစစေပါငး (မးတအပစမား)

မးတအပစ(၂)စအား ကပနးေရြးခယၿပး ထအပစမားရ အဖြ႕၀ငမားအား ထပမ၍ ကပနး

ေရြးျခငး (အဆင(၂)ဆင)

စစေပါငးဥးေရ၏ မးတအပစတငး (က၊ ခ၊ ဂ၊ ဃ၊ င)

နမနာအျဖစ ေရြးခယခရရန တညေသာ အခြငအေရးရၾကၿပး ထအပစမားရ

အဖြ႕၀ငမားသညလညး ေရြးခယခရရန အခြငအေရးတ ရၾကသည။

ဤဥပမာတြင (အပစအလကရေသာ လဥးေရစစေပါငးျဖစသည) မးတအပစ ၅ ခ ရၿပး ထအပစမားမ နမနာပမာဏ (၅) ခ ေရြးခယရန ရသည။ ပထမအေနျဖင မးတအပစ (၂) စ က ကပနးေရြးခယၿပး ထေရြးခယခရေသာ အပစမားမ နမနာ (၅) ခက ထပမ၍ ကပနးေရြးခယပါသည။ မးတအပစ နမနာေရြးခယနညးတြင စစေပါငး ဥးေရ၏ မးတအပစတငးသည နမနာအျဖစ ေရြးခယခရရန တညေသာ အခြငအေရးရၾကၿပး ထေရြးခယခရေသာ အပစမားမ အဖြ႕၀ငတငးသညလညး ေရြးခယခရရန အခြငေရးတရၾကသည။ မးတအပစ နမနာေကာကယနညး၏ အားသာခကမားမာ- (၁) အရြယအစား ႀကးမားေသာ လဥးေရအပစႀကးမားတြင အသးျပရ ပမလြယကသည။ (၂) ခရးသြားလာေရးအခနႏင ကနကစရတ ေလာနညးေစသည။ (၃) နမနာ ေကာကယရာ၌ ျပလြယေျပာငးလြယရသည။ မးအပစ နမနာေကာကယနညး၏ အားနညးခကမားမာ - (၁) ဧရယာနမနာတစရပတြင ပါ၀ငသည နမနာ ေကာကယ ျခငးဆငရာ ယနစတစခစသည အရြယအစား တညရန မေသခာေခ။ (၂) မးတအပစတစခတြင ပါ၀ငသည တစဥးခငးစ သည ကပနး ေရြးခယလကေသာ အျခားေသာ မးတအပစမားမ အမအခ ကငးလြတလပမႈရရန ခယဥးၿပး မေသခာေခ။

အဆငဆငနမနာေကာကယျခငး (Multi-Stage Sampling) မးတအပစ နမနာေကာကယသညအခါ နမနာေကာကယျခငးက အဆငမား အဆငဆင ခြျခားထားသည။ မးတအပစ နမနာ စစတမးအမားစ၌ နမနာေကာကယျခငး အဆငႏစဆင ရၾကသည။ (၁) နမနာေကာကယျခငး ပထမအဆငသည စစတမးေကာကယမည လဥးေရစစေပါငး၏ ပထ၀၀ငေနရာေဒသမား ေရြးခယသတမတရျခငး ျဖစသည။ ဤေရေျမေဒသ ဧရယာမားအေနျဖင ခ႐ငမား၊ ၿမ႕နယမား၊ ရပကြကႏင ေကးရြာမား (သ႕) အျခား သတမတဧရယာမားဟ၍ ႏငငေရး ေဒသခြမား ပါ၀ငႏငသည။ (၂) နမနာေကာကယျခငး ဒတယအဆငတြင ေရြးခယလကေသာ ဧရယာအသးသး၌ စစတမးတြင ပါ၀ငမည အမေထာငစမား က ေရြးခယရသည။

အပစတစစက ဥးတညသတမတ၍ (အလႊာခြ၍) ကပနး နမနာေကာကယျခငး (Stratified Random Sampling) အလႊာခြ၍ နမနာေကာကယျခငးတြင သေတသသည နမနာမားက မတညေသာ အလႊာအသးသးမ ရရသည။ စစေပါငး ဥးေရႀကး၏ အလႊာတစခစတြင ပါ၀ငေသာ အဖြ႕၀ငတငးသည နမနာအျဖစ ေရြးခယခရရန တညေသာ အခြငအလမး ရၾကသည။ ဥပမာအားျဖင သေတသတစဥးအေနျဖင လငယမား ပဋပကၡျဖစမႈႏင ပတသက၍ ေလလာသညအခါ ထျပနာရပ အား လငယမား၊ မဘမားႏင ပညာေပးသမား၏ အျမငမားက ေလလာလသည။ ဆလသညမာ သေတသအေနျဖင႔ လဥးေရ စစေပါငးတြင ပါ၀ငသည႔ ဤအပစအလႊာ တစခခငးစႏင႔ ပတသတ၍ ေလ႔လာလျခငး ျဖစသည။ ထ႕အတြက သေတသသည အလႊာခြ၍ နမနာေကာကယနညးက အသးျပသည။

က

က

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In this example, we have 2 strata (subgroups) and we need 5 samples from which to

choose. We randomly select a proportional number of stratum members from each

stratum (proportional sampling).

The advantages of stratified random sampling are: (1) it enhances the

representativeness of the sample in relation to the population; and (2) it is a better

estimate of the characteristics of the true population.

The disadvantages of stratified random sampling are: (1) sample is somewhat more

difficult to obtain; (2) it takes more time to obtain elements from each strata; and (3)

categorizing elements in the population into the wrong strata can cause classification

errors.

TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THIS CHAPTER ARE:

Sampling is about the proper way to select a few people for study and discover

things that apply to a large population which cannot be studied as a whole;

One of the two main types of probability sampling is Simple or Systematic

Random Sampling: useful when a complete list of sampling units is available

for the entire population;

The other types are Cluster and Multistage Sampling: useful when there is no

complete list of sample units. In this case, sampling has to be done at the level

of groups of individuals or households and not at the level of individuals or

households.

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အလႊာခြ၍ ကပနးနမနာ ေကာကယနညး လဥးေရစစေပါငး နမနာေကာကယနညး ရရလာေသာနမနာအပစ

လဥးေရစစေပါငးက အပစခြ (အလႊာ)

ႏစခအျဖစ ခြျခားထားသည။

အလႊာတစခစမ အဖြ႕၀င

အခးကအေရအတြကက ကပနးေရြးခယျခငး

စစေပါငး လဥးေရ၏ အလႊာတစခခငးစ ( I ႏင႔ II ) တြင ပါ၀ငေသာ ဖြ႕၀ငတငးသည နမနာ

(အခးကနမနာ) အျဖစ ေရြးခယျခငးခရရန တညေသာ အခြင႔အေရး တစရပစ ရၾကသည။

ဤဥပမာတြင (အပစခြ) အလႊာ (၂) ခ ရၿပး ထအအလႊာႏစခထမ နမနာအေရအတြက (၅)ဥး ေရြးခယရန ရသည။ (အခးကနမနာ ေကာကယနညး အရ) အလႊာတစခစမ အဖြ႕၀ငမားက အခးက အေရအတြကအတငး ကပနး ေရြးခယ လကျခငး ျဖစသည။ အလႊာခြ၍ ကပနးနမနာေကာကယနညး၏ အားသားခကမားမာ - (၁) စစေပါငး လဥးေရ အပစႀကးႏင ပတသက၍ ေရြးခယလကေသာ နမနာအစ၏ ကယစားျပႏငမႈမာ ျမငမားသည။ (၂) စစေပါငးဥးေရ အပစ၏ စစမနေသာ ၀ေသသ လကၡဏာက ပမခန႔မနးႏငသည။ အလႊာခြ၍ ကပနးနမနာ ေကာကယနညး၏ အားနညးခကမားမာ - (၁) နမနာရရႏငရန အေတာအသင႔ ခကခမႈရသည။ (၂) အလႊာအသးသးမ အဖြ႕၀ငမား ရရႏငရန အခနပေပးရသည။ (၃) စစေပါငးဥးေရ အပစႀကးတြင ပါ၀ငေသာ အဖြ႕၀ငမားအား အလႊာခြရာတြင မားယြငး၍ အပစခြမပါက အမးအစား မားယြငးျခငး အမားမး ျဖစႏငသည။ အႏစခပရလင ဤအခနးတြင ပါ၀ငေသာ အဓကမတသားရနအခကမားမာ

နမနာေကာကယျခငး ဆသညမာ ေလလာရနအလ႕ငာ လနညးစတစရပအား သငေလာေသာ နညးလမး တစချဖင ေရြးခယျခငးျဖစၿပး ၎မတဆင အားလးက ေလလာမႈျပလပရန မလြယကေသာ လအမားစႀကးႏင ပတသကေသာ အေၾကာငးအရာမားအား ေလလာေဖာထတရျခငး ျဖစသည။

ျဖစတနစြမး နမနာေကာကယနညး အဓကႏစနညးအနက တစနညးမာ ႐းရငးေသာ (သ႕) စနစတကရေသာ

ကပနးနမနာေကာကယျခငးျဖစၿပး စစေပါငး လဥးေရအားလးႏင ပတသက၍ ျပညစေသာ နမနာေကာကယမႈ ယနစစာရငး တစရပရသညအခါ အသး၀ငသည။

အျခားေသာ နညးတစခမာ မးတအပစႏင အဆငဆင နမနာေကာကယျခငး ျဖစသည။ နမနာေကာကယမႈ

ယနစစာရငး မျပညစသညအခါ အသး၀ငသည။ ဤနညးတြင နမနာေကာကယမႈသည လပဂၢလအပစမား၊ အမေထာငစ အပစမား စသညျဖင အပစအဆင၌ ျပလပျခငးျဖစၿပး လပဂၢလတစဥးခငး၊ အမေထာငစ တစခခငး အဆင၌ ျပလပျခငး မဟတေခ။

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BASIC 8. FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION (FGD)

THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT:

Learning the principles of FGDs;

Using FGDs appropriately;

Preparing for and conducting FGDs.

______________________________________________________________________

WHAT IS A FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION?

Focus Group Discussion (FGD) is a qualitative research method. FGD is a way of

collecting data through a structured discussion involving a group of about 10

respondents. FGDs are used to obtain diverse ideas, opinions and perceptions on a

topic of concern. For this reason, FGDs are conducted by a facilitator who will ensure

the discussion promotes diverse points of views rather than a consensus among the

participants. FGDs prove particularly useful when (1) additional information from

stakeholders and (2) feedback from project beneficiaries are needed.

The Focus Group (FG) consists of respondents who have been carefully selected

through pre-defined criteria. By selecting the respondents, the research team expects to

produce answers focused on a particular issue. Each group is conducted with 6 to 10

persons. A group that is too small does not produce adequate opinions and points of

views on the issue. By contrast, a group that is too large is more difficult to guide and

record and is not suitable for ensuring each respondent’s participation.

There is in fact no ideal size for a focus group so the number of respondents to involve

in the discussion should take into consideration the previous points: (1) the group

should fairly represent the population that is studied; (2) it should not be too difficult

for the facilitator to manage the group.

The discussion is led by a facilitator who uses a discussion guide composed of open-

ended questions. The data produced during the FGD is always recorded with

handwritten notes and can also be tape-recorded or, in some circumstances, filmed.

Advantages of Focus Groups:

- FG seeks to capture a wider range of responses rather than individual

interviews.

- FGs (if large enough) can balance extreme or unrepresentative points of views.

- FGs help capture behaviour around a specific issue as well as the language

respondents use when discussing a particular topic.

Limitations of Focus Groups:

- Discussions can be easily dominated by a few individuals and diverted from the

main issue.

- Selection of respondents which is not appropriately done can produce one-sided

information.

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အေျခခအဆင ၈. ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြ

ဤအခနးတြင

ဥးတညအပစ စညးမဥးမားက ေလလာျခငး ဥးတညအပစအား သငေတာသလ အသးျပျခငး ဥးတညအပစ ျပလပရန ျပငဆငျခငးႏင ထနးေၾကာငးျခငးတ႔ ပါဝငပါသည။

___________________________________________________________________________________________

ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြ ဆသညမာ အဘယနညး။

ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြ ဟသည အရညအခငး သေတသနဆငရာ နညးနတစချဖစသည။ လ (၁၀) ေယာကခန႔ ပါဝငေသာ စနစတက ေဆြးေႏြးသညနညးျဖင အခကအလကမား ေကာကခစေဆာငးသည နညးလမးတစရပ ျဖစသည။ သကဆငရာ အေၾကာငးအရာေပၚ မတကြျပားေသာ အျမငမား၊ အေတြးအေခၚမားႏင သေဘာေပါကနားလညပမား ရ႐ေစရန ဥးတညအပစမားအား အသးျပသည။ သ႔ျဖစပါ၍ ပါဝငေဆြးေႏြးသမားအၾကား အကန႔အကြကမ႐ သေဘာ

တညမႈထက မတကြျပားေသာ ႐ေထာငေပါငးစ ထြကေပၚလာေစေရးအတြက သးသန႔စကားဝငးအား ပြထနး တစေယာက

ထား႐ျပး ထနးကြပေပးရမည။ သးသန႔စကားဝငးမားသည (၁) အကးစးပြားႏးႏႊယသမားထမ ေနာကတး သတငးအခက အလကမားႏင (၂) စမကနး အကးခစားရသမားထမ မတခကမား လအပေသာ အခါမးတြင အသးတညေၾကာငး သသာလသည။

ဥးတညအပစ (Focus Group - FG) တြင သတမတထားသည ႏနးစမားႏငအည ဂ႐တစက ေ႐ြးခယထားသည ေမးခြနး ေျဖၾကားေပးသည သမားပါဝငသည။ ဤသ႔ ေ႐ြးခယျခငးျဖငသေတသနအဖြ႕သညသကဆငရာကစၥရပက ဥးတညေသာ အေျဖမား ထြကေပၚလာလမမညဟ ေမာလငထားသည။ အပစတစစခငးစတြငလ (၆) ေယာကမ (၁၀) ေယာကအထ ပါဝငေလ႐သည။ ပါဝငသဥးေရ နညးပါးလြနးပါက အပစဖြ႕ေဆြးေႏြးသည အေၾကာငးအရာအတြက လေလာကေသာ အၾကဉာဏႏင အျမင႐ေထာငက ရ႐ႏငလမမညမဟတေပ။ အျခားတဖကတြငလညး ပါဝငသဥးေရ မားျပားလြနးပါက မတတမးျပရနႏင ထနးကြပရနခကချပး လတစဥးခငးစ ပါဝငေဆြးေႏြးခြငရႏငေစရန မေသခာေပ။

သးသန႔အပစအတြက စအ႐ြယအစား သတမတခကဟ၍ မ႐ေပ။ သ႔ျဖစပါ၍ ေဆြးေႏြးပြတြင လအေရအတြက မည၍ မညမ ပါဝငမညဆေသာ ကစၥႏငပတသကျပး ယခငအခကမားအား ထညသြငးစဥးစားသငသည။ (၁) အပစသည ေလလာခသညလဥးေရက ေကာငးစြာကယစားျပႏငရမည။ (၂) အပစသည ပြထနးမညသအတြက မထနးသမးႏင ေလာကေအာင မျဖစေစသငေပ။

ေဆြးေႏြးပြကပြထနးမ ေခါငးေဆာငရမညျဖစျပး ၄ငးပဂၢလသည အဖြငေမးခြနးမား ပါဝငေသာ ေဆြးေႏြးပြ လမးညႊန တစခအား အသးျပေလ႐သည။ ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြမ ထြကေပၚလာေသာ အခကအလကမားအား လကေရးျဖင လညးေကာငး၊ တပရေကာဒါျဖငလညးေကာငး၊ ဗဒယျဖငလညးေကာငး မတတမးတငေလ႐သည။

သးသန႔အပစမားမ အကးရလဒမား - သးသန႔အပစမားသည လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးျခငးထက ပမကယျပန႔ေသာ ေျဖၾကားခကမားက ရ႐ေစသည။ - (အကယ၍ အ႐ြယအစား လလေလာကလာက ၾကးမားပါက) သးသန႔အပစသည တဖကေစာငးနငး ျဖစလြနး

ေသာ အျမင (သ႔) ကယစားျပမႈမ႐ေသာ အျမငမားအား ထနးကြပႏငသည။ - အေၾကာငးအရာ တစခခက ေဆြးေႏြးစဥအတြငး ေမးခြနးေျဖဆသမား တ႔ျပနလကေသာ အျပအမ၊ သးႏနး

လကေသာ စကားလးတ႔က သးသန႔အပစမား ျပလပျခငးျဖင ဖမးယျမငေတြ႕ႏငသည။

သးသန႔အပစအတြက အခကအခမား - ေဆြးေႏြးပြက လအနညးစက လႊမးမးခပကငသြားႏငျပး အဓက ေဆြးေႏြးမညအေၾကာငးအရာမ ေသြဖသြားႏင

သည။ - ေျဖဆမညသမား ေ႐ြးခယရာတြင ကနေသခာစြာ ေ႐ြးခယမႈ မျပလပပါက တဖကေစာငးနငး သတငးအခက

အလကမား ထြကေပၚလာႏငသည။

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WHEN TO USE FGDS?

FGD can be used for different purposes:

- FGD is an efficient method if the researcher has a time limit: it provides a quick

and important amount of qualitative information.

- FGD can be used when exploring different facets of a particular issue,

especially if this issue is under-documented. It can help refining the subject of

the research:

o FGDs are particularly useful (especially in countries such as Myanmar)

when it comes to producing data that reflect social and cultural norms

among a selected group.

o FGDs are also a good tool for exploring a range of views and opinions

among “homogenous” groups about a particular topic.

o FGDs can be used to further complement surveys.

- FGDs can prove useful to verify the researcher’s understanding of a particular

issue among a small group of specialists (especially for applied research).

- Lastly, FGDs are particularly relevant in monitoring projects and receiving

feedbacks from the community on a specific issue.

FGDs are often the quickest and most effective tool for acquiring a good overview of a

particular issue. The selection of respondents will notably depend on how the

researcher wants to use the FGD. The composition of the FGD, that is the selection of

the respondents, is crucial in interpreting the answers of a particular FGD. The

researcher must bear in mind that the less focused the group composition, the more

dominant voices and cultural norms influence the answers.

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ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြအား အသးျပရမညအခန

ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြမားအား ရည႐ြယခကေပါငးစျဖင အသးျပႏငသည။

- အခနကန႔သတမႈ႐ပါက ဥးတညအပစေဆြးေႏြးပြသည လငျမနထေရာကေသာ နညးလမးတစရပျဖစသည။ ၄ငးက အသးျပျခငးျဖင အေရးတၾကး လအပေသာ အရညအေသြးဆငရာ သတငးအခကအလက ပမာဏက လငလငျမနျမနျဖင ရ႐ေစသည။

- ကစၥရပတစခ၏ မကႏာစာအမးမးက စးစမးေလလာရာတြင ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြက အသးျပႏငသည။ အထးသျဖင လေလာကစြာ မတတမးတငထားျခငး မ႐ေသးေသာ ကစၥရပမးအတြက အသးဝငသည။ သေတသန၏ အဓက အေၾကာငးအရာပငးကလညး ၄ငးနညးျဖင ျပနလညမြမးမႏငသည။

o ဥတညေဆြးေႏြးပြမားသည ေ႐ြးခယထားသည အပစတစစ၏ လမႈေရးႏင ယဥေကးမႈႏနးစမားက ထငဟပသည အခကအလကမား ေပးစြမးႏငေစေရးအတြက (အထးသျဖင ျမနမာႏငငကသ႔ ေသာႏငငမားတြင) လြနစြာ အသးဝငသည။

o “အဆငတအေသြးတ” အပစမားအၾကား အေၾကာငးကစၥရပတစခႏင ပတသကျပး ထြကေပၚလာ ေသာ ထငျမငယဆခကမားက ေဖာထတရာတြင ဥးတညအပစေဆြးေႏြးပြမားသည လြနစြာ အသး တညေသာ ကရယာတစချဖစသည။

o ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြမားအား ေနာကတြငထပမျပလပသည ျဖညစြကခက စစတမးမားတြင လညး အသးျပႏငသည။

- (အထးသျဖင အသးခသေတသနအတြက) ကၽြမးကငသမား ပါဝငေသာ အပစငယအတြငး တစတရာေသာ ကစၥရပႏင စပလဥးေသာ သေတသ၏ သေဘာေပါကနားလညမႈက ျပနလညစစေဆးရာတြငလညး ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြမားသည အလြနအသးတညသည။

- ေနာကဆးအခကအေနျဖင ဆရေသာ စမကနးမားက ေစာငၾကညေလလာရာျခငးႏင ကစၥရပတစခအေပၚ အစအဖြ႕တစခ၏ ထငျမငယဆခကက ေတာငးချခငးတ႔သည ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြမားႏင အကးဝင သကဆငမႈ႐သည။

မားေသာအားျဖင ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြမားသည ကစၥရပတစခ၏ ေယဘယအျမငတစခက ရ႐ေစရနအတြက အလငျမနဆးႏင အထေရာကဆးေသာ ကရယာျဖစသည။ ေျဖဆမညသမား ေ႐ြးခယေရးကစၥသည ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြမားက မညသ႔ အသးျပလသနညးဆသည အခကေပၚတြင မားစြာမတညသည။ ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြတစခ ဖြ႕စညးျခငး (တစနညးအဆ) ေျဖဆမညသမား ေ႐ြးခယေရးကစၥသည ၄ငးစကားဝငး၏ အေျဖမားက အဓပၸါယ ေကာကယ ဖြငဆရာတြင အလြနတရာ အေရးပါသည။ သေတသ၏ စတထတြင စြမတထားရနမာ ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြတစရပ ဖြ႕စညးရာတြင ဂ႐ျပမႈနညးေလေလ ရ႐လာေသာ အေျဖမားက ယဥေကးမႈႏနးစႏင အပစတစစ၏ အသက ခပကငသြား ေလေလ ျဖစသည။

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Example: In one particular village, the researcher wants to know the conditions and constraints of fishermen’s access to surrounding fishing grounds… As the researcher is probably unaware of these conditions and the variation of socio-economic status among fishermen, he/she may compose a focus group with a number of fishermen whom he/she thinks are a “representative” sample. The group may include fishermen practicing different scales of activities (i.e. big, middle and small scale businesses) or of different wealth ranks (rich, middle, poor fishermen). The focus of the group is thus on the fishing occupation.

It is likely that the group will explain the most frequent arrangements of accessing open fishing grounds and fishing grounds

under tender (the yearly price of accessing fishing grounds for each type of fishing net, the official authorities who issue the fishing licence, etc.). This is the “norm”, that is what is most commonly accepted.

Now, if the researcher wants to assess the difficulties that fishermen face in accessing fishing grounds under tender, the amount of money they pay to have the right to fish, the existence of informal“deals”, he/she may have to change the structure of the focus group. In the first group that the researcher thinks is representative fishermen running big and middle-scale businessesmost likely will be the only ones to answer questions. Fishermen running small businesses probably won’t dare to express their views (especially if they contradict those of richer people to whom they may be accountable).

When preparing a second set of research questions, two different focus groups can then be composed: one with subsistence fishermen and another with fishermen running middle- and large-scale businesses. Here the two groups are focused on the fishing activity and created based on the scale of activities and/or wealth. Note that the focus group composition could be based on fishing techniques (tiger net fishers, ngathalauk net fishers, hook line fishers, etc.), types of fishing grounds (open, regulated, small creeks, main rivers, coastline) or any criteria relevant to the issue. The focus group of fishermen running small businesses will probably produce more sensitive information, such as additional payments to be made to the tender holder (whether in cash or in fish) or conflicts among fishermen to access the same fishing

ground. The researcher now has a more precise picture of the different arrangements for each fishermen group. He/she may be able to draft a set of precise questions based on the findings of the FGDs. This set of new questions could help survey the percentage of fishermen in each group (small, middle, large businesses) having direct, differed, or no access to the various fishing grounds.

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ဥပမာ - သေတသသည ႐ြာတစ႐ြာတြင တငါသညမား ပတဝနးကင႐ ငါးဖမးရနအကြကမားက အသးျပႏငေရးအတြက လပကင ေဆာင႐ြကရပမားႏင အခကအခမားက သ႐လသညဆပါစ႔ . . . သေတသသည အဆပါလပကငေဆာင႐ြကပႏင တငါသညမား၏ လမႈစးပြားေရးအဆငအတနးက နားမလညသည အတြက သးသန႔အပစဖြ႕စညးရာတြင “ကယစားျပ” ဟ၍ ၄ငးဘာသာယဆလကေသာ တငါသညအခ႕က ထညသြငးလကေပမည။ အပစတြင ပါဝငေသာ တငါသညမားသည ငါးဖမးသည ပမာဏမတညႏငသလ (အၾကး၊ အလတ၊ အေသး) ဓနဥစၥာ အဆငအတနး (လခမးသာ၊ လလတတနးစား၊ ဆငးရသားတငါဟ၍) လညး ကြျပားႏငသည။ အပစအဓကထား ေဆြးေႏြးမည အေၾကာငးအရာသည တငါအသကေမြးဝမးေကာငး အလပကစၥ ျဖစသည။

လစလပေနသည ငါးဖမးကြကမားႏင တငဒါေခၚယထားေသာ ငါးဖမးကြကမား (အကြကမားတြင ငါးဖမးရနအတြက ငါးဖမးပကတစမးစ အလကႏစစဥေပးေဆာငရမည စရတ၊ ငါးဖမးလငစငခေပးသည အာဏာပငမားအား ေပးေဆာငရ မည စရတစသညျဖင) အသးျပခြငရရန အမားဆး ျပလပေလ႐သည အစအစဥမားအေၾကာငးကသာ အပစအေနႏင ႐ငးျပေပလမမည။ ဤသညမာ အမားစအေျခခအားျဖင လကခထားသည “စ” ျဖစသည။

အကယ၍သာ သေတသသည တငါသညမား တငဒါေခၚယထားသည ငါးဖမးကြကမားက အသးျပခြငရေရးအတြက ရငဆင ၾကေတြ႕ေနရသည အခကအခမား၊ ငါးဖမးခြငရေရးအတြက ေပးေဆာငရမည ေငြပမာဏ၊ တရားဝင မဟတ ေသာလညး လကေတြ႕တြင နားလညမႈအရ ကငသးေနၾကသည “အေပးအယမား” စသညတ႔က ေလလာ လပါလင သးသန႔အပစဖြ႕စညးပက ေျပာငးလရန လအပေပလမမည။ ကယစားျပသညဟ သေတသယဆထားေသာ ပထမ အပစတြင အၾကးစားႏင အလတစား တငါလပငနး လပကငသမားသည ေမးခြနးက ေျဖႏငေပလမမည။ အေသးစား ငါးဖမးလပငနးသာ လပကငေသာ တငါသညမား အေနျဖင (အထးသျဖင ၄ငးတ႔အေျဖသည ၄ငးတ႔ ယၾကညကးစားေသာ၊ ၄ငးတ႔ထကလညး ပမခမးသာၾကြယဝေသာသမားႏင ဆန႔ကငကြလြေနပါက) ၄ငးတ႔၏ အျမငကထတေဖာ ေျပာဆရလမမည မဟတေပ။ သေတသန ေမးခြနးဒတယအစက ျပစရာတြင တႏငတပင ဖမးယေသာ တငါသညမား ပါဝငသည အပစတစစႏင အလယအလတ ပမာဏမ ဖမးယေသာ တငါသညမားပါဝငသည တစအပစတ႔ျဖင သးသန႔အပစႏစစခြႏငသည။ ဤတြငအပစႏစစက ငါးဖမးသည ပစအလကႏင ငါးဖမးသညပမာဏ/ဥစၥာဓနအလက ခြျခားလကသည။ သးသန႔အပစ ဖြ႕စညးရာတြင ငါးဖမးနညး (ကားပကသးတငါ၊ ငါးသေလာကပကတငါ၊ ငါးမားခတသးတငါ စသညတ႔) အေပၚတြငလညး အေျချပႏငသည။ ငါးဖမးကြက အမးအစား (လစလပ၊ ကန႔သတ၊ ေခာငးစြယ၊ ျမစ၊ ကမး႐းတနး) ေပၚတြင (သ႔) ကစၥရပႏင စပဆငအကးဝငသည မညသညစႏနးကမဆ အေျချပျပးဖြ႕စညးႏငသည။

ငါးဖမးလပငနး အေသးစားမသာ လပကငေသာ တငါသညမားပါဝငသည သးသန႔အပစထမ ပမအကဆတေသာ သတငးအခကအလကမား ထြကလာႏငသည။ ဥပမာ တငဒါကငသအား (ေငြသ႔မဟတငါး) အပေဆာငး ေပးရျခငး၊ ငါးဖမးကြကတစခတညးက အျပငလေနၾကသည တငါသညမားအၾကား ပဋပကၡ။ ယခမ သေတသသည တငါသညအပစတစစခငးစ ျပလပေလ႐ေသာ အစအစဥမားအား နဂထကပ၍ ႐ငးလငးတကစြာ သ႐ထားျပးျဖစသည။ ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြမ ထြကေပၚလာေသာ ေတြ႕႐ခကမားက အေျချပ၍ တကေသခာေသာ ေမးခြနးလႊာတစခကလညး ၄ငးအေနႏင ျပစႏငေပလမမည။ အဆပါ ေမးခြနးအသစမားျဖင (အေသး၊ အလတ၊ အၾကးစား) အပစတစစခငးစမ တငါသညမားသည မညသက မညသညငါးဖမးကြကက တက႐ကအသးျပႏငသည (သ႔) တနညးတဖအားျဖင အသးျပနငသည (သ႔) လးဝ အသးမျပႏင စသညရာခငႏနးက စစတမးေကာကယ လာႏငမည။

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FGDs are also a good opportunity to do observatory research. Observing who actively

participates in the FGD, who sits in the front and in the back, who answers questions or

who remains silent, generally provides insights on the community’s structure and

behaviour regarding the topic of interest. Researchers can notice that most of the time

poor and socially marginalized persons may not raise their voices during a FGD in

which “higher status” persons are also present. One way to overcome this constraint is

to make a FGD only with poor and socially marginalized individuals.

Also, in Myanmar (as in many other countries), many topics are gender sensitive.

Women’s groups and men’s groups discussing the same issue often produce different

information.

WHEN NOT TO USE FGDS?

- FGDs cannot be used to get statistical information for a given population. Any

information that is supposed to be representative of a given population should

be acquired through a quantitative approach. For the same reason, FGDs cannot

be used to measure facts (e.g. what percentage of an entire population is poor).

- FGDs are generally not suitable for addressing sensitive issues, especially if the

issue puts individuals under the threat of their own community.

-

Example: A research team wants to know the prevalence of drug use among children and teen-agers under 18 in a poor urban community… The team could select a group of children and teenagers under 18 among the community of drug users. However, the children and teenagers contacted by the team may not identify themselves as drug users because they fear this could result in problems for these individuals. Moreover, the answers obtained will most probably be irrelevant and/or evasive: “there are no drug users in the community”; “we heard of some children using drugs…”; “children in the neighbouring community use drugs, not us”. These answers, at best, will provide only very general views on issues like drug usage, alcohol consumption, etc. In contrast, a focus group organized with mothers of these children and teenagers is likely to produce more interesting information about social and health issues that this community of children faces. Also, in-depth interviews with key informants (for instance the police, social workers, drug users) will provide more information on the prevalence of drug use. An anonymous, quantitative survey could be conducted as well, but the respondents are unlikely to provide reliable answers to such a sensitive issue.

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ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြမားသည စးစမးေလလာမႈဆငရာ သေတသန ျပလပေရးအတြက အခြငအလမးေကာငးမား ျဖစၾကသည။ သးသန႔စကားဝငးတြင မညသပါဝငသည၊ မညသေ႐႕တြငထငျပး မညသေနာကတြငထငသည၊ မညသက ေမးခြနးေျဖျပး မညသက ဆတဆတေနသည စသညတ႔က ေလလာျခငးျဖင အဆပါအစအဖြ႕ လတနးစားဖြ႕စညးပ၊ ေလလာသည အေၾကာငးအရာႏင ပတသကသည အျပအမကပါ သေဘာေပါက နားလညႏငသည။ “အထကတနးလႊာ” မား ပါဝငေသာ ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြတြင ဆငးရသားမားႏင အႏမခမား အမားအားျဖင အသကယကယ မထြကရသညက သေတသမား သတျပမၾကေပမည။ အဆပါအခကအခအား ေကာလႊားသညနညးမာ ဆငးရသားမားႏင အႏမခမားသာ ပါဝငေသာ ဥးတညအပစေဆြးေႏြးပြတစခ ဖြ႕စညးေပးျခငးျဖစသည။ သညအျပင ျမနမာႏငငတြင (အျခားေသာ ႏငငေတာေတာမားမားတြငကသ႔) အေၾကာငးကစၥ ေတာေတာမားမားမာ ကား၊ မ ေရးရာ အကဆတမႈ ႐ေနႏငသည။ ေယာကားအပစႏင မနးမအပစ သပသပစ ကစၥရပတစခတညးအား ေဆြးေႏြးျခငးျဖင မတကြျပားသည သတငးအခကအလကမား ထြကေပၚလာေလ႐သည။

ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြအား မသးရမညအခန - လဥးေရမ စာရငးအငး အခကအလကမား ရ႐လာရနအတြကမ ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြအား အသးမျပသငေပ။

လဥးေရက ကယစားျပေစမည သတငးအခကအလကမားအား အေရအတြကနညးက အသးျပ၍ရယသငသည။ ထအေၾကာငးျပခကေၾကာင အေၾကာငးရာ အခကအလကမားအား တငးတာရနအတြကမ ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြမားအား အသးမျပႏငေခ။ (ဥပမာ - လဥးေရတစရပလးတြင ဆငးရႏြမးပါးသ ရာခငႏနးမညမ ႐သနညး။)

- အကဆတေသာ ကစၥရပမား၊ အထးသျဖင အဆပါကစၥရပေၾကာင ပါဝငေဆြးေႏြးသည လမားအား ၄ငးတ႔ ေနထငရာ အစအဖြ႕အတြငး အႏရာယကေရာကေစႏငပါက ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြမား ျပလပေဆြးေႏြးရန မသငေတာေခ။

ဥပမာ - သေတသနအဖြ႕တစဖြ႕သည ျမ႕ျပလဆငးရ အစအေဝး ကေလးသငယမားႏင အသက (၁၈) ႏစေအာက ဆယေကာ သကမားၾကား ျပန႔ႏ႔ေနသည မးယစေဆးဝါး သးစြမႈအေၾကာငးက သ႐ေလလာလသည ဆပါစ႔။ အဖြ႕သည မးယစေဆးသးစြသမားအၾကားမ ကေလးငယမားႏင အသက (၁၈) ႏစေအာက ဆယေကာသကမား ပါဝငေသာ အပစတစစက စေဆာငးရေပမည။ သ႔ေသာလညး အဖြ႕မ ဆကသြယလကေသာ ကေလးသငယႏင ဆယေကာသကမားသည ျပနာ ျဖစပြားမည စးေသာေၾကာင ၄ငးတ႔ မးယစေဆးဝါး သးစြေၾကာငးက ဝနခၾက လမမည မဟတေပ။ သညအျပငလညး ရ႐လာေသာ အေျဖမားသည ေဘာငမဝငေသာ၊ ေဝဝါးေသာ အေျဖမားသာ ျဖစဖ႔မားသည။ “ကၽြနေတာတ႔ဆမာ ေဆးသမားမ႐ပါ”၊ “ကေလးတခ႕သးတယလ႔ေတာ ၾကားဖးပါတယ”၊ “ကၽြနေတာတ႔ န႔ နးတအပစက ကေလးေတြေတာ မးယစေဆးသးၾကပါတယ။ ကၽြနေတာတ႔ေတာမသးပါ”။ အဆပါ အေျဖမားမာ အမားဆးရႏငပါက မးယစေဆးဝါးသးစြမႈ၊ အရကေသစာ ေသာကစားမႈ စသည ေယဘယဆန လြနးသည ကစၥရပမးေလာကသာ ျဖစမည။) ဤကေလးငယမားႏင ဆယေကာသကမား၏ မခငမား ပါဝငေသာ သးသန႔အပစ ဖြ႕စညးလကလငပင အဆပါ အဖြ႕အစညးအတြငး ကေလးသငယမား ရငဆငၾကေတြ႕ေနရသည လမႈေရး၊ ကနးမာေရး ကစၥရပမားဆငရာ စတဝငစားဖြယ သတငးအခကအလကမား ရ႐လာႏငစရာ႐သည။

အဓက သတငးအခကအလက ေပးစြမးႏငသမား (ရဝနထမး၊ ပရဟတလပသားမား၊ ေဆးသမားမား) က အေသးစတ လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးျခငးျဖင မးယစေဆးဝါးသးစြမႈ ျပန႔ႏ႔ျဖစပြားေနျခငးအေၾကာငး သတငးအခကအလက ပမရ႐ႏင စရာ႐သည။ အမညနာမ ေဖာျပရနမလေသာ အေရအတြက စစတမးတစခ ေကာကယႏငေသာလညး ဤမေလာက အကဆတသည အေၾကာငးကစၥရပအတြကမ ေျဖၾကားသမားဘကမ ယၾကညကးစားႏငေလာကစရာ အေျဖမး ေပးလမမည မဟတေပ။

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FGD IN PRACTICE

The quality of the information produced during a FGD depends mainly on the

following points:

Having an appropriate discussion guide;

Defining relevant criteria and selecting appropriate respondents;

Creating a relaxed atmosphere for the group discussion;

Accurately reporting the information given by the FGD participants.

1. Discussion Guide

After having defined the subject and key objectives of the research and decided that

FGD was an appropriate method, the research team prepares the questions to be asked

during the discussion.

The objective of a FGD is to generate information. Therefore, close-ended questions

(i.e. to which the answer is either “yes” or “no”) are not suitable as they generate little

information and lead the discussion to an end.

A proper discussion guide for a FGD is composed of open-ended questions only.

The questions must be linked to the research’s objectives. In designing the discussion

guide and during the FGD, the research team should always have the research’s

objectives in mind in order to follow the thread of the discussion. Badly prepared

discussion guides generally lead to uninteresting or vague information.

The discussion guide should contain the following parts:

(a) Introduction: The facilitator introduces his/her team and himself/herself to

the group, explains the purpose of the FGD and how the data collected will be

used in the research. This is also the opportunity to give a sense of

responsibility to the respondents by emphasizing the importance of their

participation and answers in the research process.

The moderator must formally request the respondents’ consent to participate

in the study.

The introduction also serves to set the rules of the FGD that respondents should know

and observe. These rules should at least include the following points:

o Everybody has the right speak. There is no wrong answer.

o Everybody has the right not to answer.

o All opinions and points of views are welcomed.

o The research team is not interested in a consensus: “Don’t try to

persuade the respondents!”

o Participants have to speak one at a time so as to facilitate the recording

process.

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ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြ လကေတြ႕

ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြမ ရ႐လာသည သတငးအခကအလကမား၏ အရညအေသြးပငးသည ေအာကပါ အခက အလကမား ေပၚတြင အဓကမတညသည။

သငတငေကာငးမြနေသာ ေဆြးေႏြးပြ လမးညႊနခက႐ျခငး သကဆငရာ စႏနးမား သတမတျပ႒ာနးေပးျပး သငေတာေသာ ေျဖၾကားေပးသမား ေ႐ြးခယျခငး သကေတာငသကသာ ျဖစေစမည၊ အျမငကယကယႏင ေဆြးေႏြးႏငသည အေနအထားတစရပ ဖနတးေပး

ထားျခငး ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြတြင ပါဝငသမားထမ ရ႐ေသာသတငး အခကအလကမားအား ႐ငးလငးတကစြာ

အစရငချခငး

၁။ ေဆြးေႏြးပြလမးညႊန အေၾကာငးအရာႏင အဓကရညမနးခကမားက သတမတျပ႒ာနးျပးစး၍ ဥးတညအပစေဆြးေႏြးပြက သငေတာေသာ နညးလမးအျဖစ ဆးျဖတသတမတျပးပါက သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနႏင ေဆြးေႏြးပြအတြငး ေမးရနေမးခြနးမား ျပငဆငရ မည။ ဥးတညအပစေဆြးေႏြးပြ၏ ရည႐ြယခကမာ သတငးအခကအလကမား ထြကေပၚလာေရး ျဖစသည။ သ႔ျဖစပါ၍ သတငး အခကအလက အနညးငယသာ ရ႐ႏငျပး ေဆြးေႏြးပြအား ရပတန႔သြားေစမည အပတ ေမးခြနးမား (၄ငးအတြက အေျဖမာ “ဟတသည” ႏင “မဟတပါ” တစခခသာ ျဖစသည) ကအသးျပရနမသငေတာေပ။

သငတငေကာငးမြနေသာ ေဆြးေႏြးပြလမးညႊနတြင အဖြငေမးခြနးမားသာ ပါဝငေလ႐သည။ ေမးခြနးမားသည သေတသနရညမနးခကမားႏင ကကညရမည။ ေဆြးေႏြးပြလမးညႊန ပစခရာတြငႏင သးသန႔စကားဝငး ျပလပေနစဥအတြငး သေတသနအဖြ႕သည သေတသန၏ ရညမနးခကမားက အျမတေစ သတခပေနမသာ ေဆြးေႏြးပြ အမငမျပတ ျပလပႏငမညျဖစသည။ ေဆြးေႏြးပြလမးညႊနအား ေကာငးစြာ ျပငဆငထားျခငး မ႐ပါက ရ႐လာေသာ သတငး အခကအလကမားသည ေဝေဝဝါးဝါးႏင စတဝငစားစရာလညး ေကာငးႏငမညမဟတေပ။ ေဆြးေႏြးပြလမးညႊနတြင ေအာကပါအပငးမားပါဝငသငသည။

(က) မတဆက - ပြထနးမညသသည ၄ငးကယက မညသမညဝါျဖစေၾကာငး အဖြ႕အား မတဆကရမည။ ၄ငး ေနာက ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြမ ရ႐လာေသာ အခကအလကမားက မညသ႔မညပ အသးျပမညက ႐ငးျပေပး ရမည။ ဤတြင ေျဖၾကားမည သမား၏ ပးေပါငးပါဝငမႈႏင အေျဖမားသည သေတသန လပငနးစဥအတြက အလြနတရာ အေရးၾကးေၾကာငး အေလးအနက ေျပာၾကားျခငးျဖင ၄ငးတ႔အား တာဝနသစတ ထညသြငးေပးႏင သည။ ေလလာခကတြင ေျဖၾကားမညသမားသည မမဆႏၵအေလာက ပးေပါငးပါဝငျခငးျဖစေၾကာငး သေဘာတညခကက ပြထနးမညသမ တရားဝငေတာငးခရမည။

မတဆကတြင ပါဝငေဆြးေႏြးမညသမား သရမည၊ ေလလာရမည စညးမဥးစညးကမးမားက တပါတညး ေဖာျပရမည။ အဆပါ စညးကမးမား ျပလပရာတြင ေအာကပါ အခကအလကမား အနညးဆး ပါဝငေစရမည။

o လတငးစကားေျပာခြင႐သည။ မားယြငးသည အေျဖဟ၍ မ႐ပါ။ o မေျဖၾကားလေသာ ေမးခြနးက မေျဖၾကားပ ေနပငခြငလညး လတငးတြင႐သည။ o ထငျမငခကအားလး၊ အခကအလကအားလးက ၾကဆသည။ o သေတသနအဖြ႕သည အကန႔အကြကမ႐ သေဘာတညမႈမးက စတဝငစားျခငးမ႐ပါ။ သ႔ျဖစပါ၍

အျခားသမားက ကယဘကပါလာေအာင စညး႐းဆြေဆာငျခငး မျပလပရပါ။ o ပါဝငေဆြးေႏြးမညသမားသည တစေယာကျပးမ တေယာကေျပာျခငးျဖင မတတမးတငသည

ကစၥက ေခာေမြ႕ေစပါလမမည။

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(b) Introductory/contextual questions: Most of the FGD’s success depends on

the respondents’ participation. This part of the discussion serves to put the

respondents at ease by asking general questions that are easy to understand and

answer. These questions should be related to the research, but not yet focused

on the key objectives. The idea is to stimulate the respondents and share a

common understanding of the context between the FGD and the research team

before addressing the key issue. It also serves to ensure that important

information is not overlooked before asking specific questions.

Example:

If the research team investigates land transfers between paddy

farmers, the FGD should not start with key questions such as

“Under which conditions is mortgage practiced here?”. The FGD

should start with broader introductory questions such as: “Are

all villagers engaged in farming activities?”, “What are the

different categories of farmers?”, “Do all farmers own the land

they cultivate?”, etc.

(c) Key questions: The key questions are in-depth questions whose answers

produce the core information of the research. Questions should go from general

to specific issues. The main part of the discussion is to gather the greatest

diversity of opinions and points of views on the research topic.

(d) Conclusive questions: These are the last few questions that the facilitator asks

to check whether or not any important issue was left aside during the

discussion. The questions also provide an opportunity for the participants to

comment on the discussion and possibly specific statements made earlier.

Testing the discussion guide with the research team or some friends prior to conducting

the FGD for real is a good way to identify weaknesses and unclear or irrelevant

questions.

2. Criteria and selection of respondents

The second step is to select the respondents who will participate in the discussion. The

future participants should have good knowledge of the research topic. They are called

information-rich participants. For example, if the research is about exploring

agricultural practices in tea-plantations, limitations and opportunities for improvement,

the informants should be long practicing tea-cultivators, small scale and large scale tea-

cultivators as well as traders. Depending on the research topic and its focus, a greater

set of criteria needs to be defined for selecting the respondents.

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(ခ) ပဏာမ/အေၾကာငးအရာႏင စပဆငေသာေမးခြနးမား - သးသန႔စကားဝငး အမားစ၏ ေအာငျမငမႈမာ ပါဝင ေျဖၾကားသမား အေပၚတြင မတညသည။ ေဆြးေႏြးပြ၏ ဤအပငးတြင ေျဖၾကားသမားအား သကေတာငသကသာ ေျဖၾကားႏငသည နားလညေျဖဆရန လြယကသည ေယဘယဆနဆန ေမးခြနးမားသာ ပါဝငသည။ အဆပါ ေမးခြနးမားသည သေတသနႏင စပဆကရမည ျဖစေသာလညး အဓက ရညမနးခကမားေပၚတြင အာ႐စကရန မလေသးေခ။ လရငးမာအဓက ျပနာက ဥးတညေဆြးေႏြးျခငး မျပမ ေျဖၾကားေပးသမားအား အစပးေပးျခငး ျဖစျပး သးသန႔အပစႏင သေတသနအဖြ႕ၾကား အေၾကာငးအရာပငး ဘသေဘာေပါကနားလညမႈ တစရပမေဝျခငး ျဖစသည။ ဤနညးျဖင သကဆငရာ ေမးခြနးမား ေမးျမနးျခငး မျပရေသးမ အေရးၾကးေသာ သတငးအခက အလကမား မကနခေလေအာင ျပလပႏငသည။

ဥပမာ - အကယ၍ သေတသနအဖြ႕သည စပါးစကသည လယသမားမားၾကား လယယာေျမ လကေျပာငးသည ကစၥက စးစမး ေလလာလသညဆပါစ႔။ သးသန႔စကားဝငးတြင “မညသညအေျခအေနမးတြင ေခးငားေပါငႏ (လယျပနေငြျပန) သည အလပမးလပေလ႐ၾကသနညး”ဟသကသ႔ေသာအဓက ေမးခြနးမးျဖငမစသငေပ။ “႐ြာသားမားအားလး လယယာလပငနး လပကငၾကပါသလား”။ “လယသမား အမးအစား မညမ႐သနညး”။ “လယသမားအားလးသည ၄ငးတ႔ ထြနယကစကပးေနေသာ လယယာေျမက ပငဆငၾကပါသလား” စသည ေမးခြနးမားကသ႔ ေဘာငကယသည ပဏာမ ေမးခြနးမးျဖင အစျပသငသည။

(ဂ) အဓကေမးခြနးမား - အဓက ေမးခြနးမားသည အေသးစတဆနျပး ရ႐လာမည အေျဖမားသည သေတသန အတြက ပဓာနကေသာ သတငးအခကအလကမား ေပးစြမးႏငလမမည။ ေမးခြနးမားသည ေယဘယ ကစၥရပမားမ စတငျပး တကေသာ ကစၥရပမား ကငတြယသည ပစမးျဖင သြားသငသည။ ဤသညမာ ေဆြးေႏြးပြ၏ အဓကကေသာ အပငးျဖစျပး ၄ငး၏ ရည႐ြယခကမာ သေတသန အေၾကာငးအရာေပၚ ထား႐ၾကသည ထငျမငခက ႐ေထာငေပါငးစ အေျမာကအျမားက စေဆာငးရ႐ေရး ျဖစသည။ (ဃ) အခပေမးခြနးမား - အေရးၾကးသည ကစၥရပမား ေဆြးေႏြးပြတြင မကနရစခေစရန စစေဆးသည အေနျဖင ပြထနးသမ ပါဝငေဆြးေႏြးသမားအား ေမးသည ေနာကဆးပတေမးခြနးမား ျဖစၾကသည။ ထေမးခြနး ေမးခနတြင ပါဝငေဆြးေႏြးသည လမားမ ေဆြးေႏြးပြကေသာလညးေကာငး၊ ေ႐႕တြငျပလပခသည အဆျပခက အတအက တ႔က မတခကျပႏငသည။ ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြမျပလပမ ေဆြးေႏြးပြ လမးညႊနအား သေတသနအဖြ႕ျဖင ေသာလညးေကာငး၊ မတေဆြ သငယခငးမားျဖင ေသာလညးေကာငး စမးသပျခငးသည အားနညးခကမားႏင ႐ငးလငးသကဆငမႈ မ႐ေသာ ေမးခြနးမား ေဖာထတစစေဆးရန နညးလမးေကာငးတစရပ ျဖစသည။

၂။ ေျဖၾကားမားသညသမား ေ႐ြးခယျခငးႏငႏနးစမား ဒတယအဆငမာ ေဆြးေႏြးပြတြငပါဝငမည ေျဖၾကားသမားအား ေ႐ြးခယျခငးျဖစသည။ ေဆြးေႏြးမညသမားမာ အေၾကာငး အရာႏင ပတသကျပး အသပညာဗဟသတ ေကာငးစြာ႐ထားရမည။ အဆပါ ပဂၢလမားအား သတငးၾကြယဝေသာ ပါဝငေဆြးေႏြး သမားဟ ေခၚသည။ ဥပမာသေတသနသည လကဖကစကပးမႈ အေၾကာငးႏင ၄ငးႏင စပဆငသည အခကအခႏင အခြင အလမးမား အေၾကာငးက စးစမးေလလာသည ဆပါစ႔။ ေျဖၾကားေပးမည သမားသည အႏစႏစအလလ လကဖကစကပး လာသမား၊ လကလလကကား စကပးၾကသမားႏင ကနသညမား ျဖစသငသည။ သေတသန အေၾကာငးအရာႏင အာ႐စက သည အပငး ေပၚမတညျပး ေျဖၾကားမညသမားက ေ႐ြးခယမည ႏနးစမားက ပမျပး အေသးစတ သတမတ ျပ႒ာနးရမည။

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Example:

Investigating the link between migration and socio-economic

conditions in the village of origin will require identifying the

following information:

- Households in which one member has migrated and is sending

remittances.

- Households in which one member has migrated but is not sending

remittances.

- Migrating households who left their children behind (potential

social impact).

- Households with no members migrating (to provide counter examples).

- Village elders who could discuss the migration issue throughout

time.

There are different methods to recruit participants for a FGD. The two most widely

employed methods are:

(a) Direct field recruitment: The researchers go to the field with a set of questions

in order to identify the most suitable respondents. This recruitment method is

obviously best as it offers the researcher the possibility to directly select the

respondents who meet the research criteria. However, it requires good

knowledge of the stakeholders of the research topic. It also requires time.

(b) Indirect field recruitment: The recruitment is done by a knowledgeable

person on behalf of the research team. This is probably the most widely used

method in humanitarian and development work, because time restrictions often

make it impossible to gain a precise knowledge of the community under study.

Relying on village administrators and elders often helps to overcome this lack

of knowledge.

The research team, however, has to be aware that indirect recruitment may introduce

bias if the recruiters have any reason to select respondents whose opinions suit their

own interests.

Other recruitment methods include phone recruitment and online recruitment.

However, field recruitment is always preferred as it allows the recruiters to better

understand the respondents’ socio-economic condition.

3. Conducting a FGD

FGDs must be conducted by at least two researchers: one researcher acting as the

facilitator and the other recording the discussion. FGDs should not exceed 2 hours. One

hour is generally the best duration to maintain the participants’ attention.

Key points for facilitating a FGD:

(a) Rapport: Building a good rapport with the respondents is probably the most

important part of the FGD. The facilitator has to be open minded (remember

there is no wrong answer!), relaxed and show his/her sense of humour!

(b) Clarify the facilitator’s position: The facilitator is to guide the discussion but

does not take sides.

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ဥပမာ ေ႐ႊ႕ေျပာငးေနထငမႈႏင ဇာတရပ႐ြာ႐ လမႈစးပြားေရး အေနအထားၾကား စပဆကမႈက ႐ာေဖြရာတြင ေအာကပါ သတငးအခကအလကမား ရ႐ရနလအပသည။ - တနယတေကးတြင ေ႐ႊ႕ေျပာငးေနထငျပး ပကဆပ႔ေပးေနသည မသားစဝငတစေယာက႐သည အမေထာငစမား - တနယတေကးတြင ေ႐ႊ႕ေျပာငးေနထငေသာလညး ပကဆေပးပ႔ျခငး မ႐သည မသားစဝငတစေယာက ႐သည အမေထာငစမား - ကေလးသငယမားအား ထားရစချပး ေ႐ႊ႕ေျပာငးသြားၾကသည အမေထာငစမား (ျဖစလာႏငသည ေနာကဆကတြ လမႈေရး အကးဆကမား) - တနယတေကးတြင ေ႐ႊ႕ေျပာငးေနထငသ မသားစဝငလးဝမ႐သည အမေထာငစမား (တနျပနဥပမာေပးရန) - ေ႐ႊ႕ေျပာငးေနထငသညကစၥက ကာလႏငချပး ေဆြးေႏြးႏငစြမးသည ရပ႐ြာေန သကၾကး႐ြယအမား

ဥးတညအပစေဆြးေႏြးပြမားတြင ပါဝငေဆြးေႏြးရန လစေဆာငးေ႐ြးခယေရးအတြက နညးလမးေပါငးစ အသးျပႏင သည။ အသးအမားဆးေသာ နညးလမးႏစရပမာ -

(က) တက႐ကကြငးဆငး ေ႐ြးခယျခငး - သေတသမားသည ေမးခြနးတစစျဖင လကယတင ကြငးဆငးျပး အသငေတာ ဆးေသာ ေျဖၾကားေပးမည သမားက ေ႐ြးခယႏငသည။ သေတသန စႏနးမားႏင ကကညေသာ ေျဖၾကားသမားက တက႐က ေ႐ြးခယႏငသည ျဖစေသာေၾကာင အဆပါ ေ႐ြးခယနညးသည အေကာငးဆး နညးလမး ပငျဖစသည။ သ႔ေသာလညး ထသ႔ျပလပရန သေတသနအေၾကာငးအရာႏင စပဆငသည အကးစးပြားႏးႏႊယသမား အေၾကာငး ေကာငးစြာ သရနလအပျပး အခနေပးရနလညး လအပလသည။ (ခ) သြယဝကကြငးဆငးေ႐ြးခယျခငး - ကၽြမးကငသ တစဥးတစေယာကမ သေတသနအဖြ႕ကယစား လေ႐ြးခယ ေပးျခငး ျဖစသည။ ကန႔သတအခန ကာလအတြငး ေလလာဆ ရပ႐ြာလ႔အဖြ႕အစညးအေၾကာငး ခေရေစတြငးက သနားလညရန မျဖစႏငသညအတြက လသားခငး စာနာေထာကထားေရးႏင ဖြ႕ျဖးတးတကေရး လပငနးစဥမား တြင ဤနညးအား ကယကယျပန႔ျပန႔ အသးျပသည။ ရပ႐ြာအေၾကာငး ေကာငးစြာ သနားလညျခငးမ႐သညတင ရပ႐ြာအပခပေရးမးမားႏင သကၾကး႐ြယအမား အားကးျဖင ၄ငးျပနာအား ေကာလႊားႏငသည။

သ႔ေသာလညး သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနႏင သတခပရနမာ ကယစားျပ ကြငးဆငးေ႐ြးခယရာတြင ေ႐ြးခယသသည ၄ငးအကးစးပြားႏင အေထာကအပျပမည ထငျမငခကမး ေပးမညလမးကသာ ေ႐ြးခယလကပါက အဂတ ကငးႏငေတာမည မဟတေခ။

ဖနး၊ အငတာနက စေသာနညးမား အပါအဝင အျခားေသာ လစေဆာငး ေ႐ြးခယသည နညးမားလညး ႐ေသးသည။ သ႔ေသာ ကြငးဆငးလစေဆာငးသညနညးျဖင စေဆာငးသသည ေျဖဆမညသမား၏ လမႈစးပြားေရး အေျခအေနက ပမနားလည သေဘာေပါကႏငသညအတြက လၾကကမားသည နညးတစရပျဖစသည။

၃။ ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြအား ဥးေဆာငညႊနၾကားျခငး သးသန႔စကားဝငးမားအား အနညးဆး သေတသႏစေယာကျဖင ထနးသမးညႊနၾကားရမည။ တစဥးက ပြထနးအျဖစ တာဝနယရမညျဖစျပး ေနာကတစဥးက ေဆြးေႏြးပြအား မတတမးတငရမည ျဖစသည။ ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြသည (၂) နာရ ထကပျပးမၾကာသငေပ။ ပါဝငေဆြးေႏြးသမား၏ အာ႐စးစကမႈက ထနးသမးရန ပမနအားျဖင ၾကာခန တစနာရ ထား႐ျခငးက အေကာငးဆးျဖစသည။ သးသန႔စကားဝငးက ထနးရနအဓကအခကမား

(က) ရငးႏးမႈ- ရငးႏးမႈ တညေဆာကေရးသည ဥးတညအပစေဆြးေႏြးပြ၏ အေရးအၾကးဆး အစတအပငးဟပင ဆႏငစရာ႐သည။ ပြထနးသည စတသေဘာထား ပြငလငးရမညျဖစျပး (မားယြငးေသာ အေျဖဟ၍ မ႐ေၾကာငး သတျပပါ) ေပါေပါပါးပါးျဖင ဟာသဉာဏ႐သ ျဖစရမည။ (ခ) ပြထနး၏ ရပတညခကက ႐ငးလငးသသာေစျခငး - ပြထနးဟသည ေဆြးေႏြးပြက ဥးေဆာငရနသာျဖစျပး ဘကလကျခငး မ႐ေစရ။

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(c) No leading questions: The questions asked should not contain part of the answer. Example: “Do you think the dam construction will harm the environment?” is not a suitable question.

Change this question into “What do you think will be the impact of the dam construction?”

(d) Short and easily understandable questions: The questions will generate more discussion.

(e) No judgments: The facilitator is not here to judge what the respondents say and doesn’t look down on participants because of their status or statements.

(f) Not acting as the expert: The facilitator keeps in mind the research subject and the objectives of the FGD and forgets what he/she thinks he/she knows. He/she is not an expert on the question that is investigated. Only the respondents should answer the questions.

(g) Keeping the pace: The discussion guide is only a tool which helps the facilitator remember the discussion thread. The facilitator is encouraged to probe into interesting answers and to ask further questions that in turn will generate more in-depth information.

Key points for recording a FGD:

(a) The researcher recording the discussion acts as an observer and should interact to a

minimum with the participants during the discussion.

(b) The researcher is expected to record the answers given by the FGD and what

he/she observes during the discussion: individuals having great or little interest in

the discussion, facial expressions, side conversations, etc. and anything that may

inform the behaviour of respondents regarding the research topic.

(c) The researcher recording the discussion has to ensure that all the questions

included in the discussion guide have been asked by the facilitator. If he/she finds

that a question has been omitted, or thinks that probing into some answers may

provide additional information, he/she may communicate discreetly with the

facilitator. The researcher recording the discussion refrains from disrupting the

dynamic of the discussion between the facilitator and the participants.

(d) Note taking is by far the best way to record information. Tape-recording can

provide a safety net especially if the FG counts many respondents that may speak

at the same time.

(e) Flip charts are a good tool for keeping information visible to the group and for

stimulating further discussion. However, flip charts are not enough and must be

complemented by note taking.

Lastly, when FGDs are finished, the research team should convene and discuss the

information produced by the FGD. All the notes taken during the FGD should be

transcribed into a clear report.

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(ဂ) အရပျပေမးခြနး - ေမးျမနးလကေသာ ေမးခြနးမားသညအေျဖအတြက အရပအျမြကမပါေစရ။ ဥပမာ - “ဆညတညေဆာကမႈေၾကာင သဘာဝပတဝနးကငက ထခကေစသညဟ သငယဆပါသလား” ဟေသာ ေမးခြနးသည သငေလာေသာ ေမးခြနးမဟတေခ။ ေမးခြနးအား ဤသ႔ ေျပာငးလ၍ေမးပါ “ဆညတညေဆာကမႈေၾကာင ျဖစပြားလာႏငသညဟ သငထငျမငယဆေသာ အကးဆကမားက ေဖာျပပါ”

(ဃ) လတ႐ငးေမးခြနးမား - ထေမးခြနးမားေၾကာင ေဆြးေႏြးစရာမား တးပြားလာလမမည။ (င) ေဝဖနျခငးမျပရ - ပြထနးသည ေျဖၾကားသမား ေျပာဆခကႏင စပလဥးျပး ေဝဖနျခငးမျပရ။ (စ) သမားဂဏမျပရ - သေတသနအေၾကာငးအရာႏင ရညမနးခကမားကသာ ပြထနးသ စတထတြင ထညထား ရမညျဖစျပး ၄ငးသေၾကာငး တတေၾကာငးက ေမထားရမည။ ၄ငးသည စစမးေမးျမနးထားေသာ ေမးခြနးႏင ပတသက၍ တတသပညာ႐င မဟတေပ။ ေျဖၾကားသမားကသာ ေမးခြနးက ေျဖၾကားေပးရမည။ (ဆ) အ႐နထနးျခငး - ေဆြးေႏြးပြလမးညႊနခကဟသည ပြထနးအား ေဆြးေႏြးပြက အမငမျပတေအာင သတေပး သည ကရယာသကသကမသာ ျဖစသည။ ပြထနးအေနႏင စတဝငစားစရာ အေျဖမားရေအာင ေမးျမနးစးစမးရမည ျဖစျပး ပမအေသးစတသည သတငးအခကအလကမား ထြကေပၚလာေအာင ေနာကထပ ေမးခြနးထတရမည။

ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြ မတတမးတငရာတြင အဓကကေသာ အခကမား (က) ေဆြးေႏြးပြအား မတတမးတငေနသည သေတသသည ေလလာသတစဥးကသ႔ တေလာကလးတြင ေဆြေႏြးသမားႏင ဆကဆမႈနညးႏငသမ နညးေစရမည။ (ခ) သေတသသည ဥးတညအပစေဆြးေႏြးပြမ ရ႐လာေသာ အေျဖမား အျပင ေဆြးေႏြးပြ ျပလပစဥအတြငး ၄ငး ေလလာမတသားမသမကပါ မတတမးတငရမည။ လမား ေဆြးေႏြးပြက စတဝငစား၏ စတမဝငစား၏၊ မကႏာအမအရာ၊ ဝငးအတြငး ကတေဆြးေႏြးမႈ စသညတ႔ႏင သေတသန အေၾကာငးအရာႏင ပတသကျပး တ႔ျပနလကသည အျပအမမားကပါ မတသားရမည။ (ဂ) မတတမးတငေနသည သေတသသည ေဆြးေႏြးပြလမးညႊနတြင ပါဝငသမ ေမးခြနးမားအား ပြထနးသ အကနအစင ေမးေအာငဂ႐စကေပးရမည။ အကယ၍ ေမးခြနးကနခသည ေတြ႕႐ပါက၊ သ႔တညးမဟတ ေမးခြနးအခ႕က ထပမ ဆစပငး ေမးျမနးျခငးျဖင ေနာကတး သတငးအခကအလကမား ထြကေပၚလာႏငစရာ ႐ပါက ပြထနးအား မသမသာ အဆကအသြယျပရမည။ ေဆြးေႏြးပြအား မတတမးတငေနေသာ သေတသသည ပြထနးႏင ေဆြးေႏြးေနသမားအၾကား ေဆြးေႏြးပြ၏ အ႐န ဆန႔ဆငးျခငး မ႐ေစရေအာင ေ႐ာငၾကဥရမည။ (ဃ) မတစေရးသားနညးသည သတငးအခကအလကမားက မတတမးတငရန အေကာငးဆးေသာ နညးလမး တစရပျဖစသည။ အကယ၍ ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြတြင လအေျမာကျမား ပါဝငပါက အကနလး တျပငနက အဆကမျပတ စကားေျပာႏငေသာေၾကာင တပရေကာဒါျဖင အသဖမးယသည နညးလမးသညလညး စတခရ သည။ (င) ေ႐႕တြင သငပနးတစခထား႐ျခငးျဖင ေဆြးေႏြးသမားအတြက သတငးအခကအလကမားက ထငသာ ျမငသာ ႐ေစျပး စကားဝငး ဆကရန အေထာကအက ျဖစေစသည။ သ႔ေသာလညး ေ႐႕သငပနးတြင ေရးမတျခငးသည လေလာကမႈ မ႐ေသာေၾကာင မညသညနညးႏငမဆ မတစယသညနညးအား လကမလႊတသငေပ။

ေနာကဆး ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြ ျပလပျပးစးပါက သေတသနအဖြ႕သည အတတကြ စေဝးျပး ရ႐ေသာ သတငး အခကအလကမားက ေဆြးေႏြးရမည။ ေဆြးေႏြးစဥ မတစလက ေရးထားသမက ေသသပ႐ငးလငးသည အစရငခစာပစ အျဖစ ျပနလညစာစ ေရးသားရမည။

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Using FGDs to build a research project

As explained above, FGDs can be used in order to explore a research topic and

progressively refine the research objectives and key questions:

TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THIS CHAPTER ARE:

FGD is an efficient, time-saving method for qualitative research;

When properly conducted, FGDs help to obtain diverse ideas, opinions and

perceptions on a research topic;

The FGD method helps to probe into little known topics and build a research

project;

FGDs are made of respondents selected according to pre-defined criteria

relevant to the research objectives and key questions.

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ဥးတညအပစေဆြးေႏြးပြအား သေတသန စမကနးတစခ တညေဆာကရန အသးျပျခငး အထကတြင ႐ငးျပခသညအတငး ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြသည သေတသန အေၾကာငးအရာတစခက စးစမး ေလလာရန အသးျပႏငျပး သေတသန ရညမနးခကႏင အဓကေမးခြနးမားက တျဖညးျဖညး မြမးမေပးႏငသည။

အႏစခပေသာ ဤအခနးတြင အဓကမတသားရန လအပေသာ အခကမားမာ -

ဥးတညအပစေဆြးေႏြးပြသည လငျမနထေရာကျပး ေငြကနေၾကးက သကသာေသာ အရညအခငး သေတသန နညးန ျဖစသည။

ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြတစခ ေကာငးေကာငး ျပလပႏငပါက သေတသနတစခႏင စပလဥးသည ကြျပားေသာ အေတြးအေခၚမား၊ အျမငမားႏင သေဘာေပါကနားလညမႈမား ရ႐လာႏငသည။

သးသန႔အပစ လပထးလပနညးသည လသနညးသည အေၾကာငးအရာက စးစမးေထာကလမးႏငျပး သေတသန စမကနးတစခ တညေဆာကႏငသည။

ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြမားသည သေတသန ရညမနးခကမား၊ အဓကေမးခြနးမားႏင ကကညမည စႏနးႏငအည ေ႐ြးခယထားသည ေျဖၾကားသမားျဖင ဖြ႕စညးထားသည။

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Exercise 1. Is FGD relevant for the following research subjects?

i. Conducting an opinion poll of the 2015 presidential elections.

ii. Testing the acceptance of a new rice planting method.

iii. Investigating breast-feeding and nutrition practices among IDP

communities in Kachin State.

iv. Exploring human trafficking networks to Thailand.

Answers:

i. No. Need a proper quantitative survey.

ii. Yes. FGD with farmers.

iii. Yes. FGD with lactating women.

iv. No because of the sensitivity of the issue. However FGDs could be conducted in

a suitable environment with a group of (formerly) trafficked individuals.

Exercise 2.Imagine what kind and how many Focus Groups you would form for the

following research subjects? For each Focus Group, what would be the criteria to select

the respondents?

i. What is the impact of deforestation on farmers’ livelihoods in Shan State?”

ii. What are the various forms of discrimination faced by sexual minorities (for

example men having sex with men) in Myanmar?

iii. Assessing trainings on raising political awareness of the Karen civil society in

border areas.

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ေလကငခနး၁။ ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြသည ေအာကပါ အေၾကာငးကစၥရပမားႏင သကဆငမႈ႐ပါသလား။ (၁) ၂၀၁၅ ေ႐ြးေကာကပြအတြက လထထငျမငခက ေကာကယျခငး။ (၂) စပါးစကနညးအသစ အေပၚ လကခအသးျပမႈက စမးသပျခငး။ (၃) ကခငျပညနယ စစေဘးဒကၡသည စခနးမားမ မခငႏ႔တကေကၽြးျခငးႏင အာဟာရ ေကၽြးေမြးပက ေထာကလမးျခငး။ (၄) ထငးႏငင႐ လကနကးသည ဂဏးဂဏ ကြနယကမားက စးစမး႐ာေဖြျခငး။ အေျဖ။ (၁) မသကဆငပါ။ သငေတာေကာငးမြနသည အေရအတြက စစတမးတစခေကာကယရန လအပပါသည။ (၂) သကဆငပါသည။ လယသမားမားပါဝငသည သးသန႔စကားဝငးတစခ ျပလပပါ။ (၃) သကဆငပါသည။ ႏ႔တကမခငမားပါဝငသည ဥးတညအပစေဆြးေႏြးပြ ျပလပပါ။ (၄) မသကဆငပါ။ ကစၥရပ၏ အကဆတလြနးမႈေၾကာင ျဖစသည။ သ႔ေသာလညး သငေတာေသာ အေနအထား တစရပတြင (ယခင) လကနကးခခရသညသမား ပါဝငေသာ အပစတစစႏင ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြမား ျပလပ မညဆပါက ျဖစႏငသည။

ေလကငခနး၂။ ေအာကပါ သေတသန အေၾကာငးအရာမားအတြက မညသည အမးအစား သးသန႔အပစမးက အေရ အတြက မညမ ျပလပမညနညးက စတကးၾကညပါ။ သးသန႔အပစ တစခခငးစအတြက ေျဖၾကားသမားက ေ႐ြးခယရန မညသည ႏနးစမား သတမတမညနညး။

(၁) ႐မးျပညနယအတြငး သစေတာျပနးတးမႈေၾကာင လယသမားမား၏ အသကေမြးဝမးေကာငးမႈဆငရာ မညသ႔ ေသာ ထခကမႈမား ျဖစေပၚသနညး။ (၂) လနညးစ လငအပစမား (ဥပမာ ေယာကားခငး လငဆကဆသမား) ရငဆငရေလ႐သည လငပငးဆငရာ ခြျခား ဆကဆခရမႈ အမးအစားမားမာ အဘယနညး။ (၃) နယစပေဒသမား႐ ကခငလမႈအဖြ႕အစညး၏ ႏငငေရး အသျမငႏးၾကားေရး သငတနးမားအား ဆနးစစ ေလလာျခငး

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BASIC 9. IN-DEPTH INTERVIEWS

THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT:

Learning the principles of in-depth interviews;

The appropriate use of in-depth interviews;

Preparing for and conducting in-depth interviews.

______________________________________________________________________ WHAT IS AN IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW?

In-depth interviewing is part of the methods used for qualitative research. It is a one-to-

one discussion between the researcher and the respondent. The interview can be

conducted in a semi-structured or an unstructured way. But both ways include open-

ended questions.

The in-depth interview is a research method which has the objective of acquiring

detailed information about a topic from the point of view of individuals: their

perception, representation, experience, and priorities regarding this particular topic.

WHEN TO USE IN-DEPTH INTERVIEWS?

In-depth interviews are useful when the researcher wants detailed information about a

person’s thoughts and behaviors or wants to explore new issues in depth. In-depth

interviews are particularly useful for collecting information that cannot be obtained in

group discussions.

In-depth interviews replace focus groups if:

The potential participants cannot be included in a group: for example

parliament representatives may not be willing to participate in a group

discussion;

The respondent is not comfortable talking openly in front of a group; this is

especially the case for sensitive issues, like illegal trade, domestic violence,

etc.;

It is necessary to distinguish individual (as opposed to group) opinions about a

particular topic: this distinction is especially relevant if a major stakeholder

involved in a program holds a different vision from the majority.

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အေျခခအဆင ၉. အေသးစတေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမႈျပျခငး ဤအခနးတြင

အေသးစတ ေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမႈျပျခငးဆငရာ စညးမဥးမားအား ေလလာမျပျခငး အေသးစတ ေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမႈမားအား ဆေလာစြာ အသးျပပ အေသးစတ ေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမႈမားအား ျပငဆငလပေဆာငပတ႕ ပါဝငပါသည။

_____________________________________________________________________________________ အေသးစတ ေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမတစရပ ဆသညမာ အဘယနညး အေသးစတ ေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမျပျခငးသည အရညအေသြးစထား သေတသနတြင အသးျပေသာ နညးလမးမား၏ အစတအပငး တစရပ ျဖစသည။ ၎သည သေတသနင ေျဖဆသတ႔အၾကား တစဥးခငး ေတြ႕၍ ေဆြးေႏြးေမးျမနးမ တစရပ ျဖစသည။ ေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမက အလြတသေဘာ ေမးခြနးပစမားျဖင ေသာလညးေကာငး၊ တစစတတစပငး ျပငဆငထားေသာ ေမးခြနးမားျဖငေသာလညးေကာငး ျပလပနငသည။ သ႕ေသာ နညးလမးနစရပစလးတြင အဖြင သေဘာ ေမးခြနးမား(open-ended questions) မားသာ ျဖစရပါမည။

အေသးစတ ေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးျခငးသည သေတသန နညးလမးတစရပျဖစျပး ကစၥရပအေၾကာငးအရာတစခနင ပတသက ၍ လပဂၢလမား၏ အျမငမား (ေခါငးစဥရပနင ပတသကေသာ ထငျမငယဆခက၊ ကယစားျပထငဟပမ၊ အေတြ႕အၾက ဥးစားေပး အေၾကာငးအရာမား စသညတ႕) အား အေသးစတ သတငးအခကအလက ရယလျခငးျဖစသည။

အေသးစတေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမက မညသညအခနတြင သးမညနညး။ သေတသအေနျဖင လပဂၢလ တစဥးတစေယာက၏ အေတြးအျမငမား၊ အေလအထမားနင ပတသက၍ အေသးစတ အခကအလကမား ရရလလငေသာလညးေကာငး၊ အသစေသာ ကစၥရပမားနင ပတသက၍ အေသးစတရာေဖြ ေဖာထတ လလငေသာလညးေကာငး၊ အေသးစတေတြ႕ဆ ေမးျမနးမမားသည အသးဝငပါသည။ အပစဖြ႕ ေဆြးေႏြးျခငး ျဖင မရရနငေသာ သတငးအခကအလကမားက စေဆာငးရယရာ၌ ဤအေသးစတ ေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမသည အထး သျဖင အသးဝငပါသည။ ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးမ (Focus group discussion) အစား အေသးစတ ေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမက အစားထး အသးျပ ႏငသညမာ အကယ၍ -

ပါဝငေျဖဆမညသမားသည အပစတစခတြင ပါဝငနငျခငး မရသညအခါ - ဥပမာ - လႊတေတာကယစားလယ

မား အေနျဖင အပစဖြ႕ေဆြးေႏြးမတြင ပါဝငရန ဆႏၵမရသညအခါ

ေျဖဆသသည လအပစ ေရ၌ ပြငလငးစြာ ေျပာဆရန အဆငမေျပသညအခါ။ ဤကစၥမးသည အထးသျဖင

ထရလြယေသာ ကစၥမား (တရားမဝငကနသြယမ၊ အမတြငးအၾကမးဖကမ စသညျဖင) နင ပတသကေသာ

အခါ

ကစၥရပ အေၾကာငးအရာတစခနင ပတသက၍ ပဂၢလတစဥးတစေယာက (အဖြ႕လကမဟတဘ) ၏

ထငျမငယဆခကက ခြျခားသရန လအပသညအခါ။ အကယ၍ လပငနးအစအစဥတစခတြင ပါဝငေသာ

အဓကပတသက ဆကႏြယသတစဥးသည အမားနငမတေသာ အျမငမးရသညအခါ ဤသ႔ သးသန႕

ဆေတြ႕ရမႈမးသည အထးသျဖင ဆေလာပါသည။

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Interviews are often used to provide context to other data (such as statistical data), they

offer a more complete picture of what happened during the implementation of a

program and why it happened.

On the other hand, in−depth interviews, like focus group discussions, can be used to

obtain preliminary information before quantitative surveys are conducted. For example,

before a quantitative survey of livelihoods among Bamar migrants living in Mon State,

the researcher may conduct an in-depth interview with a staff from an organization

working with migrants. The interviews will help the researcher understand the diversity

of livelihoods and have a view on the difficulties encountered by the migrants there.

Tip: in order to explore a subject, the researcher has to find appropriate

respondents. The researcher can proceed by “snowballing” (see Chapter on

‘Non-probability Sampling’): the first in-depth interview is often a good

opportunity to enquire about additional respondents.

A development program seeks to improve fishing practices through the implementation of a new policy. The research shows that most fishermen would like to abolish the practice of paid access to a fishing ground. But from the point of view of the Department of Fisheries (DoF) officer, regulated access to fishing grounds is a way of preventing over-fishing. The views and opinions of the DoF officer obtained by an in-depth interview have to be included into the drafting of a new policy.

Researchers have measured a quantitative increase in the number of PLHIV’s (People Living with HIV-AIDS) seeking treatment at a local clinic. This quantitative increase may lead the researchers to think that PLHIV are more numerous than before in the clinic’s vicinity. Through in-depth interviews, however, they find out that PLHIV are not more numerous. They find out that PLHIV people living in neighboring towns and villages have simply shared the information that they could be treated for free at the clinic. This has resulted in an increased number of PLHIV knowing about the free treatment and seeking to benefit from it.

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ဖြ႕ျဖးေရး လပငနးပရဂရပတစခသည မဝါဒအသစတစရပ အေကာငအထညေဖာျခငးအားျဖင ငါးဖမးလပငနးဆငရာ အေလအထမားက တးတကရန လပေဆာငလသည။ ထလပငနးပရဂရမ၏ အစတအပငးတစရပျဖစေသာ သေတသန က ျပဆသညမာ တငါသညအမားစအေနျဖင ငါးဖမးလပကြက တစခအတြက ေငြေပးေခရသည ကငထးက မကငသး လၾကေပ။ သ႕ေသာ ငါးလပငနးဥးစးဌာန (DOF) မ အရာရ၏ အျမငအရ-ငါးဖမးလပကြကမားအား စညးကမး တက သတမတေပးျခငးသည အလြနအမငး ငါးဖမးမမးမ ကာကြယရန နညးလမးတစခအျဖစ ရျမငသည။ အေသးစတ ေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမ အေပၚ အေျချပ၍ ရရလာသည ငါးလပငနး ဥးစးအရာရ၏ အျမငနငအယ အဆမားအား မဝါဒ အသစတစရပ ျပစေရးဆြရာတြင ထညသြငးေဖာျပနငေပသည။ ေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမသည (စာရငးအငးဆငရာ အခကအလကတ႕ကသ႕ေသာ) အျခားေသာ ေဒသာမားအတြက ေနာကခ အခငးအကငးက ေဖာျပေပးနငသည။ လပငနးအစအစအစဥတစခ အေကာငအထညေဖာရာတြင အဘယအေၾကာငး အရာမား ျဖစေပၚသည၊ အဘယေၾကာင ျဖစရသညတ႕နင ပတသက၍ ပမျပညစေသာ သရပေဖာျပမမား ပပးေပးသည။ သေတသမားသည ေဒသခေဆးခနးတစခတြင ကသမခယရန တးပြားလာေသာ HIV ပးကးစကခထားရသမား (PLHIV) ၏ အေရအတြကဆငရာ ကနးဂဏနးက ေလလာေတြ႕ရၾကသည။ ဤအေရအတြကဆငရာ တးပြားလာမႈသည သေသတမားအား ထေဆးခနးဝနးကငတြင PLHIV ပး ကးစကခရသမား ယခငကထက ပမမားျပားလာသညဟ အထငေရာကေစသည။ သ႕ေသာ အေသးစတေလလာေမးျမနးမမား အရ PLHIV မား ပမတးပြားလာျခငး မဟတေၾကာငး ေတြ႕ရရသည။ အနးနားဝနးကငရ ျမ႕မားနင ေကးရြာမားတြင ေနထငေသာ PLHIV မားသည အဆပါ ေဆးခနး၌ အခမကသမခယနငေၾကာငး အခငးခငး သတငးေပး၍ တးလာျခငးျဖစေၾကာငး ေလလာေတြ႕ရၾကသည။ ဤသ႕ျဖင ေဆးခနး၏ အခမ ကသေပးေၾကာငးက သရျပး ထအကးေကးဇးက ခစားရနအတြက PLHIV အေရအတြက မားျပားလာရျခငး ျဖစသည။ အျခားတစဘကတြင ဥးတညအပစေဆြးေႏြးပြမားကသ႕ပင အေသးစတေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမႈမားအား အေရအတြကဆငရာ စစတမးမား ေကာကယမႈ မျပမ ေရေျပး သတငးအခကအလကမား ရရနငရန အသးျပနငသည။ ဥပမာ မြနျပညနယရ ျမနမာေ႐ႊ႕ေျပာငးေနထငသမားအၾကား အသကေမြးဝမးေၾကာငးဆငရာ အေရအတြကစထား စစတမးတစရပ ေကာကယျခငး မျပမ၌ သေတသအေနျဖင ထေ႐ႊ႕ေျပာငးေနထငသမားနင ပကသက၍ လပကငေနေသာ အဖြ႕အစညးတစရပမ ဝနထမးတစဥးအား အေသးစတေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမ ျပနငသည။ ထေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမသည သေတသအား အသကေမြးဝမးေၾကာငးမမား၏ ကြျပားစလငမက သေဘာေပါကေစျပး ထအရပရ ေရြ႕ေျပာငး ေနထငသမား ၾကေတြ႔ရတတသည အခကအခမားကလညး သျမငေစသည။

စကားျမြက။ ။ အေၾကာငးအရာတစရပနင ပကသက၍ ရာေဖြေဖာထတလသညအခါ သေတသအေနျဖင သငေတာမည ေျဖဆသမားအား ရာေဖြရေပမည။ သေတသအေနျဖင ”စနးေဘာနညး” ေခၚ ဆငကနမနာ ေကာကယနညး (အခနး၆ ရ ” ျဖစတနစြမးနညးေသာ နမနာေကာကယျခငး” က ၾကညပါ။) အားျဖင ေဆာငရြကနငသည။ ပထမဆး ျပလပေသာ အေသးစတ ေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမႈသည ေနာကထပ အျခား အျခားေသာ ေျဖဆမညသမားအား စစမးေဖာထတနငရန အခြငအလမးေကာငး တစရပပင ျဖစပါသည။

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Advantages of In-Depth Interviews

The primary advantage of in-depth interviews is that they provide much more

detailed information than what is available through other data collection methods,

such as surveys. They also can provide a more relaxed and safe atmosphere in

which to collect sensitive information or any information that the informant would

not share with a group.

Limitations of In-Depth Interviews

Collected information is prone to bias and cannot be generalized: The

information given by the respondent is not contradicted or supported by

other people like in a Focus Group Discussion. Therefore, the information

obtained will most likely represent the respondent’s own perspective and

opinion about a topic. As researchers are aware of this, they can make

proper use of the information. Worth noting here is the following rule on

interview sample size : when the same stories, themes, issues, and topics are

emerging from the interviewees, then a sufficient sample size has been

reached;

Time-intensive: In-depth interviews generally take time to conduct,

transcribe, and analyze. In planning data collection, transcription and

analysis of data have to be included in the research schedule;

Requires interviewing skills: The interviewer must be appropriately

trained in interviewing techniques. To obtain the most detailed and rich data

from an interviewee, the interviewer must make sure that the interviewee

feels comfortable. The interviewer also has to show interest in what the

interviewee is saying. Researchers must be sure to use appropriate interview

techniques (avoiding questions with yes/no answers and leading questions)

and appropriate body language. They refrain from expressing their personal

opinions. Such techniques are summarized below.

CONDUCTING IN-DEPTH INTERVIEWS

The quality of the information produced during an in-depth interview depends

mainly on the following points:

Selecting appropriate respondents;

Outlining an appropriate discussion guide;

Conducting the interview in a proper fashion;

Transcribing accurately the information given by the respondent;

Verifying.

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အေသးစတ ေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးမႈမား၏ အားသာခကမား

အေသးစတေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးမႈမား၏ အဓကအားသာခကမားမာ စစတမးေကာကယျခငးက႔သ႕ေသာ အျခားေသာ ေဒတာ ေကာကယမႈ နညးလမးမားထက မားစြာ ပ၍အေသးစတကေသာ သတငးအခကအလကမား ရရႏငျခငး ျဖစသည။ ဤနညးလမးသည အကဆတေသာ သတငးအခကအလကမား သ႔မဟတ သတငးေပးသအေနျဖင႔ လတစစ၏ ေရ႕ေမာကတြင မေျပာလသည႔ သတငးအခကအလကမားက စေဆာငးရရရန မားစြာသကေတာင႔သကသာရျပး လျခ စတခရေသာ ပတ၀နးကငက ဖနတးေပးသည။

အေသးစတ ေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးမႈမား၏ အကန႔အသတမား

စေဆာငးရ႐ေသာ သတငးအခကအလကမားသည ဘကလကတမးညြတမႈ ရႏငျပး ေယဘယသေဘာ ေဆာငမည

မဟတေပ။ ေျဖဆသထမ ရရေသာ သတငးအခကအလကမားသည ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြတြင ပါဝငသမား၏

ေျပာၾကားခကမားႏင ဆန႔ကငဘကေသာလညးေကာငး၊ ကကညမႈေသာလညးေကာငး ႐လမမည မဟတေပ။

ထ႔အတြကေၾကာင႔ လကခရရေသာ သတငးအခကအလကမားသည ကစၥရပတစခႏင႔ ပတသတေသာ ေျဖဆသ၏

ကယပငရႈေထာင႔အျမငႏင႔ အေတြးအေခၚမားအျဖစသာ အမားဆး ကယစားျပပါသည။ ဤကန႔သတခကက

သေတသမားအေနျဖင သတမသငသည။ ထသ႔ သတမနငလင ၎တ႔အေနျဖင သတငးအခကအလကမားအား

ဆငဆငျခငျခငျဖင႔ အသးျပႏငေပသည။ ဤေနရာတြင မတသားသင႔ေသာ အခကမာ - ေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးမႈမား

ျပလပရန နမနာ အေရအတြက ပမာနနင ပကသက၍ လကနာရသည ဥပေဒသ တစရပမာ - အကယ၍ ေျဖဆသ

အသးသးထမ ျဖစရပတ၊ အေၾကာငးအရာတ၊ ကစၥရပတ၊ ေခါငးစဥတမား ထြကရလာပါက လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးရန

လေလာကေသာ နမနာ အေရအတြက ရရျပးျဖစၾကာငး သႏငသည။

အခနေပးရမႈ အေသးစတေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးမႈမားသည ေမးျမနးရန၊ အေျဖမား မတသားေရးသြငးရန၊ စစစသးသပရန

အခနေပးရေလ႔ရသည။ ထ႕ေၾကာင႔ စမကနးခမတေရးဆြစဥ အခကအလက ေကာကယမႈ၊ ေရးသြငးမတသားမႈ၊

အခကအလကမား စစစသးသပမႈတ႕အတြက သေတတန၏ အစအစဥ အခနဇယားအတြငး ထည႔သြငး ေရးဆြထား

ရပါမည။

ေမးျမနးမႈႏင႔ ပတသတေသာ အရညအခငး လအပသည။ ေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးမညသအား ေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးသည႔

နညးလမးမားႏင႔ ပတသတ၍ အထကအေလာက ေလ႔ကင႔ေပးထားရမည။ ေျဖဆသထမ အေသးစတ အက

ဆးႏင႔ အခကအလကအစအလငက ရရႏငရန ေျဖဆသအေနျဖင႔ သကေတာင႔သကသာ ရေနေစရ မည။

ေျဖဆသေျပာဆမႈမားႏင႔ ပတသတ၍လညး စတ၀ငစားေၾကာငး ျပသရမည။ သေတသမား အေနျဖင႔ (အေျဖ

အတြက လမးေၾကာငးေပးေသာ ေမးခြနးမား၊ ဟတတယ မဟတဘး ဟသည႔ အေျဖမားသာ ေျဖဆႏင သည႔

ေမးခြနးမားက ေရာငၾကဥ၍) သင႔ေလာေသာ ေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးမႈ နညးလမးမားႏင႔ သငေလာေသာ ေျခဟန

လကဟနမား အလကသင႔ အသးျပႏငရပါမည။ ေမးျမနသအေနျဖင႔ မမ၏ ကယပင ထငျမင ယဆခကမား

ေျပာဆျခငးကလညး ေရာငၾကဥရပါမည။ ဤေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမႈ နညးလမးမားက ေအာကတြင အကဥးခး၍

ေဖာျပထားပါသည။

အေသးစတ ေတြ႔ဆ ေမးျမနးမႈျပျခငး အေသးစတ ေတြ႔ဆ ေမးျမနးမႈရေသာ သတငးအခကအလကမား၏ အရညအေသြးသည ေအာကပါ အခကမားအေပၚ အဓက မတညပါသည။

သင႔ေလာေသာ ေျဖဆသမားအား ေရြးခယရျခငး

ေဆြးေႏြးမႈႏင႔ ပတသတေသာ သင႔ေတာသည႔ လမးညႊနခကတစရပအား အၾကမးခမတ ျခငး

ေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးမႈအား အဆငေျပေျပ ေဆာငရြကႏငျခငး

ေျဖဆသထမ ရရသည႔ သတငးအခကအလကမားအား အတအက မတတမးေရးသြငးျခငး

အခကအလကမား ခငမာေအာငျပျခငး

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Selecting the respondents

The researcher must first identify what information is needed and from whom this

information is to be collected. In-depth interviews typically rely on multiple sources

of information to provide the most complete picture possible. For example, in order

to answer the research question “What are the revenues collected by the regional

state on forest resources? And how are they collected?”, in-depth interviews may be

conducted with Regional Forest Department officers, Township Forest Department

officers, forest products traders, and forestry developers.

Depending on the scope of the research, in-depth interview of the project

beneficiaries can also provide information about the general context of the project.

In this case, life stories are particularly relevant. For example, a study describing

how landed property is lost or, on the contrary, increased may be well illustrated by

the life stories of a select group of farmers. The life stories would inform the

researcher about the farmers’ choices in selling or buying land depending on the

socio-economic context.

Outlining an appropriate discussion guide

In-depth interview involves asking informants open-ended questions and probing

wherever necessary to obtain data deemed useful by the researcher. Open-ended

questions are questions that cannot be answered by yes or no.

For example: - Do you go to school by bus? (close-ended question) is not suitable

for an in-depth interview.

The question should be reformulated as follows: - What transportation do you use

to go to school? (open-ended).

There are three basic approaches for conducting qualitative interviewing:

(a) The informal interview: this kind of interview is close to an informal

discussion. It is used especially when exploring a topic prior to designing a

research project;

(b) The guided interview: this is the most common type of in-depth interview.

For this approach, a basic checklist is prepared to make sure that all relevant

topics are covered. The interviewer is still free to explore, probe and ask

questions of interest;

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ေျဖဆသမား ေရြးခယျခငး သေတသအေနျဖင႔ မညသည႔ သတငးအခကအလကမားက လအပျပး မညသတ႔ထမ ေကာကယရရမညက ပထမဆး သတမတ ေဖာထတရပါမည။ အေသးစတ ေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမႈမားသည သတငးအခကအလကမားအေနျဖင႔ တတႏင သမ ရပလးေပၚ ျပည႔စမႈရေစရန သတငးရငးျမစ အေတာမားမား မခရပါသည။ ဥပမာအားျဖင႔ "သစေတာသယဇာတ မားမ တငးေဒသၾကး အေနျဖင႔မညက႔သ႕ေသာ အခြန၀ငေငြမား ေကာကခရရသနညး။ မညက႔သ႔ ေကာကခသနညး။" ဟေသာ ဥးစးအရာရမား၊ ျမ႕နယအဆင႔ သစေတာဥးစးဌာနအရာရမား၊ သစေတာျပစေစာင႔ေရာကသမားအား အေသးစတ ေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးမႈ ျပလပရေပမည။ သေတသန၏ အတငးအတာပမာဏအေပၚ မတည၍ စမကနး၏ အကးေကးဇးက ခစားရမည႔သမားအား အေသးစတ ေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးမႈျပျခငးသည စမကနးႏင႔ ပတသကေသာ အေထြေထြ ေနာကခပတ၀နးကငဆငရာ သတငး အခက အလကမား ရရေစသည။ ဤကစၥမးတြင ဘ၀ဇာတလမးမားသည အထးသျဖင႔ ဆေလာ ေပးသည။ဥပမာအားျဖင႔ - ေျမယာပငဆငမႈ ဆးရႈးသြားပ သ႔မဟတ တးပြားလာပႏင႔ ပတသတ၍ ေဖာျပေလ႔လာမႈ အေနျဖင႔ ေရြးခယထားေသာ လယသမားအပစ၏ ဘ၀ဇာတလမးမားျဖင႔ ေကာငးစြာတနဆာဆင ေဖာျပႏငေပသည။ အဆပါ ဇာတလမးမား အေနျဖင႔ သေတသအား လမႈ - စးပြား ပတ၀နးကင အေျပာငးအလေပၚ မတည၍ လယသမားမား၏ ေျမယာ ေရာငးခမႈ သ႔မဟတ ၀ယယရန ေရြးခယမႈတ႔အေၾကာငး သတငးေပးႏငေပသည။ ေဆြးေႏြးမႈႏင႔ ပတသတေသာ သင႔ေတာသည႔ လမးညႊနခက တစရပအား အၾကမးခမတျခငး အေသးစတေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးမႈတြင သတငးေပးသအား အဖြင႔သေဘာ ေမးခြနးမားေမးရျခငး၊ သေတသအတြက အသး၀ငမညဟ ယဆရေသာ အခကအလကမား ရရရန လအပသည႔အခါတငး၌ ထပမဆနးစစတးဆြသည႔ ေမးခြနးထတရျခငးတ႕ ပါ၀ငသည။ အဖြင႔သေဘာ ေမးခြနးမား ဆသညမာ ေျဖဆရာတြင ဟတတယ - မဟတဘး ဟ၍သာ ေျဖဆရသည႔ ေမးခြနး အမးအစားမား မဟတေပ။ ဥပမာအား ျဖင႔ ကာငးကဘတစကားျဖင႔သြားပါသလား ? ( အပတေမးခြနး ) ဟသည႔ ေမးခြနးသည႔အေသးစတ ေတြ႔ဆ ေမးျမနးမႈ၌ မသင႔ေလာေပ။ထေမးခြနးအား ေအာကပါအတငး ျပနလည ျပငဆငသင႔သည။ "မညသည႔ သယယ ပ႔ေဆာငရး စနစက အသးျပ၍ ေကာငးသြားပါသနညး" ( အဖြင႔သေဘာေမးခြနး ) အရညအေသြးစထား ေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးမႈမား ျပလပရာတြင အေျခခကေသာ နညးလမးသးရပရပါသည။

( က ) စညးကမးတက မဟတေသာ ေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးမႈ - ဤေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးမႈ အမးအစားသည အလြတသေဘာ ေဆြးေႏြးမႈမးႏင႔ နးစပတညမႈ ရပါသည။ သေတသန စမကနးတစရပအား စစဥဒဇငးမထတမ အေၾကာငးအရာ တစရပႏင႔ ပတသတ၍ စစမးမႈျပလပလသည႔အခါ အထးသျဖင႔ အသး၀ငပါသည။ (ခ) လမးညႊနမႈပါေသာ ေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးမႈ။။ အသးအမားဆး အေသးစတ ေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမႈ ပစျဖစသည။ ဤ နညးလမး အသးျပရန အတြကသကဆငရာ ေခါငးစဥအားလး ျခငမေစမည႔ အေျခခ စစေဆးရန စာရငး (basic checklist) တစရပ ျပစထားရမည။ ေမးျမနးသအေနျဖင႔ ၄ငးစတ၀ငစားသည႔အရာႏင႔ ပတသတ၍ ေမးခြနးမား ထတျခငး၊ အေျဖႏင႔ ပတသက၍ ဇစျမစလကျခငး၊ စးစမးေဖာထတျခငးတ႔က လြတလပစြာ လပႏငပါေသး သည။

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(c) The standardised open-ended interview: this approach uses a set of carefully

worded open-ended questions in order to minimize the differences in the way

questions are asked between several in-depth interviews. This method may be

useful when two or more researchers are involved in the data collecting process

to facilitate the analysis.

Besides the questions, the interview should also contain the following points:

An introduction explaining the research project and the purpose of the

interview;

Ensuring informed consent and confidentiality of the interviewee;

Conclusive questions to enquire if the respondent has anything more to add.

Conducting the interview properly

The ability to elicit useful information may vary depending on the researchers.

However, some questioning techniques may ensure a minimum quality of the in-depth

interview:

(a) Ask clear questions: use words that make sense to the interviewees. Questions

should be short and simple, avoiding terms that the interviewee may not

understand. Questions should contain only one point at a time.

For example, preference is given to the following two questions:

- What do you think of the current land law? and then:

- What do you think would be its impact on small-farmers?,

instead of:

- What do you think of the current land law and its impact on small

farmers?

(b) Ask truly open-ended questions: open-ended questions should not pre-

determine the answers and allow space for the respondents to respond in their

own terms.

(c) Questions about the interviewee’s own experience to be placed before

questions about his/her own point of view/opinion: it is useful to ask

questions about daily practice and experience of the respondents before asking

questions about their points of view. It helps to set-up a context for the

respondents to express their points of view.

For example, it is better to ask

"What help did you receive?"

before

"What do you think of the help received?"

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( ဂ) စသတမတထားေသာ အဖြင႔သေဘာ ေမးျမနးမႈ။။ ဤနညးလမးတြင တစခႏင႔တစခၾကား ေမးခြနးမား ေမးျမနးပႏင ပတသတ၍ ကြျပာျခားနားမႈမား ေလာ႔ခႏငရန စကားလး အသးအႏႈနး ဂရတစက ေရြးခယထား သည႔ အဖြင႔သေဘာ ေမးခြနးမားအား အသးျပပါသည။ စစစေလ႔လာမႈအား အေထာကအပ႔ ျဖစေစရန ေဒတာ အခကအလက ေထာကကမႈ လပငနးစဥတြင သေတသႏစဥး အထက ပါ၀ငေဆာငရြကၾကသည႔ အခါ၌ ဤနညးလမး အသး၀င ပါသည။

လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးရာတြင ေမးခြနးမား သာမက ေအာကပါ အခကတ႔ ပါ၀ငသင႔ပါသည။ သေတသန စမကနးအား ရငးျပထားေသာ မတဆကတငျပမႈႏင႔ ေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးမႈ ျပရျခငး၏ ရညရြယခက

ေျဖဆသအတြက လ႕၀ကထားရေပးမႈႏင႔ ေျဖဆသ၏ သေဘာတ ခြင႔ျပခကအား ေသခာမႈ ရေအာငျပျခငး

အဆးသတ ေမးခြနးမား ေမးျမနး၍ ေျဖဆသမအျခား ထပမ ျဖည႔စြကလပါက ျဖည႔စြက ေျပာဆေစျခငး

ေတြ႔ဆမးျမနးမႈအား အဆငေျပေျပ ေဆာငရြကျခငး အသး၀ငေသာ သတငးအခကအလကမား ေဖာထတႏငမႈ အရညအခငးသည သေတသမားအၾကား ကြာျခားမႈ ရေပလမ႔မည။ သ႔ေသာ အခ႕ေသာ ေမးခြနးေမးျမနးပ နညးလမးမားအားျဖင႔ အေသးစတ ေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးရာ၌ အနမ႔ဆး ရသင႔သည႔ အရညအေသြးက ရရေစပါသည။

( က ) ရငးလငးေသာ ေမးခြနးမားေမးပါ။ ။ ေျဖဆသနားလညေစမည႔ စကားလးမားသာ အသးျပပါ။ ေျဖဆသ နားမလညႏငသည အသးအႏႈနးမး ေရာငရားျပး တတႏင႔ လြယကေသာ ေမးခြနးမား ေမးပါ။ တစၾကမတြင အေၾကာငးအရာ တစခကသာ ေမးပါ။

ဥပမာ - " လကရ ေျမယာ ဥေပေဒန႔ ပတသတျပးေတာ႔ရယ၊ ျပးေတာ႔ တစႏငတစပငလပကငၾကတ႔ လယသမားေတြအေပၚ အဒဥပေဒရ႕သကေရာကမႈအေပၚရယ ဘယလထငပါသလ " ဟ၍ ေမးမည႔အစား ----

- " လကရေျမယာဥပေဒအေပၚ ဘယလျမငပါသလ။"

- " တစႏငတစပငလပကငစားၾကတ႔ လယသမားေတြအေပၚ အဒဥပေဒရ႕ သကေရာကမႈႏင႔ ပတသတျပး ဘယလ ထငပါသလ "-- ---

ဟ တစၾကမတြင အေၾကာငးအရာတစခအားျဖင႔ ႏစၾကမခြ ေမးသင႔ပါသည။

( ခ ) အမနတကယ အဖြင႔သေဘာရသည႔ ေမးခြနးမား ေမးပါ။ အဖြင႔သေဘာ ေမးခြနးမားသည ေျဖဆမည႔ အေျဖ မားအား ၾကတငသတမတေပးသည ေမးခြနးမး မျဖစသငဘ ေျဖဆသမားအေနျဖင႔ ၄ငးတ႕၏ ကယပင အသး အႏႈနးမား အတငး ေျဖဆရန ခြင႔ျပထားသည။ ( ဂ ) ေျဖၾကားသ၏ ကယပငအေတြ႕အၾကအေၾကာငး ေမးျမနးထားသည ေမးခြနးမားက ၄ငး၏ အထငအျမငႏင ႐ေထာငဆငရာ ေမးခြနးမား မလာခင အရငေမးပါ။။။ ေျဖဆသမားအား ၄ငးတ႕၏ ကယပငအျမငႏင႔ ပတသတျပး မေမးျမနးမ ၄ငးတ႔၏ ကင႔ၾကမႈ၊ အေတြ႔အၾကႏင႔ ပတသတေသာ ေမးခြနးမားက ေမးပါ။ ဤသ႔အားျဖင႔ ေျဖဆသ အား ၄ငး၏အျမငက ေဖာျပႏငရန အေနအထားတစရပ ခငးကငးေပးရာ ေရာကပါသည။

ဥပမာ - "လကခရရတ႔ အကအညန႔ ပတသတျပး ဘယလထငပါသလ " ဟ မေမးမ

- " ဘယလအကအညမး လကခရရပါသလ "

ဟ၍ အရင ေမးသင႔ပါသည။

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(d) From general to specific: for each topic, the interview should move from general statements to specific questions.

For example: “Farmers in the Dry Zone are often obliged to grow different types of crops. Some grow sesame and peas. Others take more risk by planting cash crops like betel or tomatoes. What is your strategy?”

(e) Probing and questioning: the researcher should never take answers for granted, but seek further comments and clarification. This can be done by asking direct questions: “could you tell me more about this?” This can also be done by repeating significant ideas or words of the informant: “you told me that it was “catastrophic”, could you explain why?” For clarifying purposes, especially, the researcher may rephrase some important information: “if I understand well, you’re saying that…”.

(f) Following the question guide: while it is important to let the respondent speak freely and not to interrupt him/her too abruptly, the researcher must always bear in mind to cover all the topics contained in the question guide. For this, a rough checklist summarizing all the topics helps the researcher keep the research objectives under control.

(g) Build a relationship with the respondent: it is important to put the respondent in a comfortable position by building trust with him/her. Sharing common experience, acknowledging his/her answers is essential. The researcher may also avoid asking sensitive question especially at the beginning of the interview.

(h) Refrain from making any judgment: the facilitator is not here to judge what the respondent says and doesn’t look down on him/her because of his/her status or statements.

Below are some tips that may improve the exchange between the researcher and the respondent:

Linking: it often proves more efficient to link the respondent’s comments with information sought by the researcher, instead of breaking the conversation to raise unrelated questions. In other words, if the researcher wants to change the subject, he/she should try to build on the informant’s answers to progressively bring him/her toward the desired topic.

Contradicting: if the interviewer deliberately expresses an opinion opposite to that of the respondent, this could help provoke further comments from the respondent’s side. However, this technique should be used in moderation in order not to irritate the respondent.

Pretending to not understand: by seeking clarification, or rewording the respondent’s comments, the researcher can elicit further details and comments.

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( ဃ ) အေထြ ေထြမသည အေသးစတဆသ႔။ ။အေၾကာငးအရာတစခခငးစႏင႔ ပတသက၍ ေမးျမနးရာ၌ အေထြေထြ ေယဘယ အေၾကာငးအရာမားက ေမးျမနးျပးမ အေသးစတကေသာ အေၾကာငးအရာမားက ေမးျမနးသင႔ပါသည။

ဥပမာအေနျဖင႔ - ဒအပပငးဇမာရတ႔ ယာသမားေတြ အေနန႔ ေကာကပသးႏအမးမးက စကပးရေလ႔ ရၾက ပါတယ။ တစခ႕ဆ ႏမးန႔ပစကၾကတယ။ တစခ႕ဆ ေငြလြယတ႔ ကြမးတ႕ ခရမးခဥသးတ႕က စြန႔စားျပး စကၾကတယ။ ခငဗားကေကာဘယလလ?

( င ) ဆနးစစတးဆြသည႔ ေမးခြနးမား ေမးျခငး။ ။သေတသအေနျဖင႔ ေျဖဆလကသည႔ အေျဖမားက ထအတငး လကခလကျခငးထက ေနာကဆကတြ ရငးလငးမႈမား၊ မတခကမား ထပမရရႏငရန ဆကလက၍ ေမးခြနးထတသင႔သည။ "ဒအေၾကာငးန႔ပတသကျပး နညးနညး ပေျပာျပႏငမလား " ဟ၍ တကရက ေမးခြနးမး ဆကမးႏငသည။ "ခငဗားေျပာတ႔အထမာ အဒါက "အျဖစဆးၾကး " လ႔ ေျပာသြားတယ.. ။ ဘာေၾကာင႔လဆတာ ရငးျပႏငမလား " ဟ၍လညး ေျဖဆသတငးေပးသ ေျပာသြားသည႔ အေၾကာငးအရာမားထမ ထး ျခားသည႔ စကားလးမားႏင႔ အေတြးအျမငမားက ျပနလညေရရြတ ေထာကျပျပးလညး ဆကေမးႏငသည။ အေျဖမားႏင႔ ပတသကျပး ရငးရငးလငးလငး ရေစရန သေတသးအေနျဖင႔ အေရးၾကးေသာ အခကအလကမားက ျပနလည အစေကာက၍ ပေသခာေအာင လပသင႔သည။ ဥပမာ - " ကြနေတာ နားလညသေလာကဆရင ခငဗား ေျပာခငတာက ----- ------ "

( စ ) ေမးခြနးလမးညႊနခကအား လကနာျခငး။ ။မၾကာခဏ ၾကားျဖစျခငး မျပလပဘ ေျဖဆသအား လြတလပစြာ ေျပာခြင႔ျပရနမာ အေရးၾကးေသာလညး သေတသအေနျဖင႔ ေမးခြနးလမးညႊနခကပါ အေၾကာငးအရာ ေခါငးစဥ အားလးစေအာင ေမးျမနးႏငရနလညး အျမပင ေခါငးထ ထည႔ထားသင႔ပါသည။ ထ႔အတြက အေၾကာငးအရာ အားလးႏင႔ ပတသက၍ အႏစခပထားေသာ စစေဆးရန စာရငးအၾကမး ေရးထားျခငးသည သေတသအား သေတသန၏ ဥးတညခကမားအတငး မတမးမယမးဘ ရေနေစပါသည။

( ဆ ) ေျဖဆသႏင႔ ရငးႏးမႈတညေဆာကပါ။ ။ ေျဖဆမည႔သႏင႔ ယၾကညမႈ တညေဆာကျခငးျဖင႔ ေျဖဆသ အေနျဖင႔ သကေတာင႔သကသာ ရေနေစရနမာလညး အေရးၾကးေသာ အခကတစခက ျဖစပါသည။ တညသည႔ အေတြ႕အၾကမား အေၾကာငး ေဝငေျပာဆျခငး၊ ထသ၏ အေျဖမားမ အေရးပါေၾကာငး အသအမတျပ ေျပာဆျခငး တ႕ ျပလပႏငပါသည။ အထးသျဖင႔ ေမးျမနးမႈ အစပငး၌ အကဆတ ထရလြယေသာ ေမးခြနးမး ေမးျခငးက ေရာငၾကညပါ။ (ဇ) အဆးအျဖတေပးျခငးမ ေ႐ာင႐ားပါ - ဤေနရာတြင ပြထနးသသည ေျဖဆသ ေျပာဆသမက မတခကေပး အဆးအျဖတျပျခငး၊ ၄ငး၏ အဆငအတနး၊ ေျပာဆခကေၾကာင အထငအျမငေသးျခငးတ႔ မျပလပရပါ။

ေအာကပါ အၾကျပခကမာ သေတသႏင ေျဖဆသၾကား အေပးအယ ပမေကာငးမြနေစရန ျဖစပါသည။ ခတဆကျခငး - ေျဖဆသႏင႔ ေဆြးေႏြးေျပာဆေနစဥအတြငး မသကဆငေသာ အေၾကာငး အရာအား

ေမးခြနးျဖတ၍ ေမးျခငးထက ေျဖဆသ၏ မတခကအေျဖမားအား သေတသမ ရရလေသာ

သတငးအခကအလကႏင႔ ခတဆကမႈျပႏငလင ပ၍ ေကာငးပါသည။ တစနညးဆရလင အကယ၍

သေတသအေနျဖင႔ အေၾကာငးအရာတစခက ေျပာငးလေဆြးေႏြးလပါက ေျဖဆသ၏ အေျဖမားအား

အေျချပ၍ တျဖညးျဖညးခငး ၄ငးလခငသည႔ အေၾကာငးအရာသ႔ဆြယ၍ ေျပာဆေမးျမနးသင႔ပါသည။

ဆန႔ကငဘကျပျခငး - အကယ၍ ေမးျမနးသအေနျဖင႔ ေျဖဆသ၏ အျမငႏင႔ ဆန႔ကငဘက အျမငမး

တမငတကာ ရညရြယေဖာျပပါက ဆန႔ကငဘကအျမငမး တမငတကာ ရညရြယေဖာျပပါက ေျဖဆသ

ထမ ေနာကဆကတြ မတခကအျမငမားက ထပမ၍ ရရႏငပါသည။ သ႔ေသာ ေျဖဆသ စတအေႏာက

အယကျဖစမသြားေစရန ဤနညးလမးက ထနးထနးသမးသမး သးသင႔ပါသည။

နားမလညခငေယာငေဆာငျခငး - ပ၍ ရငးလငးေသာ အေျဖမး ရရရနေသာလညးေကာငး၊ ေျဖဆသ

၏ မတခက အျမငမားအတငး စကားလး အသးအႏႈနး ျပနလညသးစြျခငးအားျဖင႔ေသာလညးေကာငး

သေတသအေနျဖင႔ ပ၍ အေသးစတကေသာ မတခကအျမငမားက ေဖာထတႏငပါသည။

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Incredulity: challenging the respondent’s views and opinions (“really?”, “that’s

hard to believe”) often forces the respondent to elaborate on his/her comments. Here

again, this technique should be used in moderation in order not to exasperate the

respondent.

Recording and transcribing the interview

Depending on the objectives of the research, the in-depth interview can be recorded in

different ways. For explorative interviews (i.e. exploring a topic to design further

research), note taking may be sufficient. It however depends on the researcher’s own

experience and ability to ask questions and record the answers almost amost at the

same time. Interviewers with little experience can seek the help of an assistant to write

down the questions and answers or use an audio recorder. In the latter case, it is highly

recommended to transcribe the interview as soon as possible after its completion for

better results.

It is also important to write down the researcher’s own observations on the

respondent’s behaviour which may change according to the type of questions. Writing

down the respondent’s emotions is useful as well to better understand his/her

comments. In some cases, if the amount of data collected is too large, the researcher

should take note while listening to the tape and transcribe only what he/she thinks are

the key components of the interview.

When transcription of the interview is finished, a separate page at the beginning of the

transcription will be inserted with the interview number mentioned and some basic

personal details about the respondent/interviewee.

Verifying

Finally, verifying the information given by the respondents may be necessary in some

specific cases, especially for sensitive information and/or information deemed critical

by the researcher for the study.

Verifying involves checking the credibility of the information. A method called

“triangulation” is commonly used to achieve this purpose. Triangulation involves using

multiple perspectives to interpret a single set of information.

A research project is conducted about PLHIV’s access to health

care. During an in-depth interview, a PLHIV states that “PLHIVs

are asked for double the price that patients normally pay to

the hospital for a surgery”. One way the researcher could try

to verify this information would be to ask independent doctors

and hospital staff to confirm or deny this information. A more

reliable triangulation method would be to ask the price of the

surgery the PLHIV received and ask the price of the same

surgery to the hospital to see if there any discrepancy.

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ယမားသသယျပျခငး - "တကယလား"၊ "မယႏငစရာပ" စသညျဖင႔ ေျဖဆသ၏ အျမငႏင႔ အာေဘာ

မားအား ဆြေပးျခငးျဖင႔ ေျဖဆသအား သ၏အေျဖႏင႔ ပတသက၍ အကယတ၀င႔ ဆကလက

ရငးလငးျပေစရန တကတြနးအားေပးရာ ေရာကပါသည။ ဤေနရာတြငလညး ေျဖဆသ အမကေဒါသ

မထြကေစရန ဤနညးကလညး ထနးထနးသမးသမး သးသင႔ပါသည။

ေမးျမနးမႈအား မတတမးတငျခငးႏင႔ ကးေရးျခငး အေသးစတ ေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးရျခငး၏ ဥးတညခကမားအေပၚ မတည၍ မတတမးတငသည႔ ပစကြျပားႏငပါသည။ ပဏာမ ေလ႔လာစးစမးမႈျပသည႔ ေမးျမနမႈမား ( ဆလသညမာ - ေနာကဆကတြ သေတသန ျပလပႏငရန အေၾကာငးအရာ တစရပအား ေလ႔လာစးစမးမႈျပသည႔ ကစၥမး) ၌ မတစေရးမတျခငးသည လေလာကပါသည။ သ႔ေသာ ဤနညးသည တစခနတညး ေမးခြနးေမးျမနး၍ တစခနတညးမာပင ေမးခြနးႏင႔ အေျဖမားက မတတမးတငႏငသည႔ သေတသ၏ အရညအခငးႏင႔ အေတြ႔အၾကေပၚ မတညပါလမ႔မည။ အေတြ႔အၾကနညးသည႔ ေမးျမနးသမားအေနျဖင႔ ေမးခြနးႏင႔ အေျဖမားက ခေရးႏငရန အျခားသတစဥးဥး၏ အကအညက ရယရျခငး သ႕မဟတ အသဖမးစက အသးျပျခငးတ႕က ျပလပႏငပါသည။ အသဖမးစကအသးျပသည႔ ကစၥမး၌ ပ၍ေကာငးေသာ ရလဒမား ရရႏငရန ေမးျမနးမႈျပးလင ေစာႏင သမ ေစာစြာ ေရးသားမတတမးတငရန အထးသျဖင႔ အၾကျပလပါသည။ ေမးျမနးသည႔ ေမးခြနးအမးအစားေပၚ မတည၍ ေျဖဆသ၏ ေျပာငးလသြားေသာ အျပအမမားက သေတသ၏ ကယပင ေလ႔လာမႈအျမငျဖင႔ ခမတေရးသားရနလညး အေရးၾကးပါသည။ ေျဖဆသ၏ မတခကအျမငအား ပမနားလည သေဘာ ေပါကႏငရန ေျဖဆသ၏ စတခစားခကမားကလညး ခမတေရးသားထားျခငးက အသး၀ငပါသည။ မညသည႔ ကစၥရပမးျဖစေစ ေမးျမနးမႈအား ေရးသားမတတမးသြငးသည႔အခါ အေသးစတ အခကအလကမားက ခနလပထားျခငး မျပဘ ေမးျမနးမႈျပစဥ ကာလအတြငး ေျပာသမ အျပညအစ မတတမးသြငးသင႔ပါသည။ တခါတရတြင စေဆာငးရ႐ေသာ ေဒတာအခကအလကမားမာ မားျပားလြနးပါက အေရးၾကးသညဟ ယဆေသာသ တစေယာက ႏစေယာကခန႔၏ အသသြငး ခကမားကသာ နားေထာင၍ စာစျပး မတစထတသငသည။ ေမးျမနးမႈအား မတသား ေရးသြငးျခငး ျပးဆးပါက မတတမး အစတြင သးသန႔စာမကႏာ တစမကႏာ ထပထည႔၍ အငတာဗး အမတစဥႏင႔တကြ ေျဖဆသ၏ ပဂၢလေရးအခကအလက အေျခခအခ႕က ေရးသြငးပါ။ အခကအလက ခငမာေအာငျပျခငး ေနာကဆးအေနျဖင႔ - အခ႕ေသာ ကစၥရပမားတြင အထးအျဖင႔ သေတသး၏ ေလ႔လာမႈအတြက အခရာကေသာ သတငးအခကအလကမား၊ အကဆတ ထရလြယေသာ သတငးအခကအလကမားအား ခငလမႈရေအာင လပေဆာင ရန လအပေပမည။ အခကအလက ခငမာမႈ႐ေအာငျပျခငး ဆသညမာ သတငးအခကအလက၏ ယၾကညကးစား ႏငမႈက စစေဆးျခငး ျဖစသည။ ဤသ႔ စစေဆးႏငရန "႐ေထာငစ စစေဆးျခငး" နညးလမး တစရပအား အမားအားျဖင သးေလ႔ ရပါသည။ ႐ေထာင႔စစစေဆးျခငး ဆသညမာ သတငးအခကအလက တစစတစရာအား ရႈ႕ေထာင႔ ေပါငးစမ ခဥးကပ၍ အဓပၸါယဖြင႔ဆ အေျဖရာျခငး ျဖစပါသည။

သေတသနတစရပသည အပခအငဗြပး ကးစကခရသမား PLHIV မား၏ ကနးမာေရး ေစာင႔ေရာကကသခရမႈႏင႔ ပတသတ၍ ေလ႔လာသည။ အေသးစတ ေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးမႈ တစရပ၌ PLHIV တစဥးက " ေဆးရမာ ခြစတကသမႈ ခယရတ႔အခါ " PLHIVs ေတြအေနန႔ သာမနလေတြထက အခေၾကးေငြ ႏစဆ ပေတာငးခရပါတယ " ေျပာဆသည။ သေတသအေနျဖင႔ ဤအခကအလကမားက ခငလေအာငျပလပရန နညးလမးတစရပမာ သးျခားလြတလပေသာ ဆရာ၀နမား၊ ေဆးရ၀နထမးမားအား ဤသတငးအခကအလကႏင႔ ပတသက၍ အတညျပေပးႏငျခငး ( သ႕ ) ျငငးဆျခငးတ႔ ရမရ ေမးျမနးႏငပါသည။ ပ၍အားကးစတခရေသာ ႐ေထာငစ စစေဆးနညးအရ ထ PLHIV မ ေပးရေသာ ခြစတခႏင႔ အျခားအလားတခြစတမႈမး၌ ကနကေသာ ခြစတခတ႔အား ေမးျမနး၍ ကြာျခားခက တစစတစရာ ရမရ စစေဆးျခငး ျဖစပါသည။

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TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THIS CHAPTER ARE:

In-depth interviews can be used to explore new topics;

In-depth consist in interviewing an individual about his/her experience, opinions, and perceptions on a particular topic or project;

In-depth interviews require skills in questioning techniques.

Exercise 1: List 5 potential informants for the following research topics

i. The causes of squatting in urban Yangon

ii. Revenue collection in the fisheries sector of Ayeyawaddy Region

iii. Human trafficking between Yangon and Thailand

Exercise 2: List a set of relevant questions (about 10) for the above research topics

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အႏစခပရလင ဤအခနးတြင ပါ၀ငေသာ မတသားရန အဓကအခကမားမာ

အေသးစတ ေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမႈမားအား အေၾကာငးအရာသစမားက ေလလာရာတြင အသးျပသငပါသည။

အေၾကာငးအရာတစရပ သ႔မဟတ စမကနးတစရပႏင႔ ပတသက၍ ပဂၢလတစဥးတစေယာက၏ အေတြ႔အၾက၊

အယအဆႏင႔ အေတြးအျမငမားအား ေမးျမနးရာ၌ အေသးစတ ေမးျမနးမႈ ျပလပသင႔ပါသည။

အေသးစတေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမႈျပရာ၌ ေမးခြနးေမးနညးအမးမး အသးျပႏငသည အရညအခငး

လအပပါသည။

ေလ႔ကင႔ခနး ( ၁ ) ေအာကပါသေတသန အေၾကာငးအရာ ေခါငးစဥမားႏင႔ ပတသက၍ အလားအလာရေသာ သတငးေပး ေျဖဆသ ( ၅ ) ဥးစက ေဖာျပပါ။ (က) ရနကနျမ႕ျပ၌ကးေကာ ေနထငၾကသည႔ အေၾကာငးမား (ခ) ဧရာ၀တတငး ေဒသၾကး၏ ေရလပငနးမာအခြန ေကာကခမႈ (ဂ) ရနကနႏင႔ ထငးႏငငအၾကား လကနကးမႈ ေလ႔ကင႔ခန ( ၂ ) အထကပါ ေခါငးစဥးမားအတြက တစခလင ဆေလာေသာေမးခြနး ( ၁၀ ) ခစ ျပစပါ။

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BASIC 10. PARTICIPATORY LEARNING APPRAISAL AND ITS TOOLS

THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT:

The meaning of a Participatory Learning Appraisal (PLA)

The relevant use of PLA for certain types of research

The main participatory tools used in PLA

_____________________________________________________________________

WHAT IS A PARTICIPATORY LEARNING APPRAISAL?

A Participatory Learning Appraisal (PLA)’s main feature is to acquire knowledge about an issue with the participation of the persons directly concerned by this issue.

Conducting a PLA entails that researchers and the community learn together about their village or ward. PLA may be considered as the first step of any participatory approach, including Participatory Action Research (PAR) (see next Chapter).

The PLA is a bottom-top approach to learning involving the community.

Advantages of PLA

PLA is a great tool to reduce the risk of biases by studying the issue from different perspectives and using methods and tools;

PLA offers a rapid and progressive approach to learning with people and produces information that is validated by the community itself.

Limitations of PLA

The diversity of informants is both the PLA’s strength and weakness.

WHEN TO USE A PLA

PLA is useful when researchers do not have much time. By using PLA they can rapidly acquire knowledge, in a process validated by the community.

PLA is useful when the research is conducted on local perceptions of a particular issue. For example, studying how farmers see technical change in farming techniques is an important component that will help to develop new farming techniques in a particular community.

PLA is often used for research about the environment, livelihood and food security issues.

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အေျခခအဆင ၁၀. ပးေပါငးေလလာေရးနညးစဥႏင၄ငး၏ကရယာမား

ဤအခနးတြင

ပးေပါငးေလလာေရးနညးစဥ၏ ဆလရငး အဓပၸါယ(Participatory Learning Appraisal - PLA)

အခ႕သေတသန အမးအစားမားတြင ပးေပါငးေလလာေရး နညးစဥအား သငေတာသလ အသးျပပ PLA တြင အသးျပသည အဓကကေသာ ပးေပါငးပါဝငေရး ကရယာမားက ေဖာျပထားပါသည။

________________________________________________________________________________________

PLA ဆသညမာ အဘယနညး။ PLA ၏ အႏစသာရမာ ကစၥရပတစခႏင တက႐ကပတသကေနေသာ လမား၏ ပးေပါငးပါဝငမႈျဖင ၄ငးကစၥရပႏင

ပတသကျပး သ႐နားလညေအာင ျပလပျခငးပငျဖစသည။ PLA ျပလပရာတြင သေတသမားႏင သကဆငရာ အစအေဝးတ႔ ၄ငးတ႔၏ ရပ႐ြာက အတတကြ ေလလာၾကသည။ ပးေပါငးပါဝငလမႈေရး သေတသန (Participatory Action Research – PAR) (ေနာကအခနးတြငၾကညပါ) အပါအဝင မညသ႔ေသာ ပဏာမ ခဥးကပေလလာမႈတြငမဆ PLA အား ပထမဆး အဆငအျဖစ မတယထားၾကသည။ PLA သည ရပ႐ြာလ႔အဖြ႕အစညးပါဝငေစသည ေအာကမအထကသ႔ ဆနသည ခဥးကပေလလာနညး ျဖစသည။

PLA ၏ အကးေကးဇးမား

ကစၥရပတစခအား နညးနႏင ကရယာမးစ အသးျပျပး မတကြျပားေသာ ႐ေထာငေျမာကျမားစြာမ ေလလာ

ျခငးေၾကာင PLA သည အဂတကငး႐ငးေစေရးအတြက ကရယာေကာငး တစခ ျဖစသည။ PLA သည လအမား ပါဝငေသာ လငျမနထေရာကသည ခဥးကပေလလာနညးတစရပျဖစျပး ရပ႐ြာကယတင

လကခအတညျပသည သတငးအခကအလကမား ရ႐ေစသည။

PLA ၏ အခကအခမား

အခကအလကေပးသ အမးအစားမားျပားျခငးသည PLA ၏ အားသာခကလညးျဖစသလ အားနညးခက လညး ျဖစသည။

PLA အသးျပရမည အခန

သေတသတြင အခနမားမား မ႐ပါက PLA သည အလြနအသးဝငသည။ ယငးက အသးျပျခငးျဖင ရပ႐ြာ

ကယတင အတညျပ လကခသည အသအျမငက ရ႐ေစသည။

အေၾကာငးကစၥတစခအေပၚ ေဒသခမားက မညသ႔မညပ ႐ျမငပအား သေတသန ျပမညဆပါက PLA မာ

အလြနအသးဝငသည။ ဥပမာဆရလင ရပ႐ြာေဒသတစခတြင လယယာစကပးေရး နညးပညာသစမား တးတကထြနးကား လာေစလပါက လယယာစကပးေရး နညးပညာ ေျပာငးလမႈအေပၚ လယသမားမား မညကသ႔ ႐ျမငၾကသနညး ဆေသာအခကမာ အေရးၾကးေသာ အစတအပငး တစရပျဖစသည။

သဘာဝပတဝနးကင၊ ရပ႐ြာအသကေမြး လပငနးႏင စားနပရကၡာ လေလာကေစေရးအစ႐ေသာ ကစၥရပမားက

သေတသန ျပလပရာတြင PLA က အသးမားသည။

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HOW TO PREPARE A PLA

Even before defining the objectives of a PLA, researchers should be aware that, in any

research process, biases occur. In a PLA, biases can be linked to the researchers’

background, the informants, the methods or tools employed as well as the sites

selected.

1. Reducing risks of biases

The best strategies to reduce biases are:

Be aware of biases: the researcher may reduce the impact of biases only if

he/she acknowledges their existence;

Triangulate: triangulation means crosschecking the information. Researchers

crosscheck what informants say but also consider how they understand

themselves the situation they study and the information produced.

The main biases that may occur during a PLA are:

Researcher Bias

Ideally, a PLA team should be interdisciplinary. Because of the exhaustive nature of

PLA, the range of information collected generally cover social, economic,

environmental, technical issues, etc. If researchers are only skilled in one or two of the

dimensions covered by the PLA, biases are likely to occur.

Informant Bias

Here again, the key to managing the biases is to ensure that the views of a group are

not mistakenly believed to represent the situation or opinion of the whole population.

Like in a FGD or a PAR, all types of stakeholders should be included in the

participatory learning sessions. Special care should be given to:

o Gender bias: more emphasis may be put on the point of view of either

men or women; if this happens, the views of the other group may

therefore be under-represented;

o Spatial bias: collecting information in an area that is easily accessible

and has lots of infrastructures may introduce some spatial bias. Also, the

views of people who live there or go in this area may also be different

from those living in the neighboring areas that are less privileged.

Therefore selection of areas for data collection is a tricky issues:

researchers have to consider the benefits of collecting information in a

wide range of areas;

o Wealth bias: often the views of wealthier persons or who hold positions

of authority are given greater weight over the course of a study. The

statements made by the poor are frequently under-represented in the

research findings unless specific actions are taken to include them;

o Education bias: the views of those with formal higher education are

often solicited and considered more carefully than those with less

education. This often coincides with a language bias since educated

persons may be able to better communicate with the research team.

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PLA အတြက ျပငဆငပ

PLA တစခႏင စပဆငေသာ ရညမနးခကမား ဖြငဆသတမတျခငး မျပမကတညးကပင မညသည သေတသန လပငနး စဥမးမ အဂတကငးေလ မ႐သည အခကက သေတသအေနႏင သေဘာေပါကထားရမည။ PLA တြင ဘကလကမႈမား သည သေတသ၏ ေနာကေၾကာငးရာဇဝင၊ အခကအလကေပးသမား၊ အသးျပသညနညးလမးႏင ကရယာ စသညတ႔ နညးတ ေ႐ြးခယသည အရပေဒသတ႔ႏငပါ စပဆကေနသည။ ၁။ အဂတျဖစပြားႏငေခအား ေလာချခငး အဂတေလာခရန အေကာငးဆး နညးလမးမားမာ

အဂတမားအား သတမျခငး - သေတသအေနျဖင အဂတမား ႐ေနျခငးက အသအမတျပ လကခမသာလင ၄ငး၏ အကးဆကမားက တားဆးေလာခႏငမည။

႐ေထာငစ စစေဆးျခငး - ႐ေထာငစ စစေဆးျခငး ဟသည သတငးအခကအလကမားက အျပနအလန တကဆငၾကညျခငးပင ျဖစသည။ သေတသသည အခကအလကေပးသမား ေျပာသမက တကဆငၾကည

ေသာလညး ေလလာေနသည အေနအထားႏင ရ႐လာေသာ သတငးအခကအလကမားႏင ပတသကျပး ၄ငးတ႔၏ ကယတငကယက နားလညထားပက စဥးစားခနဆျခငးျဖစသည။

PLA ျပ လပေနစဥအဓကျဖစပြားႏငသညအဂတမားမာ -

သေတသအဂတ စအားျဖင PLA သေတသနအဖြ႕တစခတြင ပညာရပနယပယေပါငးစမ လမားပါဝငသငသည။ PLA ၏ ျခငႏငစြမးသည သေဘာသဘာဝေၾကာင စေဆာငးရ႐လာသည သတငးအခကအလကမားမာ လမႈေရးရာ၊ စးပြားေရးရာ၊ သဘာဝ

ပတဝနးကငေရးရာ၊ နညးပညာေရးရာ အစ႐ေသာ ကစၥရပမားအား ေယဘယ ျခငမေလ ႐သည။ သ႔ျဖစပါေသာေၾကာင

အကယ၍သာ သေတသမားသည PLA တြငပါဝငသည ႐ေထာငတစခ ႏစခတညးတြငသာ ကၽြမးကငသညဆပါက

အဂတလကမႈ ျဖစပြားႏငစရာ႐သည။

အခကအလကေပးသအဂတ ဤတြငလညး အဂတမျဖစေအာင ထနးသမးရနအဓက ေသာခကမာ အပစတစခ၏ အျမငမားသည အေျခအေန

ျဖစရပတစခက ကယစားျပသညဟေသာလညးေကာငး၊ လဥးေရတစရပလး၏ ထငျမငခကက ကယစားျပသည

ဟေသာလညး ေကာငးလြမားစြာ မယၾကညမေစရန ျဖစသည။

ဥးတညအပစေဆြးေႏြးပြ (FGD) တစခတြငကသ႔ေသာလညးေကာငး၊ ပးေပါငးပါဝင လမႈေရး သေတသန (PAR)

တစခတြင ကသ႔ေသာလညးေကာငး၊ အကးစးပြားႏးႏႊယသမနသမ ပးေပါငးေလလာေရး လပငနးစဥမားတြင ပါဝငေစသငသည။ အထးဂ႐ျပရမညမာ -

o လငခြျခားမႈအဂတ - ေယာကားအျမင (သ႔) မနးမအျမငေပၚတြင အလြနတရာအေလးအနကထား လကမပါက

အျခားလငအပစ၏ အျမငမားအေပၚကယစားျပမႈ အားနညးသြားႏငသည။ o အကြကအကြငးအဂတ - လြယလငတက သြားေရာကႏငျပး အေျခခအေဆာကအအမ႐သည ေနရာတစေနရာ

တြင သတငးအခကအလကမား ေကာကယစေဆာငးပါက အကြကအကြငးအဂတအခ႕ ပါဝငလာႏငသည။ သညအျပင အဆပါအရပတြင ေနထငသ (သ႔) သြားေရာကသမားသညအနးအပါး႐ အခြငအလမး ပမနမပါးသည ေနရာမားမ လမားႏင အေတြးအျမင ကြာျခားႏငသည။ သ႔ျဖစေသာေၾကာင ေနရာေဒသ

ေ႐ြးခယေရးမာ အလြနလကဝငေသာ ကစၥတစရပပင ျဖစသည။ အရပေဒသမားစြာမ ကယကယ ျပန႔ျပန႔ သတငးအခကအလက ေကာကယျခငးျဖင အကးမားႏငပက သေတသမားထည သြငးစဥးစားသငသည။

o ဓနဥစၥာအဂတ - မားေသာအားျဖင ခမးသာၾကြယဝသမား (သ႔) အထကစးတြင ေနရာရထားသမား၏

အျမငမား သည ေလလာမႈတစေလာကလးတြင ၾသဇာဖစးေလ႐သည။ ဆငးရႏြမးပါးသမား၏

အဆျပခကမားပါ ပါဝငေစရန ၾကပမးအားထတမႈ မျပလပသေ႐ြ႕ ၄ငးအျမငမားသည ကယစားျပႏငစြမး နညးပါးသြားေလ ႐သည။

o ပညာေရးအဂတ - အဆငျမငပညာေရး ေလလာဆညးပးဖးသမား၏ အျမငမားသည ပညာေရးနမပါးသမား၏

အျမငမားထက ပမျပး ဂ႐ျပ စဥးစားျခငးခရေလ႐သည။ ယငးမာ ဘာသာစကားအဂတႏင ထပတကႏငစရာ႐

သည။ အဘယေၾကာငဆေသာ ပညာတတသမားသည သေတသနအဖြ႕ႏင ဆကဆစကားေျပာရာတြင ပမ

ကၽြမးကငေသာေၾကာင ျဖစသည။

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o Expectation bias: the villagers’ expectations of possible opportunities

linked to the research project often results in villagers emphasizing

specific information in their discussion with researchers. Similarly,

researchers’ expectations of what they will find in the community may

act as an unconscious filter of the information collected by the team.

Many NGO/CSO staff may have experienced an “expectation bias”. This is the case

when, for example, researchers undertake an assessment of public health in a specific

area. Although the researchers’ questions focus on health, villagers’ answers often raise

other concerns such as infrastructure rehabilitation, school renovation, etc. The reason

for such gap between questions and answers is that villagers often expect NGOs to act

as “service providers” in place of other institutions such as the government or the

community itself.

Bias related to tools and techniques used to gather information

The greater the variety of tools used during the PLA, the greater the chance of avoiding

biases. However, this advantage, i.e. diversity of tools used during a PLA, should be

weighed against time constraints and be considered in relation to PLA’s objectives (see

below).

Bias related to the study design and implementation

These biases are often related to the issue of research timing. Studies that take place

over a particular season during the year may be subject to ‘seasonal bias’ if the team

assumes that the conditions they observe are typical throughout the year. A similar

problem may arise for the daily schedule followed by the community under study. A

team of researchers that stay in the village for a fixed period of hours during the day

may find that the types of activities they observe and the people who are available for

interviews may not reflect the team’s initial expectations. The timing of their field

visits may inadvertently produce bias in the research findings. For example, a team

coming between 9:00am and 3:00pm each day in a rice farming village may find only

unoccupied farmers with whom to speak. These farmers may not be representative of

the whole community of farmers in the village. Finally, researchers that stay only a

very short time may not have time to go beyond their first impression. This first

impression will result in a bias that may eventually impact the way both the researchers

and the informants interpret issues.

2. Preparing the team for the PLA

The objectives of the PLA will depend on the focus of the research. In turn, the focus

will influence how the team is selected.

The main advice when building a PLA team is to have both (1) researchers having

previous experience about the issue under study and (2) researchers having skills in

building rapport with the community under study.

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o ေမာမနးခကအဂတ - ႐ြာသ႐ြာသားမားအေနႏင သေတသန စမကနးမ ရ႐လာမည အကးအျမတ က ေမာကးျပး သေသတမားႏင ေဆြးေႏြးေျပာၾကားသညအခါတြင အခကအလက အခ႕က အေလး ေပး ေျပာၾကားလာႏငသည။ အလားတပင သေတသမားသညလညး ရပ႐ြာအတြငး တစတရာ

ေဖာထတေတြ႕႐ရန ေမာလငထားပါက ယငးသည သတငးအခကအလကမား စေဆာငးရာ၌

မသစတမ ေရစစသဖြယ လရာဆြျပး လပေဆာငသြားႏငသည။

အနဂအ/စအကစအ ဝနထမးအေျမာကအျမားသည “ေမာမနးခကအဂတ” ႏင ပတသကျပး ေတြ႕ၾကဖးၾကသည။ ဥပမာ

သေတသမားသည ေဒသတစခတြင ျပညသ႕ကနးမာေရးဆငရာ ဆနးစစေလလာမႈတစရပ ျပလပပါက ဤသညမာ သတထား ရမည ကစၥရပတစခ ျဖစလာသည။ သေတသသည ကနးမာေရးဆငရာ ေမးခြနးမား ေမးျမနးေသာလညး ႐ြာသ႐ြာသားတ႔၏

အေျဖမာ အေျခခ အေဆာကအအ ျပနလညထေထာငေရး၊ ေကာငးျပျပငေရး စသညတ႔သာ ျဖစေနတတသည။ ဤသ႔ ျဖစရျခငးမာ အေမးအေျဖျပလပရာတြင ႐ြာသားမားသည အနဂအမားအား အစးရႏင ရပ႐ြာကသ႔ အဖြ႕အစညးမား ေနရာမ

“ဝနေဆာငမႈ ေပးမညသမား”သဖြယ ေမာလငေသာေၾကာင ျဖစသည။

သတငးစေဆာငးေရး ကရယာႏင နညးလမးမားဆငရာ အဂတမား PLA ျပ လပစဥအတြငး အသးျပသည ကရယာအမးအစား မားျပားေလေလ၊ အဂတ ေ႐ာငလႊရန အခြငအလမး ျမငမား ေလေလ ျဖစသည။ သ႔ေစကာမ သေတသအေနျဖင ယငးအာသာခကမာ အခနကန႔သတခကႏင ခနဆၾကညရမည ျဖစျပး PLA (ေအာကေဖာျပပါ) ရညမနးခကမားႏင ဆကႏြယမႈကပါ စဥးစားရမညျဖစသည။

ေလလာခကပစႏင အေကာငအထညေဖာမႈပငးဆငရာ အဂတမား မားေသာအားျဖင အဆပါ အဂတမးသည သေတသန ျပလပသညအခနႏင စပဆကေလ႐သည။ အကယ၍ သေတသန

အဖြ႕ကသာ ၄ငးတ႔ ေလလာေနသည အေျခအေနမားသည တစႏစတာ ပတလးတြင တသမတတညး ျဖစသညဟ ထငျမငယဆထားပါက တစခေသာ ရာသတြင ျပလပလကေသာ ေလလာခကမားသည ‘ရာသအဂတ’ က ျဖစပြားေစ

ႏငသည။ အလားတ ျပနာမးသည ေလလာဆရပ႐ြာတစခ ေန႔တဓဝ ပမနလပေဆာငေလ႐သည အခနဇယားတြင လညး ျဖစပြားႏငသည။ ႐ြာတစ႐ြာတြင ေန႔ပငးနာရအကန႔အသတႏငသာ ေနေသာ သေတသ အဖြ႕တစဖြ႕သာဆပါက

၄ငးတ႔ ေလလာခေသာလပငနးေဆာငတာမားႏငလကလမးမသေလာက လေတြ႕ ေမးျမနးခသမားမာအဖြ႕၏နဂမလ

ေမာမနးခကႏငကကညမႈမ႐ေၾကာငးက ေတြ႕႐ရေပလမမည။ကြငးဆငးသည အခနေၾကာငသေတသန ေတြ႕႐ခကမား တြင ရည႐ြငရငး မ႐ပါဘလက အဂတမား ပါဝငသြားႏငသည။ ဥပမာ စပါးစကသည ႐ြာတစ႐ြာသ႔ တစရကလင နနက ၉

နာရမ ညေန ၃ နာရအတြငး ကလာေရာကေလ႐သည အဖြ႕တစဖြ႕အတြက လပငနးခြငျပငပ ေရာကေနသည လယသမား မားႏငသာ စကားေျပာခြငရေပမည။ အဆပါ လယသမားမားသည ႐ြာမလယသမား အစအဖြ႕တစခလးက ကယစားျပ ႏငမည မဟတေပ။ ခဏတျဖတသာေနသည သေတသမားအေနျဖင လကဥးမဆြ ထငျမငယဆထားသညထက ပျပး ရႏငစရာ မ႐ေပ။ အဆပါ ထငျမငခကေၾကာင သေတသမားႏင အခကအလကေပးသမား၏ ျပနာရပ အဓပၸါယ ေကာကယပက တဆငျပး တဆင အဂတ သြတသြငးလကႏငသည။ ၂။ PLA အတြက အဖြ႕ဖြ႕စညးျခငး PLA ၏ ရညမနးခကမားသည သေတသန၏ အာ႐စကမႈအပငးေပၚတြင မတညသည။ တဖကတြင အဆပါ အာ႐စကမႈ သည အဖြ႕ေ႐ြးခယပက လႊမးမးမႈ႐သည။

PLA အဖြ႕ဖြ႕စညးရာတြင အဓက အၾကျပလသညမာ (၁) ေလလာမည ကစၥရပႏင စပလဥးျပး ယခငအေတြ႕အၾက ႐ျပးသား သေတသမား ပါဝငေစရန (၂) ေလလာမည ရပ႐ြာႏင ဆကဆေရး ရငးႏးမႈ တညေဆာငေပးႏငစြမး ႐မည သေတသမား ပါဝငေစရနတ႔ ျဖစပါသည။

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A PLA requires more or less the same set-up and range of skills as a Focus Group

Discussion (see Chapter on ‘Focus Group Discussion’). Just like for FGDs, the

researcher acts as a facilitator during participatory learning sessions. He/She also

should have skills in building a good rapport with the members of the community.

He/She is advised to actively listen without acting as the expert. The facilitator acts as a

catalyst for the community members to participate in a collective discussion, share

their knowledge, and organize it. The note taker records the information produced

during participatory learning sessions. The note taker acts also as an observer and may

help the facilitator to ensure that everybody gets equal opportunities to talk and

participate.

PARTICIPATORY TOOLS AND HOW TO USE THEM FOR A PLA

The focus here is on the participatory tools researchers should get acquainted with for

implementing PLA and other participatory research such as PAR. Research methods

employed during a PLA are not restricted to the tools presented below. For example,

Focus Group Discussions (FGD), In-depth interviews, and Venn diagrams can be

included in the PLA (FGD and In-depth interviews are explained in separate chapters;

Venn diagrams are explained in the chapter focusing on PAR).

It is important to note that mapping, calendars, and participatory techniques that are

presented below are tools only. If the objectives of how these tools should be used are

not clearly spelled out, these participatory tools are unlikely to yield the expected

results and produce the relevant information. Therefore, one important step is to

establish a check-list of the subjects and issues to be covered when using each of the

tools presented below. It is recommended to always have this check-list available

somewhere in the office. Putting the check-list on a flip chart is a good way to have it

visible for both the researchers and stakeholders participating in the activities below.

For mobile activities such as transect walk (see after), researchers should each keep a

list with key objectives and questions to look at during the field visit.

1. Participatory Mapping

Participatory mapping consist in maps about specific issues drawn by members of the

community affected by these issues. As explained above, these individuals are selected

according to their anticipated knowledge about these issues. Regarding the “fishing

practices and rule of law”, an example previously mentioned, such participatory

mapping involve fishermen running small, middle, and large businesses, fishermen

fishing in small creeks, rivers and sea-coast, and fishermen using various fishing

techniques, etc.

Maps work well in groups since people can remind one another of things that may be

forgotten. Errors can also be more easily corrected. Before discussing with the

participants the topics mentioned in the check-list, the facilitator of the participatory

mapping ask the participants to indicate on the map the landmarks that they feel are

important to show. It is important to begin with the villagers’ own perceptions and

priorities. Only when the participants complete the map based on their own

perceptions, should the facilitator intervene and ask about topics listed in the check–list

that were not mentioned by the participants.

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PLA တစခသည ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြ ဖြ႕စညးပႏင သကဆငရာ ကၽြမးကငမႈမး အနညးႏငအမား လအပသည

(အခနး ၈ ဥးတညအပစေဆြးေႏြးပြက ၾကညပါ)။ ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြတြငကသ႔ပင သေတသသည ပးေပါငး ေလလာ

ေရး လပငနးစဥအတြငး ပြထနးအျဖစ ေဆာငရြကရသည။ ၄ငးသည ရပ႐ြာအတြငး႐ လမားႏင ဆကဆေရး ေကာငးမြနရ

မည။ ၄ငးအေနျဖင ေျပာၾကားလာသမက အာ႐စက နားေထာငရမညျဖစျပး ငါသငါတတ မလပရ။ ပြထနးမည သသည ရပ႐ြာမ လမားက စေပါငး ေဆြးေႏြးပြတြငပါဝငေစရန၊၄ငးတ႔သကၽြမးနားလညသမမေဝေစရနႏငအစအစဥတက ျဖစေစ

ရန ေဆာင႐ြကေပးရမည။ မတစလကသသည ပးေပါငးေလလာေရး လပငနးစဥအတြငး ရ႐သမ သတငး အခကအလက မားက ေရးသားမတတမး တငရမည။ မတစလကသသည ေလလာသ အေနႏငပါ ေဆာင႐ြကရမညျဖစျပး ပါဝင ေဆြးေႏြး သတငး စကားေျပာခြငရေစရန ပြထနးအား အကအညေပးရမည။

ပးေပါငးေဆြးေႏြးေရး ကရယာမား အေၾကာငးႏင ယငးတ႔အား PLA အတြက အသးခပ

ဤတြင အဓကေဖာျပလသညမာ PLA ျပလပ အေကာငအထညေဖာေရးႏင PAR ကသ႔ ပးေပါငးပါဝငေရး သေတသန

မားအတြက သေတသမား နားလညကၽြမးဝငသငသည ပးေပါငးပါဝငေရး ကရယာမားအေၾကာငး ျဖစသည။ PLA တစခ ျပလပစဥ အတြငး အသးျပေသာ သေတသနနညးလမးမားအား ေအာကေဖာျပပါ ကရယာမားအတြက ကန႔သတထား ျခငး မ႐ေပ။ ဥပမာ - ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြ (FGD)၊ အေသးစတလေတြ႕ေမးျမနးျခငးႏင ဗနးပၾကမးမားသည PLA တြင ပါဝငႏငသည။ (သးသန႔ စကားဝငးႏင အေသးစတလေတြ႕ေမးျမနးျခငးမား အေၾကာငးက အခနးသပသပခြ၍ ႐ငးျပထား သည။ ဗနးပၾကမးမားအား PAR စပလဥးသည အခနးတြင ႐ငးျပထားသည။) ေအာကေဖာျပပါ ေျမပျပခက၊ ျပကၡဒနမားႏင ပးေပါငးပါဝငေရး နညးလမးမားသည ကရယာ သကသကမသာ

ျဖစေၾကာငး သတျပရန အေရးၾကးသည။ အကယ၍သာ ယငးကရယာမားက မညသ႔မညပ အသးခရမည အေၾကာငး တက႐ငးလငးစြာ ရညမနးခက သတမတထားခက မ႐ပါက ၄ငးပးေပါငးပါဝငေရးကရယာမားသည မနးဆထားသည ရလဒမားႏင သကဆငရာ သတငးအခကအလကမား ထြကေပၚလာေစရန မလြယကေပ။ သ႔ျဖစပါ၍ ေအာကေဖာျပပါ ကရယာမား အသးျပခနတြင ျခငရမည အေၾကာငးအရာ ကစၥရပမားက စာရငးျပစထားရန အေရးၾကးသည။ အဆပါ စာရငးအား႐းတြင အလြယတကရ႐ႏငေအာင ထား႐ႏငပါက အေကာငးဆးျဖစသည။ ေ႐႕ေကာကသငပနးတြင စာရငး ကထား႐ျခငးသည သေတသမားႏင ေအာကေဖာျပပါ လပငနးမားတြင ပါဝငမည အကးစးပြား ႏးႏႊယသမား အတြက ျမငသာထငသာ ႐ေစမည နညးလမး ေကာငးတစရပ ျဖစသည။ transect walk (ေနာကတြငၾကည) ကသ႔ေသာ ေ႐ြ႕လား လပငနးမားအတြက ကြငးဆငေလလာခနတြင အဓကရညမနးခကမားႏင ေမးခြနးမား ပါဝငေသာ စာရငးက ၾကည႐ ႏငေအာင သေတသတစဥးလင တစခက ေဆာငထားသငသည။ ၁။ ပးေပါငးပါဝငေရး ေျမပျပခက ပးေပါငးပါဝငေရး ေျမပျပခကတြင ျပနာရပမား ထခကသကေရာကမႈဒဏက ခၾကရသည ရပ႐ြာအဖြ႕ဝငမား ဆြသားေပးသည ယငးျပနာရပမားျပ ေျမပမားပါဝငသည။ အထကတြင ႐ငးျပခသညအတငး လတစဥးခငးစအား ျပနာရပမားႏင ပတသတျပး နားလညသည အတငးအတာအရ ေ႐ြးခယထားသည။ ယခင ေဖာျပျပး ဥပမာတစခ ျဖစသည “ငါးဖမးနညးမားႏင တရားဥပေဒစးမးေရး” တြင အလားတ ပးေပါငးပါဝငေရး ေျမပျပလပခက ပါ႐သည။ ယငး ေျမပျပခကတြင အေသးစား၊ အလယအလတႏင အၾကးစား ငါးဖမးလပငနးမား လပကငၾကသည တငါသညမား၊ ေခာငးဆြယ၊ ျမစႏင ပငလယကမးေျခတြင ငါးဖမးသည တငါသညမားႏင ငါးဖမးနညးေပါငးစ အသးျပၾကသည တငါသညမား စသတ႔ ပါဝငၾကသည။

ေျမပမားေၾကာင ေမေလာကနခသညမားက လအပစအတြငး အခငးအခငး သတေပးႏငသညအတြက လြနစြာ အလပျဖစသည ဟ ဆႏငသည။ အမားအယြငးမားကလညး လြယလငတက ျပငဆငႏငသည။ စာရငးပါ အေၾကာငး အရာက မေဆြးေႏြးမ ပးေပါငးပါဝငေရး ေျမပျပလပမညပြထနးသည ေဆြးေႏြးမညသမားအား ေျမပေပၚ႐အမတအသား ျပထားသမတြင ၄ငးတ႔ အေရးၾကးသညဟ ထငျမငယဆသညေနရာက ျပသခငးရမည။ ႐ြာသ႐ြာသားမား၏ နားလည သေဘာေပါကထားသည အရာမား၊ ဥးစားေပးမားႏင စတငရန အေရးၾကးသည။ ဝငေရာကေဆြးေႏြးသမား ၄ငးတ႔ နားလညထားသလ ေျမပျပလပျပးစးပါမ ေဆြးေႏြးသမား ျပလပထားျခငး မဟတသည စာရငးပါ အေၾကာငးအရာတ႔က ေမးျမနးရန ပြထနးပါဝငရမည ျဖစသည။

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To start drawing the map, the team has to clear a large open area, ideally outside where there is plenty of space to expand as needed. Mapping on a piece of paper is not recommended since it is difficult to erase information and redraw. Furthermore, the limited size of the paper usually restricts the drawing possibilities. The best location for mapping is to select a large space on an open ground. The participants can use sticks, shells, rocks, leaves and other objects as markers. If this is not possible or appropriate, drawing can be made by using some chalk on cement floor or using colored tape on carpet. Whenever a landmark or specific location is mentioned by the participants, a marker (e.g. stone, shell, leaf) is placed to indicate the location of the landmark on the map. As the activity gets underway, the team is careful to stand back and leave the drawing and placement of markers to the villagers. The facilitator, initially, limits his/her questions by asking only: “Is there anything else?”,“Has anything been forgotten?” It is recommended to record each participatory mapping exercise. If the map is drawn on the floor, taking a picture may help the research team to draw it later more properly on paper or on a computer. If a picture is not taken, the map may be re-drawn by a note-taker. Below is a map drawn on computer for a study of land use. It is

based upon an original map drawn by some villagers. The

villagers first located the landmarks they thought were the

most important: the school, pagoda, drinking water tank. Only

then the team helps the villagers locate other important

information, especially natural resources such as rivers and

canals. Important stakeholders for paddy cultivation, such as

the rice miller’s house have been located on the map. Other

resources such as Nipa grounds have been situated as well.

Credit : GRET Land Tenure Project 2015

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ေျမပစတငဆြသားရနအတြက ေနရာကယကယဝနးဝနးရ႐ေအာင ႐ငးလငးရမညျဖစသည။ အျပငဘကေနရာမာ အေကာငးဆးျဖစျပး လအပသေလာက ေနရာခ႕၍လညး ရႏငသည။ စာ႐ြကေပၚတြင ေျမပဆြသားပါက အခကအလက မား ျပနလညျပငဆငရန ခကခသညအတြက ေကာငးစြာ မသငေတာေခ။ ထ႔အျပင စာ႐ြကအ႐ြယအစား ကန႔သတခက ေၾကာင စတၾကကဆြြသားဖ႔ရာ အခကအချဖစေစသည။ ေျမပျပလပခကအတြက အေကာငးဆးမာ ေျမကြကလပ ကယကယဝနးဝနးတစခ ေ႐ြးခယရန ျဖစသည။ ပါဝငသညသမားမာ တတေခာငး၊ အခြ၊ ေကာကတး၊ သစ႐ြကႏင အျခားအရာ ဝတမားျဖင ဆြသားေရးျခစ၍ ရႏငသည။ အကယ၍ မျဖစႏငပါက (သ႔) အဆငမေျပပါက အဂၤေတ ၾကမးျပငေပၚတြင ေျမျဖျဖငေသာလညးေကာငး၊ ေကာေဇာေပၚတြင ေရာငစတပမားျဖငေသာလညးေကာငး ဆြသားခက မား ျပလပႏငသည။ ေဆြးေႏြးသတ႔က ေျမပအမတေသာလညးေကာငး၊ ေနရာတစေနရာကေသာလညးေကာငး ညႊနျပလကသညႏင အမတ အသား တစခခ (ဥပမာ - ေကာကတး၊အခြ၊သစ႐ြက) ျဖင ေျမပေပၚတြင မတသားလကရမည။ လပငနး စတငသညႏင တျပငနက အဖြ႕သည ခပခြာခြာေနရမညျဖစျပး ေနရာ အမတအသားျပသည ဆြသားကရယာမားက ႐ြာသားမားထ လကလႊေပးထားရမည။ ပြထနးသည ေမးခြနးေျမာကျမားစြာ ေမးျမနးျခငးမး မျပလပရဘ “ေနာကထပ႐ပါေသးသလား”၊ “ေမကနေနေသးတာ ႐ပါေသးသလား” အစ႐သညမေလာကသာ ေမးျမနးျခငးျပရမည။ ပါဝငသ တစဥးခငးစ၏ ေျမပျပခကက မတတမးတငထားႏငပါက အေကာငးဆး ျဖစသည။ ၾကမးျပငေပၚ ဆြသားထား သည ေျမပျဖစပါက ဓါတပ႐ကယထားျခငးျဖင ေနာငတြင သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနႏင ပအေခာက စာ႐ြကျဖင (သ႔) ကြနပတာျဖင ျပနလညဆြသားႏငသည။ အကယ၍ ဓါတပမ႐ကျဖစပါက မတစလကသက ျပနလညဆြသား ရမည။

ေအာကေဖာျပပါ ကြနပတာျဖင ဆြသားထားသည ေျမပသည ေျမယာအသးခမႈဆငရာ ေလလာခကအတြကျဖစျပး ႐ြာသားအခ႕၏ မရငးေျမပဆြသားခကအေပၚ အေျခခထားသည။ ဥးစြာပထမ႐ြာသားမားသည စာသငေကာငး၊ ဘရားေစတ၊ ေသာကေရေလာငကန စသည ၄ငးတ႔အေရးၾကးသညဟယဆသည ေနရာမားက ေျမပအမတအသား ျပသည။ ျပးမသာအျခား အေရးၾကးသညအခကအလကမား (ျမစ၊ေျမာငးသယဇာတရငးျမစမား) သေတသနအဖြ႕မ ျဖညစြကေပးသည။ ဆနစကပင႐ငအမကသ႔ စပါးစကပးေရးလပငနးအတြက အေရးၾကးသည အကးစးပြား ႏးႏႊယသမား ကလညး ေျမပေပၚတြငေဖာျပေပးမည။ ဓနျခကသ႔ အျခားအေရးၾကးသည သယဇာတမားကလညး ေနရာအမတအသား ျပႏငသည။

Credit : GRET Land Tenure Project 2015

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Participatory mapping is a very flexible tool. For example, a same location may be drawn

at different scales. Below is a larger map showing the location of a village surrounded by

land plots. The map helps to understand how villagers think about land use. It also helps to

understand which strategies they use for purchasing land: Do farmers try to cultivate

contiguous plots? Do they, on the contrary, try to cultivate plots far apart from each other?

Credit : GRET Land Tenure Project 2015

For studying “fishing practices and rule of law”, maps focusing on fishing grounds

rather than on villages may show: (1) if fishermen go to distant fishing grounds or

those close to the village; (2) what motivations push fishermen to choose specific

fishing grounds and not others; (3) whether tensions exist between villagers on the

same fishing ground, etc.

Historical mapping

Historical mapping can provide a useful way of understanding changes that have taken

place over time in a community. After doing the first map of the current situation, the

community can be asked to draw another map or to show how things were at a given

time in the past. The historical time selected for mapping will depend on the nature of

the study. It might be about a time period before a historical event that had an impact

on the community in some specific ways (e.g. a natural disaster such as Nargis). It

might also be about a distant past such as “when the elders of this community were

young children”.

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ေျမပပးေပါငးဆြသားနညးသည အဆငေျပသလ အသးခႏငေသာ ကရယာတစချဖစသည။ ဥပမာ တညေနရာ တစခတညးက စေကးေပါငးစျဖင ဆြသားႏငသည။ ေျမပေၾကာင ႐ြာသားမား ေျမယာအသးခပ၊ ေျမဝယယရန အသးျပသည နညးလမးမားက နားလညသေဘာေပါကေစသည။ လယသမားမား ဆကစပ လယကြကမားတြင ထြနယကစကပးေလ ႐ပါသလား။ သ႔တညးမဟတ တစခႏငတစခ ခပလမးလမးခြာျပး စကပးၾကပါသလား။

Credit : GRET Land Tenure Project 2015

“ငါးဖမးနညးမားႏင တရားဥပေဒစးမးေရး” က ေလလာရာတြငမ ႐ြာမားထက ငါးဖမးသည အကြကမားက အထးျပ ေလလာျခငးျဖင (၁) တငါသညမားသည ႐ြာႏငနးသညေနရာတြင ငါးဖမးပါသလား၊ ေဝးသညေနရာတြင ငါဖမးပါသလား (၂) တငါသညမား မညသညအတြကေၾကာင အခ႕ေသာ ေနရာမားတြင ငါးဖမးျပး အခ႕တြင ငါးမဖမးဘေနပါသနညး (၃) ႐ြာသားမားအၾကား ငါးဖမးကြကလရငး ဆကဆေရး တငးမာမႈ႐မ႐ စသညတ႔က သ႐ႏငပါသည။

သမငးစဥျပေျမပျပခက သမငးစဥျပ ေျမပျပခကသည ရပ႐ြာတစခတြင အခနကာလႏငခ ျဖစပြားခေသာ အေျပာငးအလမားက နားလည

သေဘာေပါကႏငေစေရးအတြက အလြနအသးဝငသည။ လက႐ျဖစပြားေနေသာ အေျခအေနအတြက ပထမဆး ေျမပ

တစချပလပျပးသညႏင ေနာကထပ ေျမပတစခဆြသားရန (သ႔) သကဆငရာ အတတကာလ အခနတစခမ မညသည

အရာမားျဖစပြားခပက ျပသရနရပ႐ြာအား ေမးျမနးႏငသည။ အတတသမငး၏ မညသညကာလက ေ႐ြးခယမည

ဆေသာအခကမာ ေလလာမႈ၏ သေဘာသဘာဝေပၚတြင မတညသည။ ၄ငးကာလသည ရပ႐ြာေပၚ တနညးတဖ အကး

သကေရာကမႈ ၾကးမားသည သမငးတြင ျဖစပြားခသည ျဖစရပမတငမ အခနကာလ တစခခအေၾကာငး ျဖစႏငသည

(ဥပမာ နာဂစကသ႔ေသာ သဘာဝ ေဘးဒဏ)။ “ရပ႐ြာ၏ သကၾကး႐ြယအမား ကေလးဘဝ” ေလာကက ကသ႔ အလမး

ကြာေဝးလြနးလသည အတတတစခလညး ျဖစႏငသည။

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By using these techniques of historical mapping, the facilitator and the research team

may find out about the impact of:

in- or out- migrations;

infrastructure construction (how the construction of roads, school or health

facilities has altered village life);

changes in livelihood patterns (how changes in the way people live and work

can affect the overall organization of the village).

Below is a historical map showing successive waves of settlement in a village. The

purpose of the mapping is to have an overview of village and to understand the village

development throughout time.

Credit : GRET Land Tenure Project 2015

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သမငးစဥ ေျမပျပခကနညးလမးမားက အသးျပျခငးအားျဖင ပြထနးႏငသေတသနအဖြ႕သည

ရပ႐ြာအျပင (သ႔) အတြငးသ႔ ေ႐ႊ႕ေျပာငးေနထငမႈမား အေျခခ အေဆာကအအ တညေဆာကမႈ (လမးတတား၊ ေကာငးႏင ကနးမားေရး ေစာငေ႐ာကမႈ လပငနးမား

ထေထာငေပးျခငးျဖင ေကးလကလေနမႈဘဝက မညသ႔ေျပာငးလေစခပ) အသကေမြးမႈ လပငနးစဥေျပာငးလမႈမား (လမား၏ ေနထငအလပလပပ ေျပာငးလမႈမားသည ရပ႐ြာလ႔အဖြ႕

အစညး တစခလး ေျပာငးလေစေရးအတြက မညမအကးသကေရာကပ) တ႔၏ ၾသဇာသကေရာကမႈမားက ေတြ႕႐ႏငပါသည။

ေအာကေဖာျပပါ သမငးစဥျပေျမပတြင ရပ႐ြာတစခအတြငး လာေရာကအေျခခသည ေ႐ြ႕ေျပာငးေနထငသမားက အသတလက ေဖာျပထားသည။ ေျမပျပလပရျခငး၏ ရည႐ြယခကမာ ယခငက ႐ြာအေနအထား မညသ႔႐ခပႏင အခနကာလ ေ႐ြ႕ေလာလာသညႏငအမ မညသ႔မညပ ဖြ႕ျဖးခပက အၾကမးျမငႏငရန ျဖစသည။

Credit : GRET Land Tenure Project 2015

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Social mapping

Social maps combine spatial analysis with ranking of information. A social map locates

all the households studied in the village. Information about these households is then

indicated by various markers. For example, families might be ranked according to the

level each family has reached in terms of food security. A specific marker is used to

indicate a low level of food security; another marker is used to indicate a middle level

of food security; a last marker is used to indicate a high level of food security.

Below is a map showing wealth ranking among households studied in a village located

near Monywa.

Credit : GRET Land Tenure Project 2015

Interest group mapping

This approach to mapping considers the perspectives held by different groups of

interest regarding a particular issue. In contrast with participatory mapping which seeks

to involve as many people as possible, interest group mapping seeks to involve people

sharing only the same interests or features. This way, each group of interest can draw

its “own” map following its “own” perception of the issue.

For example, an interest group mapping resources in a specific village can be done

with women gathered in one group and men gathered in another group. The mapping of

the village resources is likely to show different perceptions depending on whether the

perceptions are of women and men. For example, women are likely to pay more

attention to fresh water supply as they are most often in charge of managing water in

the household. Men are likely to pay more attention to forestry issues as they more

often hunt.

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လမႈေရးေျမပျပခက

လမႈေရးေျမပမားသည အကြကအကြငး စစစေလလာမႈက အစအစဥတက စဥတနးထားေသာ သတငးအခကအလက မားႏင ေပါငးစပေပးသည။ လမႈေရးေျမပတြင ႐ြာအတြငး႐ ေလလာမည အမေထာငစမားက အမတအသားျပထားျပး အဆပါ အမေထာငစမားႏင သကဆငသည သတငးအခကအလကမားက သေကၤတေပါငးစျဖင ညႊနျပထားမည။ ဥပမာ မသားစတစစခငးစအား ၄ငးတ႔၏ စားနပရကၡာ လေလာကမႈ ေရခနအတငး အစဥလက ေဖာျပထားမည။ စားနပရကၡာ လေလာကမႈ ေရခနက အနမ၊ အလယ၊ အျမငအလက သကၤတ တစခစျဖင ေဖာျပေပးရမည။

ေအာကပါေျမပတြင မ႐ြာအနးပတဝနးကငတြင႐ ေလလာေနသည ႐ြာတစ႐ြာမ အမေထာငစမားအား ဓနဥစၥာပငဆငမႈ အလက စစဥထားသည။

Credit : GRET Land Tenure Project 2015

အကးတအပစမား ေျမပျပခက အဆပါေျမပျပေရး ခဥးကပေလလာသညနညးတြင ကစၥရပတစခေပၚတြငမ အကးစးပြားတရာအလက ဖြ႕စညးထားေသာ အပစကြမား၏ အျမငမားက ထညသြငးစဥးစားသည။ ဤနညးတြင ေျမပပးေပါငးျပလပေရး နညးတြငကသ႔ လမားႏငသမ မားေအာင ပါဝငေစျခငးမး မဟတဘ အကးစးပြားတ၊ စ႐ကလကၡဏာတသမားကသာ ႐ာေဖြသည။ သ႔ျဖင ဘအကး စးပြား မေဝသည အပစတစစခငးစသည ျပနာရပအေပၚထား႐သည ၄ငးတ႔ “ကယပင” အျမငအရ “ကယပင” ေျမပ တစခစက ဆြသားႏငေပမည။

ဥပမာ ႐ြာတစ႐ြာ႐ အရငးအျမစမားက အကးတအပစ ေျမပျပလပမညဆပါက ကား၊ မ တစအပစစခြ၍ ျပလပႏငသည။ ကား၊ မ ႐ေထာငေပၚမတည၍ မတညသညအျမငမားက ေျမပျပလပရာတြင ေတြ႕႐ရေပမည။ ဥပမာဆရေသာ မားေသာအားျဖင အမးသမးမားသည အမတြငေသာကေရ ရ႐ေအာင ေဆာငရြကရသည အေလာက ေရေကာငး ေရသန႔ ရ႐ေရးကသာ ၄ငးတ႔အေနႏင စတဝငစားေပလမမည။ အမးသားမားအေနႏငမ အမလကသည တာဝနက ယရသညအတြက သစေတာႏငဆငသညကစၥရပမားတြင ပမစတဝငစားေပလမမည။

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Interest group mapping can be done with various social and economic categories of

people or different ethnic groups sharing the same resources, etc.

2. Transect walk

A transect walk means a walk made through the community under study. This walk is

made by the research team in the company of “guides” from the village. As the team

walks along the village streets, “guides” are asked questions by the team. These

questions can be about anything: from anything that the team comes across while

walking to any issue included in a checklist of information needed by the research

team.

The purpose of a transect walk is to get the team and the interviewee(s) out of the

typical interview setting and to make use of the guides’ observation skills. Most often,

the transect walk brings the team throughout the different parts of the community

(often identified after studying the participatory map). It is also recommended to walk

all the way to the outer limits of the territory under study as a way to reduce the spatial

bias. This spatial bias often results from the fact that interviews with community

members and most village meetings often take place in the center of the village, and

generally in one place (the village head’s house, the monastery, etc.). This practice

tends to influence how people think about their immediate environment. This practice

tends to give greater prominence to the center of the village or territory than to its

peripheries. By walking all the way to the limits of the territory under study (the

village’s periphery for example), the research team captures a new perspective on the

territory, its resources, the land use, etc.

If the research team is large, it makes sense to divide the team into several subgroups

when conducting a transect walk. Each subgroup selects “guides” from the community.

Guides are individuals with a more developed knowledge of the issue studied by each

group. For a subgroup selecting land use as an issue, an old farmer with knowledge

about how land was used in former times is a good guide. Here again, triangulation of

information requires more than one “guide” to reduce bias.

Information collected during a transect walk can be turned into a diagram. The diagram

usually features the different areas of the village territory explored during the walk

represented on the horizontal axis. The vertical axis features other types of information

collected on the walk and directly related to the research scope. In the case of a ‘food

shortage’ transect (see diagram below), this information might include information

about crops and livelihood problems faced by villagers. In addition to gathering

information about these various topics, the transect walk is a good way to verify and

expand on information that was obtained earlier in the mapping exercise.

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ဘအရငးျမစမား မေဝသးစြသည တငးရငးသား အပစမားျဖငေသာလညးေကာငး၊ လမႈစးပြားေရး က႑ကြျပားသည လမားျဖင လညးေကာငး အကးတအပစ ေျမပမား ျပလပႏငသည။

၂။လမးေလာကေလလာေရး လမးေလာကေလလာနညး ဆသညမာ ေလလာေနသည ရပ႐ြာစဥတေလာက လမးေလာကျခငးျဖစသည။ လမးေလာကရာတြင သေတသနအဖြ႕သည႐ြာမ “လမးျပ” မားက အသးျပသည။ ႐ြာ႐းကးေပါက လမးတကာလညျပး လမးေလာကစဥ အတြငးသေတသနအဖြ႕မ “လမးျပ” မားအား ေမးခြနးမား ေမးသည။ ယငးေမးခြနးမားမာ မညသည အေၾကာငးအရာမဆ ျဖစႏငသည။ လမးတြင ေတြ႕သမ အရာမားမ အစ သေတသနစာရငးပါ ကစၥရပမားအထ မညသည အရာမဆ ျဖစႏငသည။

ဤသ႔ လမးေလာကရျခငး၏ ရည႐ြယခကမာ အဖြ႕ႏင လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးခရမည သမားက သမ႐းက ေမးျမနးသည ေဘာငအတြငးမ ဆြထတလကျခငးျဖစျပး လမးျပမား၏ ပတဝနးကင ေလလာမႈ စြမးအားက အသးျပျခငး ျဖစသည။ လမးေလာကေလလာျခငးေၾကာင သေတသနအဖြ႕သည (ပးေပါငးပါဝငေရး ေျမပက ေလလာျပးမသာ သတမတေလ ႐ေသာ) ႐ြာ၏ ေနရာေဒသအစတအပငးေပါငးစက ေရာက႐ႏငသည အကြကအကြငး အဂတက နညးႏငသမနညးေစရန ေလလာမည နယပယအျပငဘကသ႔ လမးေလာကႏငပါက သာလြနေကာငးမြနသည။ ရပ႐ြာတြငး ေနထငသမားအား လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးရာတြငႏင ႐ြာအစညးအေဝးမား ျပလပရာတြင (႐ြာသၾကးအမ၊ ဘနးၾကးေကာငး စသည) ႐ြာအလယ ဗဟႏင ေနရာတစေနရာတညးတြငသာ ျပလပေလ႐ျခငးေၾကာင အကြကအကြငး အဂတမား ျဖစေပၚႏငသည။ အဆပါ လပရပသည လအမားသည ၄ငးတ႔ႏငအနးဆး ပတဝနးကငအေပၚ သေဘာထားပက ၾသဇာသကေရာကမႈ႐သည။ ယငးလပရပေၾကာင ႐ြာအလယ (သ႔) ေလလာမည အရပေဒသဗဟခကက အစြနအဖား ေဒသမားထက အေလးေပး လြနးရာ ေရာကသည။ ေလလာမည အရပေဒသ၏ နယနမတ (ဥပမာ ႐ြာစညး႐း) ထေရာကေအာင လမးေလာကျခငးျဖင ၄ငးအရပေဒသေပၚ ျမငသညအျမငသစ၊ ၄ငး၏ အရငးအျမစမား၊ ေျမယာအသးျပပ စသညတ႔က သ႐လာေပမည။

သေတသနအဖြ႕တြင လအငအားမားပါက အဖြ႕ငယမားဖြ႕ျပး လမးေလာကေလလာမႈ ျပသငသည။ အဖြ႕ငယ တစခခငး စသည ရပ႐ြာ႐ “လမးျပ” အသးသးက ေ႐ြးခယရမည။ ၄ငးလမးျပမားသည အဖြ႕ငယတစခခငးစ ေလလာေနသည ကစၥရပ တစခခငးစက သာမနထကပ၍ နားလညကၽြမးဝငသျဖစရမည။ ေျမယာအသးခမႈႏင ပတသကျပး ေလလာမည အဖြ႕ငယအတြက ေ႐းယခငေျမယာ အသးျပမႈအေၾကာငး သ႐သည သကၾကးဝါၾကး လယသမားၾကးမားသည သငတင ေကာငးမြနသညလမး ျပမားျဖစၾကသည။ ဤတြငလညး အဂတေလာနညးေစေရး အလ႔ငာ အခကအလကမားက ႐ေထာငစစစေဆးရန အတြက “လမးျပ” တစေယာကထကမက လအပသည။

လမးေလာကေလလာမႈ ျပလပစဥအတြငး စေဆာငးရ႐လာသည သတငးအခကအလကမားက ပဆြသား ေဖာျပႏင သည။ လမးေလာကစဥ ေရာက႐ခသမ႐ြာအတြငး႐ေနရာေပါငးစကပတြင ေရျပငညအတငး ေဖာျပထားသည။ လမးေလာကစဥ စေဆာငးရ႐ခသည အျခားသတငးအခကအလကမားႏင သေတသန နယပယႏင တက႐ကစပဆင သည အေရာမားကမ ေထာငလကေဖာျပထားသည။ “စားနပရကၡာ႐ားပါမႈ” ကစၥရပ (ေအာကေဖာျပပါပက ၾကညပါ) ႏင ပတသကျပး ေလလာရာတြင ေကာကပသးႏႏင လယသမားမား ရငဆငေနရေသာ အသကေမြးမႈ ျပနာမားဆငရာ သတငး အခကအလကမားပါဝငသည။ အဆပါ ကစၥရပမားစြာအတြက သတငးအခကအလကမားစြာ စေဆာငးရသည အျပင လမးေလာကေလလာမႈသည ေျမပျပလပခကပါ သတငးအခကအလကမားက အမးအစားခြျခငးႏင ခ႕ထြငျခငး တ႔ ျပလပရနအတြက အလြနေကာငးမြနေသာ နညးလမးတစရပ ျဖစသည။

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http://www.adpc.net/pdr-sea/cbdo-dr/images/annex3g.gif

3. Calendars

Calendars are diagrams that focus on seasonal issues. They are graphic representations

of how things change throughout the year. Calendars are particularly important for

food security, agriculture, and health. By drawing calendars research teams are more

likely to avoid the ‘seasonality bias’ which can mislead the research team about the

extent to which village activities are seasonal.

When drawing the calendar the research team should let the villagers decide at which

time of the year (month) the calendar starts. For a seasonal calendar focusing on

agriculture, the calendar is likely to start at the time when land is ploughed. For a

seasonal calendar focusing on farming practices in relation to households’ financial

capacity, the calendar is likely to start at the time when loans are taken by farmers.

The example shown below has a seasonal calendar focusing on agricultural activities

and employment opportunities for daily laborers.

Credit : GRET Land Tenure Project 2015

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http://www.adpc.net/pdr-sea/cbdo-dr/images/annex3g.gif

၃။ ျပကၡဒနမား ျပကၡဒနမားမာ ရာသအလက ျဖစပြားသညကစၥရပမားက ေဖာျပေပးသည ဇယားကြကမား ျဖစၾကသည။ တစႏစတာလး မညကသ႔ေသာ အေျပာငးအလမား ျဖစေပၚလမမညက အ႐ပသကၤေတမားႏင ေဖာျပခကမား ပါဝငသည။ စားနပရကၡာ ဖလေရး၊ စကပးေရးႏင ကနးမာေရးတ႔အတြက ျပကၡဒနမားမာ အထးအေရးပါသည။ ရာသ အဂတမားေၾကာင ႐ြာ၏ လပငနးမားသည မညေ႐ြ႕မညမ ဥတအလက ျဖစသည မျဖစသည ဆေသာအခကက သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနႏင နားလညမႈ လြသြားႏငသည။ ျပကၡဒနမား ျပလပေရးဆြျခငးျဖင သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင အဆပါ ရာသအဂတမားက ေ႐ာင႐ားလာႏငလမမည ျဖစသည။ ဆြသားရာတြင ျပကၡဒနက ႏစတစႏစ၏ မညသညအခနတြင (မညသညလတြင) စတငရမညက ႐ြာသ႐ြာသားမားက သာ ဆးျဖတေစသငသည။ စကပးေရးလပငနးသး ျပကၡဒနဆပါက လယယာထြနယကသည အခနမ စတငေပမည။ အမေထာငစ ေငြေၾကးအငအားႏင ဆကစပေရးဆြထားေသာ လယယာစကပးေရးဆငရာ ရာသျပကၡဒနသည လယသမားမား ေခးေငြစတငထတယသည အခနမ စတငေပမည။ ေအာကေဖာျပပါ ဥပမာသည စကပးေရးလပငနးမားႏင ေန႔စားမားအတြက အလပအကင အခြငအလမးမား ေဖာျပေပး သည ရာသျပကၡဒနတစခ ျဖစသည။

Credit : GRET Land Tenure Project 2015

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4. Wealth ranking

Understanding wealth and resources distribution within communities is a crucial issue

for project implementation. The beneficiaries of a project may be identified by the

project team itself as the team defines categories of beneficiaries. But it is often

recommended to use a participatory approach with villagers in order to define wealth

ranking. This participatory approach helps the project team identify the project

beneficiaries. A wealth ranking answers questions such as:

- Who should primarily benefit from the project?

- Who possesses the necessary assets to participate in the activities?

- Are the poor potentially affected by any activity to be carried out during the

project implementation?

- Who has been left aside by the project? Identifying wealth distribution within a specific community is of course a matter of

perception. For this reason, it is recommended that the participatory learning team first

asks villagers what criteria they use for assessing wealth among the community. In the

social map shown above, wealth ranking is based on: (1) household assets; (2) surface

area of land cultivated; and (3) access to income generating activities. All these criteria,

of course, depend on the livelihood activities identified in the village. In urban settings,

such criteria differ.

Units and intervals measuring wealth ranking may also differ from one region to the

next. In a village where the inhabitants are Bamar, the basic unit is likely the

household. In a village where the inhabitants are Chin or Kachin, the basic unit may

differ and take into account the fact that several households of a same lineage share

resources. In this case, a “compound” of households might be considered as the basic

unit for wealth ranking.

Wealth ranking can be conducted in two different ways. The first one consists in

calculating how many households out of the overall number of households fall into

each level of wealth ranking. This ranking is only a ranking; no mapping of wealth

ranking is involved, meaning that the wealth ranking which each household falls into is

not spatially located. This makes this first type of wealth ranking less sensitive as it

preserves the households’ anonymity. The second type of wealth ranking links types of

wealth status with village space and therefore uses social mapping as explained above.

This second technique may be more sensitive as it directly locates peoples or groups of

people with regards to their wealth rank on the map. Therefore, it is recommended to

first apply the first type of wealth-ranking at the beginning of the project. The second

wealth ranking type can be conducted by the team when trust with the community is

reasonably strong.

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၄။ ဓနဥစၥာၾကြယဝမႈ အဆငသတမတျခငး စမကနး အေကာငအထည ေဖာေရးအတြက ရပ႐ြာအတြငးဓနဥစၥာႏငသယဇာတခြေဝပကနားလညရနလြနစြာ အေရးၾကး သည။သေတသနအဖြ႕မစမကနးအကးေကးဇးခမားအားအမးအစားခြျခားသတမတမည ျဖစေသာေၾကာင စမကနး အကးေကးဇးခမားက အဖြ႕မပင ေဖာထတေပးရမည။ ဓနဥစၥာ ၾကြယဝမႈ အဆငအလက စစဥ သတမတရာတြင ႐ြာသ ႐ြာသားမားႏင ပးေပါငးျပး လပေဆာငသငသည။ အဆပါ ပးေပါငးေဆာင႐ြကသည နညးအားျဖင သေတသန အဖြ႕သည စမကနး အကးေကးဇးခမားအား ေဖာထတသတမတေပးလာႏငမည။

ဓနဥစၥာၾကြယဝမႈ အဆငသတမတျခငးျဖင ေဖာျပပါ ေမးခြနးမားက အေျဖေပးႏငေပလမမည။ - စမကနးေၾကာင အဓကအားျဖင မညသအကးျဖစထြနးမညနညး။ - သကဆငရာ လပငနးကစၥရပမားတြင ပါဝငႏငရန လအပေသာ ဓနဥစၥာ မညသ႔လကဝယတြင ႐သနညး။ - စမကနး အေကာငထညေဖာစဥကာလအတြငး လပေဆာငရမည လပငနးစဥမားေၾကာင ဆငးရသားမားအား

ထခကေစႏငပါသလား။ - စမကနးတြင မညသမား ခနလပျခငးခထားရပါသနညး။

ရပ႐ြာတစခအတြငး ဓနဥစၥာခြေဝမႈက ေဖာထတျခငးသည ႐ရငးစြ ထငျမငယဆထားခကမားေပၚတြင မတညသည။ အဆပါ အေၾကာငးျပခကေၾကာင ပးေပါငးေလလာေရးအဖြ႕သည ဥးစြာပထမ ရပ႐ြာအတြငး ဥစၥာဓနၾကြယဝမႈအေပၚ ႐ြာသ႐ြာသားမားအေနႏင မညသညစႏနးမားျဖင သတမတအကျဖတေလ႐ေၾကာငးက ေမးျမနးစစမးရမည။ အထက ေဖာျပပါ လမႈေရး ေျမပတြင ဓနဥစၥာ အဆငသတမတခကသည (၁) အမေထာငစဓနဥစၥာမား (၂) ထြနယကစကပးႏင ေသာ ေျမဧရယာ (၃) ဝငေငြရ႐မည အလပမားက လကလမးမႏငစြမးတ႔က အေျချပသည။ အဆပါ စႏနးမားသည ႐ြာအတြငး ေတြ႕႐ႏငသမ အသကေမြးမႈလပငနးမားအေပၚတြင မတညသည။ ျမ႕ျပ ေနာကခလေနမႈစနစတြငမ အဆပါ စႏနးမားမာ ကြျပားေပလမမည။ ဓနဥစၥာၾကြယဝမႈက တငးတာသည ယနစႏငၾကားမတမားသည ေဒသတစခႏငတစခအလက ကြျပားႏငသည။ ျမနမာမား ေနထငေသာ ေကး႐ြာတြင အေျခခယနစမာ အမေထာငစ ျဖစႏငသည။ ခငးႏင ကခငမား ေနထငေသာ ႐ြာမားတြငမ ဘမးဘးတ အမေထာငစမားက အရငးျမစမားက ခြေဝသးစြၾကသညျဖစရာ အဆပါအခကေပၚ မတည၍ အေျခခယနစမာ ကြျပားႏငသည။ ဤတြငအမေထာငစ “အစအေဝး” တစခက ဓနဥစၥာၾကြယဝမႈအဆင သတမတခက အတြက အေျခခ ယနစအေနျဖင ယဆႏငသည။

ဓနဥစၥာအဆငအတနးသတမတခကက နညးလမးႏစသြယျဖင ျပလပႏငသည။ ပထမ တစနညးမာ စစေပါငး အမေထာငစ အေရအတြကမ မညမေသာ အမေထာငစအေရအတြက ဓနဥစၥာအဆငအတနးသတမတခက အဆင တစခခငးစတြင ဝငသနညးဆေသာ အခကက တြကခကၾကညျခငးျဖစသည။ အဆပါ အဆငသတမတနညးသည အဆငသတမတျခငး သကသကမသာျဖစျပး ဓနဥစၥာၾကြယဝမႈအလက ေျမပျပလပျခငး မပါဝငေပ။ ဆလရငးမာ အမေထာငစမားအလက ခြျခားထားေသာ ဓနဥစၥာ အဆငသတမတခကမားမာ အရပေဒသအလက ေနရာခထားျခငးမး မ႐ေခ။ အမေထာငစ အမညနာမမားက ထမခနသမးဆညးထားေသာေၾကာင ပထမနညးသည မလလားအပေသာ ကစၥရပမား ျဖစပြားႏငေျခနညးသည။ ဒတယ အမးအစားမာမ ရပ႐ြာေဒသတြငး ခမးသာၾကြယဝမႈ အဆငအလက စစဥထားေသာ ဓနဥစၥာအဆငအတနးျဖစျပး အထကေဖာျပပါ လမႈေရး ေျမပျပခကက အသးျပသည။ ဓနဥစၥာၾကြယဝမႈ အဆငအတနးလကလမား (သ႔) လအပစမားက ေျမပေပၚတြင တက႐ကေဖာျပမႈ ျပထားေသာေၾကာင ဒတယ နညးလမးမာ ပမအကဆတသညဟ ဆႏငသည။ သ႔ျဖစပါ၍ ပထမ နညးလမးက စမကနးအစပငးတြင အသးျပရန ပမသငေလာျပး ဒတယနညးလမးကမ ရပ႐ြာႏင သေတသနအဖြ႕ၾကား ယၾကညမႈ အေတာအတနခငမာေအာင တညေဆာကျပးမသာ အသးျပသငသည။

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It is recommended to conduct wealth ranking with the collaboration of the community

in successive steps. First, the total number of units to be ranked (households for

example) is visualized by using rice grains, small stones, beans, etc. Then the team asks

villagers to group together households sharing a similar wealth rank. It is

recommended to let villagers first decide how many levels of wealth ranking are

created. After discussing this issue with the villagers, the research team can refine these

categories. Further details can be about:

What factors make people more or less vulnerable?

- Does wealth status of households change from one year to the next?

- Do ethnicity, religion, or livelihood patterns affect wealth levels?

- Besides families and village communities, are there other collective systems

that help lessen hardship in times of crisis?

5. Historical profile

A historical profile is a little more than a semi-structured interview (see Chapter on ‘In-

depth interviews’). It focuses on historical information and attempts to organize that

information into a systematic chronology of events. In most cases, the interview is

conducted with elderly people, particularly those who are known for their historical

knowledge. Typically, a historical profile begins with the founding of the community.

It then attempts to identify all the events that had an impact on people’s lives. These

events are usually natural disasters, construction of infrastructures, government

policies, migrations, etc.

Each time a significant event is mentioned, it is written on a separate sheet of paper. If

the date (or approximate date) of the event is known, it is noted as well. All separate

sheets of paper are then organized in chronological order based on the additional

information given by the persons participating in the meeting. The sheets of paper are

laid out on the floor so that everyone sees them and reorder the sheets of paper if

necessary. In doing so, even events that are not precisely dated are placed in a more or

less chronological order.

TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THIS CHAPTER ARE:

PLA is a great tool to reduce the risk of biases because of the use of multiple

research methods, research tools, and sources of information as well as the

input from persons of various backgrounds;

PLA offers a rapid and progressive learning way and produces information that

is validated by the community itself;

PLA is a bottom-top approach designed to empower communities.

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ဓနဥစၥာအဆငအတနး သတမတခကက ရပ႐ြာႏငပးေပါငးျပး လပေဆာငႏငပါက အေကာငးဆးျဖစသည။ ဥးစြာပထမ အဆငအတနးသတမတမည ယနစ (ဥပမာအမေထာငစမား) စစေပါငးက ဆနေစ၊ ေကာကခ၊ ပေစ စသညတ႔ျဖင ထငသာျမငသာ႐ေအာင သာဓက ျပရမည။ ယငးေနာကတြင အဖြ႕မ ႐ြာသားမားအား ဓနဥစၥာအဆငအတနးတညေသာ အမေထာငစမားက ေမးျမနးျပး အပစဖြ႕ေပးရမည။ ဓနဥစၥာ အဆငအေရအတြက မညေ႐ြ႕မညမ ခြျခားဖနတး ေပးရမည ဆေသာ ကစၥတြင ႐ြာသ႐ြာသားမားအား ဥးစားေပး ဆးျဖတေစျခငးက အေကာငးဆး ျဖစသည။ သေတသန အဖြ႕အေန ႏင ႐ြာသ႐ြာသားမားႏင ညႏငးေဆြးေႏြးျပးေနာကတြငမ အဆပါ အဆငသတမတခက အမးအစားမားက ျပနလည မြမးမႏငသည။ ေနာကထပ ျပလပရမည အေသးစတလပငနးမားမာ -

- မညသည အေၾကာငးကစၥရပမားသည လမားအား အနညးႏင အမား ထခကေစမည အေနအထားက ေရာကသြားေစႏငပါနညး။

- အမေထာငစမား၏ ဓနဥစၥာအဆငအတနးသည ႏစစဥ ေျပာငးလမႈ ႐ပါသလား။ - လမး၊ ဘာသာႏင အသကေမြးမႈတ႔သည ဓနဥစၥာၾကြယဝမႈ အဆငအေပၚ အကးသကေရာကမႈ ႐ပါသလား။ - မသားစႏင ေကးလကေတာ႐ြာ အစအဖြ႕အျပင ခကခသည အခနမားတြင အတနအသင ေလာပါးသကသာ

ေအာင လပေဆာငေပးမည အျခားစေပါငးစပေပါငး စနစမား ႐ပါသလား။

၅။သမငးအကဥးခပ သမငးအကဥးခပသည တဝကတပက ပစခထားသည လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးမႈသာသာမသာ ျဖစသည (အေသးစတလေတြ႕ ေမးျမနပအေၾကာငး ေဖာျပထားသည အခနးတြင႐ပါ)။ သမငးဆငရာ အခကအလကမားက အဓကထားျပး ယငး အခက အလကမားက သကရာဇစဥအတငး စနစတက စစညးျခငးလညး ျဖစသည။ အမားအားျဖင အတတသမငး ေၾကာငးက သမႏစပေသာ သကၾကး ႐ြယအမား လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးေလ႐သည။ သမ႐းကအားျဖင သမငးအကဥးခပ တစရပသည ရပ႐ြာတညစအခနျဖင စတငေလ႐ျပး လအမား၏ ဘဝက ၾသဇာသကေရာကသည ျဖစရပမားက ေဖာထတေလ႐သည။ အဆပါ ျဖစရပမားမာ သဘာဝေဘးအႏရာယမား၊ အေျခခအေဆာကအအ တညေဆာကမႈမား၊ အစးရမဝါဒမားႏင ေ႐ႊ႕ေျပာငးေနထငမႈမား အေၾကာငးတ႔ ျဖစေနတတသည။ ထးျခားျဖစစဥတစတရာက ေမးျမနးေနစဥအတြငး ေဖာျပလာပါကသးျခားစာ႐ြကလြတေပၚတြင ခေရးရမည။ အခငး ျဖစပြားသည ရကစြ (သ႔အနးစပဆးခန႔မနးရကစြ) က သရပါက ယငးကပါ မတသားထားရမည။ ျပးေနာက အစညးအေဝး တြင ပါဝငသမားထမ ရ႐လာသည ေနာကတး အခကအလကမားအေပၚ အေျခချပး အဆပါ သးျခား ေရးမတထားေသာ စာ႐ြကမားအားလးက သကရာဇစဥအတငး စစဥရမည။ စာ႐ြကမားအား ၾကမးျပငေပၚတြင ခထား ေပးႏငပါက ေတြ႔သမ လတ႔က လအပသလ ျပနလည စစဥေပးႏငမည ျဖစသည။ ဤနညးျဖင ရကစြအတအက မသရေသာ ျဖစရပမားပင လင အနညးႏငအမားဆသလ သကရာဇစဥ မနလာႏငမည။

အခပဆရေသာ ဤအခနးတြင အဓကမတသားရမည အခကအလကမားမာ

ပးေပါငးေလလာေရးနညးစဥတြင သေတသန နညးလမးေပါငးစ၊ သေတသန ကရယာမးစ၊ သတငးအခက အလကရငးျမစ ေျမာကျမားစြာႏင ေနာကခရာဇဝငအမးမး႐သည လမားထမ အားစကထတမႈမား ပါဝငသည

ျဖစ၍ အဂတ ေလာခေရးအတြက လြနစြာေကာငးမြနေသာ ကရယာတစရပ ျဖစသည။

ပးေပါငးေလလာေရးနညးစဥသည လငျမနသြကလကေသာ ေလလာေရးနညးလမးတစချဖစျပး ရပ႐ြာ

ကယတင အသအမတျပေသာ သတငးအခကအလကမားရ႐ေစသည။

ပးေပါငးေလလာေရးနညးစဥသည ရပ႐ြာက ကယထးကယခၽြနျဖင ေအာကမ အထကသ႔ ဆနသည ခဥးကပ ေလလာမႈတစခ ျဖစသည။

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BASIC 11. PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH (PAR)

THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT:

Defining PAR;

Learning how PAR is structured;

Understanding the role of the researcher in a PAR project;

Learning strategies and tools to conduct a PAR project.

______________________________________________________________________

WHAT IS A PAR? Participatory Action Research (PAR) designates a research practice in which the

community under study takes the leading role. The community leads in (1) the

production of knowledge and (2) the use of this knowledge for addressing the problem

under study. PAR is therefore specifically relevant when advocacy is planned after the

research is finished. The advocacy phase generally involves educating and raising the

awareness of the community under study, the policy-makers, and the decision-makers

about the problem that was examined.

PAR is led by the community members rather than outside persons (whatever

their background or degree of responsibility in the project). PAR follows a

‘bottom-up approach’. It also pays particular attention to qualitative research

aspects such as local peoples’ knowledge and the way people organize and

control their resources: this knowledge and how it is organized are called

‘Indigenous Knowledge System’ (IKS).

PAR uses participatory strategies that allow local people to participate in

research. Ultimately, their participation in the research must lead to

empowerment. The previous chapter described participatory learning tools

that make the participatory strategies easier.

PAR is a collective work, involving discussions among participants at every

stage: choosing the topic, defining research questions and the appropriate way

to share and use the knowledge produced.

It is expected that PAR will result in some action, change, and ultimately

improvement for the communities concerned with the issue being researched.

Like case study, PAR combines both qualitative and quantitative research methods.

Limitations

Local communities under study are unlikely to have the technical skills and financial

resources needed to lead the whole PAR process. These limitations, however, are not a

problem. Assistance from outsiders, such as academics, funders and NGO/CSOs who

have experience in addressing the problem under study can compensate for these

limitations.

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အေျခခအဆင ၁၁. အလပျဖငပးေပါငးေဆာငရြကေသာသေတသန

ဤအခနးတြင PAR အား ဖြငဆရငးလငးျခငး PAR ၏ ဖြ႕စညးတညေဆာကပအား ေလလာျခငး PAR စမကနး တစရပ၌ သေတသ၏ အခနးက႑က နားလညေစျခငး PAR စမကနးတစရပ လပေဆာငရနအတြက လအပေသာ နညးလမးမားနင မဟာဗဟာမား အေၾကာငး

ေလလာျခငးတ႔ ပါ၀ငပါသည။______________________________________________________________________________________ PAR ဆသညမာအဘယနညး။ အလပျဖင ပးေပါငးပါ၀ငေဆာငရြကေသာ သေတသန PAR ဆသညမာ ေလလာမျပလပသည ရပရြာလထက ဥးေဆာင ေသာ အခနးက႑မ ပါ၀ငေသာ သေတသန လပထးလပနညးတစရပက ဆလသည။ ထရပရြာလထသည (၁) အသ ပညာမား ေဖာထတျခငး၊ (၂) ထအသပညာမားအား ေလလာမျပသည ျပနာရပမား ေျဖရငးရာတြင အသးျပျခငး ဆသည အခနးက႑မ ပါ၀ငသည။ သ႔အတြက PAR သည သေတသန တစရပျပးဆးသညအခါ လထအကး တကတြနး ေျပာဆမအတြက ၾကတငစမထားသည အေျခအေနမး၌ အလြနပင သငေလာသည။ လထအကး တကတြနးေျပာဆ ျခငး ဆသညမာ ေလလာမျပသည ရပရြာလထ မ၀ါဒေရးဆြသမားနင ဆးျဖတခက ခမတနငစြမး ရသမားအား ေလလာ လကရေသာ ျပနာရပနင ပကသက၍ အသပညာ ျမငတငေပးျခငးနင ပညာေပးေရးတ႔ ေယဘယအားျဖငပါ၀ငသည။

PAR ဆသညမာ ျပငပမပဂၢလမား (စမကနး၌ ၎တ႔၏တာ၀န မညမယထားသည ျဖစေစ၊ မညသညေကာေထာကေနာကခ အေနအထားရသညျဖစေစ) မ မဟတဘ ရပရြာလထက ဥးေဆာငျခငးျဖစသည။ PARသည ေအာကေျခမ အထကသ႔တကသည bottom-up approach နညးလမးက လကနာသည။ PAR သညအရညအေသြးစထား သေတသန၏ ရႈ႕ေထာငမားျဖစေသာ ေဒသခ လထ၏အသပညာနင ၎တ႔ အရငးအျမစမားအား မညသ႔ စစညးထနးခပၾကသညကလညး အေလးေပးသည။ ဤသ႔ စစညးလပေဆာငပႏင ၎အသပညာအား ေရခေျမခသမႈစနစ Indigenous Knowledge System (IKS) ဟ ေခၚသည။

PAR သည ေဒသခလထအေနျဖင သေတသနတြင ပါ၀ငလပေဆာငရန ခြငျပေသာ ပးေပါငးပါ၀ငမႈ မဟာဗဟာက အသးျပသည။ အဆးစြနဆးအေနျဖင သေတသနတြင ေဒသခလထ ကယတငကယက ပါ၀ငျခငးအားျဖင၎တ႔၏ လပေဆာငနငစြမးရညက ျမငတငေပးျခငးျဖစသည။လြနခေသာအခနးတြင ေဖာျပခေသာ ကယတငကယကပါ၀င ေလလာသည နညးလမးမားသည ဤကယတငကယကပါ၀ငမႈ မဟာဗဟာက ပမလြယကေစပါသည။

PAR သည စေပါငးလပဆာငသည အလပတစရပျဖစသည။ သေတသနအဆငမား၌ ပါ၀ငသမား အေနျဖငေဆြးေႏြးညနငးၾကျခငး - ေခါငးစဥ အေၾကာငးအရာေရြးခယျခငး၊ သေတသနေမးခြနးမား ေဖာထတသတမတျခငး။ ရရလာေသာ အသပညာမားအား သငေလာေသာ နညးလမးမားျဖင မေ၀ျခငးနင အသးျပျခငးတ႔ ျပလပၾကသည။

PAR အားျဖင သေတသနျပလပသည ကစၥရပႏင သကဆငေသာ လထမားအေနျဖင လပငနးေဆာငတာမားေဖာေဆာငျခငး။ အေျပာငးအလျပလပျခငးနင အဆးစြနဆးအေနျဖင ဖြ႔ျဖးတးတကမႈက ျဖစေစျခငး စသညရလဒမား ျဖစေပၚလာေစရန ေမာလင၍ လပေဆာငျခငးျဖစသည။

ျဖစရပေလလာမႈကသ႔ပင PAR သည ေရအတြကစထား သေတသနနညးလမးေရာ၊ အရညအေသြးစထား နညးလမးပါ ႏစလးစလး အသးျပပါသည။

အကန႔အသတမား PAR လပငနးစဥတစရပလးအား ေဆာငရြကရနအတြက ေဒသခလထအေနျဖင နညးပညာပငးဆငရာ အရညအခငး မျပည၀မႈနင ဘ႑ာေရး အေျခအေန လအပမတ႔ ရေကာငးရနငပါသည။ သ႔ေသာ ဤအကန႔အသတမားမာ ျပနာ မဟတပ။ ျပငပပဂၢလမား၊ ပညာရငမား၊ အလရငမားနင အနဂအ/ စအကစအတ႔ အေနျဖင ေလလာသည ျပနာရပ ႏင ပကသက၍ အေတြ႔အၾကရျပး ျဖစသျဖင ၎တ႔၏ အကအညအားျဖင ဤကန႔သကခကမားက ေကာလႊားနငပါ သည။

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WHEN SHOULD PAR BE USED?

PAR is an appropriate approach when information has to be collected and used for the

benefit of the community directly affected by an issue. PAR can be used by a wide

range of communities and organizations, in which people already know each other

and/or work together. PAR can also be used by groups formed for the purposes of

research and action on a particular issue. PAR is most often used for environmental and

social issues.

Examples all along this chapter will draw from the following

situation:

Livelihood among elders in a village of Northern Chin State is

based on shifting cultivation. Interviews with some of them

show that they find it more and more difficult to undertake

this cultivation in a sustainable manner. Two of their

preoccupations are: (1) increasing deforestation; and (2)

diminishing access to forest land due to the creation of a

National Park. They seek assistance from the outside in order

to find ways to sustain their livelihood. They need assistance

on the following issues:

- The impact of deforestation on their livelihood;

- The management of the national park;

- The access to land formerly used by the community;

- The profiles of those using timber and non-timber

products in their area.

For this purpose, they seek help from a research organization

and hope that this organization can offer guidance on these

issues. However, the group of elders wants to lead the whole

research process and advocacy plan in order to ensure that both

process and plan will directly benefit them.

STRUCTURE OF A PAR PROJECT

The steps of a PAR are:

1. Planning the study

2. Collecting data

3. Analysing data

4. Developing an action based on the data collected

5. Analysing/Reflecting on the actions

6. Disseminating results

Involvement of stakeholders during the PAR is a key factor for making the PAR

successful.

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PAR အား မညသညအခနတြင အသးျပသငသနညး။

ေလလာသည ျပနာရပမ တကရကသကေရာကမႈရေသာ လထအကးအတြက အသးျပနငမည သတငးအခကမား ေကာကယ စေဆာငးအသးျပရာ၌ PAR သညသငေလာေသာ နညးလမးတစရပျဖစသည။ အခငးခငးသကၽြမးျပး အလပ အတ လပၾကသည လမားရသည လထမားနင အဖြ႔အစညးမား၌ PAR က ကယကယျပန႔ျပန႔ အသးျပနငပါသည။ ကစၥရပတစခအား အေကာငအထညေဖာရန (သ႔) သေတသနျပလပရန ရညရြယခကမားျဖင ဖြ႔စညးထားေသာ လအပစ မားတြငလညး PAR က အသးျပနငပါသည။ အမားေသာအားျဖင ပတဝနးကငဆငရာ ကစၥရပမားနင လမေရးဆငရာ ကစၥရပမား၌ PAR က အသးျပေလရပါသည။

ဤအခနးတစခနးလးတြင ပါဝငေသာ ဥပမာမားသည ေအာကပါအေျခအေနမ ထတနတထားျခငး ျဖစသည။ ခငးျပညနယေျမာကပငးေကးရြာရ အသကအရြယၾကးရငသမား၏ အသကေမြးဝမးေကာငးမသည ေ႐ႊ႕ေျပာငး ေတာငယာအေပၚ အေျချပထားျခငးျဖစသည။ ၎တ႔ထမ အခ႕နင ေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးမႈမားအရ ၎တ႔အေနျဖင ေရရည တညတသည ပစျဖင ထြနယကစကပးမမား ျပလပရန ပ၍ပ၍ခကခလာေၾကာငး သရသည။ ျဖစေပၚေနသည အေျခအေန နစရပမာ- (၁) သစေတာျပနးတးမ တးလာျခငး၊ (၂) နငငပင သစေတာၾကးဝငးမား သတမတလာမေၾကာင သစေတာေတာငယာခတ လပကငနငခြင ရားပါးလာျခငးတ႔ျဖစသည။ သ႔အတြက ၎တ႔၏အသကေမြးဝမးေၾကာငး ဘဝမား ထနးသမးထားရနငရန ျပငပအကအညျဖင နညးလမးမားရာေဖြၾကသည။ ၎တ႔အေနျဖင ေအာကေဖာျပပါ အေျခအေနမားတြင အကအည လအပလကရပါသည။

- ၎တ႔၏ အသကေမြးဝမးေၾကာငးမအေပၚသစေတာျပနးတးမ၏ အကးသကေရာကမ - အမးသားသဘာဝၾကးဝငးအား စမခန႔ခြမ - ရပရြာလထမ ယခငက အသးျပခေသာ ေျမယာမား အသးျပနငခြင

၎တ႔၏ဧရယာအတြငး ကၽြနးသစထတကနနင ကၽြနးသစမဟတေသာ ထတကနမား အသးျပသမား၏ အေၾကာငးအရာ အခကအလကမား ဤရညရြယခကအတြက ၎တ႔၏ သေတသနအဖြ႔အစညးတစခထမ အကအညေတာငးချပး ၎သေတသန အဖြ႔အစညးအေနျဖင အထကပါကစၥရပမားနင ပတသက၍ ေမာလငထားၾကသည။ သ႔ေသာ ရပရြာလၾကးမား အေနျဖင သေတသနလပငနးစဥမားနင ရပရြာအကးအဆျပေျပာဆျခငးဆငရာ စမကနးမ တကရက အကးခစားရေစရနအတြက သေတသနလပငနးစဥၾကးတစခလးနင ရပရြာလထအကး တကတြနးေျပာဆမဆငရာ အစအမတြင ကယတင ဥးေဆာငလၾကသည။

PAR စမကနးတစခ၏ တညေဆာကပ

PAR တစခ၏ အဆငမားမာ ၁။ ေလလာမအတြက အစအမျပလပျခငး ၂။ ေဒတာအခကအလက ေကာကယစေဆာငးျခငး ၃။ ေဒတာအခကအလကမားအား စစစေလလာမျပျခငး ၄။ ေကာကယရရသည အခကအလကမားအေပၚ အေျခခ၍ လပငနးေဆာငတာမား ျပငဆငျခငး ၅။ လပငနးေဆာငတာမားက ျပနလနသးသပျခငး/ စစစေလလာျခငး ၆။ ရလဒမားအား ျဖန႔ေဝျခငး

PAR ျပလပစဥ ကာလအတြငး အဓကသကဆငသမား၏ ကယတငကယက ပါဝငပကသကမသည အဆပါ PAR ၏ ေအာငျမငမအတြက အေရးၾကးေသာ အခကျဖစသည။

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ROLE OF THE RESEARCHER IN A PAR PROJECT

The role of the researcher in the PAR process is rather similar to that found in the

Focus Group Discussion: he/she is a facilitator and encourages the participants to

express their views and feelings. Therefore, the same do’s and don’ts apply for the

researcher:

Remain open-minded;

Remain neutral;

Refrain from judgment about what the stakeholders say;

Refrain from acting as the expert: the researcher is here to learn from

the community and facilitate discussions rather than giving his/her own

advice.

The success of a PAR depends on the researcher’s ability to communicate and be

proactive. The researcher initiates the discussion with the participants, explains them

the different options available for research, and let them select the suitable options.

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While conducting PAR, the researcher must:

Remain open-minded to complex ideas with which he/she is not

necessarily familiar;

Be a proactive interlocutor in the dialogue conducted among the

participants;

Listen to the participants with great attention;

Show curiosity towards the different, genuine, and authentic views and

feelings expressed by the participants;

Be respectful of the way ideas, views, and feelings are expressed by

these persons;

APPROACHES AND TOOLS USED FOR PAR

The underlying principle of the approaches presented below is an emphasis on people

working together and using tools to achieve common understanding of research goals

and activities. The main question is: “How can we do this work together and make sure

that anyone who ought to be involved is actually involved?”

Step 1: Define the research topic and goals

The research partners (i.e. researchers together with the community members) must

have a clear and common understanding of the goals of the PAR project. It is also

important to define the role of the researcher and how this role can help the community

achieve the goals defined by the PAR. Without a clear sense of what the research

project is trying to accomplish, it would be difficult to design a practical and effective

PAR project.

Approach:

Develop a PAR roadmap: partners identify the desired outcomes and the general

strategy developed to attain these outcomes. The roadmap should describe: A) the

goals; B) the action plan; and C) the involvement of the research partners.

At this stage, it is not necessary to detail the different research methods. This will be

achieved through the participatory process.

A. Goals

What is the PAR’s objective? For example: the PAR seeks to produce

evidence about, advocate on, and take action against deforestation in

northern Chin State;

What type of problems is the research trying to address? Are there

ecological, economic and/or social problems? For instance, how are

decreasing forest areas (an ecological problem), land tenure rights for

forest users (a social problem), and impact of deforestation on forest

users’ livelihoods (an economic problem) be intertwined?

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PAR လပေဆာငစဥအတြငး သေတသအေနျဖင သနငရငးနးကၽြမးကငမမရေသာ ရပေထြးသည အငဒယာမားအား ကငတြယနငရန သ၏စတအျမငက ပြငပြင

လငးလငး ထားရရမည။

ပါဝငသမား၏ ေတြ႔ဆေဆြးေႏြးမ၌ လမၼာပါးနပစြာ စကားအခအခ ေျပာဆနးေနာနငသ ျဖစရမည။

ပါဝငေဆြးေႏြးသမားအား အထးအေလးထား၍ နားေထာငေပးရမည။

ပါဝငေဆြးေႏြးသမားမ ေဖာထတျပသေသာ ကြျပား၊ ထးျခား၍ စတရငးျဖငေျပာေသာ အျမငမားနင ခစားမမား

က အထးတလည စတဝငစားမရေၾကာငး ျပသရမည။

အဆပါပဂၢလမား၏ အငဒယာမား၊ အျမငမားနင ခစားခကမား ေဖာထတျပသမအား ေလးစားမရပါ။

PAR အတြကအသးျပေသာ နညးလမးမားနင ခဥးကပပမား

ေအာကတြငေဖာျပထားေသာ ခဥးကပပမား၏ အေျခခဥပေဒသမာ လအမားအေနျဖင အတတကြ အလပလပၾကျခငးနင သေတသန၏ လပငနးေဆာငတာမား၊ ပနးတငမားနင ပကသက၍ အမားလကခနငေသာ နားလညမရရရနအတြက နညးလမး ၾကယာမားအသးျပျခငးအေပၚ အထးျပျခငးျဖစသည။ အဓကေမးခြနးမာ - “ဤအလပက မမတ႔အေနျဖင မညကသ႔ အတတကြ လပေဆာငၾကျပး ပါဝငသငသမနသမ တကယတမးပါဝငနငေစရန မညကသ႔ လပေဆာငမည နညး” ဟသည ေမးခြနးျဖစသည။

အဆင(၁) သေတသနေခါငးစဥနင ပနးတငမားက ေဖာထတသတမတပါ။

သေတသနမတဖက လပေဆာငသမား (ဆလသညမာ - သေတသမားနင ရပရြာလထတ႔အတတကြ) အေနျဖင PAR စမကနး၏ ပနးတငမားအား ရငးရငးလငးလငးနင အမားလကခေသာ နားလညမတစခ ရထားရမည။ သေတသ၏ အခနးက႑က ေဖာထတသတမတ၍ ထအခနးက႑အေနျဖင ရပရြာလထအား PAR ၏ သတမတပနးတငမားက ေရာကရျပညမရန မညသ႔အေထာကအကျပေစမညမာလညး အေရးၾကးသည။ သေတသန စမကနးမ မညသညအရာက ျပးေျမာကေအာငေဆာငရြကမညက ရငးရငးလငးလငး သရထားျခငးမရပါက လကေတြ႔က၍ ထေရာကေသာ PAR စမကနးတစရပက ဒဇငးေရးဆြရန ခကခေပလမမည။

ခဥးကပပ PAR လမးျပေျမပတစရပျပစပါ။ မတဖကလပေဆာငသမားအေနျဖင ဆႏၵရေသာ ရလဒမားေဖာထတ၍ အဆပါ ရလဒမား အား ရရျပညမေစရန မညသညအေထြေထြမဟာဗဟာျဖင ေဆာငရြကမညက သကမတပါ။ လမးျပေျမပအေနျဖင (က) ပနးတငမား (ခ) ျပလပေဆာငရြကမည အစအမ (ဂ) သေတသန မတဖကလပေဆာငသမား၏ ပါဝငပကသကမႈတ႔ ပါဝငသငသည။

ဤအဆငတြင သေတသနနညးလမး မကြမားနငပကသက၍ အေသးစတမလအပေသးေပ။ ၎အဆငသည ပးေပါငး ပါဝငဆာငရြကသည လပငနးစဥအားျဖင သြားမညျဖစသည။

(က) ပနးတငမား။ ။ ဤPAR သည ဘာက ရညရြယခက ထားရသနညး။ ဥပမာအားျဖင ဤ PAR သည ခငးျပညနယေျမာကပငး

သစေတာျပနးတးမက အေထာကအထားမား ေဖာထတရန၊ အဆျပတကတြနးရန၊ အေရးယေဆာငရြကရန

သေတသနအေနျဖင မညသညျပနာအမးအစားမားက ေျဖရငးဖ႔ ၾကးစားမညနညး။ ေဂဟစနစဆငရာ၊

စးပြားရးဆငရာ၊ လမေရးဆငရာ ျပနာမားရသလား။ ဥပမာအားျဖင သစေတာဧရယာမား ေလာနညးလာမ

(ေဂဟစနစဆငရာ ျပနာ)၊ သစေတာအသးျပသမား ေျမယာအငားခလပပငခြင (လမေရးဆငရာျပနာ)၊

သစေတာအပၚ မခေနၾကရသည အသကေမြးဝမးေၾကာငးမမားအေပၚ သစေတာျပနးတးမ၏ အကး

သကေရာကမ (စးပြားေရးဆငရာျပနာ) တ႔သည အခငးခငးမညကသ႔ ခတဆကပတသကေနသနညး။

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B. Action plan

What actions will the PAR require? Will the research involve any of the following activities: meetings, workshops, interviews, or data collection? Will the data address more ecological, social, cultural, or economic matters? Or will the data reflect all of these concerns?

C. Involvement of the research partners

What will be the degree of involvement and inputs of the different research partners? This step should define the role of all research partners and their involvement in the PAR process. It should also provide an opportunity to consider research and ethical matters. For example: among the Chin villages affected by deforestation, who will participate in the project? Forest users, elders, youth group? What will the role of each identified group be in the overall process? The role of these different groups may be as follows: forest users may be the main informants, elders may facilitate relationships between the community and external stakeholders while a youth group may lead the research and advocacy part on deforestation. This suggestion may change depending on the context.

Tools:

The action plan of the PAR can be developed through strategic planning. This planning is most successful when it involves all research partners. A strategic planning meeting will be organized at a time and place that are convenient for all research partners. This meeting needs to be carefully planned and facilitated.

Step 2: Identifying stakeholders for the PAR

The second step in a PAR project is to identify “stakeholders” and facilitate their participation in the research. Stakeholders are defined as any person, group, or institution having a direct or indirect bearing on the issue under study. They usually represent different interests. For example, staff from the Forest Department, tour operators, logging companies as well as users of non-timber products should be consulted during the PAR on “Deforestation in Chin State”: all of them are stakeholders with regards to this specific issue.

Broad stakeholder involvement is also important as PAR helps to build trust between diverse groups and professional researchers. PAR usually fosters the capacity of different stakeholders by mediating tensions or conflicts that may arise among them.

Approach:

Identify all stakeholders engaged in the research. Whatever the underlying motivations of the stakeholders, it is crucial that their representatives be treated respectfully.

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(ခ) ျပလပေဆာငရြကမညအစအမ ဤ PAR အေနျဖင မညသညေဆာငရြကမမး လအပသနညး။ သေတသနအေနျဖင ေအာကပါလပငနးရပတ႔

ပါဝငဖ႔ လပါသလား - ေတြ႔ဆေဆြးေႏြးမမား၊ အလပရေဆြးေႏြးပြမား၊ ေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးမမား (သ႔) ေဒတာ အခကအလက စေဆာငးေကာကယမ၊ ေဒတာအခကအလကမားအေနျဖင ေဂဟပငးဆငရာ (သ႔) လမေရး ဆငရာ (သ႔) ယဥေကးမပငးဆငရာ (သ႔) စးပြားေရးဆငရာ ကစၥရပမားမ မညသညက ပ၍ အေရးတယ ျပမညနညး။ သ႔မဟတ ေဒတာအခကအလကမားသည အဆပါအခကအားလးနင ပကသကမရမညလား။

(ဂ) သေတသန မတဖကလပေဆာငသမား၏ ပါဝငပတသကမ သေတသန မတဖကလပေဆာငသ အသးသးတ႔သည မညသညအတငးအတာထ ပါဝငပတသက၍

သေတသနအား အကးျပထညဝငၾကမညနညး။ ဤအဆငအေနျဖင သေတသနမတဖက လပေဆာငသမား အားလး၏ အခနးက႑နင ပါဝငပကသကမက ေဖာထတသတမတသငသည။ သေတသနနင ကငဝတပငး ဆငရာ ကစၥရပမားအား စဥးစားနငရန အခြငအလမးတစရပလညး ဖနတးေပးသငသည။ ဥပမာအားျဖင - သစေတာျပနးတးမဒဏ ခစားေနရသည ခငးေကးရြာမားမ မညသတ႔သည ဤစမကနးတြင ပါဝငမညနညး။ သစေတာအသးျပသမားေလာ၊ အသကအရြယၾကးသ လၾကးသမမားေလာ၊ လငယအပစေလာ။ လပငနးစဥ ၾကးတစရပလးအား ျခငပတသကမရမည အဆပါ သတမတအပစအသးသး၏ အခနးက႑မာ အဘယနညး။ ဤမတညေသာ အပစအသးသး၏ အခနးက႑မားမာ ေအာကပါအတငး ျဖစနငပါသည။ သစေတာ အသးျပ သမား သည အဓကသတငးေပးသမား၊ အသကအရြယၾကးရငသ လၾကးသမမားအေနျဖင ရပရြာလထနင ျပငပပဂၢလမား၏ ဆကဆေရးက ကညပပးသမားအျဖစ ေဆာငရြကနငျပး လငယအပစအေနျဖင သေတသန က ဥးေဆာငကာ သစေတာျပနးတးမနင ပတသက၍ အဆျပ တကတြနးေျပာဆသမား ျဖစနငၾကပါသည။ ဤသ႔ အၾကဥာဏေပးမသည အေျခအေနေပၚ မတည၍ ေျပာငးလနငပါသည။

နညးလမးမား မဟာဗဟာေျမာက အစအမချခငး။ PAR ၏ ျပလပေဆာငရြကမည အစအမသည မဟာဗဟာ စမကနး ေရးဆြျခငး အားျဖင ျပလပနငသည။ သေတသနမတဖက လပေဆာငမညသအားလးသည ဤစမကနး ေရးဆြျခငးတြင ပါဝငနငပါ က စမကနး ေရးဆြျခငးသည အေအာငျမငဆးျဖစလမမည။ မဟာဗဟာစမကနး ေရးဆြမည ေဆြးေႏြးပြအစအစဥအား သေတသန မတဖက ေဆာငရြကသအားလး အဆငေျပမည အခနနင ေနရာ၌ ျပလပသငသည။ အဆပါ ေဆြးေႏြးပြအား ဂရတစက ၾကတငစမျပး ေသေသခာခာ ပပးကညမျပလပရန လအပသည။ အဆင (၂) PAR အတြက ပတသကဆကႏြယသမားအား ေဖာထတသတမတျခငး PAR စမကနး၏ ဒတယအဆငသည “ပတသကဆကႏြယသမား” အား ေဖာထတသတမတ၍ သေတသနတြင ၎တ႔၏ ပါဝငပတသကမက ပပးကညရန ျဖစသည။ ပတသကဆကႏြယသမား ဆရာ၌ မညသညပဂၢလ၊ လအပစ (သ႔) အဖြ႔အစညးမဆ သေတသနျပ ေလလာမညအေၾကာငးအရာနင တကရက (သ႔) သြယဝက၍ ပတသကဆကႏြယသ အားလးက ဆလသည။ ဥပမာအားျဖင သစေတာဥးစးဌာနမ ဝနထမး၊ ခရးသြားလပငနး လပေဆာငသမား၊ သစထတလပ ေရး ကမၸဏမားနင ကြနးသစမဟတသည ထတကနအသးျပသမား အပါအဝင အားလးတ႔အား “ခငးျပညနယရ သစေတာျပနးတးမ” PAR ျပလပစဥ အေတာအတြငး တငပငေဆြးေႏြးသငသည။ အဘယေၾကာငဆေသာ ၎တ႔အားလး သည အဆပါေခါငးစဥကစၥရပနင ပတသကသမား ျဖစေသာေၾကာငျဖစသည။ ပါဝငပတသကသမား ကယကယျပန႔ျပန႔ ပါဝငပကသကမသည မတကြျပားသည အပစမားနင ပညာရပဆငရာ သေတသမားအၾကား ယၾကညမ တညေဆာကရန အကအညေပးရာ၌ အေရးပါေသာေၾကာငလညး ျဖစသည။ PAR အေနျဖငကြျပားသည ပတသကဆကႏြယသအပစမား၏ စြမးေဆာငနငရညက အားေပးျမငတငေပးျခငးအားျဖင အခ႕ေသာ အပစမားအၾကား ျဖစေပၚနငေသာ ပဋပကၡနင တငးမာမမားအား ထနးညေပးရာေရာကသည။ ခဥးကပပ သေတသနတြင ပါဝငပတသကမည ပတသကဆကႏြယသအားလးအား ေဖာထတသတမတပါ။ ပါဝငပတသကသမား၏ အေျခခ စတဆႏၵသေဘာထားသည မညသ႔ပငျဖစေစ ၎တ႔၏ ကယစားျပပါဝငမအား ေလးေလးစားစား ဆကဆရန အေရးၾကးပါသည။

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Tools:

Make a list of stakeholders. In doing so, answer the following questions.

Who has a bearing on the issue under study?

Are there more stakeholders who should be involved and may need support?

What support is required and how can it be provided?

Are political or institutional decision makers represented?

Step 3: Building Trust

Building trust is a necessary step prior to developing the research question. This takes a lot of time and patience.

Approach:

Create informal communication channels and space for regular interaction to foster trust among the different stakeholders and the researchers.

Tools:

Gatherings in people’s homes;

Field visits: a simple walk of the researcher with key informants within

the area under study results in preliminary observations useful for the

future steps of the research project. The walk also provides the occasion

to learn further about the community;

Informal meetings and meetings in small groups;

Training sessions.

Step 4: Building Common Understanding

Once research partners and stakeholders are identified and a degree of trust exists

amongst them, the next stage is to build a common understanding of the PAR. The

objective is to ensure that all stakeholders agree on the research outcomes and that the

stakeholders feel involved throughout the research process until the end. All

stakeholders should be given the opportunity to fully participate and have access to

information. If this does not happen, then there is the risk that some stakeholders will

dominate the research process. Care must be taken to communicate with each

stakeholder in a way that makes the stakeholder feel comfortable. The risk that

stakeholders with higher economic and political standing may end up controlling the

process by using their own language and communication techniques is real. So the

researchers have to make sure that the language and information disseminated during

the research process is accessible to all stakeholders regardless of their economic and

political standing.

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နညးလမးမား ပတသကဆကႏြယသမား၏ စာရငးတစရပျပစပါ။ ထသ႔ျပလပရန ေအာကပါေမးခြနးမားက ေျဖၾကားပါ။

ေလလာမည႕အေၾကာငးအရာနင မညသတ႔ သကဆငသနညး။

ပတသကဆကႏြယသမား ထပမ၍ ပါဝငရန လအပပါသလား။ ထပမ၍ အေထာကအပေပးရန

လအပပါသလား။

မညသညပပးမမး လအပျပး အဘယသ႔ ပပးမညနညး။

မပငးဆငရာ (သ႔) အဖြ႔အစညးပငးဆငရာ ဆးျဖတခကခမတသမား ကယစားျပ ပါဝငျပလား။

အဆင(၃) ယၾကညမတညေဆာကျခငး သေတသနေမးခြနးမား မျပစမ၌ ယၾကညမတညေဆာကျခငးသည လအပေသာ အဆငတစရပျဖစသည။ သ႔ေသာ ဤသ႔ျပလပရန အခနမားစြာယရျပး စတရညရနလအပသည။ ခဥးကပပ သေတသမားနင မတကြျပားေသာ ပတသကဆကႏြယသမားအၾကား ယၾကညမတးပြားေစရန ပမနဆကဆေရး ရေစမည အေနအထားနင အလြတသေဘာ ဆကဆေရးလမးေၾကာငးမား ဖနတးပါ။ နညးလမးမား

လမား၏အမမားတြငစရးျခငး

ကြငးဆငးအလညအပတျပျခငး။ ။သေတသအေနျဖင အဓကသတငးေပးသမားနင အတေလလာမျပမည

ဧရယာ၌ လညလည၍ လမးအတေလာကသြားျခငးျဖင သေတသနစမကနး၏ ေနာကထပအဆငမားအတြက

အသးဝငေသာ ေရေျပးေလလာမမး အကးျဖစထြနးေစပါသည။ ထသ႔လမးေလာကျခငးအားျဖင ရပရြာလထ

အေၾကာငး ပ၍ေလလာမျပခြငရပါသည။

အလြတသေဘာ ေတြ႔ဆေဆြးေႏြးမမားနင အပစငယမားအလက ေဆြးေႏြးပြမား

ေလကငသငတနးေပးမမား

အဆင(၄) အမားလကခေသာ နားလညမတညေဆာကယျခငး သေတသန မတဖကလပေဆာငမညသမား၊ ပတသကဆကႏြယသမားအား ေဖာထတသတမတျပး ၎တ႔အၾကား ယၾကညမ တစရပက အတငးအတာတစခအထ တညေဆာကျပးေသာအခါ ေနာကအဆငမာ PAR နငပတသက၍ အမားလကခေသာ နားလညမတစရပ တညေဆာကယျခငးျဖစသည။ ရညရြယခကမာ သေတသနရလဒမားနင ပတသက၍ အားလးေသာ ပတသကဆကႏြယသမားတ႔အေနျဖင သေဘာတေၾကာငး ေသခာေစရနနင ပတသက ဆကႏြယသမားတ႔သည သေတသနလပငနးစဥတစေလာကနင အဆးထတငေအာင ပါဝငပတသကမ ရေၾကာငး ခစားရေစရန ျဖစသည။ ပတသကဆကႏြယသအားလးတ႔အား အျပညအဝပါဝငခြငရရန အခြငအေရးေပးျပး သတငး အခကအလကမား ရရေစရနလညး ခြငျပထားေပးရမည။ ထသ႔မဟတပါက အခ႕ေသာ ပတသကဆကႏြယမမားက သာ သေတသန လပငနးစဥက လႊမးမးအပစးထားနငသည အႏရာယမးရပါသည။ ပတသကဆကႏြယသ အသးသးနင ဆကဆေျပာဆသညအခါ ပတသကဆကႏြယသအေနျဖင သကေတာငသကသာရေစရန အထးဂရျပ၍ ဆကဆရမည။ စးပြားေရးေတာငတငး၍ နငငေရးအေနအထား ျမငမားသည ပတသကဆကႏြယသ အပစအေနျဖင ၎တ႔၏ ကယပင ဘာသာစကားနင ဆကသြယေရးနညးလမးမား အသးျပ၍ လပငနးစဥတစခလးအား ထနးခပသြားနင သညအႏရာယ မာ အမနပငျဖစပါသည။ သ႔အတြက သေတသမားအေနျဖင သေတသန လပငနးစဥအေတာအတြငး အသးျပေသာ ဘာသာစကားနင ျဖန႔ခလကသည သတငးအခကအလကမားသည စးပြားေရးနင ႏငငေရးအေနအထားအရ မညသ႔ပင ရသညသျဖစေစ ပတသကဆကႏြယသမနသမ နားလညလကခနငေအာင ျပလပရမည ျဖစသည။

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Questions to be answered when researchers seek to build common understanding:

Is the language (scientific, cultural terms, Myanmar language or other

language) being used understandable to all?

Are all stakeholders aware of the participation of all other stakeholders?

Does everyone agree on the participation of all these parties?

Do some stakeholders require technical or financial support to

participate more fully in the research process? How can this support be

provided?

The groups participating in the research are unlikely to share the same expectations and

feature the same skills, intellectual capacity, and level of engagement. These

differences need to be identified by the researchers in order to build a common

understanding.

Approach:

The stakeholders should be encouraged to explicitly spell out their goals so that

researchers see where these goals overlap and where they differ. The usual strategy is

to organize a meeting of stakeholders.

Once a common understanding has been reached among all stakeholders, a document

summarizing the PAR main objectives and goals as well as the degree of participation

of each stakeholder should be shared and distributed among them.

Tools:

There are several ways meetings can be organized for building a common

understanding. For example, people with expertise in relevant issues may be invited to

speak briefly at these introduction meetings. This may hopefully stimulate discussion

among the participants.

Some of the tools that can be used for a meeting are:

Brainstorming sessions: This is usually a starting point to bring all issues and

expectations to the table. The key principles to follow are:

Every idea is worthwhile;

No judgment (no critiques, evaluation, censorship) should be

made on someone else’s views;

Capture all ideas for later discussion.

Venn Diagrams: The Venn Diagram consists of two or more overlapping

circles, each identified by a main issue. They are used to describe and compare

elements and characteristics of a situation.

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သေတသမားအေနျဖင အမားလကခေသာ နားလညမ တညေဆာကရန ၾကးပမးရာ၌ ေျဖၾကားရမည ေမးခြနးမား အသးျပေသာ ဘာသာစကား (သပၸပညာရပဆငရာ၊ ယဥေကးမဆငရာ အသးအနနးမား၊

ျမနမာဘာသာစကား (သ႔) အျခားေသာဘာသာစကား ) သည အားလးနားလညနငပါသလား? ပကသကဆကႏြယသအားလးတ႔အေနျဖင အျခားေသာ ပါဝငပတသကသအားလးတ႔၏ ပါဝငမအား

သတျပမပါရ႕လား။ ဤအဖြ႕အားလး၏ ပးေပါငးပါဝငမက လတငးသေဘာတပါရ႕လား။ သေတသနလပငနးစဥတြင ပ၍ျပညျပညဝဝပါဝငနငရန အခ႕ေသာ ပတသကဆကႏြယသမားက

နညးပညာ (သ႔) ဘ႑ာေရးအရပပးရန လအပပါသလား။ မညကသ႔ ပပးမညနညး။

သေတသနတြင ပါဝငေသာ အပစမားသည ေမာလငထားသညမား မတညနငသလ အရညအခငး၊ ဥာဏစြမးရညနင သေတသနတြင ပါဝငမတ႔၌လညး ကြာျခားနငသည။ သေတသမားအေနျဖင အမားလကခနားလညမတစရပ တညေဆာကလပါက ဤကြျပားမမားက ေဖာထတနငရမည။ ခဥးကပပ ပတသကဆကႏြယသမားအား ၎တ႔၏ ရညမနးခကပနးတငမားက ပြငပြငလငးလငး ေဖာထတေျပာဆရန တကတြနး အားေပးသငသည။ သ႔မသာ အဆပါ ပနးတငမားသည တစခနငတစခ အခငးခငး ထပသညအပငးမား ရသေလာ၊ ကြျပားမ ရသေလာ ဆသညက သေတသနအေနျဖင သနငေပမည။ ပမနသးေသာ ဗဟာတစရပမာ ပတသက ဆကႏြယသမား၏ ေတြ႔ဆေဆြးေႏြးပြတစရပက စစညးကငးပျခငးျဖစသည။ ပတသကဆကႏြယသ အားလးအၾကား၌ အမားလကခနငေသာ နားလညမတစရပ ရရျပ ဆပါက ပတသကဆကႏြယ သ အသးသး၏ ပါဝငမအတငးအတာနင PAR ၏ အဓကရညမနးခကမား၊ ပနးတငမားက အနစခပထားေသာ စာရြက စာတမးက ပတသကဆကႏြယသအားလးတ႔အၾကား ေဝမ၍ ျဖန႔ခေပးထားသငသည။ နညးလမးမား အမားလကခေသာ နားလညမတစရပ တညေဆာကရနအတြက အစညးအေဝးကငးပပအမးမး ရပါသည။ ဥပမာအား ျဖင သကဆငရာ ကစၥရပမားနင ပတသကသည ကြမးကငသမားအား ဖတၾကား၍ အဆပါ မတဆကေတြ႔ဆမမား၌ စကားအနညးငယ ေျပာခငးေစျခငးျဖစသည။ ဤသ႔အားျဖင ပါဝငပတသကသမားအၾကား အခငးခငး ေဆြးေႏြးေျပာဆ ရန လေဆာေပးနငမညဟ ေမာလငရသည။

ေဆြးေႏြးပြတစရပအတြက အသးျပနငေသာ အခ႕ေသာနညးလမးမားမာ - ဥးေနာကမနတငးဆငမျပလပျခငး။ ။ဤနညးလမးသည ေမာလငထားသညမားနင ကစၥရပမားအားလး

က စားပြဝငးဆသ႔ ယလာေစရန အစျပသည နညးလမးတစရပ ျဖစေလရသည။ လကနာရမည အဓက ဥပေဒသမားမာ - အငဒယာတငးသည အသးဝငသည။ တစစတစဥး၏ အျမငရေထာငနငပတသက၍ (ေဝဖနျခငး၊သးသပျခငး၊တညးျဖတျခငး) စသည

အဆးအျဖတေပးျခငး မျပလပသင။ ေနာငတြငေဆြးေႏြးရနအတြက အငဒယာအားလးစစညးထားပါ။

ဗနးသရပျပရပပမား။ ။ဤနညးလမးသညရပပမားက အသးျပ၍ကစၥရပမား၊ အျမငမား၊ အငဒယာမား၏ ခတဆကမ၊ ဆကႏြယမတ႔က ေဖာထတသည။ ဤဗနးသရပျပရပပမားတြင အဓကကစၥရပ တစခခငးစက ေဖာျပသည အခငးခငးခတဆကလကရေသာ စကဝငးမားနစခ (သ႔) နစခထကပ၍ ပါဝငသည။ အေျခအေန တစရပ၏ ဝေသသလကၡဏာမားနင အစတအပငးမားက နငးယဥေဖာျပရာ၌ အသးျပသည။

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The overlapping areas document the links between different groups related to

the issue and can form the basis of a shared understanding.

Field-based mapping exercises: Examples include:

Land use and resources maps, with details about the physical

environment of the site under study (national park, timber

logging sites, areas used for shifting cultivation, etc.);

Social maps, with details on the type of users, families, villages,

wealth status, etc.

Participants in the research project draw themselves the map while discussing

the issue under study. The resulting map should ideally reflect the consensus of

all participants.

Step4: Identify the Research Question(s)

After a common understanding of the research objectives has been reached, the next

stage is to specifically identify a research question or questions. The list of issues or

concerns developed during the previous step (“Building a common understanding”)

could be used at this stage. It is from that list that the research question may be chosen.

Approach:

Selection criteria help rank research questions. They also help to select which research

question that is ultimately chosen.

Timber exploitation

company

Chin households

livelihoods

Less access

to livelihoods

Limited access

to lands

Non-timber

products users

National Park

Wood products

poachers

Shifting

cultivation

Forest

Department

Deforestation impact on Chin households livelihoods

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တစခနငတစခ ထပလကခတဆကလကရေသာ ဧရယာမားသည ကြျပားေသာအပစမားအၾကား ကစၥရပနင ဆကသြယလကရသည အခတအဆကက ညႊနးဆေဖာျပျပး အမားနားလညလကခနငေသာ အေျခခအျဖစ အသးျပနငသည။

ကြငးဆငးအေျချပ ေျမပထတေလကငခနးမား - ဥပမာမားအေနျဖင (အမးသားသစေတာၾကးဝငး၊ ကြနးသစထတလပေရးေနရာမားနင ေရြ႕ေျပာငးေတာငယာအတြက

အသးျပေသာ ဧရယာမားစသည) ေလလာမညေနရာ၏ ရပပငးဆငရာ အေသးစတပါဝငေသာ ေျမယာအသးျပပနင အရငးအျမစမားေျမပ

အသးျပသမားအမးအစား၊ မသားစမား၊ ေကးရြာမား၊ ၾကြယဝခမးသာမအေျခအေန စသည အေသးစတ ပါဝငေသာ လမေရးအေျချပေျမပမား

သေတသန စမကနးတြင ပါဝငေသာသမားသည ေလလာမည အေၾကာငးအရာအေၾကာငး ေဆြးေႏြးၾကရငး ၎တ႔ ကယတငေျမပဆြရန ျဖစသည။ ရရလာေသာ ေျမပသညပါဝငသအားလး၏ သေဘာတညခကက ထငဟပရမည။

အဆင(၄) သေတသနေမးခြနးမား ေဖာထတျခငး သေတသန ရညရြယခကမားနင ပတသက၍ အမားလကခနငေသာ နားလညမတစရပရရပါက ေနာကအဆငအေနျဖင သေတသန ေမးခြနးတစရပ (သ႔) ေမးခြနးမားက အတအက ေဖာထတရနျဖစသည။ ယခင (အမားလကခေသာ နားလညမ တစရပတညေဆာကယသည) အဆင၌ ေဖာထတခေသာ ကစၥရပမားစာရငးက ဤအဆငတြင အသးျပရန ျဖစသည။ ထစာရငးမ ထတနတ၍ သေတသနေမးခြနးက ေရြးခယရနျဖစသည။ ခဥးကပပ ေရြးခယမဆငရာစနနးမားသည သေတသနေမးခြနးမား၏ အေရးပါမအစအစဥက ကညစစဥေပးသည။ မညသည သေတသနေမးခြနးအား အဆးသတေရြးခယရမညကလညး ကညေပးသည။

Timber exploitation

company

Chin households

livelihoods

Less access

to livelihoods

Limited access

to lands

Non-timber

products users

National Park

Wood products

poachers

Shifting

cultivation

Forest

Department

Deforestation impact on Chin households livelihoods

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199

Tool:

Selection criteria may include feasibility, time-consumption, cost-effectiveness, and

ecological, social and economic impacts. They may be entered in a matrix designed to

evaluate each issue. The group then rates each issue relative to each criterion (for

example, 1, 2, 3 for high, medium, low). The sum of the ratings gives each issue a

“priority value”. It can also help the group decide which research questions to choose.

The result could be one or a couple of research questions.

Questions raised during the session Common interest in the questions Total

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3

What are the main causes of deforestation? 3 3 3 9

What are the impacts of

deforestation on livelihood

among Chin villagers?

3 3 1 7

How can the Forest Dept. control deforestation? 2 1 2 5

How can poaching be prevented? 1 1 1 3

Is the natural park efficiently managed? 2 1 2 5

Etc.

TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THIS CHAPTER ARE:

PAR projects are usually led by groups or communities directly affected by a

problem or an issue;

Actual participation of a wide range of stakeholders is crucial in PAR projects;

PAR produces answers about this problem or issue which in turn help

stakeholders decide which action to take. Ultimately, this decision-making must

result in improvements for those affected by the problem or issue;

PAR researchers act as facilitators;

PAR projects can use a wide range of research methodologies.

Exercise 1. What is lacking in each of the following steps of the PAR?

-The research organization contacted by a group of Chin elders agreed to

undertake a study of deforestation and shifting cultivation practices.

-During the PAR, researchers interviewed non-wood products poachers.

-Elders then decided to disclose poaching practices in their area by giving

the names of poachers.

-Just after finding out that land plots included in the national park were

confiscated from Chin farmers, the research organization decided to raise

the issue with the Ministry of Environment, with the hope that the plots

could be given back.

-Involvement as defined by the research team was limited to Chin farmers,

national park authorities, and logging companies.

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နညးလမး ေရြးခယမဆငရာ စနနးမားတြင ျဖစနငေခရမ၊ အခန၊ စရတစက အကးသကေရာကမ၊ ေဂဟစနစပငးဆငရာ၊ လမေရးဆငရာ၊ စးပြားေရး အကးသကေရာကမဆငရာတ႔ ပါဝငပါသည။ ၎တ႔က ကစၥရပတစခခငးစက အကျဖတရန စစဥ ဒဇငးျပလပထားေသာ ဇယားအတြငးသ႔ ထညသြငးနငသည။ ထ႔ေနာက ကစၥရပတစခခငးစနင ပတသကေသာ ေရြးခယမစနနးတစခခငးစနင အကျဖတအဆင ေပးနငသည။ (ဥပမာ ၁၊ ၂၊ ၃ ဟ၍ အျမငဆး၊ အလယအလတ၊ အနမဆးဟ၍ အမတေပးနငသည။) အမတေပးမမားက ေပါငး၍ စစေပါငးရမတမားျဖင ကစၥရပတစခခငးစက “ဥးစားေပးတနဖး” သတမတေပးနငသည။ ဤနညးျဖင ရညလားေသာ ကစၥရပမား စာရငးမ မညသည သေတသန ေမးခြနးက ေရြးခယမညဆသညက ဆးျဖတနငသည။ ရလဒအေနျဖင တစခ (သ႔) တစခထကပေသာ သေတသန ေမးခြနးမား ျဖစနငသည။ ေဆြးေႏြး၍ေပၚထြကလာေသာေမးခြနးမား ေမးခြနးမားအားအမားစတ၀ငစားမႈ စစေပါငး အပစ ၁ အပစ ၂ အပစ ၃ သစေတာျပနးတးမႈ၏ အဓကအေၾကာငးရငးမားမာ အဘယနညး? ၃ ၃ ၃ ၉ ခငးရြာသားမား၏ အသကေမြး၀မးေၾကာငးမႈအေပၚ သကေရာကေသာ သစေတာ ျပနးတးမႈ၏ အကးသကေရာကမႈမားမာ အဘယနညး ?

၃ ၃ ၁ ၇

သစေတာဥးစးဌာနအေနျဖင႔ သစေတာျပနးတးမႈက အဘယသ႕ ထနးခပႏငသနညး။ ၂ ၁ ၂ ၅ တရားမ၀င ကးေကာသစခတမႈမားက မညကသ႕ တားဆးမညနညး။ ၁ ၁ ၁ ၃ သဘာ၀ၾကး၀ငးအား ထေရာကစြာ စမခန႔ခြပါရ႕လား။ ၂ ၁ ၂ ၅ အစရသျဖင႔ အနစခပရလင ဤအခနးတြင ပါဝငေသာ မတသားရန အဓကအခကမားမာ

PAR စမကနးမားကျပနာ(သ႔) ကစၥရပမတကရကသကေရာကမရေသာအပစမား(သ႔) ရပရြာလထမ အမားအားျဖင ဥးေဆာငေလရသည။

ပတသကဆကႏြယသမား မားနငသမမားမား လကေတြ႔ပးေပါငးပါဝငမသည PAR စမကနးမားအတြက အေရးၾကးသည။

PAR သည ျပနာရပသ႔ ကစၥရပအတြက အေျဖထတေပးျပး ၎အေျဖမတဆင ပါဝငပတသကသမား အေနျဖင မညသညလပေဆာငမမး ျပလပရမညက ဆးျဖတသည။ အဆးစြနဆးအေနျဖင ဆးျဖတခက ခမတျခငးသည ျပနာရပသ႔ ကစၥရပမ သကေရာကမရသမားအေပၚ အကးသကေရာက တးတကမမား ျဖစေပၚရမည။

PAR သေတသမားသညကညပပးသမားအျဖစေဆာငရြကသည။ PAR စမကနးမားသညမားျပားလစြာေသာသေတသနနညးလမးမားကအသးျပနငသည။

ေလကငခနး (၁) ေအာကပါေဖာျပပါ PAR အဆငအသးသးတြငမညသညတ႔လအပေနသနညး။

(၅) ခငးလၾကးသမအပစမဆကသြယေဆာငရြကခငးေသာသေတသနအဖြ႔အစညးသညသစေတာျပနးတးမနင ေရြ႔ေျပာငးေတာငယာစကပးသညအေလ႔အထမားက ေလလာမျပရနသေဘာတသည။ (၆) PAR ျပလပစဥအေတာအတြငးသေတသမားသညသစမဟတသညထတကနမားက ခးယထတလပသမားကအငတာဗးသည။ထအခါလၾကးမားမ၎တ႔ေဒသအတြငးရခးယကးေကာသမား၏အေလအထကထတေဖာရနဆးျဖတၾကျပးခးယကးေကာသမား၏အမညမားက ေဖာထတလကၾကသည။ (၇) အမးသားသစေတာၾကးဝငးတြငပါဝငေသာ ေျမကြကမားသညခငးေတာငသမားထမနငငေတာပငအျဖစ သမးယထားေသာေျမကြကမားပါဝငသညကသရျပးေသာအခါသေတသနအဖြ႔အစညးသည ေျမကြကမား ျပနေပးေစလသည ေမာလငခကျဖငထကစၥကသဘာဝပတဝနးကငထနးသမးေရးဝနၾကးဌာနသ႔ တငျပရနဆးျဖတလကသည။ (၈) သေတသနအဖြ႔မ ေဖာထတသတမတေသာပါဝငသညအဖြ႔အစညးမားမာခငးေတာငသမား၊ အမးသားသစေတာၾကးဝငးအာဏာပငမားနငသစထတလပေရးကမၸဏတ႔သာျဖစသည။

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Answers:

1. Participatory process is lacking. From the outset, the research organization

should have discussed with the elders what their concerns were about the issue.

This discussion would have started the actual participatory process.

2. The disclosure of the names of poachers here is an ethical issue. All the

stakeholders, including elders, should respect the confidentiality of informants

and therefore not disclose the names of anyone even if the behaviour of this

person is not appreciated.

3. Here also the process is non-participatory: the organization should have

discussed with the elders the research findings and decided with the main

stakeholders which findings were the most appropriate to communicate and

how to communicate them. The issue may also be ethical: communicating too

quickly on the issue of land confiscation may back-lash and eventually

undermine the claims of Chin farmers.

4. Many more stakeholders should have been consulted during the research,

among them: the Forest Department, local authorities, women, other user

groups, etc.

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အေျဖမား။ ။ ၁။ပးေပါငးပါဝငမလပငနးစဥမပါဝငပါ။အစကတညးကစတင၍သေတသနအဖြ႔အစညးအေနျဖငကစၥရပနငပတသက ေသာလၾကးသမ၏ဆႏၵက၎တ႔နငအရငေဆြးေႏြးတငပငသငသည။ဤေဆြးေႏြးတငပငမသညတကယတမးပးေပါငး ပါဝငသညလပငနးစဥကအစျပခသငသည။ ၂။တရားမဝငခးယထတလပသမား၏နာမညမားအား ေဖာထတျခငးသညဤေနရာတြငကငဝတပငးဆငရာ ကစၥရပ ျဖစသည။လၾကးသမမားအပါအဝငအားလးေသာပါဝငပတသကသမားသညသတငးေပးသမားအားလ႔ဝကထားမဟ သညအခကက ေလးစားလကနာသငျပးပဂၢလတစဥးတစေယာက၏အျပအမသညမေကာငးသည တငေအာင အမညမားကေဖာထတျခငးမျပသငေပ။ ၃။ဤလပငနးစဥတြငလညးပးေပါငးပါဝငမမရေခ။အဖြ႔အစညးအေနျဖငသေတသနေတြ႔ရခကမားကလၾကးသမမားနငတငပငသငျပးအဓကပတသကဆကႏြယသမားနငအတတကြမညသညေတြ႔ရခကမားကတငျပရနအသငေလာဆးျဖစ မညမညကသ႔တငျပမညကဆးျဖတရမည။အဆပါကစၥရပသညကငဝတပငးနငလညးသကဆငသည။နငငေတာပင အျဖစသမးယသညေျမယာကစၥကအလငစလတငျပေျပာဆပါကေျပာငးျပနအကးသကရာကေစျပးခငးေတာငသမား၏တငျပေျပာဆမကပငတေျဖးေျဖးနငအငအားယတေလာေစနငသည။ ၄။သေတသနလပစဥကာလအတြငးပ၍မားစြာေသာပတသကဆကႏြယသမားနငတငပငညနငးသငျပး၎တ႔၌သစ ေတာဥးစးဌာန၊ ေဒသဆငရာအာဏာပငမား၊အမးသမးအပစနငအျခားအသးျပသမားအပစစသညျဖငပါဝငသင႔သည။

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BASIC 12. RESEARCH AND ETHICS

THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT:

Understanding ethical issues of social research;

Learning the basic code of conduct and practice that social researchers must

follow;

Understanding how ethics and politics may interact when conducting social

research projects.

WHAT ARE ETHICAL AND POLITICAL ISSUES IN SOCIAL RESEARCH?

“Ethical” refers to a set of moral principles followed by a group or a profession

specializing in a specific field. The well-known “Hippocratic oath” preventing

members of the medical profession from disclosing any information about their

patients is such a code of conduct. Ethics in social research hence designates a code of

conduct that researchers should always follow when carrying out their research.

Example of ethical issues regarding informants:

Suppose a research is conducted on a PLHIV (People Living with

HIV) community. Here follow three conducts and practices that

do not follow ethical issues in social research. Any

researcher should abstain to follow these types of conducts

and practices.

A researcher pretends to be a PLHIV so as to become

member of a Self-Help Group.

In doing so, his/her intrusion into people’s lives under

this pretense does not respect the moral conduct a

researcher should observe.

A researcher reports the list of interviewees to the

local authorities.

In doing so, people can be identified: this does not

respect the right to anonymity any research on such

sensitive issue has to respect.

A researcher pretends to be a doctor so as to interview

PLHIV more easily.

In doing so, the researcher does not use any informed

consent and the people interviewed are deceived.

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အေျခခအဆင ၁၂. သေတသနနင ကင၀တ ဤအခနးတြင

လမသေတသနနင ပတသကေသာ ကင၀တပငးဆငရာ ကစၥရပမား အေၾကာငးနားလညေစရန

လမသေတသမား လကနာရမည အေလအကငမားနင အေျခခကငထးမားအေၾကာငး သငယေလလာ

ႏငေစရန

လမေရးသေတသန စမကနးမားလပေဆာငရာတြင ကင၀တနငမတ႔ အျပနအလန ပတသကဆကစပပ

အေၾကာငး နားလညႏငေစရနတ႔ ပါ၀ငပါသည။

_____________________________________________________________________________ လမသေတသနရ ကင၀တပငးဆငရာနင မပငးဆငရာ ကစၥရပတ႔မာ အဘယနညး။ “ကင၀တပငးဆငရာ" ဟ ဆရာ၌ လပငနးနယပယတစခတြင အထးျပေသာ ကၽြမးကငသ လတစစ (သ႔) ကြမးကငသ တ႔မ လကနာကငသးေသာ စာရတပငးဆငရာ စညးမဥးဥပေဒသ အစေ၀းတစခက ဆလပါသည။ အမားသေသာ Hippocratic oath " ဟစပကေရတစကမးသစၥာ" ေဆးေလာကသားမားအေနျဖင ၎တ႔၏ လနာမား ပတသက ေသာ သတငးအခကအလကမားက ဖြငချခငး မေရာငၾကဥရသည ကငထးတစခပငျဖစသည။ သ႔အတြက လမသေတသန၏ ကင၀တဟဆရာ၌ သေတသမားအေနျဖင သေတသနလပငနး လပေဆာငသညအခါ၌ အျမလကနာရမည ကငထး တစရပပငျဖစသည။

သတငးေပးသမားနင ပတသကေသာ ကင၀တပငးဆငရာ ကစၥရပ ဥပမာ - HIV ပးကးစကခထားရသမား PLHIV လစနင ပတသကေသာ သေတသနတစရပ လပေဆာငသညဆပါစ႔။ ေအာကေဖာျပပါ အျပအမနင လပေဆာငပ သးရပမာ လမသေတသန၏ ကင၀တပငးဆငရာ ကစၥရပမားက ေစာငထနးလကနာျခငး မရေခ။ မညသည သေတသမဆ အဆပါ အျပအမနင အကငမားမ ေရာငရားသငပါသည။ - သေတသတစဥးသည ကယထကယထ PLHIV အပစ၏ အဖြ႔၀ငတစဥးျဖစရန အတြက PLHIV တစဥး ျဖစဟနေဆာငသည။ ဤသ႔ျပလပျခငးကသ႔ေသာ အေယာငေဆာင၍ လမား၏ ဘ၀မားၾကားသ႔ ထးထြငး၀ငေရာကရန အားထတမႈသည သေသသတစဥးအေနျဖင လကနာရမည ကင၀တမားက ေစာငထနးျခငးမရေခ။ - သေတသတစဥးသည ေဒသဆငရာ အာဏာပငမားထ အငတာဗးလပထားသည လ႔စာရငးက တငျပလကသည။ ဤသ႔လပေဆာငလကျခငးျဖင အငတာဗးတြင ပါ၀ငသညလမားက ေဖာထတသတမတနငသည။ ယငးသည အကဆတ၍ ထရလြယေသာ ကစၥရပမားတြင သေတသနက လကနာရမည အမညလ ႔၀ကမဆသည အခြငအေရးက ခးေဖာကရာ ေရာကသည။ - PLHIV မားက ပမလြယကစြာ အငတာဗးနငရန သေတသတစဥးသည ဆရာ၀နတစဥးအျဖစ ဟနေဆာငသည။ ဤသ႔ျပမျခငးသည ပါ၀ငသမားအား အသေပး၍ သေဘာတခက ေတာငးခမမရျခငးနင အငတာဗး အေမးခရသမားအား လညစားျခငးျဖစသည။

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Besides the ‘ethics’ issue, the researcher’s objectivity in conveying research findings

and interpreting them is crucial. Social research should be devoid from opinionated

comments made by the researcher.

Examples of ethical and political issues in social research:

1. The issues of the historical presence of Buddhist and

Muslim communities in Rakhine State and their respective

claims to historical legitimacy offer a good example of how

individuals may conduct “research” through the lens of their

own cultural values. As Buddhist researchers may see the

conflict through the lens of Buddhism and Muslim researchers

through the lens of Islam, many so-called “scientific

publications” often take a one-sided approach. This one-sided

approach seeks to justify the anteriority of settlement of one

population before the other. In fact, what would be more

constructive would be to offer a comprehensive historical

approach based on sound evidence and giving space and voice to

both communities. Personal views undermine scientific

objectivity and as such constitute an important ethical

problem in social research.

2. A research project studying the impact of a development

project concludes that the project will undermine the

livelihood of the population located in the area under

consideration. The researcher feels uncomfortable since the

study is directly funded by the organization implementing the

development project. He/she thinks it might be more

appropriate to conceal some of the findings. This way, the

organization in charge of the project will go ahead as

expected. Hiding some of the findings in order to “please” the

funder, however, is a serious ethical problem. No findings

should be concealed. A good research should be able to remain

independent and keep away from politics.

ETHICAL CODE OF CONDUCT IN SOCIAL RESEARCH

Below are basic principles that researchers conducting social research should observe:

1. Voluntary Participation

Observing the rule of ‘Voluntary Participation’ entails the following:

Informants must agree to disclose information about themselves;

Informants must be able to provide informed consent (if requested);

Researchers can assume that individual or group behavior the researchers have

observed in public settings may be freely reported as part of their findings

without prior agreement from those concerned;

Individuals contacted for research purposes after researchers have observed

them in public settings must be informed they were observed in these settings.

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ကင၀တပငးဆရာကစၥရပအျပင သေတသနေတြ႔ရခကမားအား အနကဖြငဆျခငးနင ျပနလညေဖာကသညချခငးတ႔၌ သေတသ၏ ဓမၼဓဌာနကမမာလညး အလြနအေရးၾကးပါသည။ လမသေတသနအေနျဖင သေတသ၏ ကယပင ယဆခကမား ထငျမငခကေပးျခငးမ ေရာငၾကဥသငပါသည။

လမသေတသနရ ကင၀တနငမပငးဆငရာ ကစၥရပမား၏ ဥပမာမား ၁။ ရခငျပညနယအတြငးရ မြတစလငလထနင ဗဒၶဘာသာ၀ငလထတ႔၏ သမငးေၾကာငးဆငရာ တညရမ ကစၥရပမားနင ၎အပစမားမ သမငးေၾကာငးဆငရာ အေထာကအထားခငလမနင ပတသက၍ အသးသးတငျပ ေတာငးဆမမား ျပလပေနျခငးသည လပဂၢလအသးသသည ၎တ႔၏ ကယပငယဥေကးမတနဖးမား၏ ရေထာငမားမ သေတသန ျပလပနငပက ထငဟပေစေသာ ဥပမာေကာငးတစရပျဖစသည။ အဘယေၾကာငဆေသာ ဗဒၶဘာသာ၀င သေသသမားအေနျဖင အဆပါ ပဋပကၡအား ဗဒၶဘာသာ၀ငအျမင ရေထာငမ သးသပျပး မြတစလငသေတသမားသည အစၥလာမရေထာငမ ခဥးကပေသာေၾကာင " သပၼနညးကျပစထတေဝမမား " ဟ ေခၚဆေနၾကသည ထတေဝမ အမားစမာ ဘကတစဘကကသာ သးသပခဥးကပေနၾကျခငးျဖစသည။ ဤသ႔ ဘကတစဘကကသာ ၾကည၍ လအပစ တစစသည အျခားလအပစထက အေျခခေနထငမ ပမေရးကကသညဟ ျပဆနငရနၾကးစားေနၾကသည။ တကယတမး တြငမ ပမ၍ အျပသေဘာေဆာငသည အေနအထားတစရပမာ ခငလသည အေထာကအထားအေပၚ အေျချပေသာ အမးမးျခငပါ၀ငေသာ သမငးေၾကာငးဆငရာ ခဥးကပမအားျဖငေသာလညးေကာငး လထနစရပစလးအား ေျပာဆခြင႔ျပကာ ေနရာေပးျခငးအားျဖင႔ ေသာလညးေကာငး ျပလပသင႔သည။ ပဂၢလအျမငမားသည သပၸနညးက ဓမၼဓဌာနကမက ပကယြငးေစျပး ဤသ႔ျဖစျခငးသည လမသေတသန၏ ကင၀တပငးဆငရာ ျပနာတစရပျဖစသည။ ၂။ ဖြ႔ျဖးေရးစမကနးတစရပ၏ သကေရာကမအား ေလလာမျပေနေသာ သေတသနတစရပသည အဆပါ စမကနး ဧရယာအတြငး ေနထငၾကသည လထ၏ အသကေမြး၀မးေၾကာငးဘ၀မားအား စမကနးမ မညသ႔ထခက ေစသညက ေလလာသည။ ဤေလလာမသည အဆပါဖြ႔ျဖးေရးစမကနးက အေကာငအထည ေဖာလကရေသာ အဖြ႔အစညးမ တကရက ေထာကပထားျခငး ျဖစေသာေၾကာင သေသသအေနျဖင စတမသကမသာျဖစရသည။ ယငးသေတသအေနျဖင အခ ႔ေသာရာေဖြေတြ႔ရခကမားအား ထနခနထားလင ပမသငေတာမညဟ ထငျမငသည။ ဤနညးျဖင စမကနးတာ၀နရေသာ အဖြ႔အစညးသည ယခငေမာလငထားသညအတငး ဆကလကလပကငသြားမည ျဖစသည။ သ႔ေသာ ရနပေငြေထာကပသ ေကနပေစရနအတြက အခ ႔ေသာ ေတြ႔ရခကမားအား ဖးကြယထားျခငးသည အလြနဆးရြားေသာ ကငဝတပငးဆငရာ ျပနာရပျဖစသည။ မညသည ေတြ႔ရခကကမဆ ထနခနထားျခငး မျပသင ေပ။ သေတသေကာငး တစေယာကအေနျဖင လြတလပစြာ ရပတညေနသငျပး နငငေရးနင မပငးဆငရာ ကစၥရပမားနင ေဝးေဝး ေနသငသည။

လမသေတသနရ ကငဝတပငးဆငရာကငထး အာကေဖာျပပါတ႔မာ လမသေတသန လပေဆာငၾကေသာ သေတသမားအေနျဖင ေစာငထနးသငသည အေျခခ စညးမဥးမား ျဖစသည။ ၁။ မမဆႏၵအေလာကပါဝငမ " မမဆႏၵအေလာကပါဝငမ" ဆသညစညးမဥးက ေစာငထနးလကနာျခငး ဆသညမာ ေအာကပါ အခကမားက အကးဆက သကေရာကေစပါသည။

သတငးေပးသမားသည ၎တ႔နင ပတသကေသာ သတငးအခကအလကမားက ထတေဖာခြငျပရန သေဘာတ ရမည။

သတငးေပးသမားအေနျဖင သရေၾကာငး သေဘာတခက (informed consent) က ေတာငးခသညအခါ ေပးနငရ မည။

လပဂၢလတစဥး (သ႔) လတစစ၏ လမားအၾကားျပမေနထငေျပာဆပမားနင ပတသက၍ သေတသမား၏ ေစာငၾကညေလလာထားမအားအဆပါသကဆငရာပဂၢလမားထမတငၾကငခြငျပခကေတာငးခရနမလဘ သေတသမား၏ ေလလာေတြ႔ရခကမားအျဖစလြတလပစြာအစရငခတငျပနငေၾကာငးယဆထားနငပါသည။

သေတသန ရညရြယခကအတြက ဆကသြယေဆာငရြကသည လပဂၢလမားအား သေတသမားအေနျဖင လထအၾကား ေစာငၾကညေလလာမျပျခငး ျပးသညအခါ ၎တ႔သည ထသ႔ေစာငၾကညေလလာျခငး ခရေၾကာငးက အသေပးရမည။

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In Western countries the notion of ‘informed consent’ often consists in a consent form

signed by the informant. In Myanmar, however, signing a piece of paper may frighten

informants. Whatever the researcher decides about using a consent form, the ethical

principle for the researcher here is to: (1) openly state why the informant is being

interviewed; and (2) obtain verbally or in writing the informant’s consent that will

allow the researcher to collect personal information about the informant. Informed

consent should at least contain:

The purpose of study;

The possibility of the informant to refusing to answer some questions or to stop

the interview at any moment;

That findings will be used for research purposes;

The informant’s identity will not be disclosed (see below);

The contact details of the researcher.

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အေနာကနငငမား၌ "သေဘာတစာခပ" ဟ ဆသညအခါ စာျဖငခေရး၍ သတငးေပးသမ လကမတထးထားေသာ စာရြက စာတမး ျဖစေလရသည။ သ႔ေသာ ျမနမာနငငတြငမ စာရြကတစရြကတြင လကမတထးေစျခငးသည သတငးေပးသအား ေျခာကလန႔ေစနငပါသည။ သေဘာတစာခပ သးမညမသးမညက အဆးသတတြင မညသ႔ပင ဆးျဖတေစကာမ ဤေနရာ တြင သေတသအေနျဖင လကနာရမည ကငဝတစညးမဥးမာ (၁) သတငးေပးသအား အဘယေၾကာင အငတာဗး လပသညက ပြငလငးစြာေျပာျပရန (၂) သတငးေပးသ၏ ပဂၢလေရး အခကအလကမားက သေတသအေနျဖင စေဆာငး ေကာကယနငရနအတြက သတငးေပးသ၏ သေဘာတညခကက နတအားျဖင လညးေကာငး (သ႔) စာအားျဖင လညးေကာငး ရယထားရန လပါသည။ သရေၾကာငး သေဘာတညခကတစရပတြင အနညးဆး ပါဝငသငသညမားမာ

ေလလာမ၏ ရညရြယခက

သတငးေပးသအေနျဖင အခ ႔ေသာ ေမးခြနးမားက ေျဖဆရန ျငငးပယနငမနင အခနမေရြး အငတာဗးက

အဆးသတလက အဆးသတနငသညဆသည ျဖစေပၚနငေသာ အေျခအေနအား အသေပးျခငး

ေလလာေတြ႔ရခကမားအား သေတသနရညရြယခကမားအတြက အသးျပမညဟဆျခငး

သတငးေပးသအေၾကာငးက ေဖာထတမည မဟတဟဆျခငး (ေအာကတြငၾကညပါ)

သေတသနင ပတသကေသာ ဆကသြယရန လပစာအတအကတ႔ ျဖစပါသည။

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Example of a letter of consent:

Research Title: Nutrition for Urban Children under 5

Principal Investigator and Contact Information: [Here you write down the

name of your supervisor or organization and contact information].

Researcher’s Name: [Here you write down your name, organization/institution, and

position/class year here].

Purpose of Your Study:

Example: I am a researcher belonging to ______ organization. In

the context of this project, I am conducting a research project on

nutrition, pregnancy, and breast-feeding practices and beliefs

among urban communities in Myanmar. The purpose of the study is to

improve nutrition and child-care practices for children under 5.

Procedures:

You will be asked to answer an interview about the above subject

for an approximately 1 hour-long interview.

Confidentiality:

All the information you provide will be strictly confidential and

your name will not appear on the questionnaire. Instead, your

questionnaire will contain an identification number that is known

only by the principal investigator of this study. This

identification number is used to locate the interview in time and

space so we can come back to you if any additional information is

needed.

Note About Voluntary Nature of Participation and Statement About

Compensation:

Your participation is voluntary. You may refuse to participate or

may end your participation at any time during the interview. While

we cannot compensate you for your time, your participation will be

invaluable to our project as we seek an understanding of

nutrition, pregnancy, and breast-feeding practices and beliefs

among urban communities in Myanmar.

Information About This Study:

You will have the opportunity to raise questions about this

research by asking the interviewer or by contacting the

organization. All inquiries are confidential.

Participant’s Agreement Statement:

If you agree to participate in our study, we would appreciate that

you sign your name and indicate the date at which this form was

signed. Please kindly givethis form back to us at the time of the

interview.

****************************************************

I have read the information provided above. I voluntarily agree to

participate in this study. After it is signed, I understand I will

participate to an interview for the project on “Nutrition for

Urban Children under 5”.

_________________________ ___________________________

Name Date

Thank you,

Sincerely, ______________ ___________________________

Your name goes here with your affiliation.

Your organization’s name goes here with contact details.

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သေဘာတညခကစာေစာငဥပမာ သေတသနေခါငးစဥ။ ။ အသကငါးနစေအာက ျမ႕ေနကေလးမား၏ အာဟာရအေျခအေန အဓက စစမးေမးျမနးသနင ဆကသြယရန သတငးအခကအလက။ ။ [ ဤေနရာတြင သင၏ အထကလၾကး (သ႔) အဖြ႔အအစညးနင ဆကသြယရန သတငးအခကအလကက ခေရးပါ။ ] သေတသ၏အမည။ ။ [ ဤေနရာတြင သင၏အမည၊ အဖြ႔အစညး အသငးအဖြ႔၊ ရာထး (သ႔) တကေရာကေနသည အတနးတ႔က ခေရးပါ။ ]

သငေလလာမ၏ ရညရြယခက။ ဥပမာ - ကြနေတာ/ ကြနမသည _________ အဖြ႔အစညးမ သေတသတစေယာက ျဖစပါသည။ ယခစမကနးတြင ျမနမာနငငရ ျမ႕ေနလ႔အဖြ႔အစညးအၾကား အာဟာရပငးဆငရာ၊ ကယဝနေဆာငမ ဆငရာ၊ န႔ခတကေက ြးမ အမအကငမားနင ယၾကညထားမမားအေၾကာငး သေတသန ျပလပေနျခငး ျဖစပါသည။ ဤေလလာမ၏ ရညရြယခကမာ ငါးနစေအာကကေလးျပစေစာငေရာကမ အေလအထနင အာဟာရပငးဆငရာ တးတကလာေစရန ျဖစပါသည။ လပငနးစဥမား။ ။အထကေဖာျပပါ အေၾကာငးအရာနင ပကသက၍ အၾကမးဖဥးအားျဖင တစနာရခန႔ ၾကာျမငမည အငတာဗးအတြက ေမးခြနးမား ေျဖဆရန အေမးခရမည ျဖစပါသည။ လ ႔ဝကထားမ။ ။ သငထမရရေသာ သတငးအခကအားလးအား တငးၾကပစြာ လ ႔ဝကထားရမညျဖစျပး ေမးခြနးလႊာေပၚတြငလညး သင၏အမညရမညမဟတေခ။ ၎အစား သင၏ေမးခြနးလႊာေပၚတြင ဤေလလာမႈ၏ အဓက စစမးေမးျမနသသာလင သနငသည အမတအသားနပါတသာလင ပါရမညျဖစသည။ ၎အမတအသားနပါတသည အငတာဗးေမးျမနးသညအခနနင ေနရာက အမတအသား ျပရနအတြကသာျဖစျပး အကယ၍ ထပေဆာငးသတငး အခကအလကမား လအပခပါက သငထသ႔ ျပနလာနငရနအတြကသာ ျဖစသည။ မမဆႏၵအေလာက ပါဝငသည သေဘာသဘာဝ မတခကနင အခေၾကးေငြေပးေချခငးဆငရာ ေဖာျပခက သင၏ပါဝငမမာ သင၏ဆႏၵအေလာကသာ ျဖစပါသည။ သငအေနျဖင ပးေပါငးပါဝငရန ျငငးဆနငျပး အငတာဗး လပေနစဥ အေတာအတြငး မညသညအခနမဆ သင၏ပးေပါငးပါဝငမအား ရပစနငခြငရပါသည။ သင၏အခနေပး ပါဝငမအတြက ကြနပတ႔အေနျဖင တစစတစရာေသာ အခေၾကးေငြမေပးေခနငေသာလညး ျမနမာနငငရ ျမ႕ေန လတနးစားမားအၾကား အာဟာရပငးဆငရာ၊ ကယဝနေဆာငမဆငရာ၊ န႔ခတကေက ြးမ အမအကငမားနင ယၾကညထားမတ႔အေၾကာငး နားလညနငရန ၾကးစားသည ကြနပတ႔၏ စမကနးအတြက သင၏ပးေပါငးပါဝငမသည တနဖးမျဖတနငပါ။ ဤေလလာမနင ပတသကေသာ သတငးအခကအလက။ ဤသေတသနနင ပတသက၍ သလသညမားက ေမးခြနးထတနငေသာ အခြငအေရးရမညျဖစျပး ေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးသအား ျပနလညေမးျမနးျခငး (သ႔) ကြနပတ႔၏ အဖြ႔အစညးအား ဆကသြယျခငးတ႔ ျပလပနငပါသည။ ဤသ႔စစမးေမးျမနးမမား အားလးက လ႕ဝကထားရမည ျဖစပါသည။ ပါဝငေျဖဆသ၏ သေဘာတညမဆငရာ ေဖာျပခက။ ကြနပတ႔၏ ေလလာမတြင ပါဝင၍ သေဘာတပါက သင၏အမညအား လကမတေရးထးရန ဤေဖာငပစတြင လကမတထးသည ရကစြက ထညသြငးေဖာျပပါက ကြနပတ႔အေနျဖငမားစြာ ေကးဇးတငရပါသည။ ေကးဇးျပ၍ အငတာဗးေမးသညအခန၌ ဤေဖာငပစစာရြကအား ျပနလညေပးေစလပါသည။ **************************************************************** ကြနပသညအထကတြင ေဖာျပပါရေသာ သတငးအခကအလကမားအား ဖတရျပး ျဖစပါသည။ ဤေလလာမတြင ကြနပအေနျဖင လြတလပသည ဆႏၵအေလာကပါဝငရန သေဘာတပါသည။ လကမတေရးထးျပးပါက "အသကငါးနစ ေအာက ျမ႕ေနကေလးမား၏ အာဟာရအေျခအေန" စမကနးတြင အငတာဗးေျဖဆရန ပးေပါငးပါဝငရလမမည ျဖစ ေၾကာငး သရနားလညပါသည။ _____________________________ _________________________________ အမည ရကစြ ေကးဇးတငစြာျဖင _____________________________ _____________________________ သင၏အမညနင သငပါဝငေသာ အဖြ႔အစညး သငအဖြ႔အစညးအမညနင ဆကသြယရန လပစာအေသးစတ

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2. No Harm to Subjects

Observing the rule of ‘No Harm to Subjects’ entails the following:

Subjects must be free from serious physical or emotional harm and any harm

that the researcher thinks might impede the good conduct of the interview;

Subjects must be informed of the manifest content of the information they will

be asked to reveal about themselves;

It is permissible to deceive subjects, as long as the deception cannot be

anticipated to create physical or emotional harm.

3. Anonymity

Observing the rule of ‘Anonymity’ entails the following:

Both the researcher and the public cannot identify the subject;

Anonymity often is not required during data collection, but sometimes is

preferred;

Typically, personal details that might help identify a person must be removed

from the data after collection is complete;

The exception would be for studies collecting data over long periods, such as

the UNDP household survey conducted each year for an update on household

livelihood.

4. Confidentiality

Observing the rule of ‘Confidentiality’ entails the following:

The public cannot identify the subject.

Confidentiality is nearly always required.

Notice the difference between ‘Anonymity’ and ‘Confidentiality’:

Anonymity means that the informant cannot be identified, while confidentiality means

that only the researcher(s) can identify the informant.

5. No Deception

Observing the rule of ‘No Deception’ means that the researcher has to let the research

participants know the true purpose of the research at one point before the research is

finalized.

In most cases, the rule of ‘No Deception’ will be observed before collecting

data: before interviewing, before conducting a survey, a case study, a PAR, the

researcher will inform the participants of the true purpose of the research.

In very rare cases, the rule of ‘No Deception’ will be observed after collecting

data and before doing the reporting: at this stage only, the researcher will

inform the participants of the full research purpose.

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၂။ ပါဝငသမားအား အႏရာယမရေစမ "ပါဝငသမားအား အႏရာယမရေစရ" ဟေသာ စညးမဥးက လကနာျခငး ဆသညမာ ေအာကပါအခကမားက အကးဆက သကေရာကေစပါသည။

ပါဝငသမားအေနျဖင ဆးရြားျပငးထနေသာ ရပပငးဆငရာ ေဘးအႏရာယ၊ စတပငးဆငရာ ေဘးအႏရာယတ႔ႏင႔ တကြ အငတာဗးက ေကာငးမြနစြာ လပေဆာငႏငရန အဟန႔အတား ျဖစေစမညဟ သေတသမထငသည႔ မညသည႔ ေဘးအႏရယမမဆ ကငးလြတရမည။

ပါ၀ငသမားထမ ၄ငးတ႕ႏင႔ပတသတေသာ သတငးအခကအလကမား ေတာငးခယသည႔အခါ ထအခက အလကတ႔၏ ရငးလငးေသာ အဓပၸါယရငးက အသေပး သရေစရမည။

ပါ၀ငသမားအား ပရယာယသးလပါက ၄ငးပရယာယသည ပါ၀ငသမားအား ရပပငးဆငရာ (သ႔) စတပငး ဆငရာ အႏရာယမရေစပါက သးႏငသည။

၃။ အမညမေဖာမႈ “အမညမေဖာမႈ” ဆသည႔ စညးမဥးက လကနာျခငးဆသညမာ ေအာကပါအခကမား အကးဆက သကေရာက ေစပါသည။

ပါ၀ငပတသကသအား သေတသေရာ၊ အမားျပညသပါ ေဖာထတႏငျခငး မရေစရ။ ေဒတာေကာကယသည႔ အဆင႔တြင “အမညမေဖာမႈ” ဆသညမာ လအပေလ႔မရေသာလညး တစခါတစရမ

လအပႏငပါသည။ အမားအားျဖင႔ ေဒတာေကာကယျခငးအဆင႔ ျပးသည႔အခါ မညသမည၀ါျဖစေၾကာငး ေဖာထတသရေစႏင

သည႔ ပဂၢလေရး အခကအလကမားက ဖယရားပစရမည။ အမေထာငစမား အသကေမြး၀မးေၾကာငးမႈႏင႔ ပတသက၍ ေနာကဆး သတငးအခကအလကမား ရရ၍

ႏစစဥ ေကာကယသည႔ UNDP ၏ အမေထာငစ စစတမးက႔သ႕ေသာ ကာလၾကာျမင႔စြာ ေကာကယသည႔ ေလ႔လာမႈမးမားကမ ခြငးခကအျဖစ မတယရပါမည။

၄။ လ႕၀ကထားမႈ “လ႕၀ကထားမႈ” စညးမဥးတ႕လကနာျခငးဆသညမာ ေအာကပါအခကမား အကးဆကသကေရာကေစပါသည။

အမား ျပညသအေနျဖင႔ ပါ၀ငပတသကသအား သႏငစြမးမရ “လ႕၀ကထားမႈမာ အၿမတမးလလ လအပပါသည။”

“အမညမေဖာမႈ”ႏင႔“လ႕၀ကထားမႈ”တ႕အၾကားကြျပားမႈကသတျပမတသားရနမာ“အမညမေဖာမႈ”ဆသညမာ“သတငးေပးသကမညသမသရေဖာထတႏငျခငးမရမႈ” ျဖစျပးလ႕၀ကထားမႈသည “သတငးေပးသမားသေတသ (မား) သာလငသရျခငးျဖစပါသည။” ၅။ လည႔ျဖားမႈမရျခငး လည႔ျဖားမႈမရျခငးဆသည႔ စညးမဥးက ေစာင႔ထနးလကနာျခငးဆသညမာ သေတသန အဆးမသတမ အခနအတြငး သေတသန၏ ရညရြယခကအမနက သေတသမ သေတသနတြင ပါ၀ငသမားအား ေပးသျခငးျဖစသည။

ကစၥရပ ေတာေတာမားမား၌ “လညးျဖားမႈမရျခငး” ဆသည႔ စညးမဥးက ေစာင႔ထနးသညဆသညမာ ေဒတာ အခကအလကမား မေကာကမ ( အငတာဗးမတငမ၊ ျဖစရပေလ႔လာမႈ၊ PAR ၊ စစတမးမေကာကယမတ႕၌ ) သေတသသည သေတသနတြင ပါ၀ငသမားအား သေတသန၏ ရညရြယခကအမနက အသေပးေလ႔ရသည။

ရားပါး ျဖစရပမားတြင “လည႔ျဖားမႈမရျခငး” ဆသည႔စညးမဥးက ေစာင႔ထနးရာ၌ ေဒတာေကာကယအျပး အစရငခစာ မေရးသားမအခန၌မသာလင သေတသသည သေတသနတြင ပါ၀ငသမားအား သေတသန၏ ရညရြယခက အျပည႔အစက အသေပးျခငး ျဖစသည။

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CAN A 100% ETHICAL RESEARCH EXIST?

In very rare cases, applying the five rules previously mentioned cannot be fully done.

For certain research topics, it can be important for researchers to conceal their identity

to subjects.

Example: A research project addresses the question of ‘Human Trafficking’. The strict observance of the ‘No Deception’ rule means that the researcher must at all times identify himself/herself as a researcher. However, because of the sensitivity of the research topic, the researcher will probably have benefit in concealing his/her real identity while collecting information. Conducting this research under one’s real identity might be risky for the researcher and the persons who participate in the

research.

As a matter of fact, a research project that is 100% ethical may be hard to implement.

Nevertheless, it is the researcher’s responsibility to ensure that his/her research follows

research ethics as much as possible. The following are questions that may help the

researcher evaluate ethical issues linked to his/her research:

How will you explain the purpose of the inquiry and methods to be used in

ways that are accurate and understandable to those whose research is concerned

with?

Why should informants participate in your project?

In what ways, if any, will conducting this research put people at risk?

(psychological, legal, political, becoming ostracized by others?)

Can you make sure that promises of confidentiality will be fully honored?

What kind of informed consent, if any, is necessary for mutual protection?

Who will have access to the data? For what purposes?

How will you and your respondent(s) likely be affected by conducting this

research?

Who will be the researcher’s counselor on matters of ethics during the study?

What ethical framework and philosophy informs your work and ensures respect

and sensitivity for those you study, beyond whatever may be required by law?

POLITICAL ISSUES IN SOCIAL RESEARCH

While ethics refer to formal codes of conduct for social research, there are no formal

codes of acceptable political conduct. Indeed, there is no notion of political conduct

that is agreed by the majority of researchers.

For example, doing research on Buddhism in Myanmar may have a political

dimension, especially because of the conflicts that have arisen since 2012 between

Muslim and Buddhist communities. Whether it is appropriate to study religion in such

a context remains a personal choice made by the researcher.

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ရာႏႈနးျပည႔ ကင႔၀တလကနာသည႔ သေတသနမး ရႏငပါသလား ? အထကတြငေဖာျပခ႔ေသာ စညးမဥးငါးရပက ၁၀၀ % လကနာႏငသညမာ ရားပါသည။ အခ႕ေသာ သေတသန အေၾကာငးအရာမားတြင သေတသမားသည ၄ငးတ႕မညသမည၀ါျဖစေၾကာငး ပါ၀ငသမားအား အသမေပးဘ ထနခနရန အေရးႀကးပါသည။ ဥပမာ။ လကနကးမႈႏင႔ ပတသတ၍ သေတသန ပေရာဂကတစခဆပါစ႔။ “လည႔ျဖားမႈမရျခငး” ဆသည႔ စညးမဥးအား တငးတငးၾကပၾကပ လကနာရနမာ သေတသအေနျဖင႔ ၄ငးသည သေတသနသမားတစဥး ျဖစေၾကာငး အခနတငး၌ ေဖာျပႏငရမည။ သ႕ရာတြင ယခသေတသနအေၾကာငးအရာသည အကဆတေၾကာင႔ သတငးအခကအလကမား စေဆာငးသည႔အခါတြင သ၏ဇာတရပအမနက ထနခနထားျခငးသည သေတသနသမားအတြက အကးမားေစပါသည။ ဤက႔သေသာ သေတသနမးက မမ၏ဇာတရပအမနျဖင႔ ေဆာငရြကပါက သေတသႏင႔တကြ သေတသနတြင ပါ၀ငသ မားအတြကပါ အႏရာယမားႏငပါသည။

လကေတြ႔တြငမ ရာႏႈနးျပည႔ကင႔၀တလကနာသည႔ သေတသနမးက အေကာငအထညေဖာရန အေတာခယဥးပါသည။ သ႕ေသာျငားလညး သေတသနတစရပသည သေတသနဆငရာ ကင႔၀တမားအား တတႏငသမလကနာရနမာ သေတသ၏ တာ၀နပငျဖစသည။ ဤေနရာမစ၍ ေအာကတြငေဖာျပထားေသာ ေမးခြနးအခ႕မာ သေတသအား ၄ငး၏သေတသနႏင႔ ပတသတေသာ ကင႔၀တပငးဆငရာ ကစၥရပမားက အကျဖတႏငေစရန အေထာကအက ျပပါသည။

သေတသနတြင ပါ၀ငပတသကသမားအား စစမးေမးျမနးရျခငး ရညရြယခကႏင႔ အသးျပမည႔ နညးလမးမား အေၾကာငး တတကကႏင႔ နားလညလြယေစရန သငမညသ႕ ရငးျပမညနညး။

သတငးေပးသမားက သင၏စမကနးတြင အဘယေၾကာင ပါ၀ငသင႔သနညး။ အကယ၍ ရခ႔ပါက မညက႔သ႔ေသာ နညးလမးမားက သေတသနလပျခငးေၾကာင႔ လအမားက အႏရာယရေစ

သနညး။ (စတပငးဆငရာ၊ ဥပေဒေရးရာ၊ ႏငငေရးဆငရာႏင႔ အျခားလမားမ ၀ငးပယထားမႈ စသည႔ အႏရာယ မား)

လ႕၀ကထားမႈႏင႔ ပတသကေသာ ကတက၀တမားအား အျပည႔အ၀ ေလးစားလကနာမႈ ရႏငပါသလား။ အကယ၍ လအပပါက အျပနအလန ကာကြယမႈေပးႏငရနအတြက မညက႔သ႕ေသာ “သရေၾကာငး သေဘာတ

ခက” မး လအပလမ႔မညနညး။ ေဒတာ အခကအလကမားက မညသတ႔ ရယပငခြင႔ရသနညး။ မညသည႔ ရညရြယခကမားအတြကနညး။ ဤသေတသနက လပေဆာငျခငးျဖင႔ သငႏင႔သင၏ ေျဖဆသ (မား) အား မညက႔သ႕ေသာ အကး

သကေရာကမႈမား ရႏငသနညး။ ေလ႔လာမႈျပစဥ အေတာအတြငး ကင႔၀တပငးဆငရာ ကစၥရပမားႏင႔ ပတသတ၍ သေတသ၏ အတငပငခ

ပဂၢလမာ မညသျဖစလမ႔မညနညး။ ဥပေဒေၾကာငးအရ လအပခကအျပင မညသည႔ ကင႔၀တပငးဆငရာ မေဘာငႏင႔ ဒနပငးဆငရာတ႕သည

သင၏ အလပအားလႈ႕ေဆာမႈေပး၍ သငေလ႔လာမႈျပေနေသာ သတ႔အား သျမငပငးျခားနားလညမႈ ေလးစား သမႈ ရေစရန မညသ႔ေသခာမႈ ရေစသနညး။

လမႈသေတသန၏ မပငးဆငရာ ကစၥရပမား လမႈသေတသနာ၌ ကင႔၀တဆသညမာ သမရးက လကနာရမည႔ ကင႔ထးက ဆလျခငးျဖစေသာလညး မပငးဆငရာ ေဆာငရြကမႈ၌ သမရးက လကနာကင႔ထးဟ၍ မရေခ။ လကေတြ႕တြင သေတသအမားစၾကးမ သေဘာတညစြာ လကခထားေသာ မပငးဆငရာကင႔ထးဟ၍မရေခ။ ဥပမာအား ျဖင႔ - ျမနမာႏငငတြင ဗဒၶဘာသာႏင႔ ပတသက၍ ျပလပေသာ သေတသန၌ ႏငငေရးဆငရာ ရႈေထာင႔ တစရပ ပါ၀ငေပသည။ အထးသျဖင႔ ၂၀၁၂ ကတညးက ျဖစပြားခ႔ေသာ မြတစလငအခ႕ႏင႔ ဗဒၶဘာသာ၀ငအခ႕ အၾကား ျဖစပြားခ႔ေသာ ပဋပကၡ ေၾကာင႔ ျဖစသည။ ဤက႔သ႕ေသာ အေျခအေနမး၌ ဘာသာေရးႏင႔ ပတသက၍ ေလ႔လာမႈျပရန သင႔ေလာမႈ ရမရမာ သေတသ၏ ကယပငပဂၢလ ေရြးခယမႈ တစရပပင ျဖစသည။

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The second difference between ethics and politics in social research is that ethics of

social research deal mostly with the methods employed while political issues tend to

center on the substance and use of research.

For example, conducting a research project on slums and squatters in urban Yangon

may raise ethical and political issues:

From an ethical perspective, a study on illegal squatters in Yangon area might

be instrumental in bringing local political leaders to think that squatters have to

be evicted from these areas if the slums are clearly described and located in the

research report. The researchers in charge might go around this ethical issue by

reporting about these squatters without precisely designating their location or

by reporting about them at the township level, an administrative level large

enough that squatters will unlikely feel the threat of eviction.

A research project investigates life in squatters’ settlements. Researchers

conducting the investigation have to think about the risks their research might

pose for the squatters. It might be possible that their research be misused by

local authorities to justify the squatters’ eviction, which was not the intended

effect of the research.

Social research in relation to contested social issues cannot remain strictly neutral and

objective. Taking again the example of Buddhist and Muslim relations in Myanmar,

one could say that International scholars animated by politically-correct views are

likely to undertake research supporting the idea that both communities ought to live

together for their own well-being (social, economical, etc.). However, if a research with

solid methodological standing were to support the idea that segregation of communities

would eventually be more beneficial for everyone, it would raise political concerns

about the existing conflict in Rakhine State. The study could be used by outside parties

for fueling further antagonism between these communities.

Therefore, it is useful to remember that:

1. Science is not untouched by politics;

2. Science does proceed in the midst of political controversy and hostility;

3. An awareness of ideological considerations enriches the study and practice of

social research methods.

Whereas researchers should not let their own values interfere with the quality and

honesty of the research, this does not mean that researchers cannot or should not

participate in public debates.

RESPONSIBILITIES AND ETHICS OF THE SOCIAL SCIENTIST

Once collected, the data must be interpreted. At this stage, researchers have

responsibilities that could be summarized as: researchers must be honest about their

findings and their research.

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လမႈသေတသန၌ ကင႔၀တႏင႔ မတ႕အၾကား ဒတယကြာျခားခကတစရပမာ လမႈသေတသန၏ ကင႔၀တသည႔ အသးျပ ေသာ နညးလမးမားႏင႔ အဓကပတသကျပး မပငးဆငရာ ကစၥရပမားမာ သေတသနတြင ပါ၀ငသည႔ အေၾကာငးအရာ ႏင႔ သေတသနအား အသးျပပတ႕ႏင႔ ပ၍ သကဆငပါသည။ ဥပမာအားျဖင႔ - ရနကနျမ႕ျပရ ကးေကာေနထငသမားႏင႔ ျမ႕ေနဆငးရသားမားႏင႔ ပတသကေသာ သေတသနတစရပ လပေဆာငရာ၌ ကင႔၀တပငးဆငရာႏင႔ မပငး ႏငငေရးဆငရာ ကစၥရပတ႕ ေပၚေပါကႏငပါသည။

ကင႔၀တပငးဆငရာ ရႈ႕ေထာင႔တစရပအရ ရနကနဧရယာအတြငးရ တရားမ၀င ကးေကာေနထငသမားႏင႔ ပတသကေသာ ေလ႔လာမႈတစရပသည သေတသနအစရငခစာ၌ ဤျမ႕ေနဆငးရသားမား အေၾကာငး ရငးလငးစြာ ေနရာႏင႔တကြ ေဖာျပပါရက အဆပါေလ႔လာမႈသညလညး ေဒသဆငရာ ႏငငေရး ေခါငးေဆာင မား အေနျဖင႔ ဤကးေကာသမားအား ၄ငးတ႕ေနထငရာ ဧရယာမားမ ႏငထတႏငေစရန ေထာကအက ျဖစသြားေစႏငသည။ တာ၀နခသေတသမားအေနျဖင႔ ဤကင႔၀တပငးဆငရာ ကစၥရပအား ေရာငရားႏငရန ကးေကာငေနထငသမား၏ ေနရာမားအား အစရငခစာ၌ အေသးစတေဖာျပမႈ မျပျခငး သ႔မဟတ ျမ႕နယ အဆငအလကသာ ေဖာျပျခငး၊ ကးေကာသမားသည ဖယရားခရျခငး ဆသည႔ ျခမးေျခာကမႈက မစးရမရသည႔ ေဒသႏရအပခပမႈ အဆင႔၌ ေဖာျပျခငးတ႕ျဖင႔ ေရာငလြႏငပါသည။

သေတသနတရပသည တရားမ၀ငကးေကာအေျခခေနထငသမား၏ ဘ၀က စစမးေလ႔လာသည။ ဤစးစမး ေလ႔လာမႈအား ျပလပေသာ သေတသမားအေနျဖင႔ ၄ငးတ႕၏ သေတသနသည ကးေကာ ေနထငသမား အတြက အႏရာယကေရာကေစႏငမႈႏင႔ ပတသတ၍ ၾကတငစဥးစားထားသင႔သည။ သေတသနမ ရညရြယ ထားသည႔ အခကမဟတေသာ ဤသေတသနအား ေဒသဆငရာ အာဏာပငမားမ ကးေကာ သမားက ဖယရားပစရနအတြက အလြအသးျပႏငသည႔ အခကမးလညး ျဖစႏငသည။

လမႈေရးကစၥရပမားအား ဖကျပင၍ ဆကစပျပလပရေသာ လမႈသေတသနအေနျဖင႔ ဓမၼဓဌာနကမႈႏင႔ ဘကလကမႈ မရျခငးတ႕က တငးတငးၾကပၾကပ မျပလပႏငေပ။ ျမနမာႏငငရ မြတစလငႏင႔ ဗဒၶဘာသာ၀ငမား၏ ဆကဆေရးဥပမာက တဖနျပနလည ၾကည႔ရႈပါက ႏငငေရးအရ မနကနေသာ အျမငမား လႈ႕ေဆာမႈရေသာ ႏငငတကာ ပညာရငမားသည အပစႏစဘကစလး အေနျဖင႔ ၄ငးတ႔၏ ( လမႈေရး၊ စးပြားေရးစသည) ကယပငအကးစးပြားတ႕အတြက အတယဥတြ ေနထငသင႔သည ဟေသာ အငဒယာ အခကအလကက အေထာကအပ႔ျပသည႔ သေတသနတ႔ ျပလပႏငသညဟ ဆေကာငးဆႏငပါသည။ သ႔ေသာ အကယ၍ ခငလေသာ သေတသန နညးလမးအေပၚ အေျချပသည႔ သေတသန တစတစရပက အဆပါ အပစမားအေနျဖင႔ သးသန႔စခြျခား ေနထငျခငးျဖင႔ လတငးအတြက အကးရေစႏငသည ဟေသာ အငဒယာအခကက အေထာကအပ႔ျဖစေစပါ ကရခငျပညနယအတြငး လကရျဖစေပၚေနေသာ ပဋပကၡႏင႔ ႏငငေရးဆငရာ ပတသကဆကႏြယမႈက ျဖစေပၚေစႏငပါသည။ ျပငပ အဖြ႕အစညးမားသည အပစႏစခၾကား ရနဘကျဖစျခငးက မးထး လႈ႕ေဆာမႈျပရနအတြက ဤေလ႔လာမႈက အသးျပႏငပါသည။

ထ႕ေၾကာင႔ သတျပ မတသားသင႔သညမာ - ၁။ သပၸပညာသည ႏငငေရးႏင႔ ကငးလြတသညမဟတပါ။ ၂။ ႏငငေရးဆငရာ အျငငပြားမႈႏင႔ ရနလမနးတးမႈမားအၾကား၌လညး သပၸပညာက ေဆာကရြကရေလ႔ ရပါသည။ ၃။ အယ၀ါဒဆငရာ စဥးစားစရာအခကမားက သတမျခငးျဖင႔ လမႈသေတသန နညးလမးမား ကင႔သးမႈႏင႔ ေလ႔လာမႈတ႔အား ပမေကာငးမြန ၾကြယ၀ေစပါသည။

သေတသမားအေနျဖင႔ ၄ငတ႔၏ ကယပငတနဖးအျမငမားက ၄ငးတ႕လပေဆာငသည႔ သေတသန အရညအေသြးႏင႔ ရးသားမႈမားႏင႔ မေရာယကသင႔ဟ ဆေသာလညး သေတသမားသည အမားျပညသဆငရာ အေတြးအျမင အားျပငမႈ မား ေဆြးေႏြးျငငးခမႈမား၌ ပါ၀ငမလာသင႔ (သ႕) မပါ၀ငႏငပါဟ ဆလသည မဟတပါ။

လမႈေရးသပၸပညာရငမား၏ ကင႔၀တမားႏင႔ တာ၀နယမႈမား ေဒတာအခကအလကမား ေကာကယျပးစးသညႏငတျပငနက အဓပၸါယေကာကယဖြငဆမႈ ျပလပရမည။ ဤအဆင႔ တြင သေတသတ႔၏ ၀တရားမားအား အကဥးခပ ေဖာျပရပါက “သေတသမားသည ၄ငးတ႔၏ သေတသနႏင႔ ေလ႔လာ ေတြ႔ရ ခကမားႏင႔ ပတသတ၍ ရးသားမႈရရမည။ ” ဟ၍ ျဖစသည။

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The following are five important rules that researchers, beginners as well as confirmed

ones, should follow:

Reporting of all the findings: the researcher will refrain from concealing

findings;

Credit for findings: when findings are not the researcher’s own, the credit

should be given to the person to whom the findings are attributed;

No plagiarism: a researcher cannot use someone else’s words or thoughts as

though they were his/her own. This constitutes intellectual theft. When a

researcher uses the words or thoughts that are not his/her own, he has to be

clear about who expressed these words or thoughts;

Scientific adequacy: researcher must be able to explain how the research can

potentially contribute to a field of knowledge.

Research design must account for or avoid biases in:

o Participant selection

o Data collection

o Data analysis

o Data interpretation

Other ethical considerations for researchers concern the notion of integrity. Any

researcher should commit to:

The advancement of knowledge

The pursuit and protection of truth

The promotion of rigorous scientific methods

The defense of honesty

WHO TAKES CARE OF ETHICS IN RESEARCH?

In foreign countries, most institutions as well as international agencies have an Ethical

Review Committee (ERC), principally those working on health-related issues: WHO,

PSI,…

Two websites useful for ethical and independent review services:

www.eandireview.com; http://www2.asanet.org/taskforce/Ethics/

TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THIS CHAPTER ARE:

Social research always raises ethical and political concerns;

Ethics in social research designates a code of conduct that researchers should

always follow when conducting their research;

Researchers must be honest about their research;

Ethics of social research deal mostly with methods used for conducting research

while political issues tend to center on the substance and use of research;

No social research is untouched by politics.

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ဤတြင အငယတနးသေတသ လကသစမားျဖစေစ ၀ါရင႔အေတြ႔အၾကရသမား ျဖစေစ လကနာသင႔သည႔ အေရးၾကး ေသာ စညးမဥးဥပေဒသ ငါးခကမာ -

ေတြ႔ရသမ အရာအားလးအား အစရငချခငး။ ။ေတြ႔ရမႈတခ႕တေလအား ထနခနထားျခငးမ ေရာငၾကညျခငးက ဆလပါသည။

ေတြ႔ရခကမားႏင႔ပတသက၍ သကဆငရာ မပငရငက အသေပးေဖာျပျခငး။ ။ ေလ႔လာေတြ႔ရမႈမားသည သေတသ၏ ကယပငမဟတပါက ထေလ႔လာေတြ႔ရမႈမားႏင႔ သကဆငေသာ ပဂၢလက အမတအသားျပ ေဖာျပရန။

မပငခြင႔ေဖာ၍ ကယပငျဖစေလဟန မလပျခငး။ ။သေတသတစဥးအေနျဖင႔ အျခားတစေယာက၏ စကားလးမား (သ႔မဟတ) အေတြးအေခၚမားက သ၏ကယပငျဖစေလဟန မလပရ။ ဤသ႔ကယပငျဖစ ေလဟန လပျခငးသည ဥာဏပငးဆငရာခးယ (ခးေဖာက ) မႈ ျဖစသည။ တပါးသ၏ စာလးမား၊ အေတြးမား က အသးျပသည႔အခါ မညသမည၀ါ၏ ကယပငျဖစေၾကာငး ရငးလငးစြာ ေဖာျပရမည။

သပၸနညးကအရညအခငးရမႈ။ ။သေတသအေနျဖင႔ ၄ငး၏သေတသနသည သကဆငရာ နယပယႏင႔ ပတသက၍ အသပညာတးပြားေစရန အကးျပႏငသည႔ အေျခအေနရေၾကာငးက ရငးျပႏငရမည။

သေတသန ဒဇငးသည ေအာကပါတ႕ႏင႔ပတသက၍ တာ၀နယျခငး (သ႕မဟတ) ဘကလကမႈမားအား ေရာငၾကညျခငး

o ပါ၀ငသမားအား ေရြးခယျခငး o ေဒတာအခကအလကေကာကယျခငး o ေဒတာအခကအလကမားစစစမႈျပျခငး o ေဒတာအခကအလကမားအားအဓပၸါယဖြင႔ဆျခငး

သေတသမားအတြက ကင႔၀တပငးဆငရာ အျခားေသာ စဥးစားသင႔သည႔ အခကမာ ၄ငးတ႕၏ ရးသားေျဖာင႔မတျခငး ပငျဖစသည။ မညသည႔သေတသမဆ ေအာကပါတ႕အား တာ၀နခသင႔ပါသည။

အသပညာ တးတကျပန႔ပြားေရး အမနတရားအား လကနာျခငးႏင႔ ကာကြယထနးသမးျခငး သပၸနညးက နညးလမးမား တေသြမတမး လကနာေရးအတြက ေဆာငရြကျမင႔တငျခငး ရးသားမႈအား ကာကြယမႈျပျခငး

သေတသနပငးဆငရာ ကင႔၀တမားက မညသၾကးၾကပသနညး။ ႏငငျခားတငးျပညမား၌ ႏငငတကာ ေအဂငစမားႏင႔ အဖြ႔အစညးအေတာမားမားတြင ကင႔၀တပငးဆငရာ ေလ႔လာ သးသပေရး ေကာမတ Ethical Review Committee ( ERC ) တစရပရၾကသည။ အထးသျဖင႔ ကနးမာေရး ပတသက ေသာ ကစၥရပမားတြင လပကငေနသမား- WHO, PSI ….. အစရသျဖင႔။ အခ႕၀ကဘဆဒမားသည ကင႔၀တပငးဆငရာ သးျခားလြတလပေသာ သးသပေရး ၀နေဆာငမႈမားႏင႔ ပတသက၍ အသး၀ငသည - www.eardireview.com; http://www2.asanet.org/taskforce/Ethics အႏစခပရလင ဤအခနးတြင ပါ၀ငေသာ မတသားရန အဓကအခကမားမာ

လမႈသေတသနသည အျမလလပင ကင႔၀တပငးဆငရာႏင႔ မပငးဆငရာ ကစၥရပမားက ေပၚေပါကေစပါ

သည။

လမႈသေတသနရ ကင႔၀တဆသညမာ သေတသမားအေနျဖင႔ ၄ငတ႕၏ သေတသနမား ေဆာငရြကရာတြင အျမတမး လကနာသင႔ေသာ ကင႔ထးတစရပက ညႊနးဆျခငးျဖစသည။\

သေတသမားအေနျဖင႔ ၄ငးတ႕၏ သေတသနႏင႔ ပတသတ၍ ရးသားမႈရရမည

လမႈသေတသန၏ ကင႔၀တသည သေတသန ေဆာငရြကရာတြင အသးျပေသာ နညးလမးမားႏင႔ အဓက ပတသကျပး မပငးဆငရာ ( သ႔ ) ႏငငေရးပငးဆငရာ ကစၥရပမားသည သေတသနတြင ပါ၀ငေသာ အေၾကာငးအရာႏင႔ သေတသနအား အသးျပပတ႕အေပၚ ပ၍ အဓကထားပါသည။

ႏငငေရးႏင႔ မပတသတသည႔ လမႈသေတသနဟ၍ မရပါ။

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Exercise 1: Each of the following practices refers to a specific ethical rule. Please

associate each of these practices to one of these ethical rules.

1. Recording a person without telling him/her that the interview is being recorded.

2. Copy/paste part of a document in a report without quoting the original.

3. Giving to official authorities a list of interviewees.

4. State something even if the research findings show the opposite.

5. Gaining access to disabled people by pretending you can cure them.

6. Hitting children to study the impact of violence on their behaviour.

Answers: 1. Informed consent

2. Plagiarism

3. Confidentiality

4. Honesty in findings

5. Deception

6. Harm to subjects

Exercise 2: Answer the questions

1. Can a research project be fully ethical?

2. Can researchers be fully objective in their research?

3. Are researchers affected by political and social issues?

4. Can researchers participate in debates on social and political issues?

Answers: 1. Yes but with great difficulty

2. No as researchers are also human beings

3. Yes, necessarily

4. Yes if they think that their research has something to tell about these issues

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ေလ႔ကင႔ခနး ( ၁ ) ေအာကေဖာျပပါ အျပအမတစခစတ႔သည ကင႔၀တပငးဆငရာ စညးမဥးတစခခႏင႔ သကဆငပါ သည။ ေကးဇးျပ၍ ၄ငးအျပအမတစခစအား သကဆငရာ ကင႔၀တစညးမဥးတ႔ႏင႔ တြဖကေပးပါ။ ၁။ လပဂၢလတစဥးအား အငတာဗးသည႔အခါ၌ အသဖမးထားသညက အသမေပးဘ အသဖမးယမႈျပျခငး။ ၂။ မရငးဇစျမစက မေဖာျပဘ စာရြကစာတမးတစေစာင၏ တစစတတစေဒသက အစရငခစာ၌ တကရကကးယ ေဖာျပအသးျပ ျခငး။ ၃။ အငတာဗးေျဖဆသမား စာရငးအား ဌာနဆငရာ အာဏာပငမားအား ေပးျခငး။ ၄။ သေတသန ေတြ႕ရခကမားက ဆန႕ကငဘကက ေဖာျပေနေသာလညး အျခားအေၾကာငးအရာတစခအား လႊ၍ေဖာျပ ျခငး ၅။ မသနစြမးသမားနင႔ ပတသကရငးႏးမႈရႏငေစရနအတြက ၄ငးတ႕အား ကသေပးႏငသညဟ ဟနေဆာငျခငး ၆။ အၾကမးဖကမႈသည ကေလးမား၏ အျပအမအေပၚ သကေရာကမႈအား ေလ႔လာႏငရနအတြက ကေလးငယမားအား ရကျခငး အေျဖမား။ ၁။ အသေပးသေဘာတညခက ၂။ စာေပမပငခြငခးေဖာကျခငး ၃။ လ႕၀ကထားမႈ ၄။ ေလ႔လာေတြ႔ရခကမားႏင႔ပတသတ၍ရးသားမႈ ၅။ လည႔ျဖားမႈ ၆။ ပါ၀ငသမားအားထခကနာကငေစမႈ (အႏရာယျဖစေစမႈ )

ေလ႔ကင႔ခနး ( ၂ ) ေမးခြနးမားအားေျဖဆပါ။ ၁။သေတသနတရပသည အျပည႔အ၀ ကင႔၀တလကနာမႈ ရႏငပါသလား ? ၂။သေတသမားသည ၄ငးတ႕၏ သေတသန၌ ဓမၼဓဌာနကမႈ အျပည႔အ၀ ရႏငပါသလား။ ၃။သေတသမားအား ႏငငေရးပငးဆငရာႏင႔ လမႈေရးပငးဆငရာ ကစၥရပမားက သကေရာကရပါသလား? ၄။သေတသမားသည အမားျပညသဆငရာ အေတြးအျမငအားျပငမႈမား ( ေဆြးေႏြးျငငးခမႈမား ) ၌ ပါ၀ငႏငသလား? အေျဖမား။ ၁။ ရႏငပါသည သ႔ေသာ အေတာပင ခကခပါသည။ ၂။ မရႏငပါ။ သေတသမားသညလညး လသားမားပင ျဖစေသာေၾကာင႔ ျဖစပါသည။ ၃။ မလႊမေရာငသာပင ျဖစပါသည။ ၄။ ပါ၀ငႏငပါသည။ အကယ၍ ၄ငးတ႕၏ သေတသနသည အဆပါကစၥရပမားႏင႔ ပတသက၍ တစစတစရာ ေျပာဆစရာရသညဟ ထငပါက

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INTERMEDIATE 13. RESEARCH AND PROJECT DESIGN

THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT:

The steps followed for designing a research project, especially in relation to

time and various types of restrictions;

The design of a Logical Framework used for implementing, monitoring, and

evaluating a project.

_____________________________________________________________________

Chapter 1 started with an introduction of how to define a research problem. It drew

attention to two preliminary steps: (1) drawing a ‘problem tree’ about the problem

investigated; and (2) answering the ‘What, Who, Why, Where, and How?’ questions.

For implementing projects addressing social problems, more steps are needed. This

means that the researchers have to design the research project. For researchers that

already have research experience, the phase of research design means the selection of

the most appropriate research methods relative to the research topic and the planning of

the research project according to: (1) time constraints; (2) the human and financial

resources available; and (3) the physical and administrative limitations of the context.

The first part of the Chapter expands on what was explained in Chapter 1. It gives

further guidance on how to design research projects which address social problems.

The resulting design represents a reference tool which the research team consults

throughout the research process and includes in the final project report.

The second part of the Chapter is focused on the design of project management with

explanations given about a Logical Framework. A Logical Framework is an important

reference tool used for project design and its different steps: research design,

implementation and monitoring of the project, and evaluation of the project. It is used

mostly for livelihood and public health projects. It is important to note that projects

focusing on social research only do not have to produce Logical Frameworks.

RESEARCH DESIGN IN RELATION TO TIME

Three types of research design can be distinguished in relation to time:

• A longitudinal study is about data collected at different points in time. The

longitudinal study allows the research team to assess how changes occur

through time.

The Manpower Statistics Division at the Ministry of Labour, Employment, and Social Security has been collecting data about the unemployment and employment rates in Myanmar since 1997. The data compiled throughout the years since 1997 constitute

an example of a longitudinal study.

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အလယအလတအဆင ၁၃ - သေတသနႏငစမကနးပစ

ဤအခနးတြင

သေတသန စမကနးပစခမတရာတြင လကနာရမညအဆငမား၊ အထးသျဖင အခနအကန႔အသတႏင အျခား ျခားေသာ ကန႔သတခကမားႏင သကဆငေသာ အဆငမား၊

စမကနးတစခအား အေကာငအထညေဖာရန၊ ေစာငၾကညေလလာရနႏင အကျဖတရန အသးျပေသာ ယတေဗဒ မေဘာငတစခ၏ ပစတ႔က တငျပထားပါသည။

_____________________________________________________________________________________ အခနး (၁) တြင သေတသနျပနာရပအား ဖြငဆပႏင စတငထားသည။ ဤတြင ပဏာမေျခလမးႏစရပက အသားေပး ေဖာျပရန လအပလာသည။ ၄ငးတ႔မာ (၁) ေလလာဆ ျပနာရပႏင ပတသကျပး ‘ျပနာ ဇစျမစျပဇယား’ ဆြသား ရန (၂) ‘ဘယအရာ၊ ဘယသ၊ အဘယေၾကာင၊ ဘယေနရာႏင ဘယလ’ ေမးခြနးမားက ေျဖဆျခငးတ႔ ျဖစၾကသည။ လမႈ ျပနာမားက ေျဖ႐ငးရန စမကနးမား ခမတအေကာငအထညေဖာရနအတြကမ ၄ငးထကပမေသာ အဆငမား လအပ သည။ ဆလသညမာ သေတသမားအေနျဖင သေတသန ပစခမတရန လအပသည။ သေတသန လပငနး အေတြ႔အၾက ႐ႏငပးသား သေတသမားအတြကမ သေတသန ပစအဆငဟသည သေတသန အေၾကာငးအရာႏင ခနထးျပး အသင ေတာဆး သေတသနနညးလမး ေ႐ြးခယရျခငးျဖစသည။ (၁) အခနကာလ ခနဆခက (၂) ရ႐ႏငမညလအငအား ေငြအငအား (၃) လပငနးဆငရာ ႐ပဝတပငးႏင စမခန႔ခြမႈပငး ကန႔သတခကမားႏင စပလဥးျပး စစဥေရးဆြျခငး ျဖစသည။

ဤအခနး၏ ပထမပငးသညအခနး (၁) တြင႐ငးလငးထားျပးသားကခ႕ထြငတငျပျခငးျဖစသည။ လမႈျပနာမား အားေျဖ႐ငးမည သေတသနစမကနးမားက မညသ႔ပစခရမညက ကယကယျပန႔ျပန႔ လမးေၾကာငးေပးထားသည။ ရလဒအေနႏင ထြကေပၚလာေသာ ပစသည သေတသနလပငနးစဥ တေလာကလး၊ အဆးသတအစရငခစာ ထြကေပၚလာသညအထ သေသတနအဖြ႕မ ခနကကလပေဆာငရမည လမးညႊနခကျဖစသည။

ဒတယပငးတြင စမကနးပစအား ယတေဗဒမေဘာငႏင ပတသကေသာ ႐ငးလငးဖြငဆခကႏငအတ အသားေပး ေဖာျပထား ပါသည။ ယတေဗဒ မေဘာငသည စမကနးပစႏင ၄ငးစမကနးပစ၏ အဆငမားျဖစၾကသည သေတသနပစ၊ စမကနး အေကာငအထည ေဖာေဆာငေရးႏင ေစာငၾကညေလလာေရး၊ စမကနးအကျဖတေရး အဆငတ႔တြင အသးျပ မည အေရးၾကးေသာ လကနကကရယာတစခ ျဖစသည။ ၄ငးအား အသကေမြးဝမးေကာငးႏင ျပညသ႔ကနးမာေရး ေစာငေ႐ာကမႈ စမကနးမားတြင အမားအားျဖင အသးျပေလ႐သည။ လမႈသေတသန အသားေပးစမကနးမားသာ ယတေဗဒ မေဘာငတစရပ ဆြသားရန မလအပသညက သတျပရန အေရးၾကးသည။

သေတသနပစႏင အခနဆကႏြယခက

အခနႏငစပလဥး၍ သေတသနသးမးသးစားက ေအာကတြငေဖာျပထားပါသည။

• ေရ႐ညေလလာခက ဟသည ကာလအပငးအျခားအလက ေကာကယထားေသာ အခကအလကမား

ျဖစသည။ ေရ႐ညေလလာခက ျပလပျခငးျဖင အခနကာလအလက ေျပာငးလမႈမား မညသ႔မညပ ျဖစပြား

ခသညက သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင ေလလာဆနးစစ၍ ရႏငသည။

အလပသမားဝနၾကးဌာန၊ လမႈဖလေရးႏင အလပအကငရ႐ေရး႐ လစြမးအားအရငးျမစ စာရငးအငးဌာနခြသည ျမနမာ ႏငင႐ အလပအကငရ႐မႈႏင အလပလကမႏနးအား ၁၉၉၇ ခႏစကတညးက စတင၍ စာရငးေကာကယခသည။ အဆပါ ၁၉၉၇ ခႏစကတညးက စတင၍ စာရငးျပစမႈသည ေရ႐ညေလလာခက ဥပမာတစချဖစသည။

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• A cross-sectional study collects data over a short period of time and often has

large samples.

• A case study is about studying one case (an individual, a group, an

organisation) within its social context at one period of time, even if that one

time spans months or years (see Chapter on ‘Case Study’ for further details).

Depending on the nature of the project, the availability of data, and the human and

financial capacity, the research team may choose to follow one or the other type of

research designs.

Option A:

If the research team can obtain government statistics produced in the past for the

research topic under study, it can be relevant for the research team to update the

government data. At the beginning of research, the research team undertakes a first

survey that will expand the knowledge about the topic of research and therefore

updates the data. The research team can also undertake a second survey one or two

years after the beginning of the project. In this case, the research team has chosen a

longitudinal study.

Option B:

For this option, the questions of the location of the project and the range of issues

addressed by the research project are more important matters. If the authorities or the

human resources and financial capacity allow the research team to conduct the project

in various towns, townships, states, and divisions of Myanmar, but only once, and the

research topic can be addressed in its various aspects and root causes, the research team

can conduct a cross-sectional study.

The 2014 Census implemented by the Myanmar Government is a type

of cross-sectional study because it surveys all the population

of the country at one point in time and asks this population

information about their family and profession. This is a case of

a cross-sectional study.

Mon State experiences specific types of labour migrations: many

Mon people leave for Thailand in search of a job there. While

Mon people leave Myanmar, many migrants from Upper Myanmar make

their way down to Lower Myanmar and Mon State. This situation

seems quite specific and merits the development of a case study

on labour migration in Mon State. Whatever the time spent on

this study (it could range from few months to more than one

year), this may be called a case study.

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• ေ႐ာငတခငေလလာခကသည ကာလတအတြငး အခကအလကေကာကယမႈ ျပလပျပး မားေသာအားျဖင

နမနာ ေျမာကျမားစြာ ေကာကယေလ႐သည။

• ျဖစစဥေလလာခကဟသညျဖစစဥတစခ (လပဂၢလတစဥးတစေယာက၊ အပစတစစ၊ အဖြ႕အစညးတစရပ) အား

၄ငး၏လမႈေရး အေနအထားတစရပအတြင းတစၾကမတစခါတညး ေလလာျခငးျဖစသည။ (ျဖစစဥေလလာခကႏင

ပတသကျပး အေသးစတက အခနး ၄တြင ၾကညပါ။)

စမကနးသေဘာသဘာဝ၊ အခကအလကရ႐ႏငမႈႏင လအငအားေငြအငအားတ႔အေပၚ မတည၍ သေတသနအဖြ႕သည တစစတစခေသာ သေတသနပစက ေ႐ြးခယႏငသည။ ေ႐ြးခယမႈ (က) အကယ၍ ေလလာမည သေတသနေခါငးစဥအတြက ယခငက အစးရထတျပနခဖးေသာ စာရငးအငး အခကအလက မားက သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနႏင ရယႏငပါက ၄ငးအဖြ႕အေနျဖင အဆပါ အစးရအခကအလကမားက အသစျဖညစြက ေပးရန သငေလာပါလမမည။ သေတသနစတငခါစတြင ေကာကယေသာ ပထမဆး စစတမးသည သေတသန ေခါငးစဥ ႏင စပဆကေသာ အသပညာက ခ႕ထြငေပးမည ျဖစေသာေၾကာင အခကအလကမားကပါ သစလြငေစသည။ ဤတြင သေတသနအဖြ႕သည ေရ႐ညေလလာနညးအား ေ႐ြးခယသငသည။

ေ႐ြးခယမႈ (ခ) ဤတြင သေတသနစမကနးက မညသညေနရာတြင လပေဆာငမည၊ မညသညျပနာမးက ကငတြယမည စသည

ေမးခြနးမားကသာ ပမအေရးၾကးေတာသည။ အာဏာပငမား၏ ခြငျပခကႏင လအငအား ေငြအငအား သတမတခကတ႔

ေၾကာင သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင ျမ႕႐ြာေဒသမားစြာတ႔တြင တစၾကမတစခါတညးသာ အလပလပႏငလငေသာ

လညးေကာငး၊ သေတသနေခါငးစဥအေနႏငလညး ျပနာ႐႕ေထာငေပါငးစႏင အေၾကာငးရငးခ ေျမာကျမားစြာအား

ေဖာထတႏငလငေသာ လညးေကာငး အဖြ႕အေနႏင ေ႐ာငတခငေလလာနညးအား အသးျပသငသည။

ျမနမာႏငငေတာအစးရမ ေကာကခေသာ ၂၀၁၄ သနးေခါငစာရငးေကာကခမႈသည ေ႐ာငတခငေလလာမႈ အမးအစားတစချဖစသည။ အဘယေၾကာငဆေသာ ၄ငးစစတမးေကာကယမႈသည ႏငငလဥးေရတစရပလး၏ မသားစႏင အသကေမြးမႈ အခကလကမားအား တစျပငနကတညး ေမးျမနးရယခသညအတြကပငျဖစသည။ ဤသညမာ ေ႐ာငတခငစစတမးေကာကယမႈ အမးအစားတစချဖစသည။

မြနျပညနယတြင ထးျခားေသာ ေ႐ႊ႕ေျပာငးအလပလပကငမႈ အမးအစားမားက ေလလာႏငသည။ မြနလမး ေျမာကျမားစြာသည အလပအကင႐ာေဖြရန ထငးႏငငသ႔ သြားေရာကေလ႐ၾကသည။ မြနလမးမား ျမနမာႏငငမ ထြကခြာၾကသည နညးတ အထကျမနမာႏငငမ ေ႐ႊ႕ေျပာငးလပသားမားသည ေအာကျမနမာႏငငႏင မြနျပညနယ တ႔သ႔ ေရာက႐လာၾကသည။ ၄ငးအေနအထားသည အလြနတရာထးျခားလျပး မြနျပညနယတြငး ေ႐ႊ႕ေျပာငး အလပလပကငမႈ ျဖစစဥေလလာခက တးတကေရးအတြက အကးျဖစထြနးေစသည။ သ႔ေသာလညး အဆပါ ေလလာခကအတြက ရငးႏးရမည အခနကာလသည (လအနညးငယမ တစႏစေကာအထ ၾကာႏငျပး) ၄ငးအား ျဖစစဥေလလာခကဟ ေခၚသည။

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Option C:

Whether existing data for the topic of research selected are available or not does not

matter for this option. For this option, the questions of the location of the project’s

implementation and the range of issues addressed are more important matters. If the

research team can conduct the research in only one place, one township, or one

state/division but only over successive periods of time, then it might be appropriate for

the research team to conduct a case study.

RESEARCH PROCESS

Once a problem tree is drawn and the type of research (longitudinal, cross-sectional, or

case study) decided, the research team needs to address further issues.

At this stage, it is important to give an overview of these different issues and how they

are addressed before research is conducted.

Clarification: while drawing the problem tree, the research team has to be clear

about the meaning of the problem or issue addressed by the project.

Implementation: after drawing the problem tree, the research team discusses

which research methods are the most appropriate for the problem addressed and

which approach (qualitative and quantitative) is most appropriate to choose

relative to the time and other general constraints. The team may decide to use

both. Whatever the decision, the research team discusses how the problem or

issue can be reduced to one or two variables. This means that the team

identifies the aspects of the problem which are the most relevant to measure in

order to have a better understanding of the problem under study. These aspects

are the variables of the research: measuring them and identifying the nature of

the link between the variables will be the main task of the project.

If a research team investigates ‘land security’ in Myanmar,

all team members may not know what ‘land security’ is or

members may have different views of what it means. The

research team should discuss and agree on a definition of

‘land security’ by using a dictionary and/or the internet. The

final definition of the term should be included in all reports

produced by the research team. This definition serves as a

reference throughout the project.

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ေ႐ြးခယမႈ (ဂ) ဤေနရာတြင ေ႐ြးခယထားေသာ သေတသနေခါငးစဥအတြက ႐ရငးစြအခကအလကမား ရႏငျခငး မရႏငျခငးသည အေရးမၾကး ပါ။ မညသညေနရာတြင စမကနးက အေကာငအထညေဖာမည၊ မညသညကစၥရပမားက ကငတြယမည စေသာ ေမးခြနးမားက သာ ပအေရးၾကးေတာသည။ အကယ၍သာ သေတသနအဖြ႕သည ေနရာတစေနရာတညး၊ ျမ႕နယတစခတညး၊ သ႔မဟတ ျပညနယ/တငးတစခတညးတြင စဥဆကမျပတ သေတသနျပလပႏငသညဆပါက ၄ငးအေနျဖင ျဖစစဥေလလာနညး က အသးျပသငပါသည။ သေတသနလပငနးစဥ ျပနာဇစျမစျပ ဇယားဆြသားျပးစးျပး သေတသန အမးအစားလညး (ေရ႐ည၊ ေ႐ာငတခင၊ သ႔မဟတ ျဖစစဥ) သတမတပးျပ ဆပါက သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင အျခားေသာ ကစၥရပမားက ဆကလကကငတြယရမည။ ဤအဆငတြငမ အဆပါကစၥရပမားအား ေယဘယကကေဖာျပရနႏင သေတသနမျပမ ၄ငးတ႔အား မညသ႔မညပ ကငတြယရနကသာ အေရးတၾကး ေဖာျပထားပါသည။

ဖြငဆ႐ငးလငးျခငး - ျပနာဇစျမစျပဇယားဆြသားရာတြင သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင စမကနး ကငတြယ

ေျဖ႐ငးမည ျပနာ (သ႔) ကစၥရပမားက ႐ငး႐ငးလငးလငး သျမငေနရန လအပသည။

လပငနးအေကာငအထညေဖာျခငး - ျပနာဇစျမစျပဇယားဆြသားျပးသညႏင သေတသနအဖြ႕သည

ကငတြယေျဖ႐ငးမည ျပနာအတြက မညသညနညးလမးသည အသငေတာဆး ျဖစသနညးဆေသာ

အခကက ေဆြးေႏြးရမည။ အခနႏင အျခားေသာ ကန႔သတခကေဘာငမားက လက၍ အရညအေသြးႏင

အေရအတြကနညးမားအနက မညသညနညးလမး အေကာငးဆးျဖစမညကလညး ေဆြးေႏြးရမည။ အဖြ႕

အေနျဖင ႏစနညးစလး အသးျပလကလညး အသးျပႏငသည။ နညးနာနႏင ပတသညျပး မညသ႔ပင

ဆးျဖတေ႐ြးခယေစကာမ ျပနာ (သ႔) ကစၥရပအား ကနး႐ငတစခ (သ႔) ႏစခ ျဖစေအာင မညသ႔ ျပလပ

မညက အဖြ႕တြငးေဆြးေႏြးတငပငရမည။ ေလလာဆ ျပနာက ပမနားလညႏငေစရန ျပနာ၏ မညသည

မကႏာစာက ေလလာမညနညးဟေသာ အခကက အဖြ႕အေနႏင ေဖာထတရမည။ အဆပါ မကႏာစာမားမာ

သေတသန၏ ကနး႐ငမားပငျဖစသည။ ၄ငးကနး႐ငမားအား တငးတာျခငးႏင ၄ငးတ႔ အၾကား ဆကႏြယမႈက

႐ာေဖြျခငးမာ စမကနး၏ အဓကလပငနးစဥ ျဖစသည။

သေတသနအဖြ႕တစဖြ႕သည ျမနမာႏငင႐ ‘ေျမယာလျခေရး’ အေၾကာငးက စးစမးေလလာသညဆပါစ႕။ အဖြ႕ဝငမားအားလးအေနျဖင ‘ေျမယာလျခေရး’ က နားမလညႏငသလ တစဥးခငးစအေနျဖငလညး ၄ငးဆလရငးႏင ပတသကျပး သေဘာေပါကပနားလညပ ကြျခားႏငသည။ ထ႔ေၾကာင သေတသနအဖြ႕ဝငမားသည အဘဓါန ႏင/သ႔မဟတ အငတာနကက အသးျပျပး ‘ေျမယာလျခေရး’ ဟေသာ ေဝါဟာရ အနကက ေဆြးေႏြးျပး ဘသေဘာတညခက ရယသငသည။ ေနာကဆးရ႐လာေသာ အဓပၸါယဖြငဆခကက သေတသနအဖြ႕မ ထတေဝသမ အစရငခစာအာလးတြင ထညသြငးေဖာျပသငသည။ အဆပါ အဓပၸါယဖြငဆခကသည စမကနးတစခလးတြင မျငမးကးကားစရာ ျဖစေစရမည။

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Population and Sampling: the research team discusses the types of population

targeted by the project and a sampling method. One important question here is

the selection of the ‘unit of measurement’: which unit of measurement is the

most appropriate for measuring the variable under study? Is it an individual,

household, or a group of people? Whatever the answer, the following question

may be: what profile of individual/household/group of persons is selected by

the research team select that makes it relevant to collect data about? Relatedly

to the question is how many of these ‘units’ are going to be measured to ensure

that the research is valid. Answering this question about the number of units is

concerned with the sample and the sampling method used for this research.

Choice of Research Methods: a combination of qualitative and quantitative

research methods is usually recommended. But depending on the research topic,

the scale of the project, the human and financial capacity, and other criteria, one

or the other type of research methods may have to be emphasized.

All these different issues (clarification, implementation, population and sampling,

choice of research methods) are addressed by the research team at the beginning of the

research project. The chart below gives an overview of how these different issues are

linked to each other. It sums up the process that a research team has to follow in order

to conduct a research project.

If a research team investigates the ‘discriminations against people

living with HIV’ (PLHIV), the team discusses the different ways

discrimination can be assessed: there are the discriminations that

PLHIV think they face (‘perceived discrimination’) and there are

also real discriminations that PLHIV face. Discriminations can also

be psychological, physical, sexual, etc. These different types of

discrimination are considered by the research team for designing the

research. Then the team has to choose which research methods will be

the most appropriate, relative to the topic, time and general

constraints. In-depth interviews (qualitative research) may be

appropriate to understand PLHIV’s perceptions of discriminations.

Meanwhile, survey questionnaire (quantitative research) may be

appropriate to understand the general population’s views on

discriminations.

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လဥးေရႏငနမနာေကာကယျခငး - သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင ရည႐ြယသတမတေသာ လဥးေရအမးအစားႏင

နမနာေကာကယနညးကပါ ေဆြးေႏြး ညႏငးရမည။ အေရးၾကးသည ကစၥရပတစခမာ ေလလာမည ကနး႐င

အား အသငေတာဆး တငးတာႏငမည ‘အတငးအတာယနစ’ ေ႐ြးခယျခငးျဖစသည။ လပဂၢလတစဥး၊

အမေထာငစတစစ၊ လအပစတစစ မညသညအရာကပင ေ႐ြးခယေစကာမ ေနာကဆကတြ ျပလပရန

လအပသညမာ မညသ႔ေသာ လပဂၢလ တစဥး/ အမေထာငစတစစ/ လအပစတစစ အမးအစားက

သေတသနအတြက ေဒတာအခကအလက ေကာကယရမညက အဖြ႕အေနႏင ေ႐ြးခယသတမတရန

ျဖစသည။ ၄ငးႏငဆကစပ၍ သေတသန၏ အကးဝငဆေလာမႈ ခငမာေစရန ယငးကသ႔ေသာ “ယနစ”

အေရအတြက မညမေလာကက တငးတာရမညကလညး ေမးခြနးထတရန ျဖစသည။ အဆပါ ေမးခြနးက

ေျဖဆရနမာ နမနာႏင နမနာေကာကယနညးအေပၚ မားစြာသကဆငမႈ႐သည။

သေတသနနညးလမးေ႐ြးခယျခငး - အရညအခငးႏင အေရအတြက သေတသနညးလမးႏစခ ေပါငးစပ

အသးျပျခငးမာ ပမနအားျဖင သငေလာေကာငးမြနသည။ စမကနးအတငးအထြာ၊ လႏင ေငြအငအား

အပါအဝင အျခားေသာ သတမတခကမားေပၚ မတည၍ အဆပါ နညးလမးႏစသြယအနကမ တစခခအား

အသားေပးေကာငး ေပးရမည။

အဆပါ ကစၥရပမားအားလး (ဖြငဆ႐ငးလငးျခငး၊ လပငနးအေကာငအထညေဖာျခငး၊ လဥးေရႏငနမနာေကာကယျခငး၊ သေတသန နညးလမးေ႐ြးခယျခငး) က သေတသန စမကနးအစကတညးက ၾကတင စဥးစားထားသငသည။ ေအာကပါ ဇယားတြင အဆပါ ကစၥရပမား တစခႏငတစခ မညသ႔မညပ ဆကႏြယပက အၾကမးဖငး ေဖာျပထားသည။ သေတသန စမကနးတစခ လပေဆာငရန သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနႏင လကနာရန လအပေသာ လပငနးစဥကလညး အကဥးခပ ေဖာျပထားသည။

အကယ၍ သေတသနအဖြ႕သည HIV ေရာဂါသညမား ခြျခားဆကဆခရျခငး အေၾကာငးက စးစမးေလလာသည ဆပါစ႔။ အဖြ႕အေနျဖင ခြျခားဆကဆမႈက ဆနးစစေလလာႏငမည နညးလမးေပါငးစအား ေဆြးေႏြးတငပငရမည။ ဤတြင ကးစကေရာဂါသညမားအေနျဖင ၄ငးတ႔႔ရငဆငေတြ႕ၾကေနရသညဟ ထငျမငယဆထားသညမား (‘စတအထငတြင ခြျခားခရမႈ’) ႐ႏငသလ အမနတကယ ခြျခားဆကဆခေနရသညမား လညး ႐ႏငသည။ ခြျခားဆကဆမႈသည စတပငးဆငရာ၊ ႐ပပငးဆငရာ၊ လငပငးဆငရာ အစ႐သျဖင အမးမး ျဖစႏငသည။ သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင အဆပါ ခြျခားဆကဆပ ေပါငးစက သေတသန ပစခရာတြင ထညသြငးစဥးစားရမည။ ယငးေနာကတြင သေတသန အေၾကာငးအရာ၊ အခနႏင အျခားေသာ ကန႔သတခက ေဘာငမားအတြငးမေန၍ အသငေတာဆး သေတသန နညးလမးက စဥးစားရမည။ အေသးစတ လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးနညး (အရညအေသြး သေတသန) သည ေရာဂါသညမား၏ ခြျခားဆကဆခရမႈအေပၚ ၄ငးတ႔၏ ထငျမငယဆခကက နားလညရန အသငေတာဆး နညးလမးျဖစသည။ တခနတညးမာပင စစတမးေမးခြနးမား ေကာကယနညးမာလညး ေယဘယ လဥးေရတစရပလး၏ ခြျခားဆကဆမႈအေပၚ ထငျမငယဆခကက နားလညေစႏငသည။

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LIMITS TO RESEARCH Besides the issues discussed at the beginning of the project, the research team identifies

and writes down the different limits that the project is expected to face.

Time limit: for how long the research project is conducted;

Geographical limit: if the selection of study areas was made on the basis of

specific constraints, the research team has to explain these constraints;

Limited availability of data: if the research team needed but had only limited

or no access to existing data for conducting the project, this constraint should be

clearly expressed.

Limits in human resources: the research team mentions the number of persons

involved in the research project and details for each task performed the number

of persons involved.

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သေတသနကန႔သတခကမား စမကနးအစတြင ေဆြးေႏြးခေသာ ကစၥရပမားအျပင သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင စမကနးလပေဆာငစဥ ရငဆငၾကေတြ႕ ရႏငသည အတားအဆးကန႔သတခကမားက စဥးစားေဖာထတျပး စာႏငခေရးထားရန လအပသည။

အခနကန႔သတခက- သေတသနျပလပရန အခနမညမၾကာမညနညး။

ေနရာေဒသကန႔သတခက - ေလလာမည ေနရာေဒသက ေ႐ြးခယရာတြင တစစတစရာေသာ ကန႔သတခက

ေပၚ အေျခခလကပါက သေတသနအဖြ႕အေနျဖင အဆပါကန႔သတခကမားက ႐ငးလငးတငျပရန လအပ

သည။

အခကအလကလကလမးမႏငရနကန႔သတခက - အကယ၍သာသေတသနအဖြ႕သညလပေဆာငမည

စမကနးအတြက ယခငေလလာရငးစြ အခကအလကမား မ႐လငေသာလညးေကာငး၊ ရ႐ရနခကခလင

ေသာလညးေကာငး အဆပါကန႔သတခကက ႐ငး႐ငးလငးလငးတငျပရနလအပသည။

လအငအားကန႔သတခကမား- သေတသနအဖြ႕သည သေတသနစမကနးတြင ပါဝငမည လအေရအတြကက

ေဖာျပရမညျဖစျပး လပငနးတာဝနတစခခငးစတြင မညေ႐ြ႕မညမ ပါဝငလပေဆာငၾကသညကပါ အေသးစတ

ေဖာျပရမည။

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Other limitations: it is possible that the research team may face difficulties

when conducting the research. Some interviewees may not be willing to speak

freely. Other problems may arise. In all cases, these problems should be clearly

mentioned when the final report is written up.

LOGICAL FRAMEWORK

The Logical Framework is a document produced at the beginning of a project. It is

central to the project cycle, i.e. from the beginning of the project, mid-term of the

project, to the end of the project. The Logical Framework serves as a reference for

successive steps of a project: design, implementation & monitoring, and evaluation.

CAUSE &

EFFECT

INDICATORS SOURCES OF

INDICATORS

ASSUMPTIONS

GOAL

OBJECTIVE

OUTPUTS

ACTIVITIES

The Logical Framework gives a summary of

What the project is about;

How the projects attempts to achieve its objectives;

What impact is expected from the project.

Goal: The Goal Statement means that the project implemented by the

organization is part of an overall strategy of the government,

international institutions, and CSOs to address a broad issue or problem.

Any reference should link the Goal Statement to overall development

goals promoted nationally or, even possibly, internationally.

Implementation

&

Monitoring

Research Design (see chart on the previous page)

Evaluation

Start of the project

End of the project

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အျခားေသာကန႔သတခကမား - သေတသနတစခ ျပလပေသာအခါတြင သေတသနအဖြ႕သည အခကအခမား

ရငဆငရႏငဖြယ ႐ပါသည။ လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးခရသအခ႕မာ လြတလပစြာ ေျပာဆရန မဝမရျဖစေနႏငသလ အျခား

အျခားသာ ျပနာမားလညး ေပၚေပါကလာႏငပါသည။ မညသ႔ပငျဖစေစ ေနာကဆးပတ အစရငခစာက

ေရးသားသည အခါတြင အဆပါ ျပနာမားအား ႐ငး႐ငးလငးလငး ေဖာျပရနလပါသည။

ယတေဗဒမေဘာင

ယတေဗဒမေဘာငဆသညမာ စမကနးကနဥးပငးကတညးက ေရးသားျပးစးရမည မတတမးတစချဖစသည။ စမကနးစ၊ လယ၊ ဆး ၄ငးကသာ ဗဟျပလပေဆာငရမညျဖစသည။ စမကနးတြင အစဥလကျဖစေသာပစ၊ အေကာငအထည ေဖာျခငးႏင ေစာငၾကညေလလာျခငး၊ အကျဖတျခငးအဆငမားတြင ယတေဗဒမေဘာငအား မျငမးကးကား ျပသြားမည ျဖစသည။

အေၾကာငးႏငအက းသကေရာကမႈ

အညႊနးကနးမား အညႊနးကနးမလ ၾကတငခန႔မနးခက

ပနးတင

ရညမနးခက

ရလဒမား

လပငနးစဥမား

ယတေဗဒမေဘာငသည ေအာကပါတ႔အား အႏစခပေပးသည။ ၄ငးတ႔မာ -

စမကနးသည မညသ႔ေသာ စမကနးျဖစသနညး စမကနး၏ လရငးပနးတငက ဆကေရာကျပညမေစရန မညသ႔မညပ ျပလပသနညး စမကနးမ မညသ႔ေသာ အကးရလဒက ေမာမနးသနညးတ႔ ျဖစၾကသည။

ပနးတင။ ။ပနးတငေၾကညာခကဆသညမာ အဖြ႕အစညးမ အေကာငအထညေဖာလကေသာ စမကနးသည အစးရ၊ အျပညျပညဆငရာအသငးအဖြ႕မားႏင လမႈအဖြ႕အစညးမား (CSOs) မားမ ၾကးမားကယျပန႔ေသာ ကစၥရပ (သ႔) ျပနာတစခခက ကငတြယေျဖ႐ငးရန ရညသနေသာ ဗဟာေျမာကလပေဆာငခကၾကး တစခလး၏ အစတအပငးသာ ျဖစေၾကာငးဆလသည။ မညသည ကးကားခကမဆ ပနးတင ေၾကညာခကမသည ႏငငေတာအဆငအထ (သ႔မဟတ ပ၍ ျဖစေကာငးျဖစႏငစြာ) ႏငငတကာ အဆငအထ ျမငတငထားသည ဖြျဖးတးတကေရး ပနးတငမားႏင ဆကစပမႈ႐သငသည။

အေကာငအထညေဖာျခငး ႏင

ေစာငၾကညေလလာျခငး

သေတသန ပစ (ေရ႕စာမကႏာမပက ၾကညပါ)

အကျဖတျခငး စမကနး အဥးအစ

စမကနး နဂး

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Objective: The Objective Statement explains how the project can help change the

behaviour and/or performance of the project beneficiaries, or help

facilitate institutional change. It is advisable to have only one objective

stated in the Logical Framework.

Output: The Outputs are the concrete results that the project will achieve when it

is completed. They also describe the value added by the project.

The Outputs are not the activities developed by the project

Increase of food availability and improved livelihood of

smallholders and landless farmers in rural Myanmar.

This is a goal that the Myanmar government, international

institutions, and NGOS generally wish to promote. It is

part of an overall strategy toward the development of the

country and it is also included in the Millennium

Development Goals (MDG) promoted by the United Nations.

Effective use by the rural poor of the resources on which

they depend for livelihood

The project helps small holders gain a better

understanding of their rights and landless farmers

organize themselves so as to secure more diversified job

opportunities (not necessarily directly related to

farming). The project also helps to raise land and labour

productivity by diversifying employment and food

production.

Output 1: Groups of local organizations created.

Output 2: Knowledge and skills of farming techniques by

rural poor expanded.

Output 3: Management of harvested products improved.

Output 4: Rural infrastructure repaired and expanded.

Output 5: Micro-credit schemes established and

operational.

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ရညမနးခကမား။ ။ရညမနးခကတြင စမကနးသည ၄ငးေကးဇးျပမညသမား၏ အျပအမႏင သ႔မဟတ လပကင

ေဆာင႐ြကပက မညသ႔မညပ ေျပာငးလေစရန အကအညေပးႏငသညက ႐ငးလငးတငျပသည။ ဤတြင အၾကျပလသညမာယတေဗဒမေဘာငတြင ရညမနးခကတစခတညးသာ ထညသြငး ထားရန ျဖစသည။

ရလဒ။ ။ရလဒဆသညမာ စမကနး ျပးဆးသညအခါတြင ရ႐လာမည လကဆပလကကငျပႏငသည အေျဖမား

ပင ျဖစသည။ ၄ငးတ႔သည စမကနးမ ေနာကတးျဖညသြငးလကသည တနဖးကလညး ေဖာျပေပးသည။ ရလဒမားမာ စမကနးမ ေဖာေဆာငလကသည လပငနးစဥမားမဟတ ေပ။

ျမနမာႏငင ေကးလကေဒသမားတြင စားနပရကၡာရ႐မႈ အေျခအေနျမငမားေစေရး၊ ေျမပင႐ငအေသးစားမား ႏင ေျမယာမ လယသမားမားတ႔၏ အသကေမြးဝမးေကာငးလပငနး အေျခအေနတးတကျမငမားေစေရး ဤသညမာ ျမနမာႏငငေတာအစးရ၊ အျပညျပညဆငရာ အဖြြ႕အစညးမားႏင အနဂအမား မားေသာအားျဖင ျမငတငေဆာင႐ြကလေသာ ရညမနးခကပနးတငတစချဖစသည။ ၄ငးသည တငးျပည အလးစ ဖြ႕ျဖးတးတကေရး ဗဟာတစခ၏ တစစတတစေဒသျဖစျပး ကလသမဂၢ၏ ေထာငစႏစ ဖြ႕ျဖးတးတကေရး ပနးတငမားတြငလညး ထညသြငးထားသည။

ေတာေနဆငးရသားမား၏ အသကေမြးမႈလပငနးမား မတညရာျဖစေသာ သယဇာတမားအား ၄ငးတ႔အေနျဖင အကး႐႐ အသးချခငး စမကနးသည ေျမပင႐ငအငယစားမားအား ၄ငးတ႔၏ ရပငခြငမားအေၾကာငး ပမနားလည သေဘာေပါကေစမည။ ေျမယာမ လယသမားမားကလညး စညးလးညညြတေစျပး ၄ငးတ႔အတြက (ေျမယာထြနယက စကပးမႈႏင တက႐ကပတသကခငမ ပတသကမည) အလပအကင အခြငအလမးမား က ေပါေပါမားမား ရ႐ေစမည။ အလပအကငႏင စားနပရကၡာထတလပမႈ အမးအစား ေျမာကျမားစြာ ဖနတးေပးျခငးျဖင စမကနးသည ေျမယာႏင လပအား ထတလပႏငစြမးက ျမငတငေပးႏငသည။

ရလဒ ၁။ ။ ေဒသခအဖြ႕အစညးမား ထေထာငေပးျခငး။ ရလဒ ၂။ ။ ေကးလကေန ဆငးရသားမား၏ လယယာစကပးေရး နညးပညာပငးဆငရာ အသပညာႏင စြမးရညပငး ခ႕ထြငျခငး ရလဒ ၃။ ။ သးႏရတသမးခန ထြကကနမား စမခန႔ခြရာတြင တးတကလာျခငး ရလဒ ၄။ ။ ေကးလကေဒသ အေျခခအေဆာကအအပငး ျပငဆငျပး ကယျပန႔လာေစျခငး ရလဒ၅။ ။ အေသးစား ေခးေငြလပငနးမား ထေထာငေပးျခငးႏင လပငနးလညပတေစျခငး

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Activities: Activities are the main steps implemented during the project. Activities

are not usually detailed in the Logical Framework. Details about these

activities are given in the Work Plan.

Indicators: Indicators listed in the second column of the Logical Framework give

explanations on how the goal, objective, and the outputs are measured

or assessed.

Source of Indicators: Indicators for each output are measured or assessed based on

field research or survey conducted by the project team.

Assumptions: Assumptions are all types of conditions that enable a project to

be completed as expected. They are listed in the Logical

Framework in the right column and may include weather,

stability of market prices, institutional stability, etc.

Output 1 (Groups of local

organizations

created)

Output 2 (Adequate

knowledge and

skills)

Output 3 (Management of

harvested

products)

Output 4 (Rural

infrastructure)

Output 5 (Micro-credit)

# (Number) of groups of poor farmers created;

# (Number) of women’s organizations.

# (Number) of training and participatory training held

during the project;

% (Percentage) of small holders who understand better their

rights (a survey is conducted for this).

# (Number) of training and participatory training held

during the project;

% (Percentage) of small holders who understand better their

rights (a survey is conducted to know the percentage).

# (Number) of storage facilities for harvested products;

% (Percentage) of harvested products safely stored in these

facilities.

% (Percentage) of road and irrigation works repaired,

maintained.

# (Number) of road and irrigation works built during the

project.

# (Number) of Community micro-credit groups operating

effectively.

# (Number) of facilitators trained for micro-credit.

% (Percentage) of rural poor beneficiaries reached by the

program.

Goal

Objective

% (Percentage) increase in the average income of rural poor

household targeted by the project.

# (Number) of training and participatory training held

during the project;

% (Percentage) of small holders who understand better their

rights (a survey is conducted for this).

Increase in the number of land certificates obtained by

small holders;

Increase in the number of crops produced.

# (Number) of training and participatory training held

during the project;

% (Percentage) of small holders who understand better their

rights (a survey is conducted for this).

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လပငနးစဥမား။ ။လပငနးစဥမားဟသည စမကနးလပေဆာငေနစဥအတြငး ခမတအေကာငအထညေဖာသည အဓက အဆငမားျဖစၾကသည။ မားေသာအားျဖင လပငနးစဥမားအား ယတေဗဒမေဘာငတြင အေသးစတ ေဖာျပေလမ႐ဘ အလပလပမည အစအစဥတြငသာ အေသးစတေဖာျပေလ႐သည။

အညႊနးကနးမား။ ။ယတေဗဒမေဘာင ဒတယေကာလစာရငးပါ အညႊနးကနးမားသည ပနးတင၊ ရညမနးခကႏင ရလဒမား တငးတာပႏင ေလလာဆနးစစပက ႐ငးျပထားသည။

အညႊနးကနးမလ။ ။ရလဒတစခခငးစ၏ အညႊနးကနးမားအား တငးတာရာတြင (သ႔) ေလလာဆနးစစရန

အတြက စမကနးအဖြ႕မ စစတမးေကာကယျခငး (သ႔) ကြငးဆငးသေတသနျပျခငးတ႔ ျပလပရမည။

ၾကတငခန႔မနးခက။ ။စမကနးတစခ ေမာလငထားသလ ျပးေျမာကေအာငျမငေစႏငသည အေျခအေန အရပရပက ၾကတငခန႔မနးခကမားဟ ေခၚသည။ ၄ငးတ႔အား ယတေဗဒ မေဘာင ညာဘက ေကာလတြင စာရငးျပထားျပး (ရာသဥတ၊ ေစးကြက႐ ေစးႏနးမား တညျငမမႈ၊ အဖြ႕အစညးပငး တညျငမမႈစသညျဖင) ပါဝငႏငသည။

ရလဒ ၁ (ဖြ႕စညးျပး ေဒသတြငး အဖြ႕အစညးမား)

ရလဒ ၂ (လေလာကေသာ ဗဟသတႏင ကၽြမးကငမႈ စြမးရည)

ရလဒ ၃ (ရတသမးျပး သးႏမားအား စမခန႔ခြျခငး)

ရလဒ ၄ (ေကးလကအေျခခ အေဆာကအအ)

ရလဒ ၅ (အေသးစားေခးေငြ)

ပနးတင

ရညမနးခက

ဆငးရသားလယသမားမား ဖြ႕စညးထေထာငေသာ အဖြ႕အစညးမား (အေရအတြက) # အမးသမးအဖြ႕အစညးမား (အေရအတြက) #

# (Number) of training and participatory training held

during the project;

% (Percentage) of small holders who understand better

their rights (a survey is conducted for this).

စမကနးကာလအတြငး ျပလပေသာ သငတနးႏင လအမား ပါဝငေဆြးေႏြးမႈ ျပႏငေသာ သငတနး (အေရအတြက) # အဆပါ အေဆာကအအမားတြင လျခစတခစြာ သေလာငႏငမည ရတသမးျပး သးႏမား (ရာခငႏနး) %

ရတသမးျပး သးႏမား သေလာငသမးဆညးမည အေဆာကအအ (အေရအတြက) # အဆပါ အေဆာကအအမားတြင လျခစတခစြာ သေလာငႏငမည ရတသမးျပး သးႏမား (ရာခငႏနး) %

ထနးသမးျပငဆငျပး လမးႏငေရေထာကပမႈ (ရာခငႏနး) % စမကနးကာလအတြငး ေဆာကလပျပးစးခေသာ လမးႏင ေရေထာကပမႈ (အေရအတြက) #

ထထေရာကေရာက အလပလပေသာ လ႕အဖြ႕အစညး မကခ႐ခရကဒစ အဖြ႕မား (အေရအတြက) # အေသးစားေခးေငြလပငနးအတြက အတြက ေလကငသငၾကားေပးထားေသာ လပငနးပငးကၽြမးကငသ (အေရအတြက)# စမခက လကလမးမသမ အကးေကးဇးျဖစထြနးေသာ ေကးလကေန ဆငးရသား (ရာခငႏနး) %

စမကနး ရည႐ြယပစမတထားသည ေကးလကေန ဆငးရသား အမေထာငစ၏ တးတကလာေသာ ပမးမဝငေငြ (ရာခငႏနး) %

# (Number) of training and participatory training held

during the project;

% (Percentage) of small holders who understand better

their rights (a survey is conducted for this).

ေျမ႐ငအငယစားမား လကဝယတြင ေျမယာပငဆငမႈ အေထာကအထား စာ႐ြကစာတမးမား တး၍ ပငဆငလာေစရန၊ သးႏအထြကတးလာေစရန။

# (Number) of training and participatory training held

during the project;

% (Percentage) of small holders who understand better

their rights (a survey is conducted for this).

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Below is a blank Logical Framework

LOGICAL

FRAMEWORK

INDICATORS SOURCE OF

INDICATORS

BASELINE END OF

PROJECT

ASSUMPTIONS

GOAL

OBJECTIVE

OUTPUT 1

OUTPUT 2

ACTIVITIES

TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THE CHAPTER ARE:

Design of a research project involves discussion between research team

members to clarify the research topic, define how the topics and its variables

will be measured and assessed, and select which research methods are used. It

also involves discussion of possible limits to the research;

Design of a project management (which is larger than a research project) is

summed up in a Logical Framework, which indicates what a social project is

about, how it will reach its objectives, and what impact it expects to have. It

also discusses the challenges that the project may face during its

implementation.

Both the research design and the logical framework are documents that serve as

reference tools for the team of people who are responsible for the

implementation of projects (whether it is a research project or a more largely

community-oriented, health-related, or livelihood-related project).

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ေအာကတြင ယတေဗဒမေဘာငတစခအား ကြကလပခန၍ ေဖာျပထားသည။

ယတေဗဒ မေဘာင

အညႊနးကနးမား အညႊနးကနးမလ ေအာကထစ စမကနးနဂး ၾကတငခနမနးခက

ပနးတင

ရညမနးခက

ရလဒ၁

ရလဒ၂

လပငနးစဥမား

အႏစခပအေနႏငဤအခနးတြငမတသားစရာအဓကအခကမားမာ

သေတသနပစခမတရာတြင သေတသန ေခါငးစဥႏငစပလဥးျပး သေတသနအဖြ႕ဝငမားၾကား ႐ငး႐ငး လငးလငး သျမငထားရန ေဆြးေႏြးတငပငရမည။ ေခါငးစဥႏင ကနး႐ငမားအား မညသ႔မညပ တငးတာမည၊ ေလလာ ဆနးစစမည၊ မညသည သေတသနနညးလမးက အသးျပမည ဆေသာအခကက တတကက သတမတျပး ျဖစရမည။ သေတသန၏ တငးတာ၍ ရႏငသည နယနမတသတမတခကကလညး ထညသြငး ေဆြးေႏြးရမည။

သေတသန စမညႊနၾကားေရးပစ (၄ငးမာသေတသန စမကနးထက ၾကးေလးသည) သည ယတေဗဒ မေဘာင ထ ထညသြငးထားရမည။ ၄ငးမေဘာငသည လမႈသေတသန ဆသညမာ အဘယအရာျဖစသည၊ ရညမနး ခကမား မညသ႔မညပ ေအာငျမငႏငမည၊ မညသ႔ေသာ အကးသကေရာကမႈမား ႐မညက ညႊနျပသည။ စမကနး အေကာင အထညေဖာရာတြင ၾကေတြ႕ရမည အတားအဆး အဟန႔အတားမားကလညး ၾကတင ခန႔မနး ထားရမည ျဖစသည။

(သေတသနစမကနးျဖစေစ၊ ပမၾကးကယေသာအစအဖြ႕အေျချပ ကနးမာေရးေစာငေ႐ာကမႈ/ အသကေမြးဝမးေကာငးဆငရာ စမကနးပငျဖစေစ) စမကနး အေကာငအထညေဖာရာတြင တာဝန႐သမား အတြက သေတသနပစႏင ယတေဗဒမေဘာငသည အကးအကားျပရမည စာ႐ြကစာတမးမား ျဖစၾကသည။

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INTERMEDIATE 14. CASE STUDY

THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT:

What defines a case study;

How a case study is structured;

How to prepare and conduct a case study.

_____________________________________________________________________

WHAT IS A CASE STUDY? The case study is a research approach aiming at understanding a case in the most

comprehensive way possible. For this reason, case study research often involves the

use of multiple methods for collecting data, although its approach is primarily

qualitative. By using multiple sources of data (both qualitative and quantitative)

researchers may attain the richest possible understanding of a case.

Case studies focus on one single instance, phenomenon or social unit (one individual,

one political event, one group, one organization, etc.) within its social context over a

limited time span. The formulation of the research topic defines in great part the case

study. Researchers define the boundaries of the topic, that is “what is and what is not”

the case. These boundaries have to be continually kept in focus. Case studies are

therefore oriented toward specific issues rather than generalities. One common mistake

done by researchers is to attempt to answer a question that is too broad.

Case studies can be of three types:

Intrinsic (self-explaining): The case study is used to understand a single

case as this case is in itself very interesting (e.g. how one organization

succeeded in implementing a particular program, or how a singer became a

politician). A case may be interesting either because of its uniqueness, or

because its commonality which make it possible to understand a wider

phenomenon (for example, studying how a farmer applies for a land use

certificate helps one to understand the registration process as a whole).

Studying the creation of one political party within the context

of Myanmar’s 2015 election may be done through a case study.

However, studying the democratization process in Myanmar is not

appropriate for a case study because of the wide scope of

factors that have to be taken into account: colonial and post-

colonial history, the relation between Myanmar and other

countries, Myanmar culture and power relationships,

relationships between the central government and ethnic groups,

etc.

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အလယအလတအဆင ၁၄- နမနာျဖစရပ

ဤအခနးတြင

နမနာျဖစရပေလလာျခငးက အဓပၸါယဖြငဆပ နမနာျဖစရပေလလာခကတစရပအား တညေဆာကပ နမနာျဖစရပေလလာခကတစရပက ျပငဆငပ

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နမနာျဖစရပေလလာမႈ ဆသညမာ အဘယနညး နမနာျဖစရပေလလာမႈဆသညမာ ျဖစရပတစခက အတတႏငဆး ၿခင၍နားလညႏငေစရန ရညရြယေသာ သေတသနနညး စနစတစချဖစသည။ ဤအေၾကာငးရငးေၾကာငပင ျဖစရပေလလာမႈသည အေျခခအားျဖင အရညအခငးနညးလမး ဆနေသာလညးနညးစနစ (Method) ေပါငးမားစြာက အသးျပ၍ အခကအလကရယေသာနညးမား ပါ၀ငေနရ ျခငး ျဖစသည။ အခကအလကအရငးအျမစမးစ အရညအေသြး၊ အေရအတြကႏစခစလးက အသးျပျခငးအားျဖင သေတသ ပဂၢလမားအေနျဖင ျဖစရပတစခက အျပညစဆး နားလညႏငမညျဖစသည။

ျဖစရပေလလာမႈမားမာ တစခတညးေသာ ျဖစရပျခငးရာ သ႔မဟတ လမႈအဖြ႕အစညးတစရပ (လတစဥးတစေယာက၊ ႏငငေရး ျဖစရပတစခ၊ အပစတစစ၊ အဖြ႕အစညးတစခ စသည) ေပၚတြငသာ အခနကာလ သတမတခကတစခအတြငး ၎၏ လမႈပတ၀နးကငတစခအတြငး ေဆာငရြကျခငးျဖစ၏။ သေတသမားက ေလလာမည အေၾကာငးအရာႏင ပတသက၍ ျဖစရပဟတျခငး မဟတျခငးအေပၚတြင ခြျခားႏငမညနယနမတမားက သတမတၾကသည။ ဤ နယနမတမားက အဓက အာ႐စးစကထားရမညျဖစသည။ ထ႔ေၾကာငပင ဤျဖစရပေလလာမႈမားက ေယဘယ သေဘာ တရားမားထက သးျခားျဖစေသာ ကစၥရပမားအေပၚတြင ဥးတညေဆာငရြကၾကသည။ သေတသမား ျပေလ ျပထရသည အမားတစရပမာ ကယျပန႔လြနးေသာ ျပနာတစရပက အေျဖရာရနႀကးပမးျခငးႏင ေလလာမႈ တစခ၏ ရညရြယခက မားမာ အဆမတနမားျပားေနျခငးတ႔ပင ျဖစသည။

ျဖစရပေလလာမႈကသးမးသးစားခြျခားႏငသည။

မလျဖစရပ (ပငက နားလညႏငျခငး) – ျဖစရပကယ၌ကပင အလြနတရာ စတဝငစားစရာ ေကာငးေသာ ေၾကာင အဆပါ ျဖစရပတစခတညးအား ေလလာျခငးက ျဖစရပေလလာမႈဟ ေခၚသည။ (ဥပမာ အဖြ႕အစညး တစရပ က အစအစဥတစရပက အေကာငအထည ေဖာေဆာငရာတြင မညကသ႔ ေအာငျမငမႈရရခသည။ သ႔တညး မဟတ အဆေတာတစေယာကက မညကသ႔ ႏငငေရးသမားျဖစသြားခသည အစ႐ေသာ ျဖစရပမား)။ ျဖစရပတစခသည တမထးျခားျခငးေၾကာငလညး စတဝငစားစရာေကာငးသလ၊ ပမကယဝနး ေသာ ျဖစစဥၾကး တစခလးက သေဘာေပါက နားလညေစမည ဘသေဘာသဘာဝ ပါ႐ျခငးေၾကာငလညး စတဝငစားစရာ ေကာငးႏငသည။ (ဥပမာ - လယသမား တစေယာက ေျမယာအသးခခြင လကမတအား မညကသ႔ အသးခ သညက ေလလာျခငးအားျဖင စာရငးသြငးသည လပငနးစဥတစရပလးကပါ နားလည သြားႏငသည။)

ျမနမာႏငင၏ 2015 ေရြးေကာကပြတညးဟေသာ အေျခအေနတစရပတြင ႏငငေရးပါတတစခ ဖနတး တညေထာငျခငးက ျဖစရပေလလာမႈတစချဖင ေလလာစးစမးရနျဖစႏငေသာျငား ျမနမာႏငင၏ ဒမကေရစ ျပျပင ေျပာငးလ မႈျဖစစဥ တစရပလးကေလလာရနအတြကမ ျဖစရပေလလာခကတစရပ ေလသာေလလာမညဆပါက သငေလာမႈ ရမညမဟတေပ။ အေၾကာငးမာ ထညသြငးစဥးစားရမည အခကအလကမားျဖစေသာ ကလနေခတႏင ကလနေခတလြနသမငး၊ ျမနမာႏငငႏင အျခားႏငငမား၏ ဆကဆေရး၊ ျမနမာယဥေကးမႈႏင အာဏာလပပငခြင ရသမား ဆကဆေရး၊ ဗဟအစးရႏင လမးစမားအၾကား၊ ဆကဆေရးစသညတ႔မာ ကယျပန႔လျခငးေၾကာငပင ျဖစသည။

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Instrumental: The case study may help identify some underlying structural problems that reflect a larger issue. For example, the case study of 'Daw Tin Tin', a patient living with HIV/AIDS, provides insights into Myanmar’s healthcare problems. In this instance, the problems which affect Daw Tin Tin may help identify structural problems in Myanmar’s healthcare system and produce data that reflect these structural problems.

Collective (multiple): Several cases sharing similarities are compared in order to understand one particular problem or issue.

Advantages of Case Studies:

The case study is one of the most suitable research approaches to highlight the complexity of one issue.

Case studies are particularly relevant for studying the relationship between one issue and a wide-range of factors influencing it.

Case studies allow a deep understanding of social life.

Case studies’ findings are generally considered reliable as they rely on different research methods (even quantitative data).

Case studies make it possible to crosscheck the findings of one research method (for example, observation) with the findings of another research method (for example, household survey).

Limitations of Case Studies:

Case studies are considered too small and specific to be generalizable.

Intensive exposure to the case may lead to biased findings. For example, if developing a close relationship with the subject under study, the researcher may adopt the subject’s point of views rather than keeping an objective eye on the issue.

WHEN TO USE CASE STUDIES?

A case study should be used when:

The research focuses on answering “how” and “why” questions.

The research aims at investigating the context in which the problem under study has happened.

The boundaries are not clear between the problem or issue and its context.

A study on how migrants from a particular community proceeds

with decision-making cannot be done without understanding the

socio-economic conditions at the place of origin, and the

socio-economic conditions expected at the place of destination,

etc.

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ပစယျဖစရပ - ဤျဖစရပေလလာမႈက ပမ၍ႀကးမားေသာ ကစၥအေၾကာငးအရာတစရပက ထငဟပေစ၊ ျပနာတညေဆာကပ ေကာရးကရာေဖြေတြ႕ရေစရန အေထာကအကျပေပးသည။ ဥပမာအားျဖင ေဒၚတငတငဆသ အပခအငဗြေအဒစ လနာတစဥးသည ျမနမာႏငငအတြငးရ ကနးမာေရး ေစာင ေရာကမႈဆငရာ ျပနာမားက နားလညသျမငလာေစရန အေထာကအကျဖစသည။ ဤဥပမာတြင ေဒၚတငတင ေတြ႕ႀကလကရရေသာ ျပနာမားက ျမနမာႏငင ကနးမာေရးေစာငေရာကမႈ စနစ အတြငး ႀကေတြ႕ရေသာ ျပနာမား၏ အေနအထားပစအခ႕က မညသ႔မညပ ရႏငသညက သရေစၿပး ဤ ျပနာအေနအထားမားက ထငဟပေစေသာ အခကအလကမားက ရရႏငေစသည။

Collection စေပါငးျဖစရပေလလာမႈ - အလားသ႑ာနတျခငးရာမားက ကယစရၾကေသာ ျဖစရပမားက ႏႈငးယဥၿပး ျပနာ သ႔မဟတ အေၾကာငးျခငးရာတစရပက နားလညေစရန ေဆာငရြကျခငးျဖစသည။

ျဖစရပေလလာမႈ၏ေကာငးကးမား အျခငးအရာတစခ၏ ရႈပေထြးမႈက အေလးေပးေဖာျပရနအတြက သငေလာမႈအရဆး သေတသနနညးလမး ျဖစျခငး။ အေၾကာငးကစၥတစရပႏင ၎အားလႊမးမးမႈရေသာ အေၾကာငးရငးအေတာမားမားအၾကား ဆကစပမႈက

ေလလာရာတြင အထးသျဖင ဆကႏြယလကရျခငး။ လမႈဘ၀ႏင လမႈဘ၀၏ အခ႕ေသာ သြငျပငလကၡဏာမားက နးကပစြာ သရ၍ နက႐ႈငးစြာ နားလညႏင

ေစျခငး။ သေတသန ျပလပလကရေသာ အေၾကာငးအရာတစခတြင ျဖစရပေလလာမႈမ ထြကေပၚလာေသာ

ေတြ႕ရခကမားမာ (အေရအတြက အေျချပ အခကအလကမားပင ပါ၀ငႏငသည) သေတသနနညးစနစ (Method) အမးမးေပၚတြင မခေနရသည အားေလာစြာ ၎ေတြ႕ရခကမားက ကးစားယၾကညႏငမႈ ရသညဟ သတမတၾကျခငး။

သေတသန နညးစနစတစချဖင အေျဖရာရာမ ထြကေပၚလာေသာ ေတြ႕ရခကမား (ဥပမာ-ေစာငၾကည ေလလာျခငး၊ observation) က အျခားသေတသန နညးတစခ (ဥပမာ-အမေထာငစမားအတြငး စစတမး ေကာကယျခငး) မ ထြကေပၚလာေသာ ေတြ႕ရ ခကမားႏင ျပနလနတကဆင စစေဆးရန ျဖစႏငျခငး။

ျဖစရပေလလာမႈမား၏ အကန႔အသတမား ျဖစရပေလလာမႈမားမာ ေသးငယလြနးၿပး ေယဘယ ၿခငသးသပမႈမား ျပလပရနမာ သးျခားအထးျပ

ဆနးလြနသညဟ သးသပၾကျခငး၊ အမနအားျဖငလဥးေရအားလးအတြက ကယစားျပႏငမႈ မရျခငး။ ျဖစရပတစခက ေလလာရာတြင အလြနအမငး ထေတြ႕မႈေၾကာင ဘကလကမႈရေသာ ေတြ႕ရခကမား

ထြကေပၚလာႏငျခငး (ဥပမာ-ဆရေသာ သေတသနျပလပရာတြင ပါ၀ငလက႐ေသာ အေမးျမနးခ ပဂၢလ ႏင နးကပစြာ ရငးႏးကၽြမး၀ငလာျခငးက ယငးအေမးျမနးခပဂၢလ၏ ပဂၢလက အယအဆမားက လကခၿပး သေတသန ကစၥရပေပၚတြင ဓမၼဓဌာနကေသာ အျမငထားရရန အလားအလာမား နညးပါးလာႏငျခငး။

ျဖစစဥေလလာမႈက အသးျပရမညအခန

ျဖစရပေလလာမႈက အသးျပရမညအခနမာ - ‘အဘယသ႔’ႏင‘အဘယေၾကာင’ဆေသာ ေမးခြနးမားက အထးအာ႐စကရန

သေတသန လပငနး၏ ရညရြယခကမာ ေလလာခကရေသာ ျပနာရပရေနသည အေျခအေန စးစမးေလလာရန ျဖစျခငး

သေတသန လပရမညကစၥရပ သ႔မဟတ ျပနာႏင ၎တ႔၏ ဆကစပအၾကား နယနမတမာ ျပတသားမႈမရျခငး။

လ႔အဖြ႕အစညးတစရပမ ေျပာငးေရြ႕အေျခခေနထငသမား၏ ဆးျဖတခကခမတမႈက မညကသ႔ ေဆာငရြကၾကသည ဆသည ကစၥရပကေလလာရာတြင ၎တ႔မလေနထငခၾကေသာ ေဒသ၏ လမႈစးပြား ေရးအေျခအေနမားႏင ၎တ႔ ေရာကရလကေနၾကေသာ ေဒသတြငေမာလငထားၾကေသာ လမႈစးပြားေရး အေျခအေနမားက သရနားလညမႈမရပ သေတသနျပ အေျဖရာႏငမည မဟတေခ။

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A good method to see whether a case study is appropriate for a research topic is to

think of the “natural” boundaries of the topic by asking oneself: “Where does the

subject end in time and in space relative to the number of stakeholders?”

PREPARING A CASE STUDY

As noted above, good case studies depend primarily on the definition of “the case”.

The definition of the case under study can be done primarily in two steps:

- Defining the boundaries of the subject.

- Define the key questions of the research.

A case study is often represented as a circle. The center is the core of the research

interest and the edge delineates what is and what is not the case.

1. Determining the case: unit of analysis

Asking the following questions may help to determine what the case is:

- Do I want to “analyze” an individual?

- Do I want to “analyze” a group?

- Do I want to “analyze” a program?

- Do I want to “analyze” a process?

- Do I want to “analyze” a difference between organizations?

Answering these questions along with talking to a colleague can be effective strategies

for further delineating a case.

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ျဖစရပေလလာမႈတစခမာ သေတသနျပလပမည အေၾကာငးအရာအတြက သငေလာမႈရမရ သးသပၾကညရႈႏငေစမည နညးလမးေကာငးတစခမာ မမကယကယမမ “အခနကာလ၊ ေနရာေဒသႏင ပါ၀ငပတသကသမား၏ အေရအတြကႏင ပတသက၍ မညသည အပငးတြင ေလလာသည ဘာသာရပ အေၾကာငးအရာ အဆးသတမညနညး”ဟေသာ ေမးခြနးမားက ေမးျမနးလက သေတသနျပမည အေၾကာငးအရာ၏ သဘာ၀နယနမတမားက စဥးစားထားရနျဖစသည။

ျဖစရပေလလာမႈတစခကျပငဆငျခငး အထကကျပဆခၿပးသကသ႔ ျဖစရပေလလာမႈေကာငး ျဖစလာေစရနမာ “၎ျဖစရပ”က မညကသ႔ အဓပၸါယဖြငဆ သည ဆသညအေပၚတြင အေျခခအားျဖင မတညသည။ ေလလာမႈျပလကရေသာ ျဖစရပ၏ အဓပၸါယဖြငဆခကမာ အေျခခအားျဖင အဆငႏစဆငေပၚတြင တညမလကရ၏။

- အေၾကာငးအရာ (Subject) ၏ နယနမတက အဓပၸါယဖြငဆသတမတျခငး။ - သေတသနတြင အေျဖရာမည အဓကေမးခြနးမားက အဓပၸါယဖြငဆသတမတျခငး။

ျဖစရပေလလာမႈအား စကဝငးျဖင ကယစားျပ ေဖာျပေလ႐သည။ ဗဟခကမာ သေတသန အဓကစတဝငစားသည အေၾကာငးအရာျဖစျပး အနားသားမားမာ အဘယအရာမာ ျဖစရပျဖစျပး၊ အဘယအရာမာ ျဖစရပမဟတသညက ပငးျခားျပထားသည။

၁။ ျဖစရပကသတမတျခငး - ခြျခမးစတျဖာရနယနစမား ျဖစရပကသတမတရာတြင ေအာကပါေမးခြနးမားေမးျခငးျဖင အေထာကအကျဖစေစပါသည။

- လပဂၢလတစဥးတစေယာကအား ခြျခမးစတျဖာေလလာမည - အပစတစခ

- အစအစဥတစရပ

- ျဖစစဥ

- အဖြ႕အစညးမားအၾကားကြျပားျခားနားမႈ ဤေမးခြနးမားက လပေဖာကငဖကတစဥးႏငအတ ေျပာဆ၍ ေျဖၾကားျခငးက ျဖစရပတစခက ဆကလက ထပမ ပငးျခား သတမတႏငေရးအတြက နညးလမးေကာငးမား ျဖစလာႏငပါသည။

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2. Framing the research questions – literature review

Case study research generally answers questions beginning with "how" or "why”. The

questions are targeted to a limited number of events or conditions and their inter-

relationships.

In formulating the research questions, researchers have usually much benefit in

conducting a literature review. The literature review will help identify what research is

available on the topic. Based on the findings of an existing research, the researcher may

be able to formulate insightful questions that have not been yet addressed.

Careful definition of questions at the beginning of the research determines where to

look for evidence and also the most appropriate method of analysis.

3. Types of case study

Besides the three sorts of possible case studies (intrinsic, instrumental and collective),

the purpose of the case study may differ depending on whether it is about:

Exploring a case: the case study will be exploratory. This type of case study is

particularly useful for assessing the impact of a program or event which has no

clear and distinguishable outcomes;

Describing a case: the case study will be descriptive, with the aim of describing a

particular event in real life context. For example, this could be the description of

a livelihood program in a particular location, explaining the obstacles

encountered, the good and bad practices, etc.;

Investigating a particular research topic: the case study will be explanatory. It

seeks explanations for an issue or outcomes for which causes are not easily

identified using only one single research method.

A research project investigates the following question: “What

make Karen migrants settled in IDP camps in the past 10 years

decide whether to return or not to return to their village of

origin?” This question can be investigated in two ways:

(1) A case study investigating the decision making process of

Karen migrants settling in a particular IDP camp during the last

10 years;

(2) A case study investigating the experiences of Karen migrants

settled during the last 10 years in an IDP camp and/or in the

village for returnees.

In case study (1), the focus would be on the decision making of

this group of migrants analyzed as process.

In case study (2), the focus would be on individuals and the

experiences of recently arrived Karen migrants.

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၂။သေတသနေမးခြနးက တညေဆာကျခငး - စာအပစာတမးေလလာခက ျဖစရပေလလာမႈျဖင ျပလပေသာ သေတသနလပငနးမားတြင ေယဘယအားျဖင “မညသ႔မညပ”ႏင “မညသည အတြကေၾကာင”ဟေသာ ေမးခြနးမားက ေျဖၾကားၾကသည။ ေမးခြနးမားကလညး အနညးကဥးမေလာကေသာ အျဖစ အပကမား သ႔မဟတ အေျခအေနမားႏင ၎တ႔အၾကား အျပနအလနဆကႏြယမႈမားက ဥးတညေမးျမနးထားသည။ သေတသနေမးခြနးမားက ပေဖာတညေဆာကရာတြင သေတသမားအေနျဖင စာအပစာတမး ေလလာခက (Literature Review) ျပလပျခငးျဖင အကးေကးဇးမား ရရႏငသည။ စာအပစာတမးေလလာခကေၾကာင သေတသန အေၾကာငးအရာ ႏင ပတသကျပး မညသည သေတသနျပခကအား ရ႐ႏငမညက သေစသည။ ႐ျပးသား သေတသနမ ေတြ႕႐ခကမားက အေျခချပး သေတသသည ယခငက ရာေဖြဆနးစစမႈမျပရေသးေသာ ပညာသားပါသည ေမးခြနးမားက ျပလပလာႏငမည ျဖစသည။ သေတသန စတငခါစကပင ေမးခြနးအဓပၸါယဖြငဆမႈ ကနေသခာစြာ ျပလပထားခမသာ အေထာကအထားမား မညသည ေနရာတြင ႐ာေဖြမည၊ မညသညနညးလမးက အသးျပပါက အသငေတာဆးျဖစမညက ဆးျဖတ သတမတ ႏငမည။

၃။ ျဖစရပေလလာမႈ အမးအစားမား သးမးေသာ ျဖစရပေလလာမႈမား (မလ၊ ပစယ၊ စေပါငး) အျပင ေအာကပါအေၾကာငးရပမားအေပၚ မတည၍ ျဖစရပ ေလလာမႈ၏ ရညရြယခကသညလညး ေျပာငးလႏငပါသည။

ျဖစရပကစးစမးေလလာျခငး - ျဖစရပေလလာမႈသညပဏာမစးစမးေလလာမႈျဖစလမမည။ ဤအမးအစားသည သသာထင႐ားမႈ မ႐သညရလဒမား ျဖစေပၚေစသည အစအစဥတစရပ (သ႔) ျဖစစဥတစခ၏ သကေရာကမႈက ဆနးစစရာတြင အထးအသးဝငသည။

ျဖစရပကပေဖာျခငး - ျပငပေလာက အေျခအေနတြင ျဖစပကေနသည အျဖစအပကတစခက ေဖာျပရန ရညရြယခကျဖင ျဖစရပ ေလလာမႈသည ေဖာျပညႊနးဆမႈ ျဖစလာလမမည။ ဥပမာအားျဖင အရပေဒသတစခခမ အသကေမြးဝမးေကာငး လပငနးဆငရာ အစအစဥတစရပက ေဖာျပထားျပး ၄ငးတြငၾကေတြ႕ေနရသည အခကအခ အတားအဆးမား၊ အေလအကငေကာငးႏင အေလအကငဆးမား စသညျဖင . . . ။

သေတသန အေၾကာငးအရာတစရပက စးစမးျခငး - ဤျဖစရပေလလာမႈမးသည႐ငးလငးဖြငဆသည

အမးအစားျဖစသည။ ဤတြင သေတသန နညးစနစတစမးတညးက အသးျပျပး အေၾကာငးရငးမား ေဖာထတေလလာရန မလြယကသည ကစၥရပတစခ (သ႔) ရလဒမားအတြက ေျဖ႐ငးခကမား ႐ာေဖြသည။

သေတသန စမကနးတရပတြင ေအာကပါျပနာက အေျဖရာ၏ “IDP စခနးမားတြင လြနခေသာ ၁၀ ႏစတာကာလမ အေျခခေနထငခၾကေသာ ကရငလမး ေရြ႕ေျပာငး ေနထငသမားအဖ႔ ၎တ႔ေနထငရာမလေဒသမားသ႔ ျပနလညေနထငၾကျခငးျပျခငး၊ မျပျခငးႏင ပတသကေသာ ဆးျဖတခကမားခမတရာတြင မညကသ႔ေသာ အေၾကာငးရပမား အေပၚမတည၍ဆးျဖတၾကသနညး။”ဤေမးခြနးက နညးလမးႏစမးျဖင အေျဖရာႏငပါသည။ (၁) IDP စခနးတစခအတြငး ၿပးဆသည ၁၀ႏစတာကာလအတြငး ေနထငခၾကေသာ ကရငလမးမားပါ ေရြ႕ေျပာငးအေျခခေနထငျခငးအေပၚ ဆးျဖတခၾကသညျဖစစဥက စးစမးအေျဖရာသညျဖစရပ ေလလာခကတစရပ အားျဖငလညးေကာငး (၂) ကရငလမးေရြ႕ေျပာငးအေျခခေနထငသမား၏ ၿပးခသည ၁၀ႏစတာကာလအတြငး IDP စခနးမားအတြငး အေတြ႕အႀကမား သ႔မဟတ မမေနရပေဒသသ႔ ျပနလညေနထငသမား၏ အေတြ႕အႀကမားက ဆနးစစေလလာ အေျဖရာေသာျဖစရပေလလာမႈတစခအားျဖင လညးေကာငးေဆာငရြကႏငပါသည။ ပထမျဖစရပေလလာမႈတြင ဤေရြ႕ေျပာငးေနထငသမား အပစ၏ဆးျဖတခကခမတမႈက ျဖစစဥတစရပ အေနျဖင ခြျခမးစတျဖာေလလာျခငးျဖစသည။ ဒတယျဖစရပေလလာမႈတြငပဂၢလတစဥးတစေယာကခငးစက သ႔မဟတ မၾကာေသးမကမ ေရာကရလာ သည ကရငလမးေရြ႕ေျပာငးေနထငသမား၏ အေတြ႕အႀကက ဥးစားေပးေလလာသည။

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4. Conceptual Framework

After defining the scope of the case study (identifying the boundaries of the case,

formulating research questions, and choosing the appropriate type of case study), the

researcher needs a conceptual framework. The conceptual framework is meant to

improve as research is conducted based on the findings. It helps:

Identify the type of respondents who should be included in the study;

Identify the types of links between the topic’s various aspects: the core of the

research topic, contextual elements, limits of the case study, constraints of the

research, etc. This is done at first based on the literature review and the

researcher’s experience. These links are then further detailed and refined all

along the research process;

Distinguish between causes and consequences;

Decide which data sources and research methods should be used.

A conceptual framework is shown below for a case study on the “impacts of the

implementation of a child-friendly education curriculum”.

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၄။ သေဘာတရားေရးရာ စညးေဘာင (Conceptual Framework)

ျဖစရပေလလာမႈ၏ ျမငကြငး (ျဖစရပ၏ နယနမတမားက ခြျခားသတမတျခငး၊ သေတသနေမးခြနးမား ဖနတးတညေဆာကျခငးႏင သငျမတေလာကနမည ျဖစရပေလလာမႈက ေရြးခယျခငး) က သတမတၿပးေသာအခါ သေတသအေနျဖင သေဘာတရားေရးရာ စညးေဘာင (Conceptual Framework) တစခ လအပလာသည။ ရာေဖြေတြ႕ရခကမားအေပၚ အေျခခ၍ သေတသနလပငနးက လပေဆာငရသညျဖစ၍ သေဘာတရားေရးရာ စညးေဘာငက ပမေကာငးမြနေအာင ျပလပရမညသာျဖစသည။ ဤသေဘာတရား စညးေဘာငသည-

ေလလာမႈတြင ပါ၀ငသငေသာ ေမးခြနးေျဖဆမညသမားက သတမတရာတြင အေထာကအကျဖစေစသည။ သေတသန အေၾကာငးအရာမား (Topics) ၏ အမးမးေသာ သြငျပငလကၡဏာမား ျဖစၾကသည အတြငးပငး၊

ဆကစပမႈရေသာ အစတအပငးအဂၤါရပမား၊ ျဖစရပေလလာမႈ ေဆာငရြကရာတြင ေရြ႕ရေသာ ကန႔သတခက မား၊ သေတသန လပရာတြင ရေနသာ အကန႔အသတမား၊ ၎တ႔အားလးအၾကားမ ဆကစပမႈမားက ခြျခား သတမတရာတြင အေထာကအက ျဖစေစသည။ ဤကသ႔ခြျခားသတမတရာတြင ပထမဆးအေနျဖင ဘာသာရပနယပယ ေလလာဆနးစစခကႏင သေတသ၏ အေတြ႕အႀကမားေပၚ အေျခခရမည။ ဤဆကစပမႈ မားက သေတသနျဖစစဥတေလာက ဆကလကအေသးစတ၍ အေေခာကငသြားရမည ျဖစသည။

အေၾကာငးရငးမားႏင အကးဆကမားက ခြျခားရာတြင အေထာကအက ျဖစေစသည။ မညသည အခကအလကအရငးအျဖစမားႏင မညသည သေတသနနညးစနစ (Method) က အသးျပမညက

ဆးျဖတရာတြင အေထာကအက ျဖစေစသည။ သေဘာတရားေရးရာ စညးေဘာငဥပမာတစရပက “ကေလးသငယမားအတြက အဆငေျပေစမည ပညာေရး သင႐း ညႊနးတမး တစရပက ေဖာေဆာငရာတြင ျဖစေပၚလာေသာ အကးသကေရာကမႈမား”ႏင ပတသက၍ ေဆာငရြက ႏငဖြယရမည ျဖစရပေလလာမႈတစရပက ေအာကတြင အဆျပထားပါသည။

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When the research begins, the conceptual framework here does not show the links

between the various elements. When the research is in progress, the researchers can

refine the framework and determine how the different elements are linked among one

another. The final conceptual framework includes all the themes that were addressed

during data collection and data analysis.

CONDUCTING A CASE STUDY

1. Data Sources

The diversity of data sources and research methods that can be integrated into a case

study increases the potential for reliable and credible results: this is called triangulation

of data. Potential data sources may include, but are not limited to: documentation,

archival records, interviews, physical artifacts, direct observations, and participant-

observation. In comparison to other qualitative approaches, case study can integrate

quantitative survey data. This combination of qualitative and quantitative data helps

reach a comprehensive understanding of the problem under study. Each data source is

one piece of the “puzzle”; each piece contributes to the researcher’s understanding of

the whole problem.

2. Data Analysis

Just like any other qualitative approach the data collection and analysis occur

concurrently. The type of analysis needed depends on the type of case study.

Generally-speaking, it is important during the analysis phase to reconsider the

hypothesis made at the beginning of the research. This helps focus the analysis on the

data which are directly relevant to the case study. At the same time, this helps discard

data which may not be directly related to the research question.

Data sources should not be treated independently and findings reported separately.

Literature Review

Quantitative data

Key Informant Interviews

Survey

Focus Group Discussions

Participatory Action ResearchDirect observation

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သေတသနလပငနး စတငေသာအခါ အထကတြင ေဖာျပထားေသာ သေဘာတရားစညးေဘာငတြင အစတအပငး အမးမး၏ အၾကားဆကစပမႈမားက ေဖာျပထားျခငးမရပါ။ သေတသနလပငနးက ေဆာငရြကေနစဥအခါတြင သေတသမားသည ၎ စညးေဘာငက ျပနလညအေခာကငၿပး ယငးအစတအပငးမားက မညသ႔ဆကစပေနပက ေဖာထတသတမတေပးရမည။ ေနာကဆးထြကေပၚလာေသာ သေဘာတရားစညးေဘာငတြင အခကအလကစေဆာငးျခငးႏင ၎အခကအလကမားက ခြျခမးစတျဖာေလလာျခငးအဆငတ႔တြင ထြကေပၚလာေသာ အေၾကာငးအရာမနသမက ထညသြငးသြားမညျဖစသည။ ျဖစရပေလလာမႈတစရပျပလပျခငး ၁။ အခကအလကရငးျမစမား အခကအလကရငးျမစ အမးအစားစလငမႈႏင သေတသနနညးစနစမားက စစညး၍ ျဖစရပေလလာမႈအေပၚတြင ေပါငးစညးႏငမႈက ယၾကညကးစားႏငဖြယရသည။ သေတသနရလဒမား ထြကေပၚလာႏငမညအလားအလာက ပမ ေကာငးမြနေစသည။ အခကအလကရငးျမစမားတြင မတတမးတငျခငးမား၊ စစညးထားေသာမတတမး၊ အငတာဗး မား၊ ပစၥညးပစၥယမား၊ တကရကစစမးေလလာမႈမား၊ ေလလာမႈတြငပါ၀ငေသာ အစမးသပခပဂၢလမားက ေလလာမႈမား ပါ၀ငသည။ သ႔ရာတြင ၎တ႔သာလင မဟတအျခားေသာ နညးလမးမားလညး ရႏငပါသည။ အျခားေသာ အရည အေသြး အေျချပနညးလမးမား (Qualitative approaches) မားႏင ႏႈငးယဥပါက ျဖစရပေလလာမႈသည အရညအတြက အေျချပအခကအလကမားက စေဆာငး၍ ေပါငးစပႏငမည အခြငအေရးက ဖနတးေပးပါသည။ ဤအရညအေသြး အေျချပ အခကအလကမားႏင အေရအတြက အေျချပ အခကအလကမားက ေပါငးစညးျခငးျဖင ေလလာေနေသာ ျပနာတစရပက ၿခငမနားလညႏငေစပါသည။ အခကအလက ရငးျမစတစခစသည “ျပနာ”၏ အစတအပငး တစရပ ၎အစတအပငးတစခစက သေတသ၏ ျပနာတရပလးအေပၚ နားလညႏငစြမးက ျဖညဆညးေပးပါသည။

၂။ အခကအလကမားက ခြျခမးစတျဖာျခငး အျခားေသာ အရညအေသြးအေျချပ အခကအလကစေဆာငးမႈႏင ခြျခမးစတျဖာမႈမားမာ တၿပငနကျဖစေပၚၾကသည။ လအပေသာ ခြျခမးစတျဖာမႈမးမာ ျဖစရပေလလာမႈပစေပၚတြင တညမေနပါသည။ ေယဘယအားျဖင သေတသန လပငနး ၏ အစဥးပငးတြင စဥးစားခေသာ အဆၾကမး (Hypothesis) က ခြျခမးစတျဖာဆနးစစေလလာသညအဆင (Analysis Phase) တြင ျပနလညသးသပရန အေရးႀကးပါသည။ ဤသ႔ေဆာငရြကျခငးျဖင ျဖစရပေလလာမႈႏင တက႐ကဆကႏြယ ေနေသာ အခကအလကမားက ခြျခမးစတျဖာ ေလလာဆနးစစျခငးက အာ႐စကလပေဆာငႏငေစရန အေထာကအက ျပပါသည။ တခနတညးမာပင သေတသနေမးခြနးႏင တကရက ဆကစပပတသကမႈ မရေသာ အခကအလကမားက ပယရားႏငေစရနလညး အေထာကအကျပသည။ အခကအလကရငးျမစမားက ခြထတ၍ သေတသန ေတြ႕ရခကမားက သးျခားအစရငခတငျပျခငးမးက ေဆာငရြကမႈ မျပသင ပါ။

Literature Review

Quantitative data

Key Informant Interviews

Survey

Focus Group Discussions

Participatory Action ResearchDirect observation

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This is not the purpose of a case study. On the contrary, the researcher must ensure that the data and findings are combined. By doing this, the overall case is better understood. The relationships between external and internal factors and the research questions, and the causes and consequences are also better identified.

3. Reporting

Reporting about a case study can be a difficult task due to the complex nature of this approach. It is usually difficult to report about the findings in a concise manner, and yet it is the researcher’s responsibility to explain a complex problem in a way that is readily understood by the reader. The goal of the report is to let the reader feel as if the he/she had been an active participant in the research and let him/her consider whether the study findings could apply to another situation.

A case study report typically contains at least:

A description of the case: the main research questions, what is and what is not included in the case (the limits);

The different data sources and research methodology used;

An analysis of the case emphasizing the following questions: What was involved in the situation or problem? What are the direct and indirect causes of this situation or problem? What are the short-term and long-term impacts of the situation or problem?

The researchers must emphasize the links among the different factors influencing the situation under study;

If possible, the results from the case study should be compared with other existing research findings. The comparison can help draw a contrast between the findings, help support both findings, or help bring new insights into these findings.

Tip 1: Reconsidering the original hypothesis will ensure that: a) research questions are addressed by the report, b) the research remains focused and avoids pointless data analysis.

Tip 2: In order to help the readers understand and to raise their interest in the case study, the reporting can follow either one or both of the approaches: a) tell a story; AND/OR b) use a chronological approach.

TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THIS CHAPTER ARE:

A case study is a qualitative research approach that may use both qualitative and quantitative research methods;

A case study is particularly suitable for exploring a complex problem;

A case study is about answering “how” and “why” questions when the causes of a problem are difficult to distinguish from its consequences;

Case studies can be used to study individuals or processes.

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ဤကစၥရပမာ ျဖစရပေလလာမႈတစရပ၏ ရညမနးခက မဟတပါ။ သေတသအေနျဖင အခကအလကမားနင ရာေဖြ ေတြ႕ရခကမားက ေသခာကနစြာ ေပါငးစညးေပးရပါမည။ ဤကသ႔ ေဆာငရြကျခငးအားျဖင ျဖစရပတစခလးက ပမ ေကာငးမြနစြာ ၿခငသေဘာေပါကႏငမည ျဖစပါသည။ ျပငပႏင အတြငးပငး အေၾကာငးရငးမား (external and internal factors) ႏင သေတသန ေမးခြနးမားအၾကား၊ အေၾကာငးရငးမားႏင အကးဆကမားအၾကား ဆကႏြယမႈကလညး ပမေကာငးမြနစြာ ပငး ျခားသတမတေပးႏငမည ျဖစပါသည။ ၃။ အစရငခတငျပျခငး (Reporting) ျဖစရပေလလာမႈတစရပအေၾကာငးက အစရငခတငျပရနမာ ၎ေဆာငရြကပေဆာငရြကနညး၏ ႐ႈပေထြးလေသာ သေဘာ သဘာ၀ေၾကာငပငလင ခကခလေသာ ကစၥတစရပျဖစေနပါသည။ မားေသာအားျဖင ရာေဖြေတြ႕ရခကမားက ကစလစစြာ တငျပရန ခကခသည။ သ႔ေသာျငား ႐ႈပေထြးေသာ ကစၥရပတစခက စာဖတသ အဆငသင နားလညသေဘာေပါကေအာင တငျပေပးရနမာ သေတသ၏ တာ၀နျဖစပါသည။ အစရငခတငျပခက (report) ၏ ရညရြယခကမာ စာဖတသအဖ႔ မမ ကယကယ ယငး သေတသန လပငနးစဥတြင ပါ၀ငသ တစေယာကအလား ခစားမႈက ေပးစြမးႏငၿပး ဤသေတသနမ ရာေဖြေတြ႕ရခကမားက အျခားေသာ အေျခအေနတစရပတြင အသး၀ငႏငမႈရမရ စဥးစားသးသပခြငေပးရန ျဖစသည။

ျဖစရပေလလာမႈတြင သာမနအားျဖင အနညးဆး ပါ၀ငရမညမာ ျဖစရပက သရပေဖာတငျပေပးခက၊ အဓကသေတသနေမးခြနးမား၊ ျဖစရပတြင ပါဝငသညအရာ၊ မပါဝငသည

အရာ (ကန႔သတခကမား) မတကြျပားေသာ အခကအလကရငးျမစမားႏင အသးျပေသာ သေတသန စနစ (Research Method)

ေအာကပါေမးခြနးမားက အေလးေပးလက ျဖစရပက ခြျခမးစတျဖာေလလာခကျဖစရပ - ဤအေျခအေန သ႔မဟတ ျပနာရပတြင မညသည အေၾကာငးအရာ ပါ၀ငသနညး။ ဤအေျခအေန သ႔မဟတ ျပနာရပ တြင မညသညအရာမားက တက႐က သ႔မဟတ သြယ၀ကအေၾကာငးရငးခမား ျဖစသနညး။ ဤအေျခအေန သ႔မဟတ ျပနာပါ ေရတ-ေရရည အကးသကေရာကႏငမႈမားသည အဘယနညး။ သေတသအေနျဖင ေလလာလကရေသာ အေၾကာငးအရာ အေပၚ လႊမးမးမႈရေသာ ကြျပားျခားနားသည အေၾကာငးရငးမားအၾကား ဆကစပမႈကအေလးေပးရမည။

ျဖစႏငပါက ျဖစရပေလလာမႈမ ရလဒမားက အျခားတညရေနေသးေသာ သေတသနရလဒမားႏင ႏႈငးယဥ ေလလာသငပါသည။ ဤကသ႔ ႏႈငးယဥေလလာျခငးျဖင ရာေဖြေတြ႕ရခကမားအၾကား ျခားနားခကက ေဖာျပႏငမည။ သ႔တညးမဟတ ၎ရလဒႏစခလးက ေထာကခေပးႏငမည။ သ႔တညးမဟတ ဤ ရာေဖြ ေတြ႕ရမႈမား အေပၚ အျမငသစမား ေဆာငၾကဥးေပးႏငမည ျဖစပါသည။

အႀကျပခက။ သေတသနဆငရာ မလမဆၾကမး (hypothesis) က ျပနလညသးသပျခငးအားျဖင (က) သေတသန ေမးခြနးက အစရငခစာတြင ဥးတညေျဖၾကားႏငျခငး၊ (ခ) သေတသန လမးေၾကာငး ဥးတညရာက မယမးယငေစဘ မလအပေသာ အခကအလကမားက ခြျခမးစတျဖာ သးသပျခငးမားမ ေရာငလႊႏငေစျခငး ဟေသာ အကးေကးဇးမားက ရရေစမညျဖစပါသည။

အႀကျပခက၂။ စာဖတသအား ျဖစရပတြင စတ၀ငစားလာေစရနႏင နားလညလာေစရန အလ႔ငာ အစရငခစာ တြင ေအာကပါနညးလမးမားက တစခမဟတတစခ သ႔မဟတ ႏစခလးျဖစေစ လကနာႏငပါသည။ (က) အျဖစ အပကက တငျပေပးရန (ႏင/သ႔မဟတ) (ခ) ရကစြအလက ေဖာျပေသာ နညးက အသးျပႏငသည။

အႏစခပတငျပရန၊ ဤအခနးမ မတမေစရန အဓကအခကမားမာ

ျဖစရပေလလာမႈဆသညမာ အရညအေသြး သေတသန ခဥးကပေလလာနညးျဖစျပး အရညအခငးနညးေရာ၊ အရညအတြကနညးပါ အသးျပေကာငးျပႏငသည။

႐ပေထြးေသာ ျပနာတစရပက စးစမးရာတြင ျဖစရပေလလာမႈသည အထးသငေလာေသာ နညးတစရပ ျဖစသည။

ျဖစရပေလလာမႈ ဆသညမာ ျပနာတစရပ၏ အေၾကာငးရငးမားႏင အကးဆကမားက ကြျပားေအာင လပေဆာင ရာတြင ခကခသညအခါ “မညကသ႔ျဖစသည”ႏင“မညသညအတြကေၾကာငျဖစသည” ဟေသာ ေမးခြနးမားက ေျဖဆျခငးျဖစသည။

ျဖစရပေလလာမႈက လပဂၢလမားႏင ျဖစစဥမားက ေလလာရနအတြက အသးျပႏငသည။

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INTERMEDIATE 15. QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT:

The different tools used for analysing quantitative data;

The graphic way of illustrating quantitative data analysis;

The advantages and disadvantages of using these tools for quantitative data analysis.

______________________________________________________________________

QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS AND ITS TOOLS

Quantitative research uses quantitative data analysis. Quantitative data analysis

involves the use of statistical analyses to produce evidence. It is therefore focused on

measurement. It usually tries to answer questions about “why” and looks for a

comparison of groups. It intends to establish an association, a relationship, or a cause

and effect between these groups.

Commonly used quantitative data analyses are univariate analyses. This means

analyses that tell researchers something about one variable only. Univariate analyses

are descriptive in nature.

Several measurements can be used for univariate analyses:

1. Frequency Distribution: frequency or number of cases in each category of a

variable.

2. Measures of Central Tendency/average/location: the most common

measurements of central tendency are the mode (designed for nominal level

variables), median (designed for ordinal level variables), and mean (designed for

interval level variables).

3. Measurements of Dispersion/spread/variability: the most common

measurements of dispersion are range, variance, and standard deviation.

Bivariate and Multivariate Analyses also exist and are used by professional

statisticians. They are beyond the scope of this manual and will not be explained

detailed here.

1. Frequency Distribution

Frequency distribution is a list of all the scores for a sample or population indicating

the number of times that each score occurs. The data are grouped into mutually

exclusive categories showing the number of observations in each category.

In a frequency distribution, each variable is considered one at a time. A frequency

distribution for a variable produces a table of frequency counts, percentages, and

cumulative percentages for all the values associated with that variable.

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အလယအလတအဆင ၁၅ - အေရအတြကဆငရာ ေဒတာအခကအလကစစစေလ႔လာမႈ ဤအခနးတြင -

အေရအတြကဆငရာ ေဒတာအခကအလကမားအား ေလ႔လာစစစမႈျပရာတြင အသးျပသည႔ အမးမးေသာ

နညးလမးမား

အေရအတြကဆငရာ ေဒတာစစစမႈအား သရပျပေဖာျပရာတြငသးေသာ ဂရပပ နညးလမးမား

အေရအတြကဆငရာ ေဒတာစစစမႈနညးလမးမား အသးျပျခငး၏ အားသာခကမားႏင႔ အားနညးခကမား

တ႕ ပါ၀ငသည။ _______________________________________________________________________________________ အေရအတြကဆငရာ စစစမႈႏင႔ ၄ငး၏နညးလမးမား

အေရအတြကစထား သေတသနနညးလမးသည အေရအတြကဆငရာ ေဒတာစစစမႈက အသးျပပါသည။ အေရအတြကဆငရာ ေဒတာစစစမႈတြင အေထာကအထားမား ျပစရရရနအတြက စာရငးအငးဆငရာ ေလ႔လာစစစမႈမား အသးျပျခငးတ႕ ပါ၀ငပါသည။ သ႕အတြက တငးတာေလ႔လာမႈမားအေပၚတြင အထးျပ အာရထားပါသည။ ဤသ႕ ျပလပရာတြင “အဘယ႔ေၾကာင႔နညး ” ဆသည႔ ေမးခြနးအား ေျဖဆရန ၾကးစားျပး အပစမားအၾကားႏႈငးယဥ ေလ႔လာမႈက ရာေဖြသးသပပါသည။ အဆပါအပစမားအေၾကာငးတရားႏင႔ အကးတရားမား၊ ပတသကဆကႏြယမႈ၊ ခတဆကမႈတ႕က ေဖာထတႏငရန ၾကးစားပါသည။ အသးမားသည႔ အေရအည တြကဆငရာ ေဒတာစစစေလ႔လာမႈမားမာ - ဧကတနဘးေျပာငးလမႈ စစစျခငး(Univariate analyses) တ႕ ျဖစပါသည။ ဆလသညမာ ဤ ေလ႔လာစစစမႈနညးလမးမားသည သေတသမားအား ကနးရငတစလး အၾကာငးသာ ေျပာျပႏငသည။ ဧကတနဘး ေျပာငးလမႈစစစျခငးတ႕သည သေဘာသဘာ၀အားျဖင႔ သရပေဖာျပသသည႔ ပစ မးျဖစပါသည။

ဧကတနဘး ေျပာငးလစစစျခငးအတြက အသးျပေသာ တငးတာေလ႔လာမႈမားမာ - ၁။ ထပၾကမျပန႔ခက။ ။ကနးရငတစလး၏ အပစအသးသးတြင ျဖစရပမား (Frequency Distribution) အေရအတြက သ႔မဟတ ၾကမႏႈနး

၂။ ဗဟညႊတခက၊ ပမးမ၊ တညေနရာတ႕အား တငးတာျခငး။ ။ဗဟညႊတခက တငးတာမႈအတြက အသးအမား (Measures of Central Tendency /Average/Location) ဆးေသာ တငးတာမႈပစမားမာ -ၾကမမားကနး (Mode (နာမကနးရငမားအတြက nominal level variables) အလယကနး (၀ါ) တစ၀ကကနး (Median (စဥျပကနးရငမား အတြက Ordinal level variables) ပမးမကနး (၀ါ) သမတကနး (Mean (ကြာျခားခက ကနးရငမား အတြက Interval level variables) တ႕ျဖစၾကသည။ ၃။ ၾကျပန႔မႈ / ျပန႔ႏ႕မႈ / ေျပာငးလမႈတ႕အား တငးတာျခငး Measurements of Dispersion / Spread / Variability။ ။ၾကျပန႔မႈအား တငးတာမႈအတြက အသးအမားဆးေသာ တငးတာမႈပစမားမာ - ကနးစဥတနး range၊ ေျပာငးလြမႈ variance၊ စေသြဖမႈ standard deviation တ႔ ျဖစၾကသည။

ဒြတနဖး ေျပာငးလမႈ Bivariate ႏင႔ ဗဟတနဘးမား ေျပာငးလမႈ စစစေလ႔လာမႈ Multivariate Analyses ရၾကေသာလညး ကြမးကြငသ စာရငးအငး ပညာရငမားသာ အသးျပၾကပါသည။ သ႕အတြက ဤလကစြစာမတြင အေသးစတ ရငးျပမည မဟတပါ။ ၁။ ထပၾကမျပန႔ခက (Frequency Distribution) ထပၾကမျပန႔ခကဆသညမာ နမနာအပစ သ႔မဟတ လဥးေရ အပစၾကး၏ အမတၾကမႏႈနးမား ျဖစေပၚမႈက ေဖာျပသည႔ အမတမားအားလး၏ စာရငးတစရပ ျဖစပါသည။ ေဒတာ အခကအလကမားအား အပစတစခခငးစ၌ ေလ႔လာမႈ အၾကမအေရအတြကမားက ေဖာျပသည သးျခားစ တညရေသာ အပစခြမားအတြငးသ႔ အပစဖြ႔ သြငးပါသည။

ထပၾကမျပန႔ခကတစခတြင ကနးရငတစလးအား တစၾကမသာ စဥစားပါသည။ ကနးရငတစလးအတြက ထပၾကမ ျပန႔ခက တစခအေနျဖင႔ အဆပါကနးရငႏင႔ ဆကစပလကရေသာ တနဘးမား အားလးျဖစသည႔ ၾကမႏႈနးအေရအတြက၊ ရာခငႏႈနးမားႏင စေပါငးရာခငႏႈနးမားဆငရာ ဇယားတစခ ျပစရရပါသည။

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For example: Frequency distribution table of students’ enrollment in classes in a high

school is shown in the following table:

Standard Male Female Total Percent Cumulative

percentage

X standard 79 68 147

11.9% 11.9%

IX standard 86 75 161

13.0% 25.0%

VIII standard 95 103 198

16.0% 41.0%

VII standard 111 122 233

18.9% 59.9%

VI standard 115 125 240

19.4% 79.3%

V standard 120 135 255

20.7% 100.0%

Total 606 628 1,234 100.0%

Frequency distribution can be shown in graphic forms. The three commonly used

graphic forms of frequency distribution are: histograms, bar charts, and frequency

polygons. Other graphic forms are stem and leaf diagram and scatter plots diagram.

A Histogram is a graph in which the classes are marked on the horizontal axis and the

class frequencies on the vertical axis. The class frequencies are represented by the

heights of the bars and the bars are drawn adjacent to each other. Variable must be

continuous variable (interval or ratio).

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ဥပမာ - ေအာကေဖာျပပါ ဇယားမာ အထကတနးေကာငးတစေကာငးရ အတနးအသးသးသ႔ ေကာငးအပႏေသာ ေကာငးသားမား၏ ထပၾကမျပန႔ခက ဇယားတစချဖစပါသည။ အတနး ကား မ စစေပါငး ရာခငႏႈနး စေပါငးရာခငႏႈနး

၁၀တနး ၇၉ ၆၈ ၁၄၇ ၁၁.၉ % ၁၁.၉%

၉တနး ၈၆ ၇၅ ၁၆၁ ၁၃.၀% ၂၅.၀%

၈တနး ၉၅ ၁၀၃ ၁၉၈ ၁၆.၀% ၄၁.၀%

၇တနး ၁၁၁ ၁၂၂ ၂၃၃ ၁၈.၉ % ၅၉.၉%

၆တနး ၁၁၅ ၁၂၅ ၂၄၀ ၁၉.၄% ၇၉.၃%

၅တနး ၁၂၀ ၁၃၅ ၂၅၅ ၂၀.၇ % ၁၀၀.၀ %

စစေပါငး ၆၀၆ ၆၂၈ ၁၂၃၄ ၁၀၀.၀%

ထပၾကမျပန႔ခကအား ဂရပပစမားျဖင႔လညး ေဖာျပႏငပါသည။ ထပၾကမျပန႔ခကက ဂရပပစျဖင႔ေဖာျပရာတြင အသး အမားဆးသာ ဂရပပစသးမးမာ - ဟစၥတဂရမမား (Histograms) ၊ ဘားခပမား (Bar charts) ႏင႔ ဖရကြငစပလဂြနမား (Frequency polygon) တ႔ျဖစပါသည။ အျခားေသာ ဂရပပစႏစမးအေနျဖင႔ ပငစညအရြကပ (Stem and leaf diagram) ႏင႔ အျပန႔ျပပ (Scatter plots diagram) တ႔လညး ပါရပါသည။

ဟစၥတဂရမ (Histogram) တစခသည အပစအတနးအစားမား (classes ) က ေရျပငည၀ငရးတြင ေဖာျပျပး ထအပစ အတနးအစားမား၏ ၾကမႏႈနးမား class frequencies က ေဒါငလက၀ငရးေပၚတြင ျပဆသည႔ ဂရပတစခ ျဖစပါသည။ အပစအတနးအစားမား၏ ၾကမႏႈနးမားက ဘားေခာငးမား၏ အျမင႔ျဖင႔ ေဖာျပျပး ထဘာေခာငးမားက တစခႏင႔ တစခ ကပလကဆြေလ႔ ရပါသည။ ကနးရငအေနျဖင႔ စဥဆကကနးရင Continuous variable (ကြာျခားခက (သ႔ ) အခး interval or ratio) ဆငရာ ကနးရငျဖစရပါမည။

၃၀၀

အတနး

ၾကမႏႈနး

ပမးမကနး = ၇.၁၇ စေသြဖညမႈ = ၁.၆၅၈ အေရအတြက N = ၁၂၃၄

၂၀၀

၁၀၀

၄ ၆ ၈ ၁၀

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In this example, a histogram of the students studying at different grades (see data in the

table above) was created. The mean has a value of 7.17 and the SD of 1.658.

A Bar graph is a graph that illustrates nominal data with the scores/categories along

the x-axis and the frequencies on the y-axis. The scores are not ordered and, unlike a

histogram, the bars do not touch each other. The heights correspond to the number of

times the score occurs, similar to histogram. The variable can be categorical (nominal

or ordinal).

In this example, the majority of students in the sample were White. The next largest

group was Hispanic. The smallest representative groups were Black, Asian, and Indian.

A Frequency polygon consists of line segments connecting the points formed by the

class midpoint and the class frequency.

AGE

22.5017.5012.507.502.50

Co

un

t

130

120

110

100

90

80

70

60

50

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ဤဥပမာတြင အတနးအသးသး၌ ပညာသငၾကားေနၾကေသာ ေကာငးသားမား၏ ဟစၥတဂရမအား ေဖာျပထားျခငး ျဖစပါသည။ (အထကေဖာျပပါ ဇယားမ ေဒတာအခကအလကမားအား ၾကည႔ပါ) ။အတနးမား၏ ပမးမတနဘးမာ ၇.၁၇ တနး ျဖစျပး စေသြဖမႈ SD မ ၁.၆၅၈ ျဖစပါသည။

ဘားဂရပ (Bar Graph) တစခသည နာမေဒတာအခကအလကမား nominal data မားက သရပေဖာရာ၌ X ၀ငရးေပၚတြင ရမတမား / အပစခြမားအား ေဖာျပျပး ၾကမႏႈနးမားက Y ၀ငရးေပၚတြင ေဖာျပပါသည။ ဟစၥတဂရမတစခက႔သ႔ မဟတပ ရမတမားသည အစဥအတငး မဟတပါ။ ဘားေခာငးမားသညလညး တစခႏင႔တစခ မထေခ။ သ႔ေသာဟစၥတဂရမက႔သ႕ပငဘားေခာငးမား၏ အျမင႔သည ရမတအၾကမအေရအတြက ျဖစေပၚမႈမားအား ကယစား ျပသည။ ကနးရငအေနျဖင႔ အပစကနးရင Categorical (နာမ သ႔မဟတ စဥျပ nominal or ordinal) ဆငရာ ကနးရငျဖစပါသည။

ဤဥပမာတြင နမနာအပစ၏ အမားစေသာ ေကာငးသားမားမာ - လျဖမား ျဖစပါသည။ ဒတယ အၾကးဆး အပစမာ စပနစကားပာ ဟစၥပနးနစ အပစျဖစပါသည။ အနညးဆး အပစမားမာ လမညးမား၊ အာရသားမားႏင႔ အႏၵယႏြယဖြားမား ျဖစပါသည။ ဖရကြငစပလဂြန ( ၾကမႏႈနးပလဂြန ) Frequency Polygon တြင အပစအတနးအစားမား၏ အလယမတ (Class Midpoint) ႏင႔ အတနးအစားၾကမႏႈနး (Class Frequency) တ႔က ဆကစပေပးေသာ မဥးအစတအပငးမား ပါ၀ငသည။

AGE

22.5017.5012.507.502.50

Co

un

t

130

120

110

100

90

80

70

60

50

အၾကမေရ

အသက

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Comparing a histogram to a frequency polygon

The two graphs shown above have the same information about education but present

different shapes.

A Stem and Leaf diagram is a frequency distribution table which provides a visual

picture of the distribution. The Stem and Leaf diagram contains two columns, the left

column contains the stems, consisting of all but the last digit, and the right column

contains the leaves, the last digit in the number.

To construct a stem-and-leaf display, the observations must first be sorted in ascending

order. Here is a set of current annual salaries in USD for a Stem and Leaf diagram.

Salaries: 40,000 41,000 15,000 30,000 15,000 34,000 24,000 31,000 32,000 81,000

33,000 46,000 50,000 85,000 27,000 and 30,000

Current Salary Stem-and-Leaf Plot

Frequency Stem & Leaf

2.00 1 .55

2.00 2 . 47

6.00 3 . 001234

3.00 4 . 016

1.00 5 . 0

2.00 Extremes (>=81250)

Stem width: 10000

Each leaf: 1 case(s)

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ဟစၥတဂရမတစခႏင႔ ၾကမႏႈနးပလဂြနတစခတ႔အား ႏႈငးယဥျခငး

အထကပါဂရပပႏစခမာ ပညာေရးႏင႔ ပတသကေသာ တညေသာ သတငးအခကအလကမားအား ေဖာျပျပး ကြျပားျခားနားေသာ ပေဖာမႈမး ရပါသည။ ပငစညႏင႔ အရြကျပပ (Stem and Leaf diagram) ဆသညမာ ျပန႔ကကကနးစဥတနး (distribution) က သရပ ျပကားခပျဖင႔ ေဖာျပေသာ ထပၾကမျပန႔ခက (Frequency Distribution) ဇယားတစချဖစပါသည။ ပငစညႏင႔ အရြကျပပတြင ေကာလႏစခပါ၀ငျပး လက၀ဘကေကာလတြင ေနာကဆးဂဏနးမလြ၍ အကနလးက ေဖာျပေသာ ပငစညမားပါ၀ငျပး လကယာဘကေကာလတြင နပါတတစခ၏ ေနာကဆးဂဏနးက ေဖာျပေသာအရြကမား ပါ၀ငပါသည။

ပငစညႏင႔ အရြကျပပတစခက ေရးဆြျပရနအတြက ေလ႔လာေတြ႔ရခကမားက ဥးစြာ ငယစဥၾကးလက စရပါသည။ ပတြင ပါရသညမာ လကရႏစအလက လစာအေမရကနေဒၚလာမားအား ပငစညႏင႔ အရြကျပပျဖင႔ ေဖာျပထားျခငး ျဖစပါသည။

လစာမား ၄၀၀၀၀၊ ၄၁၀၀၀၊ ၁၅၀၀၀၊ ၃၀၀၀၀၊ ၁၅၀၀၀၊ ၃၄၀၀၀၊ ၂၄၀၀၀၊ ၃၁၀၀၀၊ ၃၂၀၀၀၊ ၈၁၀၀၀၊ ၃၃၀၀၀၊ ၄၆၀၀၀၊ ၅၀၀၀၀၊ ၈၅၀၀၀၊ ၂၇၀၀၀၊ ႏင႔ ၃၀၀၀၀

ပငစည- ႏင႔- အရြကပျပ လကရလစာ ၾကမႏႈနး ပငစည ႏင႔ အရြက

၂ . ၀၀ ၁.၅၅ ၂.၀၀ ၂.၄၇

၆.၀၀ ၃.၀၀၁၂၃၄ ၃.၀၀ ၄.၀၁၆ ၁.၀၀ ၅.၀ ၂.၀၀ အစြနးမား (>=၈၁၂၅၀) ပငစညအကယ ။ ။ ၁၀၀၀၀ အရြကတစရြကစ ။ ။ ျဖစရပတစခစ

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A Scatter plot illustrates the relationship between two continuous variables.

In this example, the relationship between Gross Domestic Product per capital (X axis)

and average male life expectancy (Y axis) of countries in 1995 is shown. They are

positively correlated.

Exercise

Which measure of frequency distribution will a researcher use for the age distribution

of a survey? Why?

Answer: Frequency tables and histograms are the best frequency distribution as age is a

continuous variable.

Summary Statistics

Summary statistics is a single value that summarizes the observed value of a variable.

It is part of the data reduction process and it has two types: (1) measures of central

tendency/average and (2) measures of dispersion/variability/spread. Summary statistics

describes the shape of the distribution of a set of observations. It is necessary for

precise and efficient comparisons of different sets of data because the location

(average) and shape (variability) of different distributions may be different.

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အျပန႔ျပပ Scatter plotတစခသည တစဆကတညး ျဖစေသာ ကနးရငႏစလး၏ ဆကႏြယမႈက ေဖာျပသည။

ဤဥပမာတြင ၁၉၉၅ ခႏစတြင တငးျပညမားရ တစဥးခငးအလက ျပညတြငးအသားတင ထတလပမ တနဘး (X၀ငရး) ႏင႔ အမးသားမား၏ ပမးမသကတမး ( Y ၀ငရး) တ႕၏ ဆကသြယခကက ေဖာျပထားသည။ ၄ငးတ႔သည အေပါငး လကၡဏာသေဘာေဆာင ခတဆကလကရသည။

ေလ႔ကင႔ခနး သေတသတစေယာကအေနျဖင႔ စစတမးတစရပအတြက အသကျဖန႔ကကကနးစဥတနးအား ေဖာျပရန မညသည႔ ထပၾကမျဖန႔ခကတငးတာမႈက သးလမ႔မညနညး။ အဘယေၾကာင႔နညး၊

အေျဖ ။ ။ ၾကမႏႈနးျပဇယားႏင႔ ဟစၥတဂရမတ႔သည အေကာငးဆး ထပၾကမျပန႕ခက ျပပမားျဖစၾကျပး အသကအရြယ သည စဥဆကကနးရင Continuous variable ျဖစေသာေၾကာင႔ ျဖစသည။ အႏစခပစာရငးအငး (Summary Statistics) အႏစခပစာရငးအငးသည ကနးရငတစလးအား ေလ႔လာထားသည႔ တနဘးက အႏစခပ ေဖာျပသည႔ တနဘး တစချဖစပါသည။ ၄ငးသည ေဒတာအခကအလက ေလာ႔ခ ျခငးဆငရာ လပငနးစဥ၏ တစစတတစေဒသ ျဖစျပး အမးအစားအားျဖင႔ ႏစမးရပါသည။ (၁) ဗဟညႊတခက / ပမးမတ႕အားတငးတာမႈမားႏင႔ (၂) ၾကျပန႔မႈ၊ ေျပာငးလမႈ၊ ျပန႔ႏ႕မႈတ႕အား တငးတာမႈ ဟ၍ ျဖစသည။ အႏစခပစာရငးအငး ေလလာမအစတစရပ၏ ျဖန႔ကက ကနးစဥတနး၏ ပသဏၭာနက ေဖာျပေပးပါသည။ အမးမးေသာျဖန႕ကက ကနးစဥတနးမား၏ ပသ႑ာန ( ေျပာငးလမႈ ) ႏင႔ တညေနရာ (ပမးမ) တ႕သည မတညၾကေသာေၾကာင႔ ကြျပားေသာ ေဒတာအစမားအား ထထေရာကေရာကႏင႔ တက ေသာ ႏႈငးယဥေလ႔လာမႈမား ျပလပရန လအပပါသည။

အမးသားမားပမးမသကတမး

လတစဥးခငးအလက ျပညတြငး အသားတင ထတလပမႈတနဘး

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No. of

People

Factor Y

Population A Population B

Same Variability

Different Locations

No. of

People

Factor X

Population A

Population B

Different Variability

Same Location

Measures of central tendency alone are not sufficient to describe the distribution of populations. The factor X in the first graph shows the distribution of populations A and B. Both have the same mean but different variability. The factor Y in the second graph shows the distribution of populations A and B. Both have the same variability but a different mean.

2. Measure of Central Tendency

Commonly used measures of central tendency are means, median, and mode. Mean, median, and mode are different kinds of ‘averages’ and can produce very different answers for the same set of data. This variation depends on the shape of distribution.

An (arithmetic) mean is the product of the division of the arithmetic sum of observations by the number of observations.

Median is the mid-point of a set of ordered observations.

And mode is the most frequently occurring observation in the dataset.

2.a. Mean

The mean is the most commonly used measure of location. It is calculated by adding all observed values and dividing by the total number of observations.

Notations

• Each observation is denoted as x1, x2, … xn

• The total number of observations: n and summation process = Sigma :

• The mean: X = xi /n

Example 1: The duration of stay (in days) in a hospital for nine patients observed were: 8, 25, 7, 5, 8, 3, 10, 12, and 9.

There were 9 observations (n=9); the sum of all observations was 87; and the mean duration of stay was 87 / 9 = 9.67.

Example 2: The incubation periods (in days) of a disease for nine patients observed were 8, 45, 7, 5, 8, 3, 10, 12, and 9.

There were 9 observations (n=9); the sum of all observations =107; and the mean incubation period = 107 / 9 = 11.89.

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Advantages of using mean

• The mean is used as the basis of many statistical tests;

• It is a good statistical summary for a symmetrical distribution.

Disadvantages of using mean

• The mean is less useful for an asymmetric distribution;

• It can be distorted by outliers (the extremes values of the observations), therefore giving a less “typical” value.

2.b. Median

• The median describes literally the middle value of the data set;

• It is defined as the value above or below which half (50%) the observations fall.

Computation of the median

• Arrange the observations in order from smallest to largest (e.g. ascending order) or the other way round;

• Count the number of observations “n”.

If “n” is an odd number, the median equals the value of (n+1)/2th

observations.

If “n” is an even number, the median equals the average of the n/2th

and (n /2)+1th

observations.

Example 1: To find the median of the following values: 10, 20, 12, 3, 18, 16, 14, 25, 2, arrange the numbers in increasing order as 2 , 3, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 25; the median is 14.

Example 2: Suppose there is one more observation (8): 2 , 3, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 25, median = mean of 12 & 14 = 13.

Advantages of using median

• The median is unaffected by extreme values.

Disadvantages of using median

• The median does not contain information on the other values of the distribution. It is selected only for its rank and its value can vary within 50% without seriously affecting the data analysis.

• The median is less amenable to statistical tests.

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ပမးမကနးအသးျပျခငး၏အားသာခကမား မားစြာေသာ စာရငးအငးဆငရာ စမးသပမႈမား၏ အေျခခအျဖစ အသးျပပါသည။ ေခါကရးည ျဖန႔ကကကနးစဥတနး (Symmetricaldistribution) တစခအတြက စာရငးအငးဆငရာ အႏစခပ

ေကာငးတစခ ျဖစသည။

ပမးမကနအသးျပျခငး အားနညးခကမား ေခါကရးမညေသာ ျဖန႔ကကကနးစဥတနး (Asymmetrical distribution) တစခအတြက အသး၀ငမႈ

နညးပါသည။ ပမနမဟတေသာ အစြနးေရာက တနဘးမား (Outliers) မားေၾကာင႔ ပပကယြငးႏငျခငး ( ၀ါ ) သမတကနး

တနဘး ေျပာငးႏငသျဖင႔ “စနမနာ” တနဘးအျဖစ သးနငျခငးမရေခ

၂။ ခ။ အလယကနး (၀ါ) တစ၀ကကနး (Median) အလယကနး ( ၀ါ ) တစ၀ကကနး ဆသည႔အတငး ေဒတာမား၏ အလယေခါငကေသာ တနဘးကယသည။ ၄ငး၏ တစဖကတစခကစတြင ကနေဒတာမား ( ၅၀ % စ ) ရၾကသည။

အလယကနးအားတြကခကျခငး

ေကာကယရရေသာ ေဒတာမား ( သ႕ ) ကနးမားက အငယဆးမအၾကးဆး ( ငယစဥၾကး ) စလကပါ။ သ႔မဟတ ၾကးစဥငယလကလညး စႏငပါသည။

စစေပါငးကနးအေရအတြက “n” ကေရတြကပါ။ အကယ၍ n သည မဂဏနးျဖစပါက အလယကနးသည ( n+1)/ 2 အၾကမ ေျမာကကနး၏ တနဘးျဖစသည။ အကယ၍ ‘n’ သည စဂဏနးျဖစပါက အလယကနးသည( n/2 ) အၾကမေျမာကႏင႔ (n/2) +1 အၾကမေျမာကဂဏနးတ႕၏ ပမးမတနဘးျဖစသည။ ဥပမာ(၁) ။ ။ ေအာကေဖာျပပါ ဂဏနးမား ၁၀၊ ၂၀၊ ၁၂၊ ၃၊ ၁၈၊ ၁၆၊ ၁၄၊ ၂၅၊ ၂ တ႕၏ အလယကနးက ရာရနအတြက အဆပါ ဂဏနးမားက ငယစဥၾကးလက စလကေသာအခါ ၂၊ ၃၊ ၁၀၊ ၁၂၊ ၁၄၊ ၁၆၊ ၁၈၊ ၂၀၊ ၂၅ ျဖစျပး အလယကနးသည ‘၁၄ ’ ျဖစသည။

ဥပမာ ( ၂ ) အကယ၍ ဂဏနးတစလး ‘၈’ က ထပတးလကပါက၂၊ ၃၊ ၈၊ ၁၀၊ ၁၂၊ ၁၄၊ ၁၆၊ ၁၈၊ ၂၀၊ ၂၅ ဟ၍ ရသညတြင အလယကနး = ၁၂ ႏင႔ ၁၄တ႕၏ ပမးမတနဘး = ၁၃ ဟ၍ ရပါသည။ အလယကနးအသးျပျခငး၏ အားသာခကမား

အလယကနးသည အစြနးေရာကတနဘးမား၏ သကေရာကမႈဒဏ မခရပါ။ အလယကနးအသးျပျခငး၏ အားနညးခကမား အလယကနးတြင ျဖန႔ကကကနးစဥတနးရ အျခားတနးဘးမား၏ သတငးအခကအလက မပါ၀ငေပ။ ၄ငးအား ေနရာအလက ေရြးခယျခငးျဖစျပး ေဒတာစစစမႈက ဆးဆးရြားရြား သကေရာကမႈ မရေစဘ ၅၀ % အတြငး၌ ၄ငး၏ တနဘးမာ ေျပာငးလႏငသည။ အလယကနးသည စာရငးအငးဆငရာ စမးသပမႈမား၌ အမားျပင၍ ရႏငခသည။

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2.c. Mode

The mode of a distribution is the value that is observed most frequently in a given set

of data. It is obtained by:

• Arranging the data in sequence from low to high;

• Counting the number of times each value occurs;

• Selecting the most frequently occurring value is the mode.

Example 1: Annual salaries (in 100,000 Kyats) for ten respondents are 4, 3, 3, 2, 3, 8,

4, 3, 7, 2. To calculate the mode, the researcher has to arrange the values in order as

follows: 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 7, 8. The mode is four times “3”.

Example 2: The incubation periods for the hepatitis (in days) were 29, 31, 24, 29, 30,

25. To calculate the mode, arrange the values in order: 24, 25, 29, 29, 30, 31. The mode

is 29.

Specific measure of the mode

• There may be no mode when each value is unique;

• There may be more than one mode when more than one peak occurs;

• The mode can be misinterpreted when a distribution is skewed;

• The mode is not of great use for statistical tests;

• The mode is not based upon all observations.

Which measure of central tendency to use?

If a researcher considers the duration (days) of absence from work of 21 labourers

because of sickness, the data collected are: 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 5, 6, 6, 6, 7, 8, 9,

10, 10, 59, and 80 days. Therefore the mean is 11 days. However, as 19 out of the 21

labourers were absent for less than 11 days, the data was distorted by extreme values.

In contrast to the mean, the median is 5 days. Therefore the median is a better

measurement for this particular dataset.

The type of the distribution determines the measure of central tendency to use.

Choice of measure of central tendency for symmetric distributions

• Any of the central/location measures can be used;

• The mean has definite advantages if subsequent computations are needed.

Choice of measure of central tendency for asymmetric or skewed distributions

• For skewed distributions, the mean is not suitable;

• If some observations deviate too much from others in the same series, then the

median is the appropriate measure. The median is adapted when there are extreme

values;

• The mode is the most common value.

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၂။ဂ။ၾကမမားကနး (Mode)

ျဖန႔ကကကနးစဥတနး (distribution) တစခ၏ ၾကမမားကနးသည ေပးထားေသာ ေဒတာအစအတြငး အၾကမအေရ အမားဆး ေတြ႕ရေသာ တနဘးျဖစသည။ ၄ငးက ေအာကပါအတငး ရာႏငပါသည။

ေဒတာမားက ငယရာမ ၾကးရာသ႔ အစဥအတငးစပါ။ တနဘး ( ေဒတာ ) တစခခငးစအား ေတြ႔ရေသာ အၾကမအေရအတြကက ေရတြကမတသားပါ။ အၾကမအေရအတြက အမားဆး ေတြ႔ရေသာ တနဘးသည “ၾကမမားကနး” ျဖစသည။

ဥပမာ ( ၁ ) ။ ။ေျဖဆသ ၁၀ ဥး၏ ႏစအလကလစာ ( သနးဂဏနး ျဖင႔ ) မားမာ ၄၊ ၃၊ ၃၊ ၂၊ ၃၊ ၈၊ ၄၊ ၃၊ ၇၊ ၂ ဟ၍ ျဖစသည။ ၾကမမားက တြကခကရနအတြက သေတသအေနျဖင႔ ေပးထားေသာ တနဘးမားက ၂၊ ၂၊ ၃၊ ၃၊ ၃၊ ၃၊ ၄၊ ၄၊ ၇၊ ၈ ဟ၍ ျပနလညစစဥပါသည။ ေလးၾကမေတြ႔ရေသာ ‘၃’ သည ၾကမမားကနး ျဖစပါသည။ ဥပမာ ( ၂ ) ။ ။အသညးေရာငေရာဂါ ကးစကခရေသာ သမား၏ ေရာဂါပးခန (ရကမားျဖင႔) မားမ ၂၉၊ ၃၁၊ ၂၄၊ ၂၉၊ ၃၀၊ ၂၅ ဟ၍ ျဖစသည။ ၾကမမားကနးက တြကခကရနအတြက တနဘးမားက ၂၄၊ ၂၅၊ ၂၉၊ ၂၉၊ ၃၀၊ ၃၁ ဟသည႔ အစဥအတငး ျပနစပါသည။ ၾကမမားကနးမာ “၂၉” ျဖစပါသည။ ၾကမမားကနးႏင႔ပတသတေသာအခကမား

တနဘးတစခစသည တစၾကမစသာပါ၀ငပါက “ၾကမမားကနး” မရဘ ျဖစႏငသည။ အမားဆးေတြ႕ရသည႔ အၾကမအေရအတြကမာ တစခထကပ၍ ရပါက ၾကမမားကနး တစခထကပ၍လညး

ရႏငသည။ အကယ၍ ျဖန႔ကကကနးစဥတနး တစဘကဘကသ႔ တမးေစာငးေနပါက ၾကမမားကနးက အဓပၸါယ

ကာကမား ႏငပါသည။ စာရငးအငးပငးဆငရာ စမးသပမႈမားအတြက ၾကမမားကနးက အေကာငးဆး အသးျပႏငသည မဟတပါ။ ၾကမမားကနးသည ေလ႔လာမႈအားလးအေပၚအေျချပသည မဟတပါ။

မညသညဗဟညႊတခက တငးတာမႈက သးမညနညး။ အလပသမား ၂၁ ဥး၏ ဖားနာမႈေၾကာင႔ အလပပကသည႔ (ရကေပါငး) ၾကာခနက သေတသတစဥး အေနျဖင႔ စဥးစား သးသပ၍ ေဒတာအခကအလကမား ေကာကယရရသညမာ ၁၊ ၁၊ ၂၊ ၂၊ ၃၊ ၃၊ ၄၊ ၄၊ ၄၊ ၄၊ ၅၊ ၆၊ ၆၊ ၆၊ ၇၊ ၈၊ ၉၊ ၁၀၊ ၁၀၊ ၅၉ ႏင႔ ၈၀ ရကတ႔ ျဖစၾကသည။ သ႔အတြက ရရလာေသာ ပမးမကနးမာ ၁၁ ရက ျဖစပါသည။ သ႔ေသာ တကယတမး တြငမ လပသား၂၁ဥးအနက ၁၉ ဥးမာ ၁၁ရက ေအာကသာ ပကကြကပါသည။ အစြနးေရာက တနဘးမားေၾကာင႔သာ ေဒတာ အခကအလက ပယြငးသြား ျခငးျဖစသည။ ဤေနရာတြင ပမးမကနးႏင႔မတသည႔ အခကမာ အလယကနး ၅ ရက သာ ျဖစပါသည။ သ႔အတြက ဤေဒတာအစအတြကမ “အလယကနး ” သည ပမဆေလာေသာ တငးတာမႈ ျဖစပါသည။ ျဖန႔ကကကနစဥတနး (distribution) အမးအစားသည မညသည႔ဗဟညႊတခက တငးတာမႈက အသးျပရမညက အဆးအျဖတ ေပးပါသည။

ေခါကရးည ျဖန႔ကကကနးစဥတနး (Symmetric distribution) မားအတြက ဗဟညႊတခကတငးတာမႈ ေရြးခယအသးျပပ

မညသည႔ဗဟညႊတခက (သ႕) ေနရာျပတငးတာမႈကမဆ သးႏငပါသည။ ဆကလကတြကခကမႈမား ျပလပရန လအပပါက ပမးမကနး (၀ါ) သမတကနးအား အသးျပျခငးသည

အားသာခက ေကာငးစြာရပါသည။

ေခါကရးမညေသာ( သ႕ ) တစဘကဘကသ႔ ေစာငးယြငးေသာ ျဖန႔ကကကနးစဥတနး asymmetric or skewed distributions မား အတြက ဗဟညႊြတခက တငးတာေရြးခယ အသးျပပ

တဘကဘကသ႔ ေစာငးယြငးေသာ ျဖန႔ကကကနးစဥတနးမားအတြက ပမးမကနးသည မသင႔ေတာပါ။ စးရးတတစခထ၌ အခ႕ေသာ ကနးမားသည အျခားေသာ ကနးမားထက မားစြာေသြဖညမႈ ရပါက “အလယကနး”

သည ပမသင႔ေလာေသာ တငးတာမႈ ျဖစပါသည။ အစြနးေရာက တနဘးမား ပါ၀ငပါက “အလယကနး” က သးသင႔ပါသည။

ၾကမမားကနးသည အေတြ႔ရအမားဆးေသာ တနဘးျဖစပါသည။

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In the example above, the distribution is not symmetric. The mean is 10.8, the median

is 10.0 and the mode is 13.5.

3. Measure of Dispersion (Measures of Dispersion/spread/variability) The measure of central tendency provides important information about the distribution.

However, it does not provide information concerning the relative position of other data

points in the sample. Therefore, measures of dispersion are needed. Common measures

of dispersion are range, percentiles and quartiles, variance, and standard deviation.

3.a. Range

The range is a simple measure of dispersion. Computing the range is taking the

difference between the lowest value and the highest value.

Limitation of the range

• The range says nothing about the values between extremes;

• The range is not stable: As the sample size increases, the range can change

dramatically;

• Statistics cannot be used to look at the range.

Example: A researcher takes a sample of 10 heights measured in cm. Here are the

results: 70, 95, 100, 103, 105, 107, 110, 112, 115, and 140 cm. The lowest (Minimum)

value is 70cm and the highest (Maximum) value is 140cm; therefore, the range is 140 –

70 = 70cm.

Percentiles and quartiles

Percentiles are those values in a series of observations which are arranged in ascending

order of magnitude. When the distribution is divided into two equal parts, the median is

the 50th

percentile.

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အထကပါ ဥပမာတြင ျဖန႔ကကကနးစဥတနးသည ေခါကရးည မဟတပါ။ ပမးမကနးသည ၁၀.၈၊ အလယကနး ၁၀ႏင႔ ၾကမမားကနး ၁၃.၅ ျဖစပါသည။ ၃။ ၾကျပန႔မႈအား တငးတာျခငး Measure of Dispersion (ၾကျပန႔မႈ / ျပန႔ႏ႕မႈ / ေျပာငးလမႈတ႕အား တငးတာမႈမား Measure of Dispersion / Spread / Variability) ဗဟညႊတခကတငးတာမႈသည ျဖန႔ကကကနးစဥတနးႏင႔ပတသကေသာ အေရးၾကး သတငးအခကအလကမား ေထာကပ႔ေပးပါသည။ သ႔ေသာ နမနာအစရ အျခားေသာ ေဒတာအမတမားႏင႔ ပတသတမႈ အေနအထားနင႔ သကဆင ေသာ သတငးအခကအလကမား မရႏငပါ။ သ႔အတြက ၾကျပန႔မႈအား တငးတာမႈ Measure of dispersion လအပပါ သည။ အသးမားေသာ ၾကျပန႔မႈတငးတာသည႔ ပစမားမာ ကနးစဥတနး range၊ ပါစငတငးလႏင႔ ကြာလတငး percentiles and quartiles ေျပာငးလြမႈ variance ႏင႔ စေသြဖညမႈ standard deviation တ႕ ျဖစၾကပါသည။ ၃။က။ကနးစဥတနး (Range) ကနးစဥတနးသည ရးရငးေသာ ၾကျပန႔မႈအား တငးတာမႈပစ ျဖစပါသည။ ကနးစဥတနးက တြကခကရရရနအတြက အျမင႔ဆးတနဘးႏင႔ အနမ႔ဆးတနဘးႏစခၾကား ကြာျခားခကက ယရပါသည။ ကနးစဥတနး၏ အကန႔အသကမား

ကနးစဥတနးတြင အစြနးေရာကတနဘးမားႏင႔ပတသက၍ ေျပာဆႏငျခငးမရပါ။ ကနးစဥတနးသည တညျငမမရဘ နမနာအစ၏ အရြယအစားၾကးလာသညႏင႔အမ ကနးစဥတနးသညလညး

မားစြာ ေျပာငးလႏငပါသည။ ကနးစဥတနးကၾကည႔ကာမႏင႔ စာရငးအငးက အသးမျပႏငပါ။

ဥပမာ - သေတသတစဥးသည စငတမတာျဖင႔ တငးတာထားသည အရပအျမင႔ ၁၀ ခက နမနာရယပါသည။ ရလဒမား အေနျဖင႔ ၇၀၊ ၉၅၊ ၁၀၀၊ ၁၀၃၊ ၁၀၅၊ ၁၀၇၊ ၁၁၀၊ ၁၁၂၊ ၁၁၅ ႏင႔ ၁၄၀ စငတမတာတ႔ ျဖစၾကပါသည။ အနမ႔ဆး (အနညးဆး) တနဘးမာ ၇၀စငတမတာ ျဖစျပးအျမင႔ဆး ( အမားဆး ) တနဘးမာ ၁၄၀ စငတမတာ ျဖစသျဖင႔ ကနးစဥတနး ပမာဏမာ ၁၄၀-၇၀ = ၇၀ စငတ ျဖစပါသည။

ပါစငတငးလႏင႔ ကြာတငးလ Percentiles ႏင႔ Quartiles ပါစငတငးလ ( ရာႏႈနးအေျချပတနဘး ) ဆသညမာ ပမာဏအလက ငယစဥၾကးလက စစဥထားေသာ ကနးမား စးရးတြ၏ တနဖးမား ျဖစပါသည။ ျဖန႔ကကကနးစဥတနးအား ညတညမ ႏစပငးပငးလကပါက အလယကနးသည ၅၀ ၾကမေျမာက ပါစငတငးလ ျဖစပါသည။

အလယကနး = ၁၀ ၾကမမားကနး = ၁၃.၅

ပမးမကနး = ၁၀.၈

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Quartiles are the values which divide a series of observations, arranged in ascending

order, into 4 equal parts. The median is the 2nd

quartile.

The median is the measure of the “centre” of the data, the middle value (if n is odd) or

average of the two middle values (if n is even). Quartiles divide the set of ordered

values into 4 equal parts.

The inter-quartile range

Inter-quartile range is the central portion of the distribution. It is calculated as the

difference between the third quartile and the first quartile. It includes about one half of

the observations but leaves out one quarter of the observations from both ends.

Limitations of the inter-quartile range

• Only takes into account two values;

• Not a mathematical concept upon which theories can be developed.

Example: Values are 29, 31, 24, 29, 30, and 25. Arrange them as 24, 25, 29, 29, 30, and 31.

First quartile (Q1) is the value of (n+1)/4=1.75 and Q1 is 24+0.75 = 24.75

Third quartile (Q3) is the value of (n+1)*3/4=5.25 and Q3 is 30+0.25 = 30.25

Inter-quartile range = Q3 – Q1 = 30.25 – 24.75= 5.5

3.b. Variance

The variance measures how far a set of numbers is spread out. A small variance

indicates that the data points tend to be very close to the mean and hence to each other,

while a high variance indicates that the data points are very spread out from the mean

and from each other.

3.c. Standard Deviation

The standard deviation takes the square root of the variance. The limitation of the

standard deviation is that it is sensitive to outliers.

Summary of measures of dispersion

Measure Advantages Disadvantages

Range • Obvious

• Easy to calculate

• Uses only 2 observations

• Increases with the sample size

• Can be distorted by outliers

Inter-quartile

range

• Not affected by extreme

values

• Uses only 2 observations

• Not amenable to further

statistical treatment

Standard deviation • Uses every value

• Suitable for further analysis

• Highly influenced by extreme

values

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ကြာလတငးလမားဆသညမာ ကနးမားစးရးတြက ငယစဥၾကးလက စစဥထားျပး ေလးပငးအညအမ ပငးထားသည႔ တနဘးမား ျဖစပါသည။ အလယကနးသည ဒတယေျမာက ကြာတငးလ ျဖစပါသည။ အလယကနးသည ေဒတာမား၏ “ဗဟ” ခကက တငးတာမႈျဖစျပး ( ကနးလးအေရအတြက n သည မဂဏနးတနဖးျဖစပါက ) အလယေခါင တနဘး ျဖစျပး (ကနးလးအေရအတြက n သညစဂဏနး ျဖစပါက) အလယေခါငရ တနဘးႏစခ၏ ပမးမတနဘး ျဖစပါသည။ ကြာတငးလမားသည အစဥလကစစဥထားေသာ တနဘးမားအစက ေလးပငးအညအမ ပငးထားျခငး ျဖစပါသည။ အငတာကြာတငးလ ကနးစဥ (inter-quartile range) အငတာကြာတငးလ ကနးစဥ The inter-quartile range မာ ျဖန႔ကကကနးစဥတနး၏ ပငမအစတအပငး ျဖစသည။ တတယ ေျမာက ကြာတငးလႏင႔ ပထမကြာတငးလတ႔အား ျခားနားျခငးအားျဖင႔ တြကခကရယႏငပါသည။ ေလ႔လာေသာ ကနးမား၏ တ၀ကခန႔မာ အငတာကြာတငးလ ကနးစဥအတြငး ကေရာကျပး ကနေလးပတစပစမာ အစြနးႏစဖက ကေရာကပါသည။ အငတာကြာတငးလကနးစဥ၏ အကန႔အသတမား

တနဘးႏစခကသာ ထည႔သြငးစဥးစားပါသည။ သ၀ရမား ဆကလကတညေဆာကယႏငေသာ သခာၤဆငရာ အယအဆတစရပ မဟတေခ။

ဥပမာ - တနဘးမားအေနျဖင႔၂၉၊ ၃၁၊ ၂၄၊ ၂၉၊ ၃၀၊ ၂၅ ဟ၍ ရၾကသည။ ျပနလည စစစလကေသာအခါ၂၄၊ ၂၅၊ ၂၉၊ ၂၉၊ ၃၀ ႏင႔ ၃၁ ဟ၍ ျဖစသည။ ပထမကြာတငးလ( Q1 ) သည ( n+၁) / ၄ = ၁.၇၅ ၏ တနဖးႏင႔ Q1 သည၂၄ + ၀.၇၅ = ၂၄.၇၅ တတယကြာတငးလသည ( n+၁) * ၃/ ၄ = ၅.၂၅ ၏ တနဖးႏင႔ Q 3 သည၃၀ + ၀.၂၅ အငတာကြာတငးလကနးစဥ = Q3 – Q1 = ၃၀.၂၅-၂၄.၇၅ = ၅.၅

၃။ ခ။ ေျပာငးလမႈ (Variance) ေျပာငးလြမႈသည ကနးဂဏနးနပါတအစတစခအေနျဖင႔ မညမအထ ျပနႏ႕မႈရသညက တငးတာသည။ အနညးငယေသာ ေျပာငးလြမႈဆသညမာ ေဒတာအမတမားသည ပမးမကနးႏငေသာလညးေကာငး အခငးခငးေသာလညးေကာငး အလြန နးကပစြာတညရေနျခငးက ဆလျပး ၾကးမားေသာ ေျပာငးလြမႈဆသညမာ ေဒတာအမတမားသည ပမးမကနးမ ေသာလညးေကာငး၊ အခငးခငးေသာလညးေကာငး အလြနၾကျပန႔ေ၀းကြာစြာ ရၾကျခငးက ဆလပါသည။

၃။ဂ။စေသြဖညမႈ (Standard Deviation) စေသြဖညမႈ Standard Deviation သညေျပာငးလြမႈ Variance ႏစထပကနးရငး ျဖစသည။ ၄ငးသညပမန မဟတေသာ တနဖးမား Outliers မားႏင႔ ပတသကလာလင အကန႔အသတရပါသည။ ၾကျပန႔မႈအားတငးတာျခငးအႏစခပ တငးတာမႈ အားသာခကမား အားနညးခကမား

ကနးစဥတနး Range

• သသာထငရား • တြကခကရနလြယက

• ေလ႔လာမႈကနး ၂ ခသာ အသးျပ • နမနာ အစအရြယအစားႏင႔အတတကြ ၾကးလာႏင • ပမနမဟတေသာ တနဘးမားေၾကာင႔

ပပကယြငးႏင

အငတာကြာတငးကနးစဥ Interquartile range

• အစြနးေရာကတနဘးမား၏ သကေရာကမႈမရ

• ေလ႔လာမႈကနး၂ခသာအသးျပ • စာရငးအငးဆငရာ ဆကလကေလ႔လာမႈမား

အတြက ျပငဆငျခငး မျပႏင

စေသြဖညမႈ Standard deviation

• တနဘးအားလးက အသးျပ • ဆကလကစစစေလ႔လာမႈမား

အတြက သင႔ေလာ

• အစြနးေရာကတနဘးမား၏ လႊမးမးမႈဒဏက ျမင႔မားစြာခရ

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Choosing a measure of central tendency and a measure of dispersion Type of distribution Measure of central tendency Measure of dispersion

Normal • Mean • Standard deviation

Skewed • Median • Inter-quartile range

Exponential or

logarithmic

• Geometric mean • Consult with a statistician

TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THIS CHAPTER ARE:

The choice of a tool for quantitative data analysis depends on the data collected.

Depending on the value of data and how these values are distributed within the

sample studied, the researchers have to consider which tool is most relevant for

analytical purposes;

A frequency distribution for a variable can be presented as a frequency table or

in graphic forms. The three most commonly-used graphic forms are:

histograms, bar charts, and frequency polygons;

Commonly-used measures of central tendency are means, median, and mode.

Mean is the product of the division of the arithmetic sum of observations by the

number of observations. Median is the mid-point of a set of ordered

observations. Mode is the most frequently occurring observation in the dataset;

Measures of dispersion provide information concerning the variability of the

sample. Common measures of dispersion are range, percentiles and quartiles,

variance and standard deviation.

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ဗဟညႊတခကတငးတာမႈႏင႔ၾကျပန႕မႈအားတငးတာမႈတ႕အၾကားေရြခယျခငး ျဖန႔ကကကနးစဥတနးအမးအစား Type of distribution

ဗဟညႊတခကတငးတာမႈ Measure of central tendency

ၾကျပန႔မႈအားတငးတာျခငး Measure of dispersion

ပမန • ပမးမကနး • စေသြဖညမႈ

တစဘကသ႔ယြငးေစာငး • အလယကနး • အငတာကြာတငးလကနးစဥ

ထပညႊနးဆငရာ သ႔မဟတ ေလာ႔ဂရမသမမစဆငရာ

• ဂၾသေမၾတပမးမကနး • စာရငးအငးပညာရငမားႏင႔တငပငပါ

အႏစခပရလင ဤအခနးတြငပါ၀ငေသာ မတသားရနအဓကအခကမားမာ

အေရအတြကဆငရာ ေဒတာ ေလ႔လာစစစမႈမားတြငနညးလမးတစရပရပက ေရြးခယအသးျပရျခငးမာ ေကာကယစေဆာငးသည႔ ေဒတာမားအေပၚမတညပါသည။ ေဒတာမား၏ တနဘးေပၚ မတည၍ လညးေကာငး ေလ႔လာသည႔ နမနာအစအတြငး၌ အဆပါတနဘးမာ တညရေနပေပၚ မတည၍လညးေကာငး သေတသမားအေနျဖေင႔ ေလ႔လာစစစရနအတြက မညသည႔နညးလမးသည အသင႔ေလာဆးျဖစမညက စဥးစားဆးျဖတရပါသည။

ကနးရငတစလး၏ ထပၾကမျပန႔ခကအား ၾကမႏႈနးဇယားတစခ သ႔မဟတ ဂရပပမားျဖင႔ သရပေဖာတင ျပႏငပါသည။ အသးအမားဆးေသာ ဂရပပသးမးမာ - ဟစၥတဂရမ၊ ဘားခပႏင႔ ၾကမႏႈနးပလဂြနတ႔ ျဖစပါသည။

အသးမားေသာ ဗဟညႊတခကတငးတာမႈတ႔မာ- ပမးမကနး၊ အလယကနးႏင႔ ၾကမမားကနးတ႔ ျဖစပါသည။

ပမးမကနးသည ေလ႔လာသည႔ ကနးဂဏနးမား၏ စစေပါငးက ကနးအေရအတြကျဖင႔ စား၍ရေသာရလဒ ျဖစပါသည။ အလယကနးသည ငယစဥၾကးလကစစဥထားေသာ ကနးဂဏနးအစ၏ အလယမတ တနဘး ျဖစပါသည။ ၾကမမားကနးမာ ေဒတာအစအတြငး အၾကမအမားဆး ျဖစေပၚေသာကနးျဖစပါသည။

ၾကျပန႔မႈအား တငးတာျခငးဆသညမာ နမနာအစတစရပ၏ ေျပာငးလသည႔ပႏင႔ ပတသကေသာ သတငး

အခကအလကမား ျဖစပါသည။ အသးမားေသာ ၾကျပန႔မႈအား တငးတာနညးမားမာ ကနးစဥတနး Range၊ ပါစငတငး Percentile ႏင႔ ကြာတငးလ Quartile၊ ေျပာငးလြမႈ Variance ႏင႔ စေသြဖညမႈ Standard Deviation တ႕ျဖစၾကပါသည။

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INTERMEDIATE 16. QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT:

The different steps for analyzing qualitative data;

The importance of linking different sets of data and connecting them to broader

topics as part of the analysis;

The transformation of qualitative data connected to a larger context into

findings.

____________________________________________________________________

WHAT IS QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS?

Qualitative data is all sort of information gathered by the researcher through qualitative

research methods. These methods include focus group discussions, in-depth interviews,

case studies, participative learning appraisals, participative action research, etc.

Once information is collected, the data has to be processed by the researcher in order to

produce findings that can be analyzed.

For quantitative research, quantitative data produces answers that can be expressed

numerically.

For qualitative research, qualitative data is more concerned with views and feelings

expressed by informants. Qualitative data analysis also results in the interpretation by

the researchers of the meaning of these views and feelings.

Analysing the data consists in putting the informants’ views and feelings into the

larger context of the issue under study.

The analysis is mainly about searching for patterns of development, patterns of crisis,

or patterns of behaviour, etc. that explain a particular issue, situation and context.

The data produced through qualitative research can come from different sources:

observation, notes, interview tapes and transcripts, newspapers, surveys and

questionnaires, etc. Such materials are called ‘data’. The ‘data’ contain the information

that the researcher is seeking. The ‘data’ may also provide partial or full answers to

questions and hypothesis defining the research.

However, these ‘data’ are not usable as such. Qualitative data analysis hence consists

in applying analytical methods to data so that they may be used to inform research

questions and hypothesis.

The main steps in the analysis of qualitative data are:

Organizing data

Coding and categorizing data

Ensuring reliability and validity of data

Interpreting data

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အလယအလတအဆင ၁၆ - အရညအေသြးစထား ေဒတာစစစေလ႔လာမႈ ဤအခနးတြင

အရညအေသြးစထား ေဒတာမား စစစေလ႔လာမႈ ျပလပရာတြင လကနာရနရမည မတညသည႔ အဆင႔မား - စစစေလ႔လာမႈလပငနးစဥ၏ အစတအပငးျဖစေသာ မတကြျပားေသာ ေဒတာအစအသးသးအား ပမကယျပန႔

ေသာ ေခါငးစဥမားႏင႔ ခတဆကရန အေရးၾကးပ အရညအေသြးစထား ေဒတာမားအား ပမကယျပန႔ေသာ အေနအထားအရ ေလ႔လာေတြ႔ရခကမားအျဖစသ႕

ခတဆက အသြငေျပာငးျခငး _____________________________________________________________________________________ အရညအေသြးစထား ေဒတာစစစေလ႔လာမႈ ဆသညမာအဘယနညး အရညေသြးစထား ေဒတာဆသညမာ သေတသမ အရညေသြးစထား သေတသနနညးလမးမားအားျဖင႔ စေဆာငး ရရေသာ သတငးအခကအလကမားအားလးက ဆလသည။ အဆပါ သေတသနနညးလမးမားတြင ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးပြမား၊ အေသးစတေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမႈမား၊ ျဖစရပေလ႔လာမႈမား၊ ကယတင ပါ၀ငသငယ သးသပမႈျပျခငး၊ အလပျဖင႔ ပေပါငးပါ၀ငသေတသနျပျခငး စသညျဖင႔ ပါ၀ငႏငသည။ သတငးအခကအလကမား စေဆာငးရရသည႔အခါ စစစေလ႔လာမႈျပႏငေသာ ေတြ႕ရခကမားအျဖစ ထတလပႏငရန သေတသအေနျဖင႔ ေဒတာမားက ကငတြယသးသပသည။

အေရအတြကစထားသေတသနတြင ကနးဂဏနးမားအျဖစ ေဖာျပႏငေသာ အေျဖမားအား အေရအတြကစထား ေဒတာမားမ ထတႏႈတယရသည။ အရညအေသြး စထားသေတသနတြငမ အရညအေသြးစထား ေဒတာမားသည သတငးေပးသမားမ ေဖာျပေသာ အျမငမားႏင႔ ခစားမႈမားမ ပါ၀ငေသာအဓပၸါယမားႏင႔ ပ၍သကဆငသည။

အရညအေသြးစထား ေဒတာစစစမႈသည သေတသမားမ အဆပါ အျမငမားႏင႔ ခစားမႈမား၏ အဓပၸါယက အနက ဖြင႔ဆျခငးျဖစသည။ ေဒတာစစစေလ႔လာမႈတြင သတငးေပးသမား၏ အျမငမားႏင႔ ခစားခကမားက ေလ႔လာမႈ ျပမည႔ကစၥရပ၏ ကယျပန႔ေသာ အေျခအေနအေနအထားသ႕ထည႔သြငးေလ႔လာမႈ ျပျခငးျဖစသည။

စစစလ႔လာမႈသည မားေသာအားျဖင႔ ဖြ႕ျဖးမႈ အေနအထား၊ ပဋပကၡအေနအထား၊ (သ႔) အျပအမပငး ဆငရာ ျဖစေပၚမႈ စသညျဖင႔ ကစၥရပတစခ၊ အေျခအေနတစရပ၊ အေနအထားတစခအား ဖြင႔ဆရငးျပႏငရန ရာေဖြေဖာထတရျခငး ျဖစသည။ အရညအေသြးစထား သေတသနအားျဖင႔ရရလာေသာ ေဒတာမားသည မတကြျပားေသာ ရငးျမစအမးမးမ ရရႏငသည။

ေလ႔လာမႈမား၊ မတစမား၊ အငတာဗး တတေခြႏင႔ မတတမးမား၊ သတငးစာမား၊ စစတမးေကာကယမႈမားႏင႔ ေမးခြနး လႊာမား စသညတ႔ ျဖစသည။ ၄ငးအေထာကအထားမားက “အခကအလကအၾကမးမား”ဟ ေခၚသည။ ထ “အခက အလကအၾကမး” မားတြင သေတသမ ရာေဖြလကရေသာ သတငးအခကတ႔ ပါ၀ငသည။ ထ “အခကအလက အၾကမး” မား အေနျဖင႔ သေတသနျပလပရာေဖြလကရေသာ အဆၾကမးႏင႔ ေမးခြနးမားအတြက အေျဖမား တစစတတစပငး သ႕မဟတ အျပည႔အစ ပါ၀ငႏငသည။ သ႔ေသာ ဤ “အခကအလကအၾကမးမားက”သည အတငးအသးျပ၍ မရေခ။ ထ႔ေၾကာင အရညအေသြးဆငရာ ေဒတာ စစစေလ႔လာမႈတြင သေတသန ေမးခြနးမားႏင႔ အဆၾကမးတ႕အတြက အေထာကအကျပ အသးျပႏင ေသာ ေဒတာမားက စစစေလ႔လာသည႔နညးလမးမား အသးျပရျခငးတ႔ပါ၀ငသည။ အရညအေသြးဆငရာ ေဒတာမားက စစစေလ႔လာမႈျပရန အဓကအဆင႔မားမာ -

ေဒတာမားအားစစညးျခငး ေဒတာမားအား အပစဖြ႕ျခငးႏင႔ အမတအသားျပျခငး ေဒတာမား အေထာကအထားခငလမႈႏင႔ ကးေၾကာငးဆေလာမႈတ႕အား ေသခာေစျခငး ေဒတာမားအား အနကဖြင႔ဆျခငး

တ႕ျဖစသည။

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ORGANIZING DATA

1. Getting familiar with the data

Before starting to organize the data obtained from interviews and other sources, it is

necessary to get familiar with these data. In other words, the first work the researcher

should perform is to re-read/re-listen the data.

If tape-recorded interviews have not yet been transcribed on paper this must be done

first before analysis. It is important to remember here that tape-recorded interviews

should nevertheless been transcribed as soon as possible after the interview itself. This

is for back-up purpose (i.e. in case the tape gets lost). It is also for research purpose: the

researcher will have better knowledge of what the interview missed in terms of data

and can therefore look for these missing data when conducting additional interviews.

The researcher has to read the content of interviews and other data collected. By going

through the content of all the data collected, the researcher will have an early idea of

the kind of information it contains.

2. Organizing the data

After collecting data, the best way to organize it is to consider again the key questions

that the research project seeks to answer and to determine how well the data could

provide some clues about these key questions. This means assessing whether the data

is: (1) extremely relevant to the research question; (2) very relevant; (3) relevant; or (4)

partly relevant.

Research example:

Research subject: The socio-economic impact of out-migration from Eastern Myanmar.

Key questions:

- How remittances are used in the households

- How out-migration changed livelihood patterns of villagers

- Social benefits and costs of migration

Main research topics:

- Livelihoods:

o Remittances

o Land ownership/Land use

- Social issues:

o Social cohesiveness

o Child care

o Protection issues (drug use)

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ေဒတာမားအားစစညးျခငး

၁။ ေဒတာမားႏင႔ ရငးႏးကြမး၀ငေအာငျပျခငး တြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမႈႏင႔ အျခားေသာ ရငးျမစမားမ ရရလာေသာ ေေဒတာမားက စစညးျခငး မျပမ အဆပါ ေဒတာမားႏင႔ ရငးႏးကြမး၀ငေအာင လပရနလအပပါသည။ ဆလသညမာ သေတသအေနျဖင႔ ပထမဆးျပလပရမည႔အလပမာ ေဒတာမားက ျပနလညဖတရႈျခငး၊ ျပနလညနားဆငျခငး ျပလပရနျဖစသည။

အကယ၍တတျဖင႔ အသသြငးဖမးယထားေသာ အငတာဗးအားစာရြကေပၚသ႔ခ၍ မတတမးသြငးျခငး မျပရေသးပါက ပါ၀ငသည႔ အေၾကာငးအရာမားက စစစေလ႔လာမႈ မျပမ ေနာကထပတစၾကမ ျပနလညနားဆငရန လအပပါသည။ ဤေနရာတြင မတသားရန အေရးၾကးေသာ အခကမာ တတျဖင႔ အသသြငးထားေသာ အငတာဗးမားအား အငတာဗးျပး လငျပးခငး ေစာႏငသမေစာလငစြာ မတတမးသြငးရနျဖစပါသည။ ဤသ႕ျပလပရျခငးမာ အကယ၍မား တတေခြ ပကစးဆးရႈးသြားပါက အရနထားရရနရညရြယခကျဖစပါသည။ ၄ငးသညသေတသန ရညရြယခကအတြကလညး အသး၀ငပါသည။ သေတသအေနျဖင႔ ျပလပခ႔သည႔အငတာဗးမားတြင မညသည႔ေဒတာမား လအပေနေသးေၾကာငး သရႏငျပး ထလအပေသာ ေဒတာမားက ေနာကထပအငတာဗးမား ထပလပသည႔အခါ ရာေဖြႏငသည။

သေတသအေနျဖင႔ အငတာဗးတြင ပါ၀ငသည႔ အေၾကာငးအရာမားႏင႔ အျခားစေဆာငးရရေသာ ေဒတာမားက ဖတထားသင႔သည။ စေဆာငးရရေသာ ေဒတာအာလးတြင ပါ၀ငသည႔အရာမားက ဖတရႈစစေဆးျပးျပဆပါက သေတသ အေနျဖင႔ မညသည႔သတငးအခကအလကအမးအစားမား ပါ၀ငသညက ပထမဆးအေနျဖင႔ သရႏငသည။

၂။ေဒတာမားအားစစညးျခငး ေဒတာမား ေကာကယျပးေသာအခါ စစညးရန အေကာငးဆးနညးလမးမာ သေတသနစမကနးမ ေျဖဆရနၾကးစားသည႔ အဓက ေမးခြနးၾကးမားက ထည႔သြငးစဥးစားရနျဖစသည။ ေဒတာမားအေနျဖင႔ ဤေမးခြနးၾကးမားအား မညသည႔သလြန စမး ေပးႏငသညက တကဆငစစေဆးၾကည႔ရန ျဖစသည။ ဆလသညမာ ေဒတာမားအေနျဖင႔ (၁) သေတသန ေမးခြနးႏင႔ အလြနအမငး ဆေလာတကဆငသည (၂) အေတာပင ဆေလာတကဆငသည (၃) ဆေလာတကဆငသည။ (၄) တစစတတစပငး ဆေလာတကဆငသည။ - ဆသညက သးသပစစေဆးရန ျဖစသည။ သေတသနဥပမာ သေတသနအေၾကာငးအရာ။ ။ျမနမာျပညအေရ႕ဖားမ ျပညပသ႕ ထြကခြာအေျခခေနထငမႈ၏ လမႈ-စးပြားအေပၚ

အကးသကေရာကမႈ အဓကေမးခြနးမား - -ေငြလႊေပးပ႕သည႔ ေငြကအမေထာငစမားတြင အသးျပပ -ျပညပသ႕ထြကခြာေျပာငးေရႊ႔မႈသည ေကးရြာသားမား၏ အသကေမြး၀မးေၾကာငးမႈပသ႑နကေျပာငးလေစပ -ေရႊ႕ေျပာငးအေျခခမႈ လမႈေရးဆငရာ အကးေကးဇးမားႏင႔စရတစကမား

အဓကသေတန ေခါငးစဥမား -အသကေမြး၀မးေၾကာငးမႈမား • ေငြလႊေပးပ႕မႈ • ေျမယာပငဆငမႈ / ေျမယာအသးျပမႈ

-လမႈေရးကစၥရပမား • ရပရြာစညးလးညညြတမႈ • ကေလးသငယျပစေစာင႔ေရာကမႈ • ကာကြယေစာင႔ေရာကေရးကစၥရပမား ( မးယစေဆး၀ါသးစြမႈ )

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Data should be organized according to these topics in a way that is easy to look at. One

easy way to do so is to make annotations next to the text in a column (as shown below).

It is usually helpful to write these annotations in a different color.

Example of annotating interviews and notes:

Remittances

Livelihoods

Land Use

Social impact

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Once annotated, data can be organized in a chart according to the different research

questions and topics.

Topics Interviews Notes

Livelihood Interview 1 Interview 2

Remittances

Land

ownership /

Land use

My son who is working in Bangkok

sends us around 100,000 kyats per

month.

Thanks to this money we bought a 2-

acre plot of land where we grow

rubber trees.

Make a list

of recurring

words,

ideas,

concepts,

themes

Social issues

Social

cohesiveness

Child care

Protection

issues

Some young people threaten their

parents to go to Thailand.

(…)

The problem is that grandparents don’t

have the same authority over their

grandchildren as their own parents do.

Some young people do what they want

to do. They value center on getting

money more than learning their own

language and traditions

Many infants and young people here

are left without parents. Their parents

migrate to Thailand for work. Some

young people feel left aside and

consume drugs.

Make a list

of recurring

words,

ideas,

concepts,

themes

This method of organizing and displaying data allows the researcher to look at answers

and views given by respondents about each topic. In the right column, the researcher

notes recurring ideas and themes that are organized into different categories. For

example: amounts of remittances, different types of use of remittances, positive and

negative impacts of out-migration, etc.

Tip: It is useful to identify and differentiate between (1) the questions and topics

that are central to the research; and (2) those that are simply included in the

interview guide as important, but not essential. Once the key questions are

answered, other questions may be considered to further enhance the findings or

to identify additional research questions.

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ေဒတာမားက အဓပၸါယဖြင႔မတစမား ခေရးျပးပါက ၄ငးတ႕က သေတသနေမးခြနးမားႏင႔ ေခါငးစဥမားအတငး ဇယားခပတြင စစညးေဖာျပႏငပါသည။ ေခါငးစဥမား အငတာဗးမား မတစမား အသကေမြး၀မးေၾကာငးမႈ အငတာဗး ( ၁ ) အငတာဗး၂ ေငြလႊေပးပ႔မႈ ေျမယာပငဆငမႈ / ေျမယာအသးခမႈ

ဗနေကာကမာအလပလပေနတ႔ကြနမတ႕ရ႕သားက လစဥတစလတစသနးကပေလာက ကြနမတ႕ဆ ျပနပ႔ေပးပါတယ။ ဒလပ႔ေပးတ႔ ေငြေၾကးေၾကာင႔ ကြနမတ႕ေျမႏစဧက ေလာက၀ယျပး ရာဘာစကပးပါတယ။

ထပတလလပါရသည႔ စကားလးမား၊ အငဒယာမား၊ အေတြးအျမငမား၊ အေၾကာငးအရာမားက စာရငးတစရပျပစပါ

လမႈေရးကစၥမား လမႈေရးစညးလးည ညြတမႈ ကေလးသငယ ျပစေစာင႔ေရာကမႈ ကာကြယေစာင႔ေရာက ေရးကစၥမား

အခ႕ေသာ လငယမားသည ထငးႏငငသ႕သြားမညဟ ၄ငးတ႕၏မဘမားအား ျခမးေျခာကၾကသည။ (------) ျပနာရပမာ ဘးဘြားမားအေနျဖင ၄ငးတ႕၏ ေျမးျမစမားအေပၚ သတ႕၏မဘမားေလာက ၾသဇာ မေညာငးေခ။ အခ႕ေသာလငယမားသည သတ႕ လပခငသညကလပၾကသည။ ပကဆပရေရးကသာ တနဘးထား ျပး ၄ငးတ႔၏ ကယပငဘာသာစကားႏင႔ အစဥအလာမားသငယေစာင႔ထနးရန အေလးမထားၾက ေခ။ ေမြးကငးစကေလးမားစြာႏင႔ လငယကေလးမားမာ မဘမားမရဘစြန႕ခြာထားခရသည။ ၄ငးတ႕၏ မဘမားသည အလပလပရန ထငးႏငငသ႕ ေျပာငးေရႊ႕ အေျခခေနထငၾကသည။ အခ႕ေသာ လငယေလးမားသည စြန႕ပစမႈဒဏခစားရျပး မးယစေဆး၀ါး သးစြၾကသည။

ထပတလလပါရသည႔စကား လးမား၊ အငဒယာမား၊ အေတြးအျမငမား၊ အေၾကာငးအရာမားက စာရငးတစရပျပစပါ

ဤက႔သ႕ေဒတာမားက စစညးေဖာျပသည႔ နညးလမးသည သေတသအား ေျဖဆသမားမ သကဆငရာ ေခါငးစဥမား အေၾကာငး ေဖာျပသည႔ အေျဖမားႏင႔ အျမငမားက ၾကည႔ရႈခြင႔ ျပေပးသည။ လကယာဘကေကာလတြင သေတသအေနျဖင႔ ထပတလလပါရသည အငဒယာမားႏင႔ အေၾကာငးအရာမားက မတခကခ မတစ ေရးသားႏငျပး မတကြျပားသည႔ အပစ အသးသးသ႕ စစညးေဖာျပႏငသည။ ဥပမာအားျဖင႔ ေငြလႊသည႔ပမာဏမား၊ ေငြလႊသည႔ပစအမးအစားမား၊ ျပညပသ႕ ထြကခြာအေျခခမႈ ေကာငးကးႏင႔ ဆးကးမား စသညျဖင႔

စကားျမြက။ ။ ေအာကေဖာျပပါ အေၾကာငးအရာ ႏစခအၾကား ခြျခာ၍ ေဖာထတသတမတရန အေရးၾကး ပါသည။ (၁) သေတသနအတြက အဓကကေသာ ေခါငးစဥမားႏင႔ ေမးခြနးမား (၂) အငတာဗးလမးညႊနတြင ပါ၀ငရမသာ အေရးၾကးျပး အဓက မရမျဖစမဟတေသာ အေၾကာငးအရာမားတ႕ ျဖစသည။ အဓက ကေသာ ေမးခြနးမားက ေျဖဆ ျပးေသာအခါ အျခား ေမးခြနးမားအေနျဖင႔ ေတြ႕ရခကမားက ပ၍ အေထာကအက ျပ ေစရန သ႕မဟတ ေနာကထပသေတသန ေမးခြနးမား ေဖာထတရနအတြကသာ ျဖစသည။

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CODING AND CATEGORIZING THE DATA

Once frequently expressed words or views have been identified and received

annotations, it is then useful to organize them into codes and categories. This is called

coding and categorizing the data.

Topic: Migration and drug use

Questions Answers Categories

Who organize drug

production and

organization?

Who are the drug

users?

What is the impact

of drugs on the

village?

Drugs are made and produced in some rubber

plantations in the area. There is one man who

distributes drugs in the village. In the past, he was

very poor and recently he built a wonderful house

after selling drugs. Small sellers take the drugs

from him and sell to the village users. They are not

only selling but also use the drug.

Young people use drugs on some occasions, when

they meet with their friends or at pagoda festivals

or seasonal festivals in the village. Among the

addicted persons, most have worked before in

Thailand. When they are back to the village, they

still continue to use the drugs. And these persons

can afford the price of the drugs if they managed to

save money.

In another village of the township, five people

were arrested during the last three months for

selling drugs. But there are still many sellers in the

village. Drug use has been increasing for some

years. Many people from this township have been

sent to the Drug Hospital because of overdoses.

Although village elders and headman know who

the drug sellers are, they can’t take any action

against those persons.

Link between drugs and

livelihood

Social cohesiveness

Link between migration

and drug use

Link between drugs and

livelihood

Link between migration

and drug use

Health impact

Social cohesiveness

Each of the categories (on the right) has one or more associated themes that give a

deeper and comprehensive meaning to the data. Different categories can be gathered

under one main over-arching theme.

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ေဒတာမားအားအပစခြျခငးႏင႔ အမတအသား ျပျခငး ေျဖဆသမားမ မၾကာခဏ ေဖာျပသည႔ စကားလးမားႏင႔ အျမငမားက ေဖာထတသတမတ၍ အဓပၸါယဖြင႔မတစထတျပး ေသာအခါ ၄ငးတ႕က အပစခြမားႏင႔ အမတအသားမားအျဖစသ႔ စစညးေဖာျပသင႔သည။ ဤသညက ေဒတာမား အပစ ခြျခငးႏင႔ အမတအသားျပျခငးဟ ေခၚသည။

ေခါငးစဥ။။ေရႊ႕ေျပာငးေနထငမႈႏင႔မးယစေဆးသးစြမႈ

ေမးခြနးမား အေျဖမား အပစခြမား

မးယစေဆး၀ါးထတလပျခငးႏင႔ ျဖန႕ျဖးေရာငးချခငးကမညသဥးစး လပေဆာငသနညး။

မးယစေဆးသးစြသ မားမာ အဘယသမားနညး။

ရပ႐ြာအတြငး မးယစေဆးေၾကာင မညသည အကးဆကမား ျဖစပြားရသနညး။

မးယစေဆး၀ါးထတလပျခငးက ေဒသတြငးရအခ႕ေသာ ရာဘာစကခငး မား၌ ျပလပၾကသည။ ရြာထတြငမးယစ ေဆး၀ါးျဖန႔ခသ တစဥး ရသည။ ယခငဆလင ၄ငးသည အလြနဆငးရခေသာလညး မၾကာေသးမကပင မးယစေဆးမားေရာငးချပး အမၾကးအမေကာငးတစလးက ေဆာကလပ ႏငခ႔သည။ လကခြအေရာငးသမားမားအေနျဖင႔ ထသထမ မးယစေဆး၀ါး မား ယကာရြာထရသးစြသမားထ ေရာငးခၾကသည။ ထသတ႕သညလညး ေရာငးခရမမဟတဘ လကယတငလညးသးစြၾကသည။

လငယမားအေနျဖင႔ ၄ငးတ႕အေပါငးအေဖာအခငးအခငး ဆမၾကသည႔ အခါလညးေကာငး ရြာတြငဘရားပြ သ႕မဟတ အျခားရာသအလက ပြေတာမားရသည႔ အခါတြငလညးေကာငး ထအခနအခါမားတြင မးယစေဆး သးစြေလ႔ရသည။ ေဆးစြသမားအၾကား၌ အမားစမာ ယခငက ထငးႏငငတြင အလပလပဖးၾကသမား ျဖစၾကသည။ ၄ငးတ႕ရြာသ႕ ျပနလာၾကေသာအခါ၌လညး မးယစေဆးက ဆကလကသးစြၾကသည။ ၄ငးအျပင ဤသမားအေနျဖင႔ ပကဆစေဆာငးမလင မးယစေဆးဖး တတႏငၾကသည။ ျမ႕နယအတြငးရ အျခားေသာ ေကးရြာတစရြာ၌ မးယစေဆး ေရာငးခမႈျဖင႔

လြနခ႔သည႔ သးလအတြငး၌ လငါးဥး အဖမးခခ႔ရသည။ သ႕ေသာ ေကးရြာ

တြငး၌ အျခားေသာ ေရာငးခသအမားအျပား ရေသးသည။ လြနခ႔

ေသာႏစမားအတြငး မးယစေဆးသးစြမႈမာ တးတကမား ျပားလာသည။

ဤျမ႕နယအတြငးရ လအမားအျပားသည မးယစေဆးအလြနအကြ

သးစြမႈေၾကာင႔ မးယစေဆးျဖတေဆးရသ႕ ပ႔ေဆာငခ႔ရသည။

ေကးရြာေခါငးေဆာငမားႏင႔ ေကးရြာလၾကးမားအေနျဖင႔ မးယစေဆး

ေရာငးခသမား မညသတ႕ျဖစေၾကာငး သေသာလညး ၄ငးတ႕ႏင႔

ပတသတ၍ တစစတစရာ အေရးယေဆာငရြကႏငျခငး မရေခ။

မးယစေဆးႏင႔ အသကေမြး၀မးေၾကာငးမႈ အခတအဆက

လမႈေရးစညးလးညညႊတမႈ ေရႊ႕ေျပာငးအေျခခေနထငမႈႏင႔ မးယစေဆး သးစြမႈအၾကား အခတအဆက မးယစေဆးႏင႔ အသကေမြး၀မးေၾကာငးမႈ အခတအဆက ေရႊ႕ေျပာငးေနထငမႈႏင႔မးယစေဆးသးစြမႈအၾကားအခတ ကနးမာေရးအကးသကေရာကမႈ လမႈေရးအရာစညးလးညညြတမႈ

(လကယာဘကတြငေဖာျပထားေသာ ) အပစခြအသးသးအေနျဖင႔ ေဒတာမား၏ အဓပၸါယက ပ၍နကနကရႈငးရႈငးႏင႔ ကယကယျပန႔ျပန႔ နားလညေစရနအတြက တစခ သ႕မဟတ တစခထကပ၍ ဆကစပလကရေသာ အေၾကာငးအရာ မား ရသည။ မတညေသာ အပစခြအသးသးက ျခငမေသာ ပငမအၾကာငးအရာၾကး တစရပ၏ ေအာကတြင ထည႔သြငး ထားႏငသည။

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Example:

One of the themes that emerge from the previous interview on drug use is the link

between migration and socio-economic opportunities:

Drugs is a means to improve livelihood: “In the past, he was very poor and

recently he built a wonderful house after selling drugs”; “Drug dealers take the

drug from him and sell to the village users”.

Drug use also refers to social status and activities: “Among the addicted

persons, most have worked before in Thailand”; “Young people use drugs […]

at pagoda festivals or seasonal festivals in the village”.

The same theme, i.e. ‘link between migration and socio-economic opportunities’, may

be found in other issues, such as the link between remittances and how people use these

remittances when, for example, they build larger houses and buy expensive items and

therefore display their wealth.

FOSTERING RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF DATA

Reliability is concerned with the consistency of findings. Reliability requires

researchers to be consistent in the way in which research is conducted and data

analyzed. Consistency throughout the research consists in implementing research

methodology and conducting interviews with informants (FGDs, interviews, etc.) in the

same manner throughout time. Consistency in data analysis requires the researcher(s)

to systematically use the same method throughout data analysis.

Validity concerns the adequacy between what is being investigated or measured and

the methodology used to investigate or measure the issue. As underscored in other

chapters, each research method is designed to investigate specific situations. The use of

an inappropriate method to investigate a situation may lead to invalid findings.

If the project involves only one lead researcher, it is important that he/she develops a

systematic and consistent way of carrying out the research and analyzing its findings.

If the project involves an entire team, developing a systematic approach and

maintaining consistency throughout the process is critical to produce “good data.”

Hereafter are different steps to test the validity and reliability of data:

a. Testing findings and hypotheses: as general themes and patterns emerge from

the data, it is important to go through the data, carefully searching for instances

that may go against these general patterns. Instances that may go against the

general patterns are too often discarded since they don’t fit into the patterns and

themes of the data. However it is just as important that these are carefully

examined and reported. Possible explanations should be thought out as well.

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ဥပမာ - မးယစေဆး၀ါးသးစြမႈႏင႔ ပတသက၍ ျပးခ႔ေသာ အငတာဗးမ ေပၚထြကလာေသာ အေၾကာငးအရာ တစရပမာ - ေရႊ႕ေျပာငးအေျခခ ေနထငမႈႏင႔လမႈ - စးပြားအခြင႔အလမးမားအၾကား ခတဆက ျဖစသည။

မးယစေဆးသည အတကေမြး၀မးေၾကာငးဘ၀ တးတကေရး လမးေၾကာငးတစရပျဖစသည။ “အရငတနးကဆရင သကအလြနဆငးရေပမယ မးယစေဆးမား ေရာငးချပးေနာက မၾကာေသးမကပင အမၾကးအမေကာငးတစလး ေဆာကႏငခ႔ပါတယ” . “မးယစေဆးေရာငးခတ႔သေတြက သ႔ဆက ေဆးေတြယျပး အသးျပတ႔ ရြာသားေတြဆ ေရာငးခပါတယ”

မးယစေဆးအသးျပမႈသည လမႈေရးအဆင႔အတနးႏင႔ လပရပမားကလညး ညႊနးဆပါသည။ ။ေဆးသးစြ သေတြၾကားမာ အမားစဟာ ထငးႏငငမာ အရငက အလပလပခ႔ၾကသေတြ ျဖစပါတယ “လငယမားအေနန႔ [-----] ရြာဘရားပြေတာေတြန႔ အျခားရာသအလက ပြေတာေတြမာ မးယစေဆး၀ါး အသးျပၾကပါတယ။ ”

တညေသာအေၾကာငးအရာျဖစေသာ (ဆလသညမာ - ေရႊ႕ေျပာငးအေျခခ ေနထငမႈႏင႔ လမႈ - စးပြား အခြင႔အလမးမား အၾကား အခတအဆက) က အျခားေသာ ကစၥရပမားတြငလညး ေတြ႔ႏငပါသည။ ဥပမာအားျဖင႔ ေငြလႊေပးပ႔မႈႏင႔ အဆပါ ေငြလႊမႈမားအား လအမားအသးျပပ အခတအဆက ဥပမာအားျဖင႔ ၄ငးတ႕အေနျဖင႔ အမၾကးၾကးမား ေဆာကလပျခငးႏင႔ ေစးၾကးေသာ အရာမား၀ယယသးစြျခငးအားျဖင႔ ၄ငးတ႕၏ ၾကြယ၀မႈက ေဖာျပသည႔အခါမား။ ေဒတာမား အေထာကအထားခငလမႈႏင႔ ကးေၾကာငးဆေလာမႈတ႔က အားေကာငးေစျခငး အေထာကအထားခငလမႈ Reliability သည ေတြ႕ရခကမား၏ ေရ႕ေနာကညညြတမႈႏင႔ သကဆငသည။ အေထာက အထားခငလမႈရရန သေတသမား အေနျဖင႔ သေတသန လပေဆာငသည႔အခါတြငလညးေကာငး ေဒတာမားအား စစစသးသပရာတြင လညးေကာငး ေရ႕ေနာကညညြတမႈ ရရေစရန လအပသည။ သေတသန တစရပလးေရ႕ေနာက ညညြတမႈရေစရနမာ အခနတငးတြင သေသတန နညးလမးမားအား တညေသာ ပစျဖင႔အေကာငအထညေဖာ၍ တညေသာပစျဖင႔ ေျဖဆသမားႏင႔ အငတာဗးမား ( ဥးတညအပစ ေဆြးေႏြးျခငး၊ ေတြ႔ဆ ေမးျမနး ျခငးစသည႔ ) တ႕ ျပလပရန လအပသည။ ေဒတာစစစ ေလ႔လာမႈ၌ ေရ႕ေနာကညညြတမႈ ဆသညမာ သေတသ ( မား ) အေနျဖင႔ ေဒတာစစစမႈ ကာလတစေလာကလး တညေသာ နညးလမးျဖင႔ စနစတက ျပလပျခငးက ဆလသည။

ကးေၾကာငးဆေလာမႈ Validity ဆသညမာ စးစမးေလ႔လာတငးတာသည႔ အေၾကာငးအရာႏင႔ ကစၥရပအား စးစမး ေလ႔လာတငးတာရာတြင အသးျပသည႔ နညးလမးတ႕ ကကညမႈက ဆလသည။ အျခား ေသာအခနးမားတြင ေဖာျပခ႔ သလပင သေတသနနညးလမးတစခစသည သကဆငရာအေျခအေနတစရပရပအား စးစမးေလ႔လာမႈ ျပႏငရန ဒဇငး ျပလပထားျခငး ျဖစသည။ အေျခအေနတစရပအား စးစမးေလ႔လာမႈ ျပရန မသကဆငေသာ နညးလမးျဖင႔ အသးျပ ေလ႔လာမပါက ဆေလာမႈ မရေသာ ေလ႔လာ ေတြ႕ရခကမားသာ ေပၚထြကလာမည ျဖစသည။

စမကနးတစရပအေနျဖင႔ ဥးေဆာငသ သေတသတစဥးသာ ပါ၀ငပါက ထသအေနျဖင႔ စနစက၍ ေရ႔ေနာကညညြတမႈ ရေသာ နညးလမးတစရပအား သေတသနလပျခငးႏင႔ ေတြ႕ရခကမားအား စစစသးသပျခားတြင အသးျပရန အေကာင အထည ေဖာရန အေရးၾကးပါသည။ စမကနးအေနျဖင႔ အစအဖြ႕အလက ျဖစပါက စနစတကခဥးကပပနညးလမးႏင႔ လပငနးစဥ တစေလာက ေရ႕ေနာကညညြတမႈ ရေစရန ထနးညေဆာငရြကထားျခငးျဖင႔ “ေကာငးမြနေသာ ေဒတာ အၾကမးမား” ရရေစရာတြင အေရးၾကးပါသည။

ဤေနရာတြင ေဒတာမား၏ အေထာကအထားခငလမႈႏင႔ ကးေၾကာငးဆေလာမႈအား စစေဆးရန အဆင႔အသးသးမာ - ( က ) ေတြ႔ရခကမားႏင႔ အဆၾကမးမားအား စစေဆးျခငး။ ။ ေဒတာမားမေန၍ အေထြေထြအေၾကာငးအရာမား ႏင႔

ပစရပမား ေပၚထြကလာရာ ထအေထြေထြပစရပႏင႔ ဆန႔ကငဘကျဖစေသာ အေၾကာငးအရာေလးမားက ေဒတာမား အၾကား ဂရတစကႏ႕ႏ႕စပစပရာေဖြဖ႕ရန လအပသည။ ထအေထြေထြပစရပႏင႔ မတကဆငေသာ အေၾကာငးအရာ ေလးမားသည ေဒတာမား၏ ပစရပႏင႔ မတကဆငေသာ အေၾကာငးအရာေလးမားသည ေဒတာမား၏ ပစရပႏင႔ အေၾကာငးအရာမားတြင အ၀ငခြငက မျဖစမႈေၾကာင႔ မၾကာခဏဆသလ ဖယရားပစေလ႔ရသည။ သ႕ေသာ၄ငးတ႕က ဂရတစကစမးသပစစေဆးျပး အစရငခတငျပကာ ျဖစႏငေခရေသာ ရငးလငး ဖြင႔ဆ ခကမားအား ထည႔စဥးစားျပး ျဖစေၾကာငး ျဖစရနလညအေရးၾကးပါသည။

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b. Assessing the researcher’s effect: the interaction between the interviewer and

the interviewee may be influenced by the characteristics and features of both

parties. Differences in age, gender, education, background, and language all

have an impact on the outcome of the interview. In some cases, this impact may

be only small; in others, it may be significant. Acknowledging this impact in

the research methodology may reduce the risk of potential bias generated by the

interaction between the interviewer and interviewee.

c. Validating and confirming findings: “triangulation” is probably the best

method to ensure the validity of qualitative findings. Triangulation is about

testing the findings by using different research sources, different methods or

different researchers. Triangulating sources means interviewing different

members of the community and different stakeholders and assessing whether

what they say about one topic lead to similar findings. Triangulating research

methods means addressing the same research question through different

methods. Finally, triangulating researchers means comparing the findings

produced by different researchers using the same research method.

d. Obtaining feedback from informants: a good way to validate findings and,

most of all, validate the researcher’s interpretation of these findings is to seek

the advice and points of view of informants formerly involved in the research.

Organizing a focus group discussion with these informants and presenting them

the research findings and the interpretation of these findings helps test the

researcher’s findings.

e. Comparing codes and categories: it is useful to compare the different ways

data is organized into themes and categories. This comparison is an occasion

for colleagues to discuss how these themes and categories are defined.

f. Acknowledging the influence of external factors: besides the researcher’s

own character and its possible impact on the research, there may be many other

factors to consider. Among them is the time (during the day, month, and year)

at which interviews were conducted. It is also important to remember if persons

other than the interviewees were present during the interview. These persons

may have influenced the interviewee and his/her answers to the questions.

Other factors that may influence the research include: power relationships,

inter-cultural relationships, etc.

EXPLAINING, LINKING, AND INTERPRETING DATA

An efficient way to explain, link, and interpret data is to organize them into a problem

tree. As recommended in Chapter on “Defining a Research Problem”, it is strongly

recommended to draw a problem tree at the first stage of the research project. This

problem tree reflects the researcher(s) understanding of the issue under study. It

presents various issues and their possible links that are related to the overall problem

under study. The researcher’s understanding of the overall problem is usually not

comprehensive; it may also be biased.

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( ခ ) သေတသ၏သကေရာကမႈအားသးသပျခငး။ ။ေတြ႕ဆးေမးျမနးသႏင႔ ေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးျခငး ခရသၾကား ဆကဆေရး ဆကႏြယမႈသည ႏစဘကစလး သြငျပငလကၡဏာမားႏင႔ ၀ေသသလကၡဏာမား၏ လႊမးမးမႈကခရပါသည။ အသကအရြယ၊ ကားမ၊ ပညာေရး၊ အျခားေနာကခ အေၾကာငးတရားမား၊ အသးျပသည ဘာသာစကား စသညတ႕ အားလးသည အငတာဗးရလဒေပၚ သကေရာကမႈရပါသည။ ေပၚသကေရာကမႈရပါသည။ တခ႕ကစၥမားတြင ဤ သကေရာကမႈ အတငးအတာသည ေသးငယျပး အခ႕ကစၥမားတြငမ သသာပါသည။ သေတသနနညးလမးရ ဤ သကေရာကမႈအား ထည႔သြငးစဥးစားျခငးျဖင႔ ေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးသႏင႔ ေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနးျခငးခရသအၾကား ဆကႏြယမႈ ေပၚထြကလာသည႔ ျဖစႏငေခရေသာ ဘကလကမႈ အႏရယက ေလာ႔ခႏငပါသည။

( ဂ ) ေတြ႕ရခကမားအားခငလ ေစျခငးႏင႔ကး ေၾကာငးဆေလာမႈရေစျခငး။ ။“သးေထာင႔စစစေဆးနညး”သည အရညအေသြးစထား ေတြ႔ရခကမား၏ကးေၾကာငးဆေလာမႈအား ေသခာမႈရေစရနအေကာငးဆးေသာ နညးလမး တစခ ျဖစ ေကာငး ျဖစႏငသည။သးေထာင႔စစစေဆးနညးသညမတညေသာသေတသနရင ျမစမား၊ မတညေသာ သေတသနနညးလမးမားႏင႔မတညေသာသေတသမားအားအသးျပ၍ ေတြ႕ရခကမားက စမးသပစစေဆးျခငး ျဖစသည။သးေထာင႔စရငးျဖစမားအသးျပျခငးဆသညမာရပရြာလထ အတြငးရမတည ေသာသမားႏင႔ မတညေသာ ပတသကဆကႏြယသမားအား ေတြ႔ဆေမးျမနး ျခငး ျပ၍၄ငးတ႕ ေျပာၾကား ေသာတစခတညး ေသာ ေခါငးစဥႏင႔ပတသက၍ ဆငတေသာအေျဖမား ေတြ႕ရခကမား ေပၚထြကလာမႈ ရမရကသးသပစစေဆးျခငးျဖစသည။သးေထာင႔စ သေတသန နညးလမးအသးျပျခငးဆသညမာတညေသာသေတသန ေမးခြနးတစခအားမတညေသာသေတသန နညးလမးမား အသးျပ၍အေျဖရာျခငးက ေခၚသည။ ေနာကဆးအေျဖင႔သးေထာင႔စသေတသမားအသးျပျခငးဆသညမာတညေသာ သေတသနနညးလမးကအသ ျပ၍မတညေသာသေတသအသးသးမသေတသနလပ ေဆာင၍ထြကေပၚလာေသာ ရလဒမားကႏႈငးယဥ စစေဆးျခငးက ေခၚပါသည။တ႕ ျပလပရနလအပသည။ ေဒတာစစစေလ႔လာမႈ၌ ေရ႕ေနာကညညြတမႈ ဆသညမာသေတသ (မား) အေနျဖင႔ ေဒတာစစစမႈကာလာတစေလာကလးတည ေသာနညးလမး ျဖင႔စနစတက ျပလပ ျခငးကဆလသည။

(ဃ) သတငးေပးသမားထမတ႔ျပနမကရယျခငး။ ။သေတသန ေတြ႔ရခကမား၏ ကးေၾကာငးဆေလာမနင အထးသျဖင အဆပါေတြ႔ရခကမားအား သေတသ၏ အနကဖြငဆခကမား၏ ကးေၾကာငးဆေလာမတ႔အား စစေဆးရန နညးလမး ေကာငးတစရပမာ သေတသနတြင ပါဝငခသည သတငးေပးသမား၏ အၾကဥာဏနင ရေထာငအျမငမား သးသပရယျခငး ျဖစသည။ အဆပါသတငးေပးသမားနင ဥးတညအပစေဆြးေႏြးပြတစရပျပလပကာ သေတသန ေတြ႔ရခကမားအား ၎တ႔ထတငျပကာ ထေတြ႔ရခကမား၏ အနကဖြငေစျခငးျဖင သေတသ၏ ေတြ႔ရခကမားအား စမးသပစစေဆးနငသည။

(င) အပစခြမားနငအမတအသား 'ကဒ' မားအားနငးယဥျခငး။ ။ ေဒတာမားအား အပစခြမားနင အေၾကာငးအရာရပမား အသးသးသ႔ စစညးေဖာျပထားသည မတညေသာ နညးလမးအသးသး နငးယဥေလလာျခငးသည လညးအသးဝငပါ သည။ ဤနငးယဥေလလာမသည လပေဖာေဆာငဖကမားအၾကား ဤအေၾကာငးအရာရပမားနင အပစခြမား သတမတပက ေဆြးေႏြးရနျဖစသည။

(စ) ျပငပအေၾကာငးတရားမား၏လႊမးမးမကအသအမတျပျခငး။ ။သေတသ၏ ကယပငစရက လကၡဏာနင ၎ဝေသသ လကၡဏာမား၏ သေတသနအေပၚ လႊမးမးမအျပင အျခားေသာ အေၾကာငးအရာမားစြာကလညး ထညသြငးစဥးစား ရန ရပါသည။၎တ႔အနကအငတာဗးျပလပသညအခန (တစေန႔တာအေတာအတြငး၊လ၊နစစသညျဖင) ကလညး ထညသြငးစဥးစားရပါမည။ အငတာဗးျပလပစဥ အေတာအတြငး အငတာဗးေျဖဆသမားအျပင အျခားသမား လညး ရမရဆသည အခကမာလညး အေရးၾကးပါသည။ အဆပါေဘးလမားအေနျဖင အငတာဗးေျဖဆသနင ၎၏ အေျဖမားအေပၚ လႊမးမးသကေရာကမရနငပါသည။ သေတသနအပၚ လႊမးမးမရရနငေသာ အျခားေသာ အခကမားမာ - အာဏာပတသက ဆကဆေရးနင မတညေသာ ယဥေကးမမားအၾကား ဆကဆေရး စသညတ႔ ျဖစပါသည။

ေဒတာမားအား ရငးလငးဖြငဆျခငး၊ ခတဆကျခငးနင အနကဖြငျခငး ေဒတာမားအား ရငးလငးဖြငဆ၊ ခတဆက၊ အနကဖြငရန ထေရာကေသာ နညးလမးတစရပမာ ၎တ႔အား ျပနာ အေျချပပ Problem tree တစခအျဖစ စစညးေဖာျပထားျခငး ျဖစသည။ “သေတသန ျပနာအား ဖြငဆျခငး” အခနး တြင အၾကျပထားသညအတငး သေတသနစမကနး၏ ပထမအဆင၌ ျပနာအေျချပဇယား Problem tree တစရပ ေေရးဆြရန အထးအၾကျပလပါသည။ ဤျပနာ အေျချပဇယားသည သေတသ၏ ေလလာမည ကစၥရပအား နားလညမႈက ထငဟပပါသည။ ၎သည မားေျမာငလစြာေသာ ကစၥရပမားနင ၎ကစၥရပမားမ ေလလာမည ျပနာ ရပၾကးတစခလးနင ျဖစနငေခရသည ပတသကဆကႏြယမ အခတအဆကမားက တငျပနငပါသည။ ျပနာရပၾကး တစခလးအား သေသသ၏ နားလညနငမမာ အျမတေစ ျပးျပညစျခငး မရနငပါ။ ဘကလကေသြဖယမမား ရနငပါသည။

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After data is collected, it is recommended to draw, at the analysis stage, a new problem

tree. At this stage, the problem tree is expected to be more precise, have more

information, and reflect a more comprehensive understanding of the problem (see again

Chapter on ‘Defining a Research Problem’).

When attempting to explain findings and their possible links, it is useful to consider the

following questions:

Are these findings expected findings based on the literature?

Are there any major unexpected findings?

How are these findings different/similar to what the literature on the same topic

states?

To answer these questions, researchers may refer to different references:

Existing literature

Personal notes and observations: side notes taken and observations made by the

researcher during the research as well as during the data review process help

put the data into a larger context. Any thoughts which come to the researcher’s

mind when reading the data may help determine which interpretation can be

made of the views expressed by the informants.

Key informants and collaborators: as already explained before, some trusted

key informants as well as collaborators may help find explanations for specific

‘data’. Key informants are more likely to bring in an “insider’s view” that can

help explain ‘data’.

TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THIS CHAPTER ARE:

Collecting information, which researchers call data, is only the beginning of the

research process;

Qualitative data analysis consists in organizing, coding, validating and

explaining the different data;

Qualitative data analysis is concerned with meaning, views and representations

from the informants;

Qualitative data analysis results from the researcher’s interpretation of the

findings.

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ေဒတာမား ေကာကယစေဆာငးျပးေနာက ေဒတာစစစေလလာမအဆင၌ ျပနာအေျချပဇယား ေနာကထပအသစ

တစခ ဆြရန အၾကျပလပါသည။ ဤအဆငတြင ျပနာအေျချပပသည ပမတကလာရနရျပး၊ သတငးအခကအလက

ပမစလငစြာ ျဖင ျပနာအေၾကာငး ပမျခငနားလညမက ထငဟပပါသည။ [“သေတသန ျပနာအား ဖြငဆျခငး” က

တစခါ ျပနၾကည႔ပါရန ]

ေတြ႕ရခကမားႏင႔ ၄ငးတ႕၏ျဖစႏငေခရေသာ အခတအဆကမားက ဖြင႔ဆရငးလငးရနၾကးစားရာ၌ ေအာကပါ ေမးခြနးမားက ထည႔သြငးစဥးစားသင႔ပါသည။

ဤေလ႔လာေတြ႔ရခကမားသည စာေပမားအေပၚ အေျချပေသာ ေမာလင႔ထားသည႔ ေလ႔လာေတြ႕ရခကမား ျဖစပါသလား။

ေမာလင႔မထားသည႔အဓက ေလ႔လာေတြ႕ရခကမား တစစတစရာ ရပါသလား။ အေၾကာငးအရာတ ေခါငးစဥျဖင႔ စာေပးမား၌ ေဖာျပပါရမႈမားႏင႔ ယခေလ႔လာေတြ႔ရခကမားသည

မညသ႕ကြျပား (သ႕) တသနညး။

ဤေမးခြနးမားက ေျဖဆရနမာ သေတသမားအေနျဖင႔ မတကြျပားေသာ အကးအကားမားက ကးကားရမညျဖစသည။ လကရရျပးသားစာေပမား ပဂၢလမတစမားႏင႔ ရာေဖြေလ႔လာမႈမား။ ။သေတသနျပလပစဥအတြငး ေဘးမတစမတသား ထားမႈႏင႔

သေတသမ သတထားေစာင႔ၾကည႔ေလ႔လာမႈမားအပါအ၀င ေဒတာမားျပနလညသးသပသည႔ လပငနးစဥမား အေနျဖင႔ ေဒတာမားက ပမကယျပန႔ေသာ ေနာကခ၀နကငအေနအထားႏင႔ ခတဆကရာတြင အေထာက အကျပပါသည။ ေဒတာမားအား ဖတရႈစဥအတြငး သေတသ၏ စတအတြငးေပၚလာသည အေတြးမားသည လညး သတငးေပးေျဖၾကားသမား ေဖာျပသညအျမငမားက မညသ႕အနကဖြင႔ရမညဟ ဆးျဖတရာတြင အကအညေပးပါသည။

အဓကသတငးေပးေျဖၾကားသမားႏင႔ လကတြလပေဆာငသမား။ ။ေရ႕တြငရငးလငးေဖာျပခ႔သလပင အခ႕ေသာ ယၾကညစတခရသည႔ သတငးေပးသမားႏင႔အတ လကတြလပေဆာငသမားသည “ေဒတာ အၾကမး” မားအား ဖြင႔ဆရငးလငးရာတြင အကအညရပါသည။ (အခ႕ေသာ) အဓက သတငးေပး သမားအေနျဖင႔ “ေဒတာအၾကမးမား” ဖြင႔ဆရငးလငးရာ၌ “အတြငးလအျမင” အျဖစ အသး၀ငပါသည။

အႏစခပရလင၊ ဤအခနးတြင ပါ၀ငေသာ မတသားရန အဓကအခကမားမာ

သေတသမားမ “ေဒတာ” ဟေခၚဆေသာ သတငးအခကအလကမား စေဆာငးျခငးမာ သေတသနလပငနးစဥ

၏ ကနဥးအဆင႔သာျဖစသည။

အရညအေသြးစထား ေဒတာစစစေလ႔လာမႈတြင အမးမးေသာ ေဒတာမားအား စစညးျခငး၊ အမတအသား ျပျခငး၊ ကးေၾကာငးဆေလာမႈအား စစစျခငးႏင ဖြင႔ဆရငးလငးျခငးတ႕ပါ၀ငပါသည။

အရညအေသြးစထားေသာ ေဒတာစစစေလ႔လာမႈသည သတငေပးေျဖၾကားသမားထမ ကယစားျပ ေဖာျပခက

မား၊ အျမငမား၊ အဓပၸါယမားနင႔ သကဆငပါသည။

အရညအေသြးစထား ေဒတာစစစေလ႔လာမႈသည ေလ႔လာေတြ႔ရခကမားအား သေတသ၏ အနကဖြင႔ဆျခငးမ ေပၚထြကလာေသာ ရလဒလညးျဖစပါသည။

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INTERMEDIATE 17. USING SECONDARY SOURCES OR EXISTING DATA

THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT:

The difference between primary data and secondary data;

The benefits of using secondary or existing data;

The problems related to the use of secondary or existing data.

______________________________________________________________________

Using secondary sources as a research method is recommended to researchers who

have some preliminary research experience. This said, existing sources that are related

to the topic investigated should be read by anyone regardless of his/her acquaintance

with social research and its methods.

Primary data are those that researchers have collected themselves. Secondary data

originate elsewhere.

Secondary data is the gathering and/or use of existing data for purposes other than

those for which they were originally collected. In social research, it is often the case

that researchers have to use official or quasi-official statistics. In this case, these

statistics are secondary data. These secondary data may be obtained from many

sources, including articles, database, surveys, compilations, reports, and many other

types of data.

For example, researchers can collect enrollment rates at one school throughout several

years to examine education trends: this will be the primary data for the researchers.

This data can then be compared with school enrollment rates for a particular

State/Region or yearly national data compiled by the Central Statistical Organization

(CSO). In this case, and in the context of the research, the data provided by the CSO

will be used as secondary data for the research.

Secondary data are used during the exploratory phase for expressing the general ideas.

Then they are used at the design phase for defining sampling frames and drafting the

questionnaire. Lastly, when writing the report they can be used as reference points for

comparative purposes. Secondary data is also used when direct data collection is

impossible, costly and/or time consuming.

For example, when mapping agricultural land use for a report, researchers might use

existing ground-referenced data or satellite sensory imagery from the Food and

Agriculture Organization (FAO). Another example: in developing the situation and

rationale for insecticide poisoning prevention program, researchers might collect

information from the Public Health Department about the number of people in a

community who have reported insecticide poisoning as part of their job.

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အလယအလတအဆင ၁၇ တဆငခအရငးျမစမားသ႔မဟတ႐ျပးသားအခကအလကမား

ဤအခနးသည

မရငးအခကအလကႏင တဆငခအခကအလကမား အၾကား ျခားနားခက

တဆငခ (သ႔) ႐ျပးသားအခကအလကမား အသးျပျခငး၏ အကးရလဒ

တဆငခ (သ႔) ႐ျပးသား အခကအလကမားက အသးျပျခငးႏင စပလဥးေသာျပနာမား

_____________________________________________________________________________________

ကနဥးအေတြ႕အၾက႐ျပးသား သေတသမားအေနျဖင တဆငခအခကအလကမားက သးရနသငေတာပါသည။ လမႈ သေတသနႏင ၄ငးလပထးလပနညးက သနားလညေစကာမ ေလလာသည အေၾကာငးအရာႏင သကဆငသည ႐ျပးသား သတငးအခကအလကမားအား ဖတ႐သငသည။

တဆငခအခကအလကဟသည ႐ရငးစြ အခကအလကမားအား ၄ငးတ႔မလစေဆာငးစဥက ရည႐ြယရငး မဟတေသာ အျခားတပါးေသာ ရည႐ြယခကျဖင အသးျပရန အလ႔ငာ စေဆာငးျခငးႏင/သ႔မဟတ အသးျပျခငးက ဆလသည။ မားေသာအားျဖင လမႈသေတသနတြင တရားဝင (သ႔) အေတာအတနတရားဝငေသာ စာရငးအငး အခကအလကမားက အသးျပသည။

ဤတြင အဆပါ စာရငးအငးအခကအလကမားက တဆငခအခကအလကဟ ေခၚသည။ ၄ငးတဆငခ အခကအလကမား အား ေဆာငးပါး၊ ေဒတာေဘစ၊ စစတမး၊ စေဆာငးသမးဆညးခက၊ အစရငခစာႏင အျခားအခကအလက အမးအစား ေျမာကျမားစြာ ပါဝငေသာ အရငးျမစမားစြာမ ရ႐ႏငသည။

ဥပမာ ပညာေရးလားရာလမးေၾကာငးက ဆနးစစရနအတြက သေတသမားသည ေကာငးတစေကာငးတညးမ ေကာငးသားမား ေကာငးဝငခြငရသညႏနးထားက ႏစေပါငးအတနၾကာေအာင စေဆာငးရယႏငပါသည။ ၄ငးသည သေတသမားအတြက မရငးအခကအလကမား ျဖစလာပါလမမည။

အဆပါ အခကအလကမားအား ျပညနယ/တငးတစခခ၏ ေကာငးဝငခြငႏနးႏင ႏငးယဥႏငသည။ သ႔တညးမဟတ ဗဟစာရငး႐းမ စေဆာငးထားေသာ ႏစစဥႏငငလးကၽြတအခကအလကမားႏင ႏငးယဥႏငသည။ ဤကစၥႏင သေတသန ေဘာငအတြငးတြင ဗဟစာရငး႐းမ ရ႐ေသာ အခကအလကမားအား တဆငခ အခကအလကမားအျဖစ အသးျပသည။

တဆငခအခကအလကမားသည ေယဘယ သေဘာတရားမားက ေဖာျပရန ပဏာမအဆငတြင အသးျပသည။ ၄ငးေနာက နမနာေကာကယမည ေဘာငကန႔သတရနအတြက ပစခသညအဆငႏင ေမးခြနးလႊာျပလပသည အပငးတြင လညးအသးျပသည။ ေနာကဆး အစရငခစာေရးသားသည အခနတြင တကဆငစစေဆးရန အကးအကား အေနျဖင အသးျပႏငေသးသည။ တဆငခအခကအလကမားအား အခကအလကတက႐က ေကာကယရန မျဖစႏငသည အခါမး၊ အခနႏင ေငြေၾကးအကနကမားသညအခါမးတြင အသးျပသည။

ဥပမာ အစရငခစာအတြက လယယာေျမ အသးျပမႈက ေျမပျပလပေသာအခါ သေတသမားသည စားနပရကၡာႏင လယယာေျမ အဖြ႕အစညး (Food and Agriculture Organization - FAO) မ ႐ရငးစြ ေျမမကႏာျပင အခက အလကမား ႏင ျဂဟတမ ႐ကကးထားေသာ ပရပမားက အသးျပေပမည။ အျခားဥပမာ။ ။လပငနးခြငအေနအထား ေကာငးမြနေစေရးႏင ပးသတေဆး အသးျပမႈ တားျမစေရး အစအစဥတြင သေတသမားသည ျပညသ႔ကနးမာေရးဌာန သ႔ သြားေရာကျပး ရပ႐ြာအစအဖြ႕တစခအတြငး လပငနးခြင ပးသတေဆးအသးျပသညဟ သတငးေပးပ႔ အစရငခထား သမား အေရအတြကက သတငးစေဆာငးရယရမည။

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SOURCES OF SECONDARY DATA

Secondary data can be from quantitative sources. These could be published statistics

from national government sources such as demographic data (census, vital statistics,

cancer registrations, etc.); administrative; government surveys; local government

sources; or other sources such as political parties, academic and research institutes,

international sources (the European Union, the Organization for Economic Cooperation

and Development, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund). It could also be

unpublished or electronic source from data archives, on-line access to national

computing centers, and international sources on the internet.

Secondary data can also be from qualitative sources. Sources for qualitative research

can be biographies, diaries, memoirs, letters, newspapers, novels & literature,

handbooks, policy statements, planning documents, reports, and historical & official

documents.

In Myanmar, most of these statistics are provided by the government. Using statistics

from the government will raise various issues especially about data accuracy. It is

crucial that the researcher using secondary data addresses the issue reliably. The

researcher has to explain why he/she thinks that these secondary data are accurate and

why he/she can therefore use them for his/her research. In examining the issue of

accuracy, the researcher will address the issue of validity and the issue of reliability of

these statistics.

ACCURACY OF SECONDARY DATA

Reliability (precision, reproducibility) is the degree of stability exhibited when a

measurement is repeated under similar condition. Do the data provided by the

government accurately report what they say they report? For example, are the data of

the Central Statistical Organization reliable and reproducible for comparative

purposes? This problem is not specific to Myanmar and applies also to a certain degree

in other countries such as US, UK, Europe, and Japan.

Validity is the degree to which a measurement or study reaches a correct conclusion

based on a fair understanding of the situation under study. Validity can be divided into

two categories: internal and external validity.

Internal validity is the extent to which the results of an investigation accurately reflect

the true situation of the population under study. External validity, also being called

generalizability, is the extent to which the results of a study are applicable to other

population. If the findings of a survey reflect the true situation of water and sanitation

in the study sites in rural areas of Myanmar, the survey has internal validity. If the

findings also reflect the situation in other rural areas of Myanmar, the survey has

external validity.

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တဆငခအခကအလကမား၏ အရငးအျမစ

တဆငခအခကအလကမားသည အေရအတြကဆငရာ ရငးျမစမားမ ျဖစႏငသည။ ၄ငးတ႔မာ ႏငငေတာ အစးရမ ထတေဝေသာ (သနးေခါငစာရငး၊ အေရးၾကးေသာ စာရငးအငးအခကအလကမား၊ ကငဆာေရာဂါသည စာရငး စသည တ႔ကသ႔) လဥးေရဆငရာအခကအလကမား၊ အပခပေရးဆငရာ၊ အစးရစစတမးမား၊ ျပညနယအစးရ အရငးျမစမားက သ႔ စာရငးအငးအခကအလကမား ျဖစႏငသလ ႏငငေရးပါတမား၊ ပညာရပဆငရာႏင သေတသန အဖြ႕အစညး မား၊ အျပညျပညဆငရာ အသငးအဖြ႕မား (ဥေရာပသမဂၢ၊ အကးတစးပြားဖကႏင ဖြ႕ျဖးေရး အဖြ႕အစညး၊ ကမာၻ႕ဘဏ၊ အျပညျပညဆငရာ ေငြေၾကးရပေငြ) မ အရငးအျမစမားလညး ျဖစႏငသည။ အခကအလကမား စေဆာငး သမးဆညး ရာ ေမာကြနးတကမားမ ပႏပထတေဝျခငး မျပေသာ (သ႔) အလကထေရာနစရငးျမစ၊ အမးသားကြနပတာ ဌာနမားသ႔ အြနလငးမတဆင အသးျပခြငႏင အငတာနကေပၚ႐ ႏငငတကာမ သတငးရငးျမစမားတ႔မလညး ရ႐ႏငသည။

တဆငခ အခကအလကမားသည အရညအခငးဆငရာ ရငးျမစမားမလညး ျဖစႏငသည။ အရညအခငး သေတသန အတြက အရငးျမစမားမာ အတပၸတ၊ ဒငယာရ၊ မတတမး၊ ေပးစာ၊ သတငးစာ၊ ဝတႏင ရသစာေပ၊ လကစြစာအပမား၊ မဝါဒ ေၾကညာခက၊ စမခကမတတမး၊ အစရငခစာ၊ သမငးဆငရာႏင တရားဝင ႐းသးမတတမးတ႔ ျဖစႏငပါသည။

ျမနမာႏငငတြင အဆပါ စာရငးအငးအခကအလကအမားစက အစးရကသာ ေပးစြမးႏငသည။ အစးရထတျပနေသာ အခကအလကမားက အသးျပရာတြင တကမနကနမႈႏင စပလဥးျပး အဘကဘကမ ျပနာ႐ႏငသည။ တဆငခ အခကအလကမားက အသးျပေသာ သေတသအေနျဖင တကမနကနမႈႏငပတသကျပး တငျပရနမာ အလြနအေရးၾကး သည။ သေတသအေနျဖင အဆပါ တစဆငခအခကအလကမားက မညသညအေၾကာငးေၾကာင မနကနသညဟ ထငျမငယဆပါသည၊ ထ႔ေၾကာင၄ငး၏ သေတသနတြင ထညသြငးအသးျပပါသညက ႐ငးလငးတငျပရန လအပသည။ တကမနကနေရးျပနာက ေဝဖနဆနးစစရာတြင သေတသအေနျဖင အဆပါအခကအလကမား၏ သကဆင အကးဝငမႈႏင အေထာကအထားျပႏငမႈတ႔က တငျပရမည။

တဆငခအခကအလကမား၏ တကမနကနမႈ

အေထာကအထားျပႏငမႈ (တကမႈ၊တသမတတညးျဖစမႈ) ဟသည တငးတာမႈတစခအား အျခားအလားတ အေနအထား တစခတြင ထပမျပလပလကေသာအခါ ထငေပၚလာသည တညျငမမႈအဆငအတနးက ဆလသည။ အစးရထတျပနေသာ အခကအလကမားသည ၄ငးတ႔ညႊနးသေလာက တကစြာ အစရငခပါ၏ေလာ။ ဥပမာ ဗဟစာရငးအငးအဖြ႕မ အခက အလကမားသည အလားတ ရည႐ြယရငးကစၥရပမားတြင အေထာကအထား ျပႏငပါသေလာ။ တသမတတညး ျဖစႏင ပါသေလာ။ ၄ငးျပနာသည ျမနမာႏငငတစႏငငတညးႏငသာ သကဆငသည မဟတပ အေမရကန ျပညေထာငစ၊ အဂၤလန၊ ဥေရာပႏင ဂပနႏငငမားတြငပါ အတငးအတာတစခအထ အကးဝငေနသည။

သကဆငအကးဝငမႈဟသည ေလလာဆအေျခအေနတစရပက ေကာငးစြာနားလညသေဘာေပါကျပး တငးတာခက တစခ (သ႔) ေလလာမႈတစခသည မနကနေသာ ေကာကခကခႏငသည အေနအထားက ဆလပါသည။ သကဆင အကးဝငမႈအား ကန႔သတအကးဝငမႈႏင ထပဆငအကးဝငမႈဟ၍ အပငးႏစပငး ခြႏငပါသည။

ကန႔သတအကးဝငမႈဟသည ေထာကလမးရ႐လာေသာ ရလဒမားသည ေလလာဆ လဥးေရတစရပ၏ အေျခအေနမန က မညေ႐ြ႕မညမအထ တကေသခာစြာ ထငဟပႏငသညဟေသာ အရညအေသြးမးက ဆလသည။ ထပဆငအကးဝင မႈ၊ တနညးအားျဖင ေယဘယျပႏငစြမးသည ေလလာမႈတစရပမရ႐လာေသာရလဒမားသညအျခားတပါးေသာ လဥးေရ အတြက မညေ႐ြ႕မညမ ျပနလညအသးခ၍ ရႏငသညဟေသာ အရညအေသြးက ဆလသည။ စစတမး၏ ေတြ႔႐ခက မားသည ေလလာမႈျပခေသာ ျမနမာႏငငေကးလကေဒသပငးမ ေရႏငမလာစနစက ေကာငးစြာ ထငဟပေဖာျပႏငပါက အဆပါ စစတမးသည ကန႔သတအကးဝငမႈ႐သည။ အကယ၍ ေတြ႕႐ခကမားသည ျမနမာႏငင႐ အျခားေသာ ေကးလက ေဒသပငးမား၏ အေနအထားကပါ ထငဟပေဖာျပႏငပါက ၄ငးစစတမးသည ထပဆငအကးဝငမႈ ႐သည။

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All available data on Myanmar can then be compared with the official data provided by

the government. What is important to remember is the need to compare the

corresponding data between different providers of data, and to not just rely on one

provider.

WHEN ACCURACY OF DATA IS LACKING

When comparison is not possible and when accuracy of data is lacking, the researcher

has to start the report by writing: “The following data available from __ (name of the

organization which provided the data) have to be examined with great caution. The

validity of this data is subject to debate because ….”. The researcher then has to

explain why the data is subject for debate. The problem of accuracy may be a problem

of (1) a biased research hypothesis, (2) research method, (3) sampling, (4) data

collection, etc… The researcher then explains the most likely possibility.

ADVANTAGES OF USING EXISTING DATA SOURCES

1. Development of a research plan: Secondary information is essential to most

research project at the design stage.

2. Cost and time: Secondary data potentially offer good quality at a fraction of the

cost of primary research.

3. Quality of data: Many data sources such as official UK surveys offer excellent

quality data.

4. Longitudinal Data Analysis: Secondary data such as data by the Central

Statistical Organization offers great potential for analysing a situation or a problem

throughout time.

5. Detailed analysis: Large national sample surveys such as Census 2014 make it

possible the analysis of small or very distinct groups of people.

6. New analysis: Re-analysing existing data can result in new interpretations of this

data.

LIMITATIONS OF USING EXISTING DATA SOURCES

1. No control: Using secondary data offers the researcher no control over the quality

of data or the variables included. These secondary data may have been produced for

a different purpose. There will be problems with definitions and comparability over

time as well as problems of validity and representativeness. Researchers may not be

aware the sources of error and bias when using secondary data.

2. Complexity of data: Large-scale national statistics are usually complex in their

structure. The researcher has to spend time to become acquainted with the data and

how they were initially produced.

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ဤသ႔ျဖင ျမနမာႏငငႏင ပတသကျပး ရ႐ႏငသမ အခကအလကမားသည အစးရထတျပနေသာ တရားဝင အခက အလကမားျဖင ႏငးယဥႏငသည။ အေရးၾကးသညမာ အဖြ႕အစညးတစခတညးမ ထတျပနေသာ အခကအလကမား ကသာ အားမကးပ အဖြ႕အစညးအသးသးမ ထတျပနလကသည သတေၾကာငးကြ သတငးအခကအလကမားက ႏငးယဥေလလာရနျဖစသည။

အခကအလကမား တကမႈမရေသာ အခါဝယ

ႏငးယဥေလလာမႈမျပႏငေသာအခါႏင အခကအလကမားတကမႈမရေသာအခါတြင သေတသသည“ေအာကေဖာျပပါ အခကအလကမားအား__ (အခကအလကထတျပနေသာ အဖြ႕အစညးအမည) မ ရ႐ချခငးျဖစျပး သတၾကးစြာထား၍ ေလလာဆနးစစရမည။ အဆပါအခကအလကမားမ ထြကေပၚလာေသာရလဒသည အျငငးပြားစရာ႐ပါသည အဘယေၾကာငဆေသာ . . . ” ဟ၍ အစရငခစာက စတငေရးသားရမည။ ယငးေနာကတြင သေတသအေနႏင သတငး ရလဒမားသည အဘယေၾကာငအျငငးပြားဖြယျဖစပကဆကလက႐ငးလငးရမည။တကမႈႏငစပလဥးေသာ ျပနာသည (၁) ဓမၼဓ႒ာနမကေသာ သေတသနယဆခက (၂) သေတသနထး/နညးလမး (၃) နမနာေကာကယမႈ (၄) အခကအလက စေဆာငးမႈစသည ျပနာမားေၾကာင ျဖစႏငသည။ သေတသအေနျဖင ၄ငးတ႔အနကမ မညသည ျပနာက ျဖစႏင ေခပမားသညက ႐ငးျပေပးရမည။

႐ရငးစြအခကအလကရငးျမစမား အသးျပရျခငး၏ အကးေကးဇးမား

၁။ သေတသန အစအမတစခ အေကာငအထညေဖာျခငး - တဆငခ သတငးအခကအလကမားသည သေတသန စမကနးအမားစ ပစခသညအဆငတြင မျဖစမေနလအပသည။

၂။ အခနႏငကနကမႈစရတ - တဆငခအခကအလကမားမ အေျခခသေတသနအတြက ကနကစရတ နညးနညး ႏင ရလဒအရညအေသြးေကာငးေကာငး ထြကေပၚလာႏငစရာ ႐သည။

၃။ အခကအလကအရညအေသြး - အဂၤလနမ တရားဝငထတျပနေသာ စစတမးမားကသ႔ေသာ အခကအလက ရငးျမစ းအေျမာကအျမားမ အခကအလကမားမာ အရညအေသြး အထးေကာငးမြနသည။

၄။ အခကအလကမား ေရ႐ညစစစေလလာခက - ဗဟစာရငးအငးအဖြ႕အစညး (Central Statistical Organization) မ ထတျပနေသာ အခကအလကမားကသ႔ေသာ တဆငခအခကအလကမားသည ျပနာရပတစရပ (သ႔) အေျခအေနတစရပက အခနႏငအမ စစစေလလာႏငမည အေနအထားမး ေပးစြမးႏငေလသည။

၅။ အေသးစတစစစေလလာျခငး - ၂၀၁၄ သနးေခါငစာရငး ေကာကယမႈကသ႔ေသာ ႏငငႏငအဝမးကယျပန႔စြာ နမနာေကာကယသည စစတမးမားေၾကာင နညးပါးေသာ (သ႔) အလြနတရာ သးသန႔ဆနေသာ လအပစမား က စစစေလလာႏငလာသည။

၆။ စစစေလလာမႈအသစ - ႐ရငးစြအခကအလကမားအား ျပနလညစစစေလလာျခငးျဖင ၄ငးအခက အလကမား ႏင ပတသကျပး အဓပၸါယေကာကယမႈ အသစမား ျဖစေပၚလာႏငသည။

႐ရငးစြအခကအလကရငးျမစမား အသးျပျခငး၏ အကန႔အသတမား

၁။ ထနးခပမႈမ႐ျခငး - တဆငခ အခကအလကမား အသးျပရာတြင သေတသအေနျဖင အခကအလက ပငးဆငရာႏင ပါဝငေသာကနး႐ငမား၏ အရညအေသြးက ထနးခပရနမစြမးသာေခ။ အဆပါတဆငခ အခကအလကမားသည အျခားတပါးေသာ ရည႐ြယခကျဖင စေဆာငးထတလပချခငး ျဖစသညအေလာက အခနၾကာလာသညႏငအမ အဓပၸါယဖြငဆခကမား၊ ႏငးယဥႏငစြမး၊ အကးဝငႏငစြမးႏင ကယစားျပမႈပငး တ႔တြင ျပနာ ျဖစေပၚလာႏငသည။ တဆငခအခကအလကမား အသးျပရာတြင သေတသအေနျဖင အမားအယြငး ျဖစသြားႏငစရာ၊ အဂတ မကငးလြတႏငစရာမးလညး ျဖစသြားႏငသည။

၂။ အခကအလကမား႐ပေထြးမႈ - ႏငငႏငအဝမး ကယျပန႔စြာေကာကယေသာ စာရငးအငးမားမာ မားေသာ အားျဖင ဖြ႕တညမႈပငး လြနစြာ႐ပေထြးသည။ သေတသအေနျဖင ၄ငးအခကအလကမားႏင ကၽြမးဝငေစရန၊ ၄ငးအခကအလကမားအား ကနဥးပငးတြင မညသ႔မညပ စေဆာငးရ႐ခပက သ႐နားလညေစရန အခနယ ရမည ျဖစသည။

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3. Confidentiality: All data collected by national statistical offices must protect the

privacy of individual respondents, whether persons or businesses.

4. Regulation: Research practices related to existing statistics are also regulated in

some countries. It is also likely this will be the case in Myanmar in the near future.

SOURCES OF SECONDARY DATA

Sources of secondary research data can come from many sources.

Official International data or statistics come from:

• Government (U.K., France, U.S.A., South Africa etc.);

• International bodies, especially the EU (Eurostat) and the United Nations;

• Bodies set up by governments: e.g. Health Authorities, the Police, Development

Agencies;

• Local Authorities.

Here are some websites that could be of relevance and use to future research:

Central Statistical Organization (CSO):www.csostat.gov.mm

Ministries in Myanmar:www.myanmar.cm/myanmar-government-info/ministries-

in-myanmar.html

United Nations: http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/ww2000/

CIA World Factbook: www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/

World Bank: www.worldbank.org

TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THIS CHAPTER ARE:

Secondary data is the gathering and/or use of existing data for purposes other

than those for which they were originally collected;

When using secondary data, the researcher has to assess their validity and

reliability;

After assessing their validity and reliability, the researcher has to precisely give

all the references related to the data (year produced, publisher, page, etc.);

There are many sources of secondary research data. It is recommended to

compare the same data between different providers of data, and to not just rely

on one provider.

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၃။ လ႕ဝကသမးဆညးထားမႈ - အမးသားစာရငးအငး႐းမားမ ေကာကယထားေသာ အခကအလကအားလးသည လပဂၢလတစဥးခငးျဖစေစ၊ စးပြားေရးလပငနးမားျဖစေစ၊ ေျဖဆထားသမနသမ၏ ကယေရးအခကအလကမားက ကနးေသေပါက လ႕ဝကထားေပလမမည။

၄။ လပငနးပငး - ႐ရငးစြစာရငးအငးမားႏင စပလဥးျပး သေတသတ႔၏ လပကငပက အခ႕ႏငငမားတြင စညးမဥး ဥပေဒမားျဖင သတမတျပဌာနးထားသည။ မၾကာျမငေသာ ေနာငအနာဂတ ျမနမာႏငငတြငလညး ထနညးတ ျဖစလာႏငသည။

တဆငခအခက အလကရငးျမစမား

တဆငခအခကအလကမားက အရငးျမစေျမာကျမားစြာမရ႐ႏငသည။

ႏငငတကာမ တရားဝငအခကအလကမားႏင စာရငးအငးမားက

• အစးရ (အဂၤလန၊ ျပငသစ၊ အေမရကန၊ ေတာငအာဖရကစသညျဖင)၊

• အျပညျပညဆငရာအဖြ႕အစညးမား၊ အထးသျဖင ဥေရာပသမဂၢ (Eurostat) ႏငကလသမဂၢ၊

• အစးရမဖြ႕စညးထေထာငေပးေသာ အဖြ႕အစညးမား၊ ဥပမာ - ကနးမာေရးဆငရာ အာဏာပငမား၊ ရတပဖြ႕၊ ဖြျဖးတးတကေရး ကယစားလယမား၊

• ဌာေနအာဏာပငမား

ေအာကပါတ႔မာ ေနာကတြငသေတသနျပသညအခါ သကဆငအသးဝငႏငသည အငတာနက ဝဘဆဒမား ျဖစၾကပါ သည။

Central Statistical Organization (CSO):www.csostat.gov.mm

Ministries in Myanmar:www.myanmar.cm/myanmar-government-info/ministries-in-myanmar.html

United Nations: http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/ww2000/

CIA World Factbook: www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/

World Bank: www.worldbank.org

အႏစခပေသာ ဤအခနးတြင မတသားရန အေရးၾကးေသာ အခကမားမာ

တဆငခအခကအလကဟသည ႐ရငးစြအခကအလကမားအား ၄ငးတ႔ မလစေဆာငးစဥကႏင မတျခားနား ေသာ ရည႐ြယခကအတြက အသးျပျခငး ႏင/သ႔မဟတ စစညးျခငးျဖစသည။

တဆငခ အခကအလကမား အသးျပေသာအခါ သေတသအေနႏင ၄ငးတ႔၏ အကးဝငႏငစြမး၊ အကးအကား ျပႏငစြမးက ဆနးစစေလလာရမည။

အဆပါ အခကအလကမား၏ အကးဝငႏငစြမးႏင အကးအကား ျပႏငစြမးက ဆနးစစေလလာျပးေသာအခါ သေတသသည အခကအလကမားႏင စပဆငေသာအကးအကားအားလးက ေစစပတကစြာ ေဖာျပေပးရ မည။ (ထတျပနေသာႏစ၊ ထတေဝသ၊ စာမကႏာ အစ႐သျဖင . . . )

တဆငခ သေတသနအခကအလကမား အတြက အရငးျမစမားစြာ႐သည။ တစစတစေယာကတညး ထတေဝ လကေသာ အခကအလကမားက အားမကးပ မတညေသာ ထတေဝသ အသးသး၏ သတေၾကာငးကြ အခက အလကမားက ႏငးယဥေလလာၾကညရနလညး အားေပးတကတြနးလသည။

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INTERMEDIATE 18. EVALUATION RESEARCH THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT:

The various tools available for conducting evaluation research;

The use of SWOT Analysis and Stakeholder Analysis;

The specific quantitative techniques for measuring changes.

WHAT IS EVALUATION RESEARCH?

Evaluation research is concerned with assessing whether social programs have

succeeded or failed. It is not a research method, but it uses research procedures to

investigate how effective the social programs under examination have been. In this

specific case, research methods are used for assessing social programs. In other words,

the objective of evaluation research is to assess whether social programs have reached

their intended results.

There are three main reasons for conducting evaluation research. The first reason is to

assess the needs. This is an analysis of the existence and severity of a problem and an

assessment of the number of affected people. It is also called needs assessment. The

second reason is to conduct a cost-benefit analysis. This is a research that compares all

expenses of the program (its costs) to its benefits (estimates of the program’s benefits).

The costs and benefits are analysed in comparison with alternative options. The third

reason to conduct evaluation research is to assess the outcomes. It is a research that

‘sums up’ the effects of a program, policy, or law in accomplishing the goal or intent of

the program, policy, or law in question. It is also called program evaluation or outcome

assessment. The purpose is to evaluate the impact of social projects, health projects, or

environmental projects, etc.

Many methods, like the survey, focus group discussion, or qualitative interview can be

used when the researcher conducts evaluation research. Use of both qualitative and

quantitative research methods is encouraged for evaluation research.

As opposed to baseline study, evaluation research is conducted after a program is

finished. As opposed to case study which is conducted independently of any project,

evaluation research is linked to a specific project.

OBJECTIVES OF EVALUATION RESEARCH

The objectives of evaluation research are:

• To make a judgment about the worth or merit of a program or activity;

• To improve a program;

• To help support the design and development of a program or organization;

• To create new knowledge.

Before conducting an evaluation research, the researcher should be ready to answer the

following questions.

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အလယအလတအဆင ၁၈ - အကျဖတသေတသန ဤအခနးတြင

အကျဖတသေတသန လပေဆာငရနအတြက အသးျပႏငေသာနညးလမးအမးမးအေၾကာငး SWOT စစစေလလာျခငး (SWOT Analysis) ႏင ပတသကဆကႏြယသမားအား ေလလာစစစျခငး

(Stakeholder Analysis) တ႔အေၾကာငး ေဆြးေႏြးတငျပျခငး ေျပာငးလမႈမားအား တငးတာရာတြင အသးျပေသာ အေရအတြကဆငရာ အခ႕ေသာ နညးလမးမား

အေၾကာငးတ႔ ပါ၀ငပါသည။ ______________________________________________________________________________________ အကျဖတသေတသန အကျဖတသေတသနသည လမႈေရးအစအစဥမား ေအာငျမငသလား၊ က႐ႈးသလားဆသညက သးသပျခငးႏင သကဆင သည။ ၄ငးသည သေတသန နညးလမးတစရပ မဟတေသာလညး သေတသနလပထးလပနညးမားက သး၍ ေလလာလက ရေသာ လမႈေရးအစအစဥမား၏ ထေရာကမႈ အတငးအတာက စးစမးေလလာျခငးျဖစသည။ ဤသ႔ လပေဆာငရာတြင သေတသန နညးလမးမားကသး၍ လမႈေရးအစအစဥမားက သးသပေလလာရျခငးျဖစသည။ တနညးအားျဖငမ အကျဖတ သေတသန၏ ရညရြယခကမာ လမႈေရးအစအစဥမားအေနျဖင ၄ငးတ႔ေမာမနးထားေသာ ရလဒမားျပညမျခငးရမရက သးသပေလလာျခငးျဖစသည။ အကျဖတ သေတသနလပေဆာငရျခငး အေၾကာငးရငး “သး” ရပရပါသည။ ပထမအေၾကာငးအရာမာ လအပမႈမားက သးသပျခငးျဖစသည။ ဤသညမာ ျပနာတစရပျဖစတညမႈ၊ အတမအနကႏင ၄ငး၏ ႐ကခတမႈဒဏ ခရေသာ လဥးေရ ပမာဏတ႔က သးသပေလလာျခငးျဖစသည။ ၄ငးကလအပခကေလလာမႈ (Needs Assessment) ဟလညး ေခၚဆသည။ ဒတယ အေၾကာငးအရာမာ-စရတ-အကးစစစေလလာမႈ (Cost–benefit analysis) လပေဆာငျခငးျဖစသည။ လပငနး အစအစဥတစရပ၏ ကနကမႈအားလး (၄ငး၏စရတမား) က ၄ငး၏ အကးေကးဇးမား (လပငနးအစအစဥ အကးေကးဇးမား ၏ ခန႔မနးပမာဏ) တ႔ႏင ႏႈငးယဥေလလာသည သေတသနတစရပျဖစသည။ ဤကသ႔ စရတ-အကး စစစေလလာမႈမး ျပလပ၍ ေရြးခယစရာ နညးလမးမားအား ႏႈငးယဥၾကညျခငးျဖစသည။ အကျဖတ သေတသန လပရျခငး၏ တတယ အေၾကာငးအရငးမာ ရလဒမားက အကျဖတရနျဖစသည။ ၄ငးသည လပငနးအစအစဥ၊ မ၀ါဒ၊ ဥပေဒသတစရပ၏ ပနးတင (သ႔) ရညရြယခကသ႔ ေရာကရျပညမျခငးဆငရာ ထေရာကမႈ အတငးအတာမားက “စေပါငး” ၾကညျခငးႏငဆငသည သေတသန တစရပျဖစသည။ ရညရြယခကမာ လမႈေရးစမကနးမား၊ ကနးမာေရးစမကနးမား၊ သဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကငဆငရာ စမကနးမား စသညတ႔၏ အကးသကေရာကမႈက အကျဖတျခငးျဖစသည။ သေတသအေနျဖင အကျဖတသေတသနက လပေဆာငသညအခါ စစတမးေကာကယျခငး၊ ဥးတညအပစေဆြးေႏြးျခငး၊ အရညအေသြးဆငရာ ေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးမႈျပလပျခငးတ႔ကသ႔ေသာ နညးလမးမားစြာက အသးျပႏငသည။ အကျဖတ သေတသနအား လပေဆာငသညအခါ အေရအတြကစထား သေတသနနညးလမးမားေရာ အရညအေသြးစထား သေတသန နညးလမးမားပါ ႏစမးစလးက အသးျပရန တကတြနးလပါသည။ အေျချပစထား တငးတာေလလာမႈ (Base Line Study) ႏင ဆန႔ကငဘက အေနျဖင အကျဖတသေတသနအား လပငနး အစအစဥတစခ ၿပးဆးမသာ လပေဆာငျခငးျဖစသည။ မညသညစမကနးႏငမ ဆကစပမႈမရ သးသန႔ လပေဆာငေသာ ျဖစရပေလလာမႈ (Case Study) ႏင ဆန႔ကငဘက အေနျဖင အကျဖတသေတသနသည စမကနး တစရပရပႏင ပတသက၍ လပေဆာငရျခငးျဖစသည။ အကျဖတသေတသန၏ ဥးတညခကမား အကျဖတသေတသန၏ ဥးတညခကမားမာ -

လပငနးအစအစဥတစရပ (သ႔) လပငနးေဆာငတာတစရပ၏ တနဖး (သ႔) အကးေကးဇးအား ႏႈငးခန ဆးျဖတရန

လပငနးအစအစဥတစရပအား တးတကေစရန လပငနးအစအစဥ (သ႔) အဖြ႕အစညးတစရပ၏ ဒဇငးႏင ဖြ႕ၿဖးေရးအား အေထာကအကျပ အကအညေပးရန အသပညာအသစမားျပစရန

အကျဖတ သေတသနတစရပ မလပေဆာငမ သေတသအေနျဖင ေအာကပါေမးခြနးမားအား ေျဖဆႏငရန အဆငသင ျဖစေနသငသည။

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What evaluation questions need to be answered?

Questions may be related to program implementation and/or program impact. Also

questions may be related to the project logical framework (for details on logical

framework, see Chapter on ‘Research Design’, Intermediate Level).

What research methods should be used?

• Direct Observation

• Records and Documentation

• Information from relevant stakeholders

METHODS OF EVALUATION RESEARCH

Both qualitative and quantitative research methods are used for conducting evaluation

research.

QUALITATIVE TOOLS FOR EVALUATION RESEARCH

Besides interviews, the other qualitative tools typically used by researchers for

evaluation research are Stakeholders Analysis and SWOT Analysis.

Stakeholder Analysis is a process of identifying the individuals or groups that are likely

to affect or be affected by a proposed project, and sorting them according to their

impact on the project and the impact that the project will have on them. It is conducted

before starting the project.

SWOT Analysis is a structured planning method used to evaluate the Strengths,

Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) of the organization involved in a

project/program.

Stakeholders Analysis

The institution that operates in the community may influence outcomes. It is important

to take the various stakeholders into account before carrying out the project. The

organization needs to identify all entities–local and national government, CBOs,

international and national NGOs, research institutions, private sector, donors, and the

beneficiaries – which may have something to gain or lose from the outcomes of the

project. These entities are defined as stakeholders, individuals or institutions with

interests in the process and outcomes of intended activities.

It is important to identify and understand the relationship between stakeholders and the

proposed project. Key individuals may have personal interests in the project or some

stakeholders may benefit more than others.

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မညသည အကျဖတေမးခြနးမား ေျဖဆရန လအပသနညး။ ေမးခြနးမားအေနျဖင လပငနးအစအစဥ အေကာငအထညေဖာျခငး၊ လပငနးအစအစဥ၏ သကေရာကမႈတ႔ႏင ပတသက ႏငပါသည။ ထ႔ျပင ေမးခြနးအေနျဖင စမကနးဆငရာ စဥးစားမႈ ယတေဘာင (သ႔) စမကနး အေျချပဇယား (Project Logical Frame Work) ႏငလညး ဆကဆငႏငပါသည။ (Logical Frame Work) ႏင ပတသက၍ အေသးစတ က အခနး “သေတသနဒဇငး” Intermediate Level တြင ၾကည႐ႈပါ။) မညသညသေတသနနညးလမးမား အသးျပမညနညး။

တက႐ကေလလာ ေစာငၾကညျခငး မတတမးမတရာမားႏင စာရြကစာတမးအေထာကအထားမား သငေလာေသာ ပတသကဆကႏြယသမားထမ သတငးအခကအလကမား

အကျဖတ သေတသန နညးလမးမား အကျဖတသေတသန တစရပလပေဆာငရာတြင အေရအတြကစထား သေတသနနညးလမးေရာ၊ အရညအေသြးစထား သေတသနနညးလမးပါ ႏစမးစလး အသးျပပါသည။ အကျဖတသေတသနအတြက အရညအေသြးစထား သတသန နညးလမးမား သေတသမားအေနျဖင အကျဖတ သေတသန တစရပလပေဆာငရာ၌ ေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးသည နညးအျပင အသးမား ေသာ အျခားေသာ အရညအေသြးစထား သေတသနဆငရာ နညးလမးႏစရပမာ - ပတသကဆကႏြယ သမားအား စစစေလလာျခငး (Stakeholder Analysis) ႏင SWOT စစစေလလာျခငး (SWOT Analysis) တ႔ျဖစသည။ ပတသကဆကႏြယသမားအား ေလေလာစစစျခငး ဆသညမာ အဆျပစမကနးတစရပမ သကေရာကမႈရေသာ လပဂၢလမား၊ လအပစမား (သ႔) စမကနးအေပၚ သကေရာကမႈရမည လပဂၢလမား၊ လအပစမားအား ေဖာထတ သတမတၿပး ၄ငးတ႔က စမကနးအေပၚ သကေရာကမႈ အတငးအတာ သ႔မဟတစမကနးမ ၄ငးတ႔ အေပၚသကေရာကမႈ အတငးအတာ အလက စစဥသတမတသည လပငနးစဥတစရပျဖစသည။ ဤသ႔ျပလပျခငးက စမကနး မစတငမ ျပျလပေလရသည။ SWOT စစစေလလာမႈ ဆသညမာ စမကနးတစရပ (သ႔) လပငနး အစအစဥတစရပႏင ပတသကမႈရေသာ အဖြ႕အစညး ၏ အားသာခကမား (Strengths) အားနညးခကမား (Weaknesses)၊ အခြငအလမးမား (Opportunities) ႏင ၿခမးခာကမႈမား (Threats) တ႔က ေလလာအကျဖတရန သးေသာ စနစတက အစအမေရးဆြေရး နညးလမးတစရပ ျဖစသည။ ပတသကဆကႏြယသမားအား စစစေလလာျခငး (Stakeholder Analysis) ရပရြာလထအၾကားတြင လပငနးေဆာငရြကေသာ အဖြ႕အစညးအေနျဖင ရလဒမား အေပၚလႊမးမးမႈ ရႏငပါသည။ သ႔အတြက စမကနးတစရပ မစတငမ အမးမးေသာ ပတသကဆကႏြယသမားအား ထညသြငးစဥးစားရန အေရးႀကး ပါသည။ စမကနး၏ ရလဒမားမေန၍ တစစတစရာ အကးအျမတ ရရေသာ သ႔မဟတ တစစတစရာ ဆး႐ႈးနစနာႏင သည - ေဒသႏရႏင ႏငငေတာအဆငအစးရမား၊ စဘအမား၊ ျပညတြငးႏင ႏငငတကာအငနဂအမား၊ သေတသနအဖြ႕အစညးမား၊ ပဂၢလကက႑၊ အလရငမားႏင အကးေကးဇးခစားသမား - စသည လပဂၢလမားႏင အဖြ႕အစညးမားအား ေဖာထတသတမတႏငရန လအပပါသည။ ဤသမားသည လပငနးေဆာငတာမား၏ ရလဒမားႏင လပငနးစဥမားတြင အကးစးပြား တစစတစရာ ပတသကမႈ ရေသာ လပဂၢလမား၊ အဖြ႕အစညးမား၊ ပါ၀ငပတသက ဆကႏြယသမား ျဖစၾကပါသည။ ဆာငရြကမညစမကနးႏင ၄ငးစမကနးႏင ပတသကဆကႏြယသမားအၾကား ဆကႏြယမႈအားလညး နားလညထားရန အေရးႀကးပါသည။ အခရာကေသာ လပဂၢလအခ႕အေနျဖင စမကနးႏင ပတသက၍ ပဂၢလစတ၀ငစားမႈ သ႔မဟတ ပဂၢလအကးစးပြားတစစတစရာ ရေကာငးရႏငပါသည။ အခ႕ေသာ ပတသကဆကႏြယသမားသည အျခားသမားထက စမကနးထမ အကးေကးဇး ပမခစားရႏငပါသည။

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There are four main steps in conducting a Stakeholder Analysis:

1. Organize a brainstorming session. Identify all the peoples, groups, and

organizations that will affect or be affected by the project and list them in the

column under stakeholder.

2. Identify the specific interests these stakeholders have in the project. Record these

under the column stakeholder’s interest in the project

3. Evaluate the importance of stakeholder’s interests in the success or failure of the

proposed project? Assign A for very important, B for fairly important and C for not

very important. Record these letters in the column entitled “Assessment of the

Impact”.

4. Consider how you could do to get stakeholder support and reduce opposition. What

kind of information will they need? Record your strategies of obtaining their

support or reducing their obstacles to the project in the last column in the matrix.

Example:

Topic of the Stakeholders Analysis: Sanctioning the construction of a primary school in

a remote village of the Delta. A school governance committee is formed and a

Stakeholder Analysis conducted.

Stakeholder Stakeholder’s

interest in the

project

Assessment of the

impact (if the

construction of the

school is

sanctioned)

Potential strategies to

obtaining support or

reducing obstacles

1. Ministry of

Education (MOE)

High, establishing A advocate for the need of

school in the village

2. Village

Development

Committee (VDC)

High, establishing

and maintaining

A participate in the process of

application

3. Parent Teacher

Association (PTA)

High, establishing

and maintaining

B collaborate with MOE and

VDC to get a school

sanction

4. Teachers Moderate, teaching B seek commitment to teach

at the village

5. Potential students High, learning C encourage enrollment in

the classes

6. Villagers/parents High, educating

their children

C Urge to send their children

to school

request to contribute to

partial costs of buildings

7. Businessmen in

the villages

Low, not very

much interested

C persuade to contribute as

main donors of the school

buildings

8. Bookstore owner High, expecting to

increase book sales

C negotiate to sell books at a

fair prices

9. Boat owners Low, anticipated to

be requested for

transportation

C persuade them to support

the transportation of

students to/from school

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ပတသကဆကႏြယသမား စစစေလလာမႈျပလပရာတြင အဓကအဆငႀကး ေလးဆငရပါသည။ ၁။) စေပါငးေဆြးေႏြးသည ဥးေႏာကမနတငးဆငမႈ တစရပျပလပပါ။ စမကနးအေပၚ သကေရာကမႈရမည (သ႔)

စမကနးအေပၚသကေရာကမႈရမည လမား၊ အပစမား၊ အဖြြ႕အစညးမားအားလးက ေဖာထတသတမတ၍ "ပတသကဆကႏြယသမား" ေကာလဇယားတြင စာရငးသြငးပါ။

၂။) အဆပါ ပတသကဆကႏြယသမား၏ စမကနးႏင ပတသကေသာ ၄ငးတ႔၏ အထးသျဖင စတ၀ငစားမႈမားက ေဖာထတသတမတပါ။ ၄ငးက "စမကနးႏင ပတသက၍ ပါ၀ငဆကႏြယသမား၏ စတ၀ငစားမႈ" ဟေသာ ေကာလ ဇယားတြင မတတမးသြငးပါ။

၃။) အဆျပ စမကနးေအာငျမငမႈ (သ႔) က႐းမႈအေပၚ ပါ၀ငဆကႏြယသမား၏ စတပါ၀ငစားမႈမားသည မညမ အေရးပါသညက အကျဖတပါ။ "က" အလြနအေရးပါသည။ "ခ" အေတာအသငအေရးပါသည။ "ဂ" သပအေရးမပါဟ၍ သတမတေပးပါ။ ဤအကၡရာမားက "သကေရာကမႈအား သးသပမႈ" ဟသည ေကာလတြင မတသားပါ။

၄။) ပတသတဆကႏြယသမား၏ ေထာကခမႈရရရနႏင ဆန႔ကငမႈမား ေလာခႏငရန မညကသ႔ လပေဆာငႏင မညက စဥးစားပါ။ ထ႔အတြက ၎တ႔အေနျဖင မညကသ႔ေသာ သတငးအခကအလကမား လအပမညနညး။ ဇယားကြက၏ ေနာကဆးေကာလတြင စမကနးႏင ပတသကေသာ ၎တ႔၏ အတားအဆးမားက ေလာချခငး သ႔မဟတ ေထာကပမႈကရရေစျခငးဆငရာ သင၏ ဗဟာမားက မတတမးသြငးပါ။

ဥပမာ - ပတသကဆကႏြယသမား စစစေလလာမႈျပလပျခငးဆငရာ အေၾကာငးအရာ။ ။ျမစ၀ကၽြနးေပၚ ေဒသရ ေ၀းလေခါငဖား ေကးရြာတစရြာ၌ မလတနးေကာငး ေဆာကလပျခငးဆငရာ ခြငျပခက။ ေကာငးႀကးၾကပေရး ေကာမတတစရပဖြ႕စညး၍ ပတသကဆကႏြယသမား ေလလာစစစမႈတစရပ ျပလပပါသည။

စဥ ပတသက

ဆကႏြယသမား

စမကနးႏငပတသက ၍ ပတသကဆကႏြယ သမား၏ စတ၀ငစားမႈ

သကေရာကမႈအား သးသပမႈ (အကယ၍ ေကာငးေဆာကလပမႈအား ခြငျပခကရပါက)

အတားအဆးမားေလာခရန (သ႔) ေထာကခမႈအားရရရန အသးျပႏငေသာ ဗဟာမား

၁။ ပညာေရး၀နႀကးဌာန(MOE) ျမငမား။ ယမားဖြယမရ။

က ေကးရြာတြင စာသငေကာငးရရန လအပမႈအား တကတြနးေျပာဆ

၂။ ေကးရြာဖြ႕ၿဖးေရးေကာ မတ (VDC)

ျမငမား။ ယမားဖြယမရ။ ဆကလက တညတ။

က ေကာငးေဆာကလပရန ေလာကထားမႈလပငနး

၃။ မဘဆရာအသငး ျမငမား။ ယမားဖြယ မရ။ ဆကလကတညတ။

ခ ေကာငးေဆာကခြင ခြငျပမန႔ ရရရနအတြက MOE, VDC တ႔ႏင ပးေပါငးေဆာငရြက

၄။ ဆရာမား အသငအတင။ သငၾကားေရး

ခ ေကးရြာတြင စာသငၾကားေပးလစတက ေဖာထတရန

၅။ အလားအလာရေသာ ေကာငးသားမား

ျမငမား။ သငယေရး

ဂ ေကာငးအပႏေရး တကတြနးရန

၆။ ရြာသားမား/မဘမား ျမငမား။ ၎တ႔၏ ကေလးမားအား ပညာေပးလျခငး။

ဂ ၎တ႔၏ ကေလးမားအား ေကာငးသ႔ ေစလႊတရန တကတြနး။ အေဆာကအဥး ေဆာကလပေရး ကနကမႈ တစစတ တစေဒသအား ကခၾကရနေမတာရပခ

၇။ ေကးရြာရ စးပြားေရးလပငနးရငမား

နမပါး။ သပစတပါ ၀ငစားျခငးမရ

ဂ ေကာငးအေဆာကအဥးမားအတြက အဓက အလရငမား အျဖစထည၀ငရနဆြေဆာငရန

၈။ စာအပဆငပငရင

ျမငမား။ စာအပေရာငးအား တကရနေမာလင

ဂ စာအပမားအား သငတငေသာေစးႏႈနးမားျဖင ေရာငးခရနညႇႏႈငး

၉။ ေလပငရငမား

နမပါး။ သယယပ႔ေဆာင ေရး အတြက ေမတာရပ ခရန ေမာလင။

ဂ ေကာငးသားမားေကာငးသ႔ အသြားအျပန သယယပ႔ေဆာငေရးအတြက အကအညေပးေရး ဆြေဆာငရန

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SWOT Analysis

A SWOT Analysis is a tool used in institutional assessment to capture and identify an

organization’s geographic and programmatic scope of action, perceived effectiveness

and level of acceptance and support by community members and local institutions.

Strengths: Internal attributes that are helpful to the organization to achieving its

objective

Weaknesses: Internal attributes that are harmful to the organization to achieving its

objective

Opportunities: External factors that help the organization achieve its objective

Threats: External factors that are harmful to the organization’s achievement of its

objective

After identifying the SWOT’s, identification of the factors and their interdependence

helps to clarify the steps needed to achieve the organization’s objectives. A SWOT

Analysis helps to focus on strengths, minimize threats, and take the greatest possible

advantage of opportunities available to the organization. When carrying out SWOT

analysis, it should be realistic and rigorous.

SWOT Analysis Template

Strengths What do you do well? What unique resources can you draw on? What do others see as your strengths?

Weaknesses What could you improve? Where do you have more limited resources

than others? What are others likely to see as your

weaknesses? 1.

2.

3.

1.

2.

3.

.

Opportunities What opportunities are open to you? What trends could you take advantage of? How can you turn your strengths into

opportunities?

Threats What threats could harm you? What is your competition doing? To which threats do your weaknesses expose

you?

1.

2.

3.

1.

2.

3.

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SWOT စစစေလလာျခငး SWOT စစစေလလာျခငးဆသညမာ အဖြ႕အစညးတစရပ၏ ပထ၀၀ငပငးဆငရာႏင အစအစဥပငးဆငရာ လပငနး အတငးအတာ၊ ၿခငနားလညေသာ ထေရာကမႈပမာဏ၊ ရပရြာလထႏင ေဒသခအဖြ႕အစညးမား၏ ပပးကညမႈႏင လကခႏငမႈပမာဏတ႔က စစညးေဖာထတေသာ အဖြ႕အစညးဆငရာ သးသပေလလာမႈ နညးလမးတစရပျဖစသည။ အားသာခကမား။ ။အဖြ႕အစညးအေနျဖင ၎၏ဥးတညခကက ျပညမေရာကရေစရန အေထာကအက

ျဖစေစေသာ အဖြ႕အစညးအတြငးပငးဆငရာ ဂဏသတမား။ အားနညးခကမား ။ ။အဖြ႕အစညးအေနျဖင ၄ငး၏ဥးတညခကက ျပညမေရာကရေစရန အဟန႔အတား

ျဖစေစေသာ အဖြ႕အစညးအတြငးပငးဆငရာ ဂဏသတမား အခြငအလမးမား ။ ။အဖြ႕အစညးအေနျဖင ၎၏ဥးတညခကက ျပညမေရာကရေစရန အေထာကအက

ျဖစေစေသာ အဖြ႕အစညး ျပငပအေၾကာငးတရားမား။ ၿခမးေျခာကမႈမား ။ ။အဖြ႕အစညးအေနျဖင ၎၏ဥးတညခကက ျပညမေရာကရေစရန အဟန႔အထား

ျဖစေစေသာ အဖြ႕အစညးျပငပ အေၾကာငးတရားမား။ ဤသ႔ SWOT က ေဖာထတသတမတၿပး သကာလအေၾကာငးတရားမားႏင ၎တ႔၏ အျပနအလနတညမမႈက သရ ထားျခငးျဖင အဖြ႕အစညးအေနျဖင ၎၏ရညမနးခကမားက ျပညမေစရန လအပေသာ လပငနးအဆငမားက ရငးရငး လငးလငးသေစရန အေထာကအကျဖစေစသည။ SWOT စစစေလလာမႈအေနျဖငအားသာခကမားအေပၚ အေျချပကာ၊ အားနညးခကမားက ေရာငရားၿပး၊ အဖြ႕အစညးအတြက အေျခအေနေပးေသာ အခြငအလမးမားထမ အေကာငးဆး ေသာ အေနအထားက ဖမးယဆပကငႏငေစရန အကအညေပးပါသည။ SWOT စစစေလလာမႈက လပေဆာငရာတြင လကေတြ႕ကၿပး တကေသခာမႈရသငပါသည။ SWOT စစစေလလာမႈနမနာပစ

အားသာခကမား (Strengths) - မညသညအရာက ေကာငးစြာ လပေဆာငႏငသနညး။ - မညသ႔ေသာ ထးျခားသည အရငးအျမစမားအေပၚ အေျချပႏင သနညး။ -အျခားသမားမ မညသညအရာမားက သင၏ အားသာခကမား အျဖစ႐ႈျမငသနညး

အားနညးခကမား (Weaknesses) -မညသညအရာက ပမတးတကေအာင လပေဆာငႏငသနညး။ -အျခားသမားထကစာလင သငတြင ခ႕ငေနေသာ အရာမားမာ အဘယနညး။ -အျခားသမားမ မညသညအရာမားက သင၏အားနညးခကမား အျဖစ ႐ႈျမငႏငသနညး။

၁။ ၂။ ၃။

၁။ ၂။ ၃။

အခြငအလမးမား (Opportunities) - မညသညအခြငအလမးမား သငအတြက အသငရေနသနညး။ - မညသညလမးေၾကာငးမားက အခြငအေရးယ အသးခႏင သနညး။ - သင၏ အားသာခကမားက အခြငအလမးမား ျဖစေအာင မညသ႔လပေဆာငႏငသနညး။

ၿခမးေျခာကမႈမား (Threats) - မညသညၿခမးေျခာကမႈမားက သငက အဟန႔အတားျဖစေစသနညး။ - သင၏ ၿပငဆငမႈ အေနအထား မညကသ႔ရသနညး။ - မညသ႔ေသာ ၿခမးေျခာကမႈမားသည သငအားနညးခကမားအား ပ၍ ဆး႐ြားေစသနညး။

၁။ ၂။ ၃။

၁။ ၂။ ၃။

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307

Example

Situation: Farmers in Shan State do not make profit despite the high market demand for

crops and the crops’ potential added value. The example shows a SWOT analysis when

farmers face acute problems.

Strengths Weaknesses

Natural topography is ideal for

horticulture

Good knowledge and skills on

horticulture growing

Easy access to local market

Helpful government and NGOs

Easily perishable in nature

Limited storage and infrastructure

Lack of skills in value addition

Slow adoption of technological

changes

Opportunities Threats

Government support for trainings and

infrastructure development

Monopoly by brokers

Environmental degradation

Higher land prices

Increasing prices of inputs such as

fertilizers

QUANTITATIVE TOOLS FOR EVALUATION RESEARCH

Program evaluation primarily focuses attention on the outcomes of a program. The

focus of any program evaluation is answering the basic question: Were the objectives of

the program met? That is, was there a positive change in the measures the program

was designed to improve?

There are three general ways of measuring change.

1. Before and after design;

2. Comparative design;

3. Double difference method.

1. Before-and-after design: In a before and after design, the researcher gathers

information about key outcome items both before the program and after the program to

determine whether the change that was anticipated has actually occurred (TA-TB from

the graph below).

The ‘before-and-after’ design is the preferred method to measure change. It requires

advanced planning. The measurements made “before” need to be taken before the start

of the program.

This method, however, measures only the impact of an individual program. Without

similar measures taken for other programs or no program at all, there is no way to

assess the comparative value of a program.

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ဥပမာ။ ။ရမးျပညနယရ ေတာငယာသမားမားအေနျဖင ေကာကပသးႏမားႏင တနဖးျမႇငထတကနအျဖစ ျပလပႏင ေသာ ေကာကပသးႏသမား၏ ေစးကြက၀ယလအား ျမင႔မားလကရေသာလညး အကးအျမတရေအာင မလပႏငၾကဘ ျဖစေနၾကသည။ ဤဥပမာတြင ဆးရြားေသာ ျပနာမားႏင ရငဆငေနၾကရေသာ ေတာငယာသမားမား၏ အေျခအေန အား SWOT စစစေလလာမႈ ျပလပထားျခငး ျဖစသည။ အားသာခကမား (Strengths) အားနညးခကမား (Weaknesses) - သဘာ၀ေျမမကႏာသြငျပငသည ဥယာဥၿခေျမ စကပးရန အေကာငးဆး အေနအထားတြင ရသည။ - ဥယာဥၿခစကပးျခငးႏင ပတသကေသာ အသပညာႏင အရည အခငးတ႔ ေကာငးစြာရၾကသည။ - ေဒသခ ေစးကြကႏင လြယလငတက ခတဆကႏငသည။ - အကည ရႏငေသာ အငနဂအမားႏင အစးရတ႔ရၾကသည။

- လြယလငတက ပကစးဆး႐ႈးႏငသည သဘာ၀ရသည။ - သေလာငထားသႏငမႈႏင အေျခခအေဆာကအဥတ႔မာ အကန႔အသတျဖင ရသည။ - တနဖးျမႇင ထတကနအျဖစသ႔ ေျပာငးလႏငရန အရညအခငး မရၾကပါ။ - နညးပညာဆငရာ ေျပာငးလမႈမားက လကလမးမႏငရန ေႏးေကြးသည။

အခြငအလမးမား (Opportunities) ၿခမးေျခာကမႈမား (Threats) - အစးရမ အေျခခအေဆာကအဥးမား ဖြ႕ၿဖးေရးႏင သငတနးမား ပ႔ခေပးျခငးတ႔ အကအညရသည။

- ပြစားမား၏ လက၀ါးႀကးအပမႈ - သဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကင ယယြငးပကစးမႈ - ေျမယာေစး ျမငတတမႈ - ဓါတေျမၾသဇာကသ႔ေသာ သြငးအားစမား၏ ေစးႏႈနး ျမငတကလာမႈ

အကျဖတသေတသနအတြကအေရအတြကခထားသေတသနနညးလမးမား လပငနးအစအစဥအား အကျဖတသးသပရာ၌ ၎လပငနးအစအစဥ၏ ရလဒမား အေပၚအထးသျဖင အာ႐ထား လပေဆာငရသည။ မညသညလပငနး အစအစဥအား အကျဖတသးသပျခငး မဆ- "လပငနးအစအစဥ၏ ရညမနးခက မား ျပညမပါသလား" ဆသည ေမးခြနးအား ေျဖဆရေလရသည။ ဆလသညမာ တးတကမႈရရန ဒဇငးေရးဆြထားေသာ လပငနးအစအစဥအား ေလလာတငးတာမႈျပရာ၌ အျပသေဘာေဆာငသည ေျပာငးလမႈ တစစတစရာ ရခသလား ဆသည အခကပငျဖစသည။ ေျပာငးလမႈအား တငးတာရာ၌ ေယဘယနညးလမး 'သး' ရပရပါသည။ ၁။ မစတငမႏင အၿပးသတကာလ ဒဇငး (Before and after design) ၂။ ႏႈငးယဥေလလာမႈ ဒဇငး (Compartative design) ၃။ ႏစႀကမျခားနားျခငး နညးလမး (Double Difference method) ၁။မစတငမႏင အၿပးသတကာလဒဇငး၌ သေတသအေနျဖင ေမာလငထားသည ေျပာငးလမႈတစစတစရာ ျဖစေပၚခ သလား (ေအာကေဖာျပပါဂရပရ TA- TB) ဆသညက ဆးျဖတႏငရနအတြက လပငနးအစအစဥ မစတငမႏင ၿပးဆး သည ကာလႏစရပစလးရ အဓကရလဒမားႏင ဆငေသာ သတငးအခကအလကမားက ေကာကယ စေဆာငး သးသပ သည။ ဤ "မစတငမႏင အၿပးသတကာလဒဇငး" အေျပာငးအလအား တငးတာရနအတြက ပမသးစြေလရသည။ အဆငျမင စမကနး ေရးဆြမႈ လအပပါသည။ မစတငမ လအပေသာ တငးတာမႈမားသည လပငနးအစအစဥ မစတငမ ျပလပထား ရန လအပပါသည။ သ႔ေသာ ဤနညးလမးသည လပငနး အစအစဥတစရပ၏ သကေရာကမႈမားကသာ တငးတာႏငပါသည။ အျခားေသာ လပငနး အစအစဥမားႏင အလားတ ေလလာတငးတာမႈ မရသျဖင အဆပါ လပငနးအစအစဥ၏ ႏႈငးရတနဖးအား သးသပႏငျခငး မရပါ။

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2. Comparative design: In a comparative design, the researchers identify or

create two or more groups that are similar to each other prior to the start of the

program and that are expected to continue to exhibit similarities. The

difference, however, is in the implementation of the program. In the

experiment, some groups receive the experimental treatment (the program).

Others may experience other programs, variations of the program, or no

program at all (the control groups). The researchers evaluate the effectiveness

of the program by comparing each group on the outcome measures. (TA-CA

from the graph below)

A comparative design is used when comparison of the program with other

programs or several variations of the program is important, or when no

“before” measure is possible, such as when the evaluation was decided upon

after the program was started.

3. Double difference method: The World Bank introduced the double

difference method. The method compares outcomes (over time), before and

after a policy change, of a group affected by the change (the treatment group)

to a group not affected by the change (the control group).

Take mean value of each group’s outcome before and after treatment and calculate the

“difference-in-differences” (DD) of the means. Treatment effect = (TA-TB) – (CA-

CB)

Treatment group Control group

Before TB CB

After TA CA

CA

TA

CB

TB

Time

Impac

t

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၂။ ႏႈငးယဥေလလာမႈဒဇငး (Comparative design) ႏႈငးယဥေလလာမႈ ဒဇငးတြင သေတသမား အေနျဖငလပငနး

အစအစဥအား အကျဖတသးသပမညအစား လပငနးအစအစဥ မစတငမ ပစတဆငတေသာ အပစႏစစ သ႔မဟတ ႏစစ

ထကပေသာအပစမား (အဆပါအပစမားသည အလားတအေတြ႕အႀကမား ဆကလကေတြ႕ႀကမညအပစမား) က

ေဖာထတသတမတပါသည။ စမးသပမႈျပလပရာ၌ အခ႕အပစမားသည (လပငနးအစအစဥအတငး) လကေတြ႕ စမးသပ

မႈ အျပခရပါသည။ အျခားေသာ အပစမားအေနျဖင အျခားေသာ လပငနးအစအစဥမားအတငး သ႔မဟတ ေလလာမည

လပငနးအစအစဥ၏ မကြမားအတငး၊ သ႔မဟတ၊ လပငနးအစအစဥလး၀ မရျခငးတ႔က ၾကေတြ႔ေစပါ သည။ (ထနးခပ

အပစမားဟေခၚပါသည။) သေတသမားအေနျဖင႔ လပငနးအစအစဥ၏ ထေရာကမႈ အတငး အတာက အပစအသးသး၏

ရလဒမားအား တငးတာမႈျပ၍ ႏႈငးယဥျခငးအားျဖင အကျဖတပါသည။ (ေအာကပါ ဂရပပ၌ TA-CA အတငး)

ႏႈငးယဥေလလာမႈဒဇငးက လပငနးအစအစဥတစရပအား အျခားေသာ လပငနးအစအစဥမားႏင ႏႈငးယဥေလလာမႈ ျပလ၍ လညးေကာငး၊ လပငနးအစအစဥတစရပ၏ မကြမားအား ႏႈငးယဥေလလာရန အေရးၾကး၍လညးေကာငး အသးျပေလရပါသည။ သ႔မဟတပါကလညး လပငနးအစအစဥ စတငၿပးမ အကျဖတသးသပျခငးျပမညဟ ဆးျဖတ သျဖင လပငနးအစအစဥ မစတငမ ကာလမ တငးတာေလလာမႈမား မျပလပႏငေတာသည အခန၌လညး သးေလရပါ သည။ ၃။ ႏစႀကမျခားနားျခငးနညးလမး (Double Difference method) ႏစႀကမျခားနားျခငးနညးလမးက ကမ႓ာဘဏမ စတငမတဆက အသးျပခပါသည။ ဤနညးလမးတြင အေျပာငးအလဆငရာ မ၀ါဒတစရပ မေဖာေဆာငမႏင ေဖာေဆာငၿပး ကာလ၌ အေျပာငးအလ၏ သကေရာကမႈ ရေသာအပစ (စမးသပအပစ)ႏင အေျပာငးအလမ သကေရာကမႈ မရေသာအပစ (ထနးခပအပစ) တ႔၏ ရလဒမား (အခနကာလအလက ေျပာငးလမႈအေပၚ) ႏႈငးယဥ တငးတာပါသည။

အပစအသးသး၏ မစတငမႏင အၿပးသတကာလ စမးသပမႈရလဒမား၏ ပမးမကနးတနဖးက ယပါ။ ပမးမကနးမား၏ "ျခားနားျခငး၏ ျခားနားမႈမား" difference-in-differences (DD) က တြကခကပါ။ စမးသပမႈ၏ ထေရာကမႈ = (TA-TB) – (CA-CB)

စမးသပအပစ (Treatment group) ထနးခပအပစ (Control group)

မစတငမ (Before) TB CB

အၿပးသတကာလ (After) TA CA

အခနကာလ

သက

ေရာက

မႈ

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For example, the researcher would like to evaluate the impact of evening classes for tenth

standard students. Evening classes are offered to those who would like to take extra-

classes in the evening to better understand the lessons. The researcher compares the

average difference between the second term test scores and first term test scores among

students who took evening classes (treatment group). However, to be able to control for

other confounding factors, the researcher also compares the average difference between

the second term test scores and first term test scores among students who did not take

night classes (control group). Then the researcher compares the difference between the

average differences of treatment and control groups by using Double Difference methods

to obtain a valid estimate of the impact of evening classes.

TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THIS CHAPTER ARE:

The evaluation research assesses whether social programs have reached their

intended results;

Use of both qualitative and quantitative research methods is encouraged for

evaluation research;

Common qualitative tools for evaluation research are Stakeholder Analysis and

SWOT Analysis;

Quantitative tools for evaluation research are before and after design, comparative

design, and double difference method. It is important to choose the appropriate

evaluation methods to achieve the purposes of the evaluation.

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ဥပမာအားျဖင။ ။သေတသအေနျဖင ၁၀ တနးေကာငးသားမား၏ ညေနပငး အခနပ သငတနးမား၏ သကေရာကမႈ က အကျဖတတငးတာလသည။ သငခနးစာမားအား ပမနားလညသေဘာေပါကလသမားအတြက အတနးခနျပငပ ညေနပငး အခနပသငတနးမား ပ႔ခေပးပါသည။ သေတသအေနျဖင ညေနပငး အခနပယေသာ ေကာငးသားမား (စမးသပအပစ) ၏ ဒတယ အစမးအမတမားႏင ပထမအစမးအမတမား၏ ပမးမျခားနားခကက ႏႈငးယဥၾကညသည။ သ႔ေသာ အျခားေသာ ေရာေထြးေစႏငသည အခကမားအား ထနးခပႏငရနအလ႔ငာ သေတသအေနျဖင ညေနပငး အခနပ မယေသာေကာငးသားမား (ထနးခပအပစ) ၏ ဒတယအစမးအမတမားႏင ပထမအစမးအမတမား၏ ပမးမ ျခားနားခကကလညး ႏႈငးယဥၾကညသည။ ထ႔ေနာက ညေနပငးအခနပသငတနးမား၏ သကေရာကမႈက ေျခေျချမစျမစ ခန႔မနးႏငရနအတြက ႏစႀကမျခားနားျခငး နညးလမးက အသးျပ၍ စမးသပအပစႏင ထနးခပအပစတ႔၏ ပမးမ ျခားနားခကမား၏ ျခားနားခက (ကြားျခားမႈ) တ႔က ႏႈငးယဥၾကညပါသည။ အႏစခပရလင ဤအခနးတြင ပါ၀ငေသာ မတသားရန အဓကအခကမားမာ

အကျဖတသေတသနသည လမႈေရးလပငနးအစအစဥမားအေနျဖင ၎တ႔၏ ရညမနးရလဒမားအား ျပညမျခငးရမရက သးသပပါသည။

အကျဖတသေတသနလပေဆာငရာတြင အေရအတြက စထားသေတသနနညးလမးမားေရာ အရညအေသြး စထား သေတသနနညးလမးပါ ႏစမးစလး အသးျပရန တကတြနးလပါသည။

အကျဖတသေတသနအတြက အသးမားေသာ အရညအေသြးစထား သေတသနနညးလမးမာ ပတသက ဆကႏြယသမားအား စစစေလလာျခငးႏင SWOT စစစေလလာျခငးတ႔ ျဖစပါသည။

အကျဖတသေတသနအတြက အသးျပေသာ အေရအတြက စထားသေတသန နညးလမးမားမာ မစတငမႏင အၿပးသတကာလဒဇငး (Before and After design)၊ ႏႈငးယဥေလလာမႈဒဇငး (Comparative design) ႏင ႏစႀကမျခားနားျခငး နညးလမး (Double difference method) တ႔ျဖစပါသည။ အကျဖတရျခငး၏ ရညရြယခကက ျပညမေစရန သငေလာေသာ အကျဖတ သေတသနနညးလမးမားအား ေရြးခယအသးျပရန အေရးႀကးပါသည။

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INTERMEDIATE 19. SUPPORTING DETAILS

THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT:

The importance of distinguishing between facts and opinions when a researcher

writes a report;

The need to support findings with evidence, whatever this evidence is

qualitative or quantitative.

______________________________________________________________________

As already mentioned, research is about expanding knowledge about a topic or a

problem. It is about using supporting details collected during the research process.

These supporting details represent evidence that was not known before. It supports the

general observations made about the topic which is investigated.

There are three types of supporting evidence:

Examples

Quotes

Statistics

Before explaining each type of supporting evidence, a crucial point must be clarified:

research relies on facts, not on opinions. More precisely, what researchers collect from

the research process is evidence that will support facts. What researchers do not do is to

give their opinion on these facts (see Chapter on ‘Research and Ethics’).

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FACTS AND OPINIONS

Opinions are personal observations based on someone’s beliefs or attitudes.

Researchers conducting research have to refrain from asserting their own personal

opinion at any time. Chapter 1 of the manual emphasized that researchers have to start

the research process in an open-minded way. Then chapters detailing interviewing

methods emphasized the neutral role of the interviewer who let the respondent express

his opinions. The main point to remember here is that: while the interviewer/researcher

may report about the respondent’s personal opinion, the interviewer/researcher

himself/herself never expresses his/her own opinion.

Here are some examples of opinions:

Men are better drivers than women;

Smoking is a bad habit;

English is an easy language to learn.

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အလယအလတအဆင ၁၉ - ေထ ာက ကျ ပအေသးစတအခကအလကမား

ဤအခနးသည

သေတသတစေယာကအေနႏင အစရငခစာ ေရးသားေသာအခါ အေၾကာငးအရာ အခကအလကႏင ထငျမငခကအၾကား ျခားနားေစရနမာ အေရးၾကးေၾကာငး

အေၾကာငးအရာ အခကအလကမားအား အရညအခငးဆငရာ အေထာကထားမားျဖငျဖစေစ၊ အေရအတြက ဆငရာ အေထာကထားမားျဖငျဖစေစ ေထာကပအားျဖညေပးရန လအပေၾကာငးတငျပထားပါသည။

_____________________________________________________________________________________

ေဖာျပချပးသညအတငးပင သေတသန ဟသည တစစတစခေသာ အေၾကာငးအရာ (သ႔) ျပနာတစရပႏင စပလဥး ေသာ အသပညာက ခ႕ထြငျခငးျဖစသည။ သေတသနလပငနးစဥအတြငး စေဆာငးရ႐ေသာ ေထာကပအား ျဖညေပးမည

အေသးစတအခကအလကမားက အသးျပျခငးပင ျဖစသည။ အဆပါ ေထာကပအားျဖညေရး အေသးစတ အခကမား သည ယခငထငသာ ျမငသာမ႐ေသာ သကေသသာဓကမားအား ကယစားျပႏငသည။ ေလလာ ေထာကလမးဆ

အေၾကာငးအရာႏင ပတသကေသာ ေယဘယစးစမးခကကလညး အားျဖညေပးႏငသည။ ေထာကက သကေသ အမးအားသးမး႐သည။

ဥပမာ

ေကာကႏတခက စာရငးအငး

ေထာကကျပ သကေသတစခခငးစက ႐ငးလငးတငျပျခငး မျပမ အလြနတရာ အေရးၾကးေသာ အခကတစခကက

႐ငး႐ငးလငးလငး သေစလသည။ သေတသနဟသည အေၾကာငးအရာ အခကအလကမားေပၚတြင အေျခခသည။ ထငျမငယဆခကေပၚတြင အေျခခသညမဟတ။ ထ႔ထကပ၍ တကစြာဆရပါမ သေတသန လပငနးစဥမ သေတသမား ရယစေဆာငးသညမာ အခကအလကက ခငမာေအာင ျပလပေပးမည သကေသမား ျဖစၾကသည။ အခကအလကမား ႏင စပလဥးျပး ၄ငးတ႔၏ ထငျမငယဆခကေပးျခငးကမ ျပလပေလ မ႐ၾကေခ။ (‘သေတသနႏင ကငဝတ’ အခနးတြင ၾကညပါ)

အခကအလကႏင ထငျမငယဆခကၾကား ျခားနားခက

ထငျမငယဆခကဟသည လတစဥးတစေယာကမ ၄ငး၏ယၾကညခက (သ႔) စတေနစတထားေပၚတြင အေျခခေသာ

ပဂၢလဓဌာန စးစမးခကျဖစသည။ သေတသနလပငနးတစခက လပကငေဆာင႐ြကေနေသာ သေတသမားသည ၄ငးတ႔၏

ပဂၢလဓဌာန ထငျမငယဆခကအား အလြနတရာ အသားေပးျခငးမးအား မညသညအခနအခါမး၌မဆ ေ႐ာင႐ားရမည။ လမးညႊနစာအပပါ အခနး (၁) တြင သေတသမားသည လြတလပပြငလငးေသာ စတထားျဖင သေတသန လပငနးစဥအား စတငရမညဟ အေသအခာ ညႊနၾကားထားသည။ လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးပ နညးလမးမားအား အေသးစတ ႐ငးလငးဖြငဆေသာ

အခနးမားတြငလညး ေမးခြနးေမးသသည ေျဖဆသ၏ ထငျမငယဆခကက စတတငးကလြတလပစြာ ေဖာျပေပးခြင ေပးရမညဟ၍ ေမးခြနးေမးသ၏ အဂတကငးေသာ အခနးက႑က အထးတလည တငျပထားသည။ အဓက မတသားထား ရနမာ လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးသ / သေတသသည ေျဖဆသ၏ တကယေရ ထငျမငခကက အစရငခႏငေသာလညး ၄ငး၏ထငျမငယဆခကကမ ဘယေသာ အခါမ ထညသြငးေဖာျပျခငးမျပရ။

ဤသညမာ ထငျမငယဆခက ဥပမာအခ႕ ျဖစၾကသည အမးသား ယာဥေမာငးမားသည အမးသမးယာဥေမာငးမားထက ပေတာၾကသည။ ေဆးလပေသာကျခငးသည ဆးဝါးေသာ အကငစ႐ကျဖစသည။ အဂၤလပစာသည တတလြယေသာ ဘာသာစကားျဖစသည။

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If a respondent expresses any of these opinions, the researcher has to report it and turn

the respondent’s opinion into a quote (see the ‘Quote’ section below on how to turn

someone’s statement into a quote). In no way, however, should the

interviewer/researcher directly express his/her own personal opinion even if he/she

agrees with the respondent’s opinion.

By contrast, the following sentences are facts because they are based on research:

Driving while making a phone call or sending a text message increases the risk

of traffic accident;

Smoking causes cancer;

Younger people have less difficulty in learning foreign languages.

Please note the causal link between the two events/situations/problems and the

probabilistic nature of this link. These facts, however, remain very general. The

researcher needs to produce facts supported by evidence.

FACT NOT SUPPORTED BY EVIDENCE VS. FACTS SUPPORTED BY EVIDENCE

A researcher is expected to give evidence that is supported by facts. People who are not

convinced by the facts stated above about driving, smoking, and language learning, can

always contradict them. If the researcher offers facts supported by evidence, it will be

far more difficult to contradict the facts.

Opinion Many people believe that imported food in Myanmar

may carry risk for consumers’ health.

Fact which needs proof Milk powder imported from abroad has been cited by

many consumers as potentially harmful.

Fact supported Melamine contained in imported milk powder is banned

by evidence in many countries because of its harmful effects on

babies’ health.

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ေမးခြနးေျဖၾကားသသည အထကပါအေၾကာငးအရာတစခခက ထငျမငခကအျဖစေပးလာပါက သေတသသည ၄ငးက အစရငခရမညျဖစျပး ေကာကႏတခက ျပလပတငျပရမညျဖစသည။ (ေအာကတြင ေဖာျပမည ‘ေကာကႏတခက’ အပငးတြင တစစတစေယာက၏ အဆျပခကက မညသ႔မညပ ေကာကႏတခကျပလပတငျပရမညက ေလလာပါ။)

လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးသ/သေတသသည ေျဖၾကားသ၏ ထငျမငခကက သေဘာတလကခေနသညတင မညသ႔ေသာ

အေၾကာငး တစတရာႏငမ ၄ငး၏ တကယေရထငျမငခကက တက႐ကေဖာျပျခငးမး မျပရ။ အထက ဥပမာႏငဆန႔ကငစြာ ေအာကပါဝါကတ႔မာ သေတသနအေပၚ အေျခခေသာ အခကအလကမား ျဖစၾကသည။

ကားေမာငးစဥ ဖနးေျပာျခငး (သ႔) ဖနးမကေဆခပ႔ျခငးတ႔ေၾကာင ယာဥမေတာတဆမႈ ျဖစပြားႏငေခ ပမား

သည။

ေဆးလပေသာကျခငးေၾကာင ကငဆာေရာဂါျဖစေစႏငသည။

အသကငယ႐ြယသမားမာ ႏငငျခားဘာသာစကားသငယရာတြင မားစြာခယဥးမႈမ႐ေခ။

ျဖစရပႏစခ/အေျခအေနႏစခ/ျပနာရပႏစခအၾကား အေၾကာငးတရားဆကႏြယမႈႏင ၄ငးဆကႏြယမႈ၏ ျဖစတနရာ

သေဘာသဘာဝက သတျပပါ။ သ႔တငေအာင အဆပါ အခကအလကမားသည လြနစြာ ေယဘယ ဆနေနေသးသည။

သေတသန လပငနး၏ တာဝနမာ သကေသခငလေသာ အခကအလကမား ေဖာထတေပးရန ျဖစသည။

သကေသမျပႏငေသာ အခကႏင သကေသျပႏငေသာအခက

အမားေမာလငသညမာ သေတသသည အခကအလကမားက ခငမာေစမည သကေသျပခကက ေပးစြမးႏငရေပမည။ အထကတြင ေဖာျပထားေသာ ကားေမာငးျခငး၊ ေဆးလပေသာကျခငး၊ ဘာသာစကားေလလာျခငး ဆငရာ အေၾကာငး အခကမား အား သေဘာမတသတ႔အဖ႔ အျမတေစဆန႔ကငႏငသည။ အကယ၍သာ သေတသသည သကေသျပႏင

ေသာ အခကအလကမားကသာ ေပးစြမးႏငပါက အဆပါအခကအလကမားက ဆန႔ကငျငငးဆရန လြနစြာခယဥး ေပလမမည။

ထငျမငခက ႏငငျခားမ တငသြငးေသာ စားေသာကကနမားသည စားသးသမား၏

ကနးမာေရးက ေဘးျဖစေစသညဟ ျပညသအမားစက ယၾကညယဆၾကသည။

သကေသလအပေသာအခက စားသးသမား၏ အဆအရ ႏငငရပျခားမတငသြငးေသာ ႏ႔မႈန႔မားသည ဥပါဒ ျဖစေစႏငသည။

သကေသ႐ေသာအခက မယလမငးပါဝငေသာ ႏငငျခားမ တငသြငးသည ႏ႔မႈန႔မားသည ကေလးငယမား

၏ ကနးမာေရးက ထခကေစသညအတြက ႏငင ေတာေတာမားမားတြင တားျမစထားသည။

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EXAMPLES AS SUPPORTING DETAILS

Examples used as supporting details are usually taken directly from the data collected

by the researcher during the field research, survey, or interviews.

When examples are not directly related to the research and are used by the researcher in

the report, these examples should be cited with references.

Examples taken from other studies are especially useful for comparative purposes. But

when using them for comparative purposes, the researcher must ensure that the

comparison makes sense. The comparison can show two opposing or similar examples.

A research project investigates the discriminations that

People Living with HIV (PLHIV) face in their daily lives.

Interviews with PLHIV persons show that all interviewees

complain about the difficulties they encounter in accessing

health services.

However, simply mentioning the difficult access to health

services is not enough. The researcher must understand what

makes this access to health services difficult.

The researcher will ask the PLHIV interviewees to mention

examples about this difficult access to health services.

One example could be about the financial difficulties a PLHIV

faces in paying for the medical treatment. The researcher is

encouraged to ask further details: how much is a treatment?

How much can the person afford for the treatment? Is there

any possibility of financial support?

Another example could be about how the PLHIV avoids visiting

the clinic because he/she feels the people will discriminate

him/her. The researcher is encouraged to ask further details:

does the PLHIV person feel that he/she will be treated by the

nurses or doctors differently at the clinic? What specific

experience did the PLHIV go through when he/she visited the

clinic for the treatment?

Answers to these questions could be evidence for the

researcher and help support the analysis.

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ဥပမာမားအားေထာကကျပအေသးစတအခကအလကအေနျဖငအသးျပျခငး

ေထာကကျပ အေသးစတအခကအလကမားအေနျဖင အသးျပေသာ ဥပမာမားအား ပမနအားျဖင သေတသကြငးဆငး သေတသနျပလပစဥတြင လညးေကာငး၊ စတမးေကာကယစဥတြင လညးေကာငး၊ လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးမႈ ျပလပစဥတြင လညးေကာငး စေဆာငးရ႐ခေသာ အခကအလကမားမ တက႐ကယငင သးစြသည။

ဥပမာမားသည သေတသနႏင တက႐ကဆကစပမႈမ႐ပ အစရငခစာတြင ထညသြငးအသးျပထားပါက အဆပါ ဥပမာမား အား အကးအကားႏငတကြ ေဖာျပေပးရမည။ အျခားေသာ ေလလာခကမားမ ထတႏတယထားေသာ ဥပမာမားသည ႏငးယဥေလလာမႈျပရန အလြနတရာ အသးဝင သည။ သ႔ေသာလညး ၄ငးတ႔အား ဤကသ႔ ႏငးယဥေလလာရန အသးျပေသာအခါ အဆပါႏငးယဥမႈသည ယတတနေစ

ရမည။ ႏငးယဥမႈတြင ဆန႔ကငဘကဥပမာႏစခက ျပသႏငသလ ဆငတဥပမာႏစခလညး ျပသႏငသည။

သေတသနစမကနးတစခသည အတခအငဗြေရာဂါသညမား ၄ငးတ႔ေန႔စဥဘဝတြင ခြျခားဆကဆေနရမႈ အေၾကာငးက ေထာကလမးေလလာသညဆပါစ႔။

ေရာဂါသညမားအား လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးၾကညေသာအခါ ၄ငးတ႔ ကနးမာေရးေစာငေ႐ာကမႈ ရ႐ႏငရန အခကအခမား ရငဆငၾကေတြ႕ေနရေၾကာငးက ညညးညေျပာဆၾကသည။

သ႔ေစကာမ ကနးမာေရးေစာငေ႐ာကမႈ မရ႐သည အခကအခမား ေဖာျပေန႐ျဖင မလေလာကေပ။ သေတသအေနျဖင မညသညအတြကေၾကာင ဤသ႔ကနးမာေရးအေစာငအေ႐ာကခရန ခကခေနရသနညးဆေသာအခကက နားလညေအာင ျပလပရနလအပသည။

ထ႔ေၾကာင ၄ငးကးစကေရာဂါသညမားအား လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးရာတြင ကနးမာေရးေစာငေ႐ာကမႈခယရန ခကခပက ဥပမာကစၥရပမားျဖင ေဖာျပေပးရန ေတာငးဆရမည။

ကးစကေရာဂါသည ေဝဒနာ႐ငမား ရငဆငေနရေသာ အခကအခကမားစြာထမ ျဖစတနရာေသာ ဥပမာတစခမာ ေဆးကသမႈ စရတေပးရန ေငြေၾကးအၾကပအတညး ၾကေနရျခငးမး ျဖစသည။ ဤတြင သေတသအေနျဖင အေသးစတထပမ ေမးျမနးရနလအပသညမာ - ေဆးကသမႈစရတ မညမ႐သနညး။ ေဝဒနာ႐ငတစဥးလင ေဆးကသမႈအတြက မညမ တတစြမးႏငသနညး။ ေငြေၾကးေထာကပမႈ ရ႐ရန အလားအလာ႐ပါသလား။

ေနာကထပျဖစႏငစရာ ဥပမာတစခမာ ကးစကေရာဂါသညအေနျဖင လအမား၏ ခြျခားဆကဆခရမညက စး႐ြ႕သညစတျဖင ေဆး႐ေဆးခနးမားက ေ႐ာင႐ားေနျခငးမးျဖစသည။ သေတသအေနျဖင အေသးစတထပမေမးျမနးရနလအပသညမာ - ကးစကေရာဂါသညအေနျဖင ေဆးခနး႐ဆရာဝနႏင သနာျပမားမ ၄ငးအား တမးတဖဆကဆသညဟ ခစားရပါသလား။ ေဆးကသမႈခယရန ေဆးခနးသြားေသာအခါတြင မညသ႔ေသာအေတြ႕အၾကမး ခစားရပါသနညး။

အဆပါ ေမးခြနးမားအတြက အေျဖမားသည သေတသအတြက သကေသသာဓကမားျဖစႏငျပး စစစေလလာမႈျပရနလညး အေထာကအပျဖစေစႏငသည။

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QUOTES AS SUPPORTING DETAILS

Quotes are the words and statements expressed by a person who is considered

knowledgeable about the topic under investigation. A quote refers to what a person said

orally or in writing. It can be an indirect quote or a direct quote.

Whatever the case, the quote has to be transcribed exactly as it was expressed by the

author.

For a written statement made by an author, besides re-typing the quote just exactly as it

was expressed, the researcher mentions very precisely the source of the quote.

It is often the case that quotations will be made from words expressed by key

informants when interviewed during the data collection phase of the research project.

Depending on whether the research team is allowed by the respondent to refer to

his/her real name, the researcher may or not use the real name of the interviewee in the

final research report. If not allowed, the researcher may use a different name and

mentions that the name is changed because of the sensitivity of the topic.

One important point to remember about quotes is that anyone can be quoted by a

researcher as long as the person who is quoted is knowledgeable about the topic which

is under investigation. It is often believed that quotes only report the words of famous

persons. But quotes can also report the words of anyone whose experience, life, or

knowledge about the topic under investigation reflects well the problems addressed.

A research project investigates the environmental awareness of

young adults in Myanmar. In the introduction of the report, it

may be useful to quote an expert who has done previous studies

about environmental awareness in another country. The quote

will give some background about the notion (“environmental

awareness”) that is being studied.

The quote may appear as shown below:

As P. Harju-Autti mentions, “Environmental awareness is a very abstract concept and

measuring it in an absolute manner is not feasible”.

In addition to the quote itself, the researcher cites the

source where the quote was taken from. The reference

includes the title of the article or book, the

publisher’s name, the year of publication, the issue

number, and page number. As opposed to the quote which is

made in the body of the report, the reference is often

placed at the bottom of the page, as a footnote. This is

shown below:

P. Harju-Autti, “Measuring Environmental Awareness in nineteen States in India”, University Journal of Environmental Research and Technology, 2013, Vol. 3, Issue 5, 544.

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ေကာကႏတခကမားအား ေထာကကျပအေသးစတအခကအလကအေနျဖင အသးျပျခငး ေကာကႏတခကမားဟသည စးစမးေလလာေနသညအေၾကာငးအရာႏင စပလဥးျပး နားလညကၽြမးကငသဟ ယဆခ ထားရသတစဥး၏ အဆအမန႔ႏင အဆျပခကမားတ႔ ျဖစၾကသည။ တစစတစေယာက စကားအေနျဖင ေျပာၾကားလက ေသာ (သ႔) ေရးသားလကေသာ အရာက ေကာကႏတခကျပလပ၍ ရႏငသည။ ေကာကႏတခကသည တက႐က

သ႔မဟတ တဆငခ ျဖစႏငသည။ မညသ႔ပငျဖစေစ ေကာကႏတခကအား မလ ေရးသားသ/ေျပာၾကားသ ဆခသညအတငး အတအက ကးယေဖာျပရမည။ စာေရးဆရာ တစေယာကေယာက၏ ေရးသားခကအတြကမ မလဆခသညအတငး ၏၊ သည မလြ ျပနလညကးယ ႐ကႏပ ေဖာျပရမညအျပင မညသညေနရာမ ေကာကႏတယသညဆသညကပါ တပါတညး ေဖာျပရမည။

မားေသာအားျဖင အခကအလကစေဆာငးသည အဆငအတြငးေတြ႕ဆေမးျမနးခသည အဓက အခကအလကေပးသ မား (Key informants) ၏ ေျပာစကားမားအား ေကာကႏတခက ျပလပေလ႐သည။ သတငးေပး ေျဖၾကားသ၏ အမည နာမအား အဆးသတအစရငခစာတြင ထညသြငးအသးျပျခငး မျပျခငးမာ ၄ငး ေျဖၾကားသ၏ ခြငျပျခငး မျပျခငး ေပၚတြင မတညသည။ အကယ၍ ခြငျပခကမရပါက သေတသသည အျခားအမညနာမတစခခက အသးျပျပး အေၾကာငးအရာ၏

အကဆတမႈေၾကာင အမညလႊေျပာငး ေဖာျပထားေၾကာငးက ေဖာျပေပးရမည။ ေကာကႏတခကႏင ပတသကျပး သတျပရနမာ စးစမးေလလာေနသည အေၾကာငးအရာႏင ပတသကျပး ႏစပ

ကၽြမးကငသ မညသ႔ကမဆ ေကာကႏတကးကားႏငသည။ ေကာကႏတကးကားခကသည ထင႐ားေကာၾကားသ တ႔၏

အဆအမန႔မားသာ ျဖစၾကသညဟ မားေသာအားျဖင ယၾကညယဆေလ႐သည။ အမနစငစစ မညသမဆ ၄ငး၏ဘဝ၊ အေတြ႕အၾက၊ အသပညာသည ေလလာဆအေၾကာငးအရာႏင စပဆကေနျပး ကငတြယေနသည ျပနာရပမားအား ေကာငးစြာ ထငဟပႏငျခငး႐ပါက ေကာကႏတကးကား၍ ရသည။

သေတသနစမကနးတစခသည ျမနမာျပည႐ အ႐ြယေရာကျပး လငယမား၏ သဘာဝပတဝနးကင အသအျမင

ႏးၾကားမႈ အေၾကာငး စးစမးေလလာသညဆပါစ႔။ အစရငခစာ မတဆကပငးတြင တျခားတႏငင၌ သဘာဝပတဝနးကင အသအျမင ႏးၾကားမႈ အေၾကာငး ေလလာခဖးသ ပညာ႐ငတစဥးဥး၏ အဆအမန႔အား ေကာကႏတေဖာျပႏငလင အသးတညေပလမမည။ အဆပါ ေကာကႏတခကသည ေလလာေနသည အေၾကာငးအရာ (“သဘာဝပတဝနးကင အသအျမင ႏးၾကားမႈ”) ၏ ေနာကေၾကာငးရာဇဝင အခ႕က ေဖာျပႏငပါလမမည။

ေကာကႏတခကသည ေအာကေဖာျပပါအတငး ျဖစႏငသည။

ပ ဟာဂ အကတ ဆခသညအတငး “သဘာဝပတဝနးကငဆငရာ အသအျမင ႏးၾကားမႈမာ လကဆပလကကငျပရန

ခကခေသာ သေဘာတရားတစချဖစျပး ၄ငးအား တတကကတငးတာရနမာ လကေတြ႕ကေသာ ကစၥမဟတေခ။” ၁

၄ငးေကာကႏတခက၏ ေနာကဆကတြအေနျဖင သေတသသည အဆပါ ေကာကႏတခကအား မညသညေနရာမ

ရယေၾကာငးက အကးအကားျပဆရသည။ အကးအကားေဖာျပရာတြင ေဆာငးပါး (သ႔) စာအပ၏ ေခါငးစဥ၊ ထတေဝသအမည၊ ထတေဝသညႏစ၊ အတြအမတႏင စာမကႏာတ႔ပါဝငရမည။ အစရငခစာ၏ စာကယပငးတြင ေဖာျပသည ေကာကႏတခကမား ႏငမတပ အကးအကားက စာမကႏာေအာကေျခတြင ေအာကေျခမတစအျဖစေဖာျပေပးရမည။ ေအာကတြင ေဖာျပထားသညက ၾကညပါ။

၁ ပ ဟာဂ အကတ “အႏၵယ႐ျပညနယတစဆယကးခတြင သဘာဝပတဝနးကင ကၽြမးဝငမႈအေၾကာငးတငးတာျခငး”၊ ပတဝနးကင သေတသနႏင နညးပညာ တကသလဂာနယ၊ ၂၀၁၃၊ အတြ ၃၊ အမတ ၅၊ ၅၄၄

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A research project about livelihood in rural communities can quote words of a farmer

because his statement is well-informed and clearly expresses details about the difficult

situation that farmers face in their daily life.

Direct Quotes

Direct quote is made as follows:

– The president said, “the situation will improve”.

Note that the words of the person quoted have to be exactly the same as what he/she

said and be enclosed with quotation marks “…….”.

Indirect Quotes

• Indirect quote is made as follows:

– The president said that the situation will improve.

– According to the president, everyone has to agree for the situation to

improve.

Note here that there are no quotation marks. Only the term ‘that’ is added as a link

between the two clauses.

For indirect quotations the following verbs are often needed:

assert indicate suggest

insist agree claim

report state write

declare mention say

STATISTICS AS SUPPORTING INFORMATION

Data collected from a survey conducted during the research project can be turned into

statistics by the researcher as it was explained in the ‘Analysis of Quantitative Data’

Chapter. Data collected will be turned into various types of graphs or charts as shown

below. Besides the graphic representation, all data are given explanations by the

researcher.

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ေကးလကအစအဖြ႕မား၏ အသကေမြးမႈလပငနးအေၾကာငး သေတသနျပရာတြင လယသမားတစဥး၏ ေျပာစကား မားက ကးကားႏငသည။ အဘယေၾကာငဆေသာ ၄ငး၏ ေျပာၾကားခကသညလယသမားမား ေန႔စဥရငဆငၾကေတြ႕ ေနရ ေသာ အေသးစတအခကအခမားက ႐ငး႐ငးလငးလငးႏင ေကာငးစြာ ေဖာျပႏငစြမး ႐ျခငးေၾကာငျဖစသည။

တက႐ကေကာကႏတကးကားခက တက႐ကေကာကႏတ ကးကားခကဟသည ေအာကပါအတငးျဖစသည။

– “အေျခအေနေကာငးမြနလာလမမယ” ဟသမၼတက ေျပာၾကားခသည။

ေျပာၾကားသ၏ စကားရပအား ၄ငးေျပာၾကားခသညအတငး ၏၊ သည မလြ ေကာကႏတကးကားရမညျဖစျပး မကေတာင အဖြငအပတ “…….” ထ ထညသြငးထားရမည။

တဆငခေကာကႏတကးကားခကမား

• တဆငခ ေကာကႏတကးကားခကဟသည ေအာကပါအတငးျဖစသည။

– အေျခအေနေကာငးမြနလာလမမညဟ သမၼတမ ေျပာၾကားခသည။

– သမၼတ၏ ေျပာၾကားခကအတငး လတငးကလညး အေျခအေနေကာငးမြနလာလမမညဟ

သေဘာတ ယဆလကၾကေလသည။

ဤတြင မကေတာငအဖြငအပတ မပါသညက သတျပရမည။ ‘မညဟ’ ဟေသာ စကားလးျဖငသာ စကားရပႏစခအား ဆကစပေပးထားသည။ တဆငခ ေကာကႏတကးကားခကမားအတြက ပမနအားျဖင ေအာကပါၾကယာမား အသးျပၾက

ပါသည။ assert indicate suggest

insist agree claim

report state write

declare mention say

စာရငးအငးမားအား ေထာကကျပ အေသးစတအခကအလကအေနျဖင အသးျပျခငး သေတသနစမကနးအတြငး ျပလပေသာစစတမးမားမာ စေဆာငးရ႐ေသာ အခကအလကမားအား ‘အေရအတြကဆင ရာ အခကအလကမားအား စစစၾကညျခငး’ အခနးတြင ႐ငးလငးျပဆထားသညအတငး စာရငးအငး ကနးဂဏနးမား အျဖစ ေျပာငးလ ျဖညသြငးႏငသည။ စေဆာငးျပး အခကအလကမားအား ေအာကတြင ေဖာျပထားသကသ႔ ဇယားကြက၊ စကဝငးစတ စသညပသဏၭာန အမးအစား ေျမာကျမားစြာျဖင ေဖာျပႏငသည။ ဇယားကြက ကနးဂဏာနးျပမႈမားအျပင အဆပါ အခကအလကမားႏင ပတသကျပး သေတသမ ႐ငးလငးခက ေပးရမည။

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A research project investigates environmental of young adults in

Myanmar. A survey was conducted in various parts of the country.

The graph shown below is about respondents living in the Mon

State. Besides the graph, it is important to give explanations.

Knowledge about environmental protection, as the graph above shows, is clearly gained through the media. More than 60% of the respondents mention that they know about the issue by reading newspapers or watching TV and a little more than 50% by listening to radio. The combined part of media (internet included) is therefore predominant. By contrast, less than 30% of the respondents have gained knowledge about the issue through discussion with colleagues at work. When environmental protection campaigns are initiated by various stakeholders (be they governmental or from the civil society), the media will have to be considered as the main avenue for disseminating messages about environmental protection.

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သေတသနစမကနးတစခသည အ႐ြယေရာကျပး လငယမား၏ သဘာဝပတဝနးကငဆငရာ အသပညာ ဗဟသတအေၾကာငး စးစမးေလလာထားသည။ ျမနမာႏငငေနရာအႏ႕အျပားတြင စစတမးေကာကယမႈတစခလညး ျပလပထားသည။ ေအာကပါ ဇယားကြကတြင မြနျပညနယမ စစတမးေျဖဆေပးသမားအား ေဖာျပထားေပးသည။ ဇယားကြကေဖာျပေပးရမညအျပင ႐ငးလငးခကေပးရနမာလညး အေရးၾကးသည။

အထကပါ ဇယားအရ ႐ငးလငးေသခာစြာ သရသညမာ သဘာဝပတဝနးကင ထနးသမးေစာငေ႐ာကေရး ဆငရာ ဗဟသတသည မဒယာမ တဆငရ႐ေၾကာငးပငျဖစသည။ ၆၀ % မကေသာ ေျဖၾကားသမားက ၄ငးတ႔သည သဘာဝပတဝနးကငအေၾကာငးက သတငးစာဖတျခငး သ႔မဟတက တဗၾကညျခငးျဖင သ႐ရေၾကာငး ေျဖဆျပး ၅၀% သာသာမေလာကက ေရဒယ နားေထာငျခငးျဖင သ႐ေၾကာငး ေဖာျပၾကသည။ သ႔ျဖစပါ၍ (အငတာနက အပါအဝင) မဒယာအမးအစားေပါငးစမ အဓက ကလြနးလသည။ ၄ငးႏင ဆန႔ကငစြာ ၃၀% ပငမျပညေသာ ေျဖဆသမားက အလပတြင လပေဖာကငဖကမားႏင ေဆြးေႏြးရငး အဆပါ ဗဟသတက ရ႐ၾကသညဟ ဆသည။ (အစးရျဖစေစ၊ အရပဘက အဖြ႕အစညးမားမ ျဖစေစ) အဖြ႕အစညးေပါငးစမ သဘာဝပတဝနးကင ထနးသမးေစာငေ႐ာကေရးအတြက အငတကအားတက လပ႐ားၾကေသာအခါ မဒယာအား အေရးပါေသာ သတငးျဖန႔ျဖးေရး ၾကားခလကနကအျဖစ အသးျပရန စဥးစားသငသည။

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Another example is shown below with explanations given by the researcher in addition

to the graphic representation.

The chapter about ‘Using Existing Data’ detailed how existing data outside of the

research project may be used. When using existing data, the research explains the

relevance of this data for the research and why the data is reliable.

Just like for quotations, the researcher will cite the source where the statistics are taken

from.

For instance, if the statistics are based on data collected from a specific survey, the

researcher will start the sentence with the following:

According to the data collected from the survey conducted by _____________

(name of the organization), XX% of persons who ……

If statistics are taken from official reports, the researcher will start the sentence with the

following:

According to the report produced by ________ (name of the

organization/institution), XX% of persons who …..

Answers to the question about the practice of disposing rubbish show that more than one third of the respondents choose to burn home rubbish. Few respondents declare throwing rubbish in the river but many report throwing them in streams with the result that they probably end up in the river or contribute to clog the streams themselves. Only 18% of the respondents declare disposing rubbish by using the city rubbish collection truck. This rather small number would warrant further research: why do so few people use the city rubbish collecting truck? Is the service not reliable enough for people to use it? Is there mistrust from the people towards the service provided by the city council?

Burnt (36%)

City rubbish collection truck (18%)

In the stream (13.2%)

Dump area designated by city council (13%)

Rubbish bin on side street (11%)

Buried (6%)

In the river (2.8%)

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ေအာကတြင ေဖာျပထားသညအျခားတပါးေသာဥပမာတစခတြငဇယားကြကႏငတကြသေတသ၏

ျဖညစြက႐ငးလငးခကကပါ ေဖာျပထားသည။

‘႐ရငးစြအခကအလကမားက အသးျပျခငး’ အခနးတြင လက႐ သေတသနျပငပမ လာေသာ ႐ရငးစြ အခကအလကမား က မညသ႔မညပအသးျပရသညက အေသးစတ ေဖာျပထားသည။ ၄ငး႐ရငးစြ အခကအလကမားက အသးျပသညအခါ အဆပါ အခကအလကမားသည လကရသေတသနတြင အကးဝငသကဆငေၾကာငးႏင မညသညအတြကေၾကာင ကးကားေလာကစရာ ျဖစေၾကာငးက ႐ငးျပေပးရနလသည။ ေကာကႏတခကမားတြငသကသ႔ပင သေတသသည အဆပါ အခကအလကမားအား မညသညေနရာမ ယငငအသးျပ သညက အကးအကားျပရမည။

ဥပမာ အကယ၍ စာရငးဇယားမားအား စစတမးတစခခမ စေဆာငးရ႐ေသာ အခကအလကမားေပၚတြင မတညျပး ျပလပထားသည ဆပါက သေတသသည ေအာကပါဝါကျဖင စတငရမည။

________________ (အဖြ႕အစညးအမည) မ ျပလပေသာ စစတမးမ စေဆာငးရ႐သည အခကအလကမား

အရ XX% မေသာ လဥးေရသည . . .

အကယ၍ စာရငးဇယားမားအား တရားဝငအစရငခစာမားမ ရ႐သည ဆပါက သေတသအေနျဖင ေအာကပါဝါကျဖင စတငရမည။

________________ (အဖြ႕အစညးအမည) မ ျပလပေသာ စစတမးအရ XX% မေသာ လဥးေရသည . . .

အမႈကမညသ႔စြန႔ပစသနညးဆေသာ ေမးခြနးက ေျဖဆေသာ အေျဖမားအရ သးပတစပထကမကေသာ ေျဖၾကားသတ႔သည အမတြငးအမႈကက မး႐႕ပစၾကသည။ အနညးစမာ ျမစထသ႔ စြန႔ပစသညဟ ေျဖၾကားထားသည။ အမားစမာမ ေခာငးထသ႔ စြန႔ပစၾကရာ ၄ငးမတဆင ျမစထသ႔ စးဆငးသြားသည။ သ႔မဟတကလညး ေျမာငးဝတြင ပတဆ႔သြားတတသည။ ၁၈% မသာ အမႈကစြန႔ပစရန စညပငအမႈကကားက အသးျပၾကသည။ အဆပါ လနညးစေၾကာင သေတသန ထပမျပလပရန လအပလာသညမာ - အဘယေၾကာင လနညးစသာ စညပငအမႈကကားက အသးျပသနညး။ အဆပါ ဝနေဆာငမႈသည လမားအတြက စတေကနပအားကးေလာကစရာ မ႐၍ေလာ။ ျမ႕ေတာစညပငမ ေဆာင႐ြကေပးေသာ အဆပါ ဝနေဆာငမႈအား ျပညသ႔ဘကမ မယၾကညမႈ တစတရာ ႐ေနပါသေလာ။

Burnt (36%)

City rubbish collection truck (18%)

In the stream (13.2%)

Dump area designated by city council (13%)

Rubbish bin on side street (11%)

Buried (6%)

In the river (2.8%)

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Statistical data taken from other studies are especially useful for comparative purposes.

But when using them for comparative purposes, the researcher must ensure that the

comparison makes sense. The comparison can show two opposing sets of data. It can

also show similar problems in different contexts or times.

TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THE CHAPTER ARE:

Supporting details can be examples, quotes, or statistical data;

Quotes reports the words of a person knowledgeable about the problem

addressed and who gives an informative perspective about this problem;

Both examples and statistical data taken from existing studies can be used for

comparative purposes.

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အျခား ေလလာခကမားမ လာေသာစာရငးအငးဆငရာ အခကအလကမားသည ႏငးယဥေလလာမႈျပရန အလြနတရာ

အသးဝငသည။ သ႔ေသာလညး ၄ငးတ႔အား ႏငးယဥေလလာရန အသးျပသညအခါတြင ႏငးယဥခကသည ယတ႐ရန လအပသည။ ႏငးယဥေလလာခကတြင ဆန႔ကငဘက အခကအလကႏစစက ျပႏငသည။ မတညေသာ အေျခအေန

အခနအခါမားအတြငးမ ဆငတ႐းမား ျပနာရပမားကလညး ျပသႏငသည။

အခပအားျဖင ဤအခနးတြင မတသားရန လအပေသာ အဓကအခကမားမာ -

ေထာကကျပ အေသးစတ အခကအလကမားမာ ဥပမာမား (သ႔) ေကာကႏတကးကားခကမား (သ႔)

စာရငးအငး အခကအလကမား ျဖစႏငသည။

ေကာကႏတကးကားရာတြင သကဆငရာ ျပနာရပႏင ပတသကျပး ကၽြမးကငသ၊ ျပနာရပက ခကက

လကက ျမငေအာငျပလပေျပာဆႏငသအား ကးကားေလ႐သည။

႐ရငးစြ ေလလာခကမားမ ရ႐ေသာ ဥပမာျဖစေစ၊ စာရငးအငး အခကအလကမားျဖစေစ ႏငးယဥေလလာရန

အသးျပႏငသည။

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INTERMEDIATE 20. WRITING A REPORT

THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT:

The importance of writing a report in clear way for readers that may or may not

be familiar with the problem addressed;

The need to follow a typical outline for report-writing;

The use of supporting details when writing the analysis.

A report is a document written by the researcher(s) involved in the research process.

The report disseminates the findings of the research. The report has therefore to be

clear in its contents and wording. Readers who may not have knowledge about the

problem addressed by the report should be able to gain knowledge about it, its causes,

and its consequences in a very informative and clear way.

Researchers do not write a report for themselves but for future readers. These

future readers may be experts in the field, donors, politicians, or people who

implement future projects based on the findings of the report…Because of this

diversity of future readers, the emphasis must be on the clarity of the report.

A report is the final phase of the research project, and also one of the most important

elements in the entire research project. A report conveys the general purpose of the

research project, explains the different steps followed to achieve these purposes,

discusses the data, and formulates conclusions (including sometimes

recommendations) based on the discussion of the data.

FIRST TWO PAGES OF THE REPORT

The research report starts with the research title and the executive summary.

1. Research title: the title has to give a concise idea of what will be discussed in the

report.

This usually means the three following information: (a) the problem or issue addressed

by the research project, (b) the types of populations targeted by the research project;

and (c) the area in which the research project was conducted.

2. Executive Summary (recommended): the executive summary is written for future

readers who most likely do not have time to read the entire report. It is NOT

intended to explain how the researchers conducted the research.

Therefore, the executive summary usually has the following sections: (a) purpose of

the research; (b) main findings; (3) and (possibly) recommendations, if the research

project is intended to support advocacy activities about the problem addressed by the

project.

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အလယအလတအဆင ၂၀ - အစရငခစာေရးသားျခငး ဤအခနးတြင

အစရငခစာေရးသားရာတြင ေဖာျပပါ ျပနာရပႏင အစမးသကသကျဖစေနေသာ စာဖတသမား ႐ငး႐ငး လငးလငး သျမငေအာင ေရးသားရန

အစရငခစာေရးသားျခငးဆငရာ မက လကနာရနလအပပ စစစေလလာခက ေရးသားေသာအခါ ေထာကကျပ အေသးစတအခကအလကမားအား အသးျပျခငး

အေၾကာငးတ႔က ေဖာျပထားပါသည။

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အစရငခစာဟသည သေတသနလပငနးစဥတြင ပါဝငေသာ သေတသမ ျပစေရးသားလကသည စာတမးတစခ ျဖစသည။ အစရငခစာသည သေတသန ေတြ႕႐ခကမားက ျပနလညျဖန႔ေဝေပးသည။ သ႔ျဖစပါ၍ အစရငခစာပါ အေၾကာငးအရာပငးႏင စကားလး အသးအႏနးတ႔သည ႐ငးလငးမႈ႐ရမည။ အစရငခစာတြင ထညသြငး ေဖာျပထားသည ျပနာႏင ကၽြမးဝငမႈ မ႐ေသာ စာဖတသပငလင မညသညနညးႏင မဆ၄ငးျပနာရပအေၾကာငး၊ ျပနာ၏အေၾကာငးတရားမား၊ ဆငက အကးသကေရာကမႈမား အေၾကာငးက ခကကလကကႏင ႐ငးလငးစြာသျမငေစရမည။ သေတသမားသည အစရငခစာက ၄ငးတ႔ဘာသာ ဖတရနေရးသားသည မဟတ။ ေနာကပငးတြငဖတ႐မည စာဖတသမား အတြက ေရးသားျခငးျဖစသည။ စာဖတသမားမာ အဆပါ နယပယတြင ကၽြမးကငသမား (သ႔) အလ႐ငမား (သ႔) ႏငငေရး သမားမား (သ႔) အစရငခစာပါ ေတြ႕႐ခကမားက အေျချပျပး ေနာကတြင စမကနးမား အေကာငအထည ေဖာမညလမား စသညစသညျဖင . . . စာဖတသ အမးအစားမား ျပားလြနးလသညျဖစ၍ အစရငခစာက ႐ငး႐ငးလငးလငး ႐ေစရန အထး အေလးေပးရမည။ အစရငခစာသည သေတသနစမကနး၏ ေနာကဆးအဆငျဖစျပး ၄ငးစမကနး၏ အေရးအၾကးဆး အစတအပငး တစခလညး ျဖစသည။ အစရငခစာသည သေတသနစမကနး၏ ေယဘယရည႐ြယခကမားက ေဖာျပေပးႏငသည။ အဆပါ ရည႐ြယခကမားက ဆကေရာက ျပညမေအာင အဆငဆင ေဆာင႐ြကခရပက ႐ငးျပေပးႏငသည။ အခကအလကမားက ေဆြးေႏြးတငျပႏငသည။အဆပါ ေဆြးေႏြးခကေပၚမတညျပးေကာကခကဆြသားခကမား (အပါအဝငတခါတရ အၾကေပးခကမား) ျပလပေပးႏငသ ည။

အစရငခစာ၏ ပထမစာႏစမကႏာ

သေတသနအစရငခစာက သေတသနေခါငးစဥ၊ မတတမးအကဥးခပတ႔ျဖင စတငရမည။

၁။သေတသနေခါငးစဥ - ေခ ါငးစဥက ျမင႐မျဖင အစရငခစာတြင မညသညကစၥရပအား ေဆြးေႏြးတငျပလမမညက တတပပသေစရမည။ ေခါငးစဥသည ေဖာျပပါအခကသးခကက ေဖာျပေပးႏငရမည။ ၄ငးတ႔မာ (က) သေတသနစမကနး တငျပ ေျဖ႐ငးရနၾကးစားသည ျပနာ (သ႔) ကစၥရပ (ခ) သေတသန စမကနး ရညစးသည လဥးေရအမးအစား (ဂ)

သေတသန စမကနး ျပလပရာ အရပေဒသတ႔ ျဖစၾကသည။

၂။မတတမးအကဥးခပ (ေထာကခအၾကျပခက) - မတတမးအကဥးခပသည ေနာကပငးတြင ဖတ႐မညစာဖတ သမား၊ အထးသျဖင အစရငခစာ အစအဆး ဖတ႐ရန အခနမေပးႏငသမားအတြက ေရးသားျခငး ျဖစသည။ မတတမး အကဥးခပတြင သေတသနက မညကသ႔ ေဆာင႐ြကခပက တငျပရနရည႐ြယရငးမ႐ေပ။ မတတမးအကဥးခပတြင ေဖာျပပါအပငးမားပါဝငသည။ ၄ငးတ႔မာ (က) သေတသန၏ရည႐ြယခက (ခ) အဓက

ေတြ႕႐ခကမား (၃)အကယ၍သေတသနစမကနးသည ေျဖ႐ငးရနၾကးစားေနေသာ ျပနာရပမားႏင

စပလဥးျပးလပေဆာငသငသညမားကေထာကခတငျပလပါကေထာကခအၾကျပခကမားက (ထညသြငးေကာငး)

ထညသြငးႏငသည။

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CONTEXT OF THE RESEARCH

After the research title and the executive summary, the report gives descriptions about

the context of the research.

3. Introduction: Why the research project was developed, with what objectives, and

(possibly) what hypothesis is behind the project are questions to be addressed in this

section.

4. Background of the research or Overview of the Problem: A brief description of

the general context in which the issue under study developed.

5. Literature review: A discussion of the sources available and the state of the

knowledge of the issue under study.

Introduction

The main objective of this research is to identify how the CCA trained

teachers see CCA integration in the curriculum of monastic schools. A

secondary objective is an attempt to assess the positive and negative

effects of CCA integration in the monastic schools.

Background

The Child Centered Approach (CCA) was introduced in Myanmar in the late

1990s as way to promote children’s creativity, analytical skills,

critical thinking, and problem solving skills. With the help ofUNICEF

and JICA, the Ministry of Education started to train primary school

teachers. Today CCA has also been adopted in monastic schools.

According to Westwood, “CCA methods are considered as the best practice

for children [...] Moreover, most CCA methods are concerned not only

with knowledge construction but also with the development of effective

learning strategies. That is why in CCA the process of learning is often

considered more important than the acquisition of actual knowledge”.

(What teachers need to know, Peter Westwood, 2008, Page-26&27)

Literature Review

When preparing and conducting the research, the following secondary

sources were reviewed:

- A research paper published by Marie Lall. It is about CCA in

monastic schools in Myanmar.

- P. Westwood’s book “What teachers need to know”. The author

discusses about direct teaching methods, student-centred methods

and what are the effective teaching methods. Moreover, the book

also assesses the various ways of students’ learning assessment as

well as why so many teachers and some education authorities seem

reluctant to adopt the effective teaching methods came out of

researches.

- Etc.

Note: This example is a much shortened version of a report produced as

an exercise developed during a training on social research methods; it

is given here for clarification purposes only.

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သေတသနမေဘာင

သေတသနေခါငးစဥႏငမတတမးအကဥးခပေနာကတြငသေတသနမေဘာငအားအစရငခစာတြင႐ငးလငးတငျပရမည။ ၃။နဒါနး - သေတသနစမကနးအားအဘယေၾကာင ေဖာေဆာငခရပ၊မညသညရည႐ြယခကမားျဖင ေဖာေဆာငခရပႏင (ျဖစႏငလင) မညသညထငျမငယဆခကသညစမကနးေနာကကြယတြင႐ေၾကာငးစေသာေမးခြနးမား အားယငးအပငး တြငတငျပရမည။ ၄။သေတသနေနာကခရာဇဝငႏငျပနာရပ၏ေယဘယအျမင -ေလလာသညျပနာရပ ေပၚေပါကလာပ၏

ေယဘယအေနအထားကအကဥးခပေဖာျပေပးပါ။ ၅။သကဆငရာစာအပစာတမးေလလာခက - အခကအလကအရငးျမစမားအေၾကာငးေဆြးေႏြးတငျပခကႏင ေလလာဆ

ျပနာရပႏငစပလဥးျပးသ႐နားလညထားသညအဆငကတငျပပါ။

နဒါနး သေတသန၏ အဓကရည႐ြယခကမာစစေအသငတနးဆငးဆရာမားအေနျဖင ဘနးၾကးေကာငးမားတြင စစေအထညသြငးအသးျပသည ကစၥကမညသ႔မညပ ႐ျမငၾကပကေထာကလမးရန ျဖစသည။ ဒတယရည႐ြယခကမာဘနးၾကးေကာငးမားတြင စစေအထညသြငးအသးျပျခငး၏ အကးအျပစတ႔ကေလလာဆနးစစရန ျဖစသည။

ေနာကခရာဇဝင ကေလးမား၏ တထြငဖနတးမႈစြမးရည၊ စစစေလလာႏငစြမး၊ ကးေၾကာငးဆငျခငေဝဖန သးသပႏငစြမး ႏင ျပနာေျဖ႐ငးႏငစြမးတ႔ ျမငတငေပးႏငရနအလ႔ငာကေလးဗဟျပသငၾကားနညး (Child Centre Approach-CCA) က ျမနမာႏငငတြင ၁၉၉၀ ခႏစမား ေႏာငးပငးတြင မတဆကအသးျပလာသည။ UNICEF ႏင JICA တ႔၏ ကညမႈျဖင ပညာေရးဝနၾကးဌာနသည မလတနးဆရာမားအားစတင ေလကငသငၾကားေပးခသည။ လက႐တြင စစေအနညးနာကဘနးၾကးေကာငးမားတြငပါ အသးျပလာျပျဖစသည။ ဝကစဝတဒ၏ အဆအရ “စစေအသည ကေလးမားအတြက အေကာငးဆးေသာသငၾကားနညးအျဖစ ယဆထားသည။ [. . . ] သညအျပင စစေအနညးနာအမားစသည အသပညာျဖညတငးတညေဆာကျခငးႏင သာမကထထမမေလလာဆညးပးႏငမည နညးလမးမားဖြျဖးေရးႏငပါ သကဆငသည။ သ႔ျဖစပါ၍ စစေအတြင ေလလာသငယသည ျဖစစဥသည အသပညာရ႐ေရးထကပင ပမအေရးပါသညဟယဆသည။” (What teachers need to know ၊ ပတာဝကစဝတဒ၊ ၂၀၀၈၊ စာ - ၂၆၊ ၂၇)

သကဆငရာစာအပစာတမးေလလာခက

သေတသနအား ျပငဆငရာတြငႏင ျပလပေနစဥတြင ေအာကပါ တဆငခအရငးျမစမားအားေလလာရမည။ - ေမရေလာေရးသားထတေဝေသာသေတသနစာတမးတစေစာင။ ျမနမာျပည႐ ဘနးၾကးေကာငးမားမ

စစေအအေၾကာငးတငျပထားျခငးျဖစသည။ - ပ၊ ဝကစဝတဒ၏ စာအပ “What teachers need to know”။ စာေရးသသည တက႐ကသငၾကားနညးမား၊ ေကာငးသားဗဟျပ

သငၾကားနညးမား၊ မညသ႔ေသာနညးလမးမားသည ထေရာကေသာသငၾကားနညးမား ျဖစေၾကာငးကေဆြးေႏြးတငျပထားသည။ ထ႔အျပင စာအပတြင ေကာငးသားမား၏ သငယမႈပငးဆငရာကေလလာဆနးစစႏငသည နညးလမးမားကလညးေလလာတငျပထားသည။ ၄ငးနညးတ အဘယေၾကာင ဆရာမားႏင ပညာေရးဆငရာအာဏာပင မားအေနျဖင သေတသနမ ထြကေပၚလာေသာရလဒမားကအသးျပရန တြန႔ဆတေနရသနညးဆေသာအခကကပါ တငျပထားသည။

- စသည စသညျဖင . . .

သတျပရန - ဤဥပမာသည လမႈသေတသနနညးနပငးဆငရာသငခနးစာအတြက ထတႏတထားေသာအစရငခစာပစငယမသာျဖစျပး ႐ငးလငးျမငသာေစေရးအတြကသာရည႐ြယရငးျဖစသည။

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In the example given above about perceptions of CCA teaching methods

(“Background” section), it is important to note that Westwood’s quotation was cited in

full. The researcher makes it clear about who said what. The researcher does NOT

copy the words of an author as if these words were the researcher’s own words.

Following international practices of report-writing, any quotation reporting the

words of an author should be re-transcribed just as they appear in the source

cited by the author (whether it is taken from a report, an article, a book, etc.).

CONDUCT OF THE RESEARCH

After describing the general context of the project, the report explains how it was

conducted.

5. Research methods used: The researchers mention whether they chose quantitative

research methods, qualitative research methods, or both.

If it is relevant, the researchers may also try to:

Explain the relevance of the research methods used in relation to its purpose

(why they choose some research methods and not others);

Identify the variable under study (with detail about the independent/dependent

variables);

Provide details about the categories created for studying the variable(s) (if

relevant);

Provide details about the sample, sampling techniques, number of persons

involved, age group, gender balance, and social status.

Once explanations of the selected research methods are given, the researchers clarify

the limitations and obstacles to the research.

6. Limitations to the research: Some limits are known by researchers right at the

beginning of the project, some are known in the course of the research process;

Time constraints (how much time was allocated to researcher to conduct

research);

Budget constraints;

Explanations as to whether these constraints forced researchers to select

specific research methods);

Obstacles encountered when conducting research (if relevant) like: reluctance

of respondents to speak or lack of cooperation from any authorities involved in

the research process.

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အထကေဖာျပပါ ဥပမာသည စစေအသငၾကားနညးအေပၚ ထငျမငယဆခက အေၾကာငး (“ေနာကခရာဇဝင”အပငး)

ျဖစသည။ ဝကစဝတဒ၏ စကားက ေကာကႏတကးကားရာတြင အျပညအဝေဖာျပထားျခငးက အေရးတၾကး သတျပရန လအပသည။ သေတသအေနႏင မညသမညဝါ ေျပာဆေၾကာငးက ႐ငးလငးျမငသာေအာင တငျပေပးရမည။ သေတသ

သည စာေရးသေျပာစကားက ကးယျပး မမစကားျပလပျခငးမး လးဝမ႐ေစရ။ ႏငငတကာစႏနးႏင ညေသာ အစရငခစာ ေရးထးက လကနာသညအေနျဖင စာေရးသတစဥး၏ ေကာကႏတ ကးကားခက

က မလရငးျမစတြင စာေရးသေဖာျပထားသညအတငး တေသြမတမး ျပနလညပႏပေဖာျပရမည။ သေတသနလပေဆာငျခငး

သေတသနစမကနး၏ ေယဘယအေၾကာငးအရာပငးက ေဖာျပျပးသညေနာကတြင ၄ငးသေတသနက မညသ႔မည ပေဆာင႐ြကခပက အစရငခစာတြင ဆကလကေဖာျပရမည။ ၅။အသးျပခေသာ သေတသနနညးလမး - သေတသမားအေနျဖင အေရအတြက သေတသနနညး (သ႔) အရညအခငး သေတသနနညး (သ႔) ႏစနညးစလး အသးျပခေၾကာငးက ေဖာျပရမည။ အကယ၍ သကဆငအကးဝငပါက သေတသမားအေနျဖင ဆကလကျပး -

သေတသနရည႐ြယခကႏင စပလဥးျပး အသးျပခေသာ သေတသနနညးလမးမား၏ အကးဝငသကဆငပက

႐ငးျပေပးပါ။ (သေတသမားအေနျဖင အဘယေၾကာင ဤနညးက သးျပးအဘယေၾကာင ထနညးက အသးမျပ

ခေၾကာငး)

(လြတလပကနး႐င/ မခကနး႐ငအေသးစတႏငတကြ) ေလလာသည ကနး႐ငမား အေၾကာငးက ေဖာျပပါ။

(အကယ၍သကဆငပါက) ကနး႐င (မား) အား ေလလာရနအတြက ဖနတးလကေသာ အပစကြမား

အေၾကာငးက အေသးစတတငျပေပးပါ။

နမနာ၊ နမနာေကာကယနညးမား၊ ပါဝငေသာလအေရအတြက၊ အသကအ႐ြယအပစ၊ ကား မ အေရအတြက

မေခ၊ လမႈေရး အဆငအတနးတ႔က အေသးစတ ေဖာျပေပးပါ။

ေ႐ြးခယအသးျပခေသာ သေတသနနညးလမးမားအေၾကာငးက ႐ငးလငးတငျပျပးသညႏငတျပငနက သေတသန

အတြက အတားအဆးအခကအခမား အေၾကာငးက ႐ငးျပေပးရမည။ ၆။သေတသနအတြက အခကအခမား - အခ႕အခကအခမားသည သေတသနစမကနး အစကတညးက သ႐ရျပးအခ႕ မာမ စမကနး ကာလအေတာအတြငးမသာ သ႐ရသည။

အခနအကန႔အသတ (သေတသနျပလပရန သေတသအားအခနမညမ ေပးထားသနညး)။

ဘ႑ာေရး ကန႔သတခက။

အဆပါကန႔သတခကမားေၾကာင သေတသနနညးလမး တစတရာက မျဖစမေန ေ႐ြးခယခရပါက ႐ငးလငး

ခကေပးရန။

(သကဆငမႈ႐ပါက) သေတသနျပလပေနစဥ ရငဆငၾကေတြ႕ခရေသာ အတားအဆးမား။ ဥပမာ -

ေမးခြနးေျဖၾကားသညသမား ေျဖၾကားေပးရန တ႔ဆငးေနျခငး၊ သေတသနလပငနးစဥတြင ပါဝငသည

အာဏာပငမားမ ပးေပါငးပါဝငမႈျခငး အစရေသာ ကစၥရပမား။

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RESULTS OF THE RESEARCH

It is important to spend time on the analysis. A research project is not simply

about collecting data, it is also about putting this data into perspective, that is,

what can be learned from this data.

The researcher should not think that the figures or the data “speak for

themselves”!

8. Presentation of the findings and Analysis: There are various structures that

researchers can follow in order to present the research findings and analyze them.

Depending on the research topic, the researcher may choose one of the three structures

(a) or (b) or (c):

(a) Structure divided into information about Attitude, Knowledge, and

Practices that break from what was initially thought about the issue under

study: how does the data collected during the research differ from what was

known about the topic before conducting the research; how does it confirm it?

OR

(b) Statements with supporting evidence arranged in order of importance as

defined by informants involved in the research;

OR

Methodology or Research Methods used

This research was conducted in a nunnery education school from

Mingalardon Township, Yangon Division. The research used both

qualitative and quantitative measurements. The latter, in the

form of a survey questionnaire, was based on a convenience

sampling method. As for the qualitative research, four semi-

structured interviews with teachers were separately conducted.

Each interview lasted around about one hour. The findings are

based on the analysis of the information given by these teachers

alone.

Limitations to the research

The quantitative research based on a survey questionnaire used

convenience sampling and for the qualitative research 4 teachers

from one nunnery education school were interviewed. Therefore,

though the research sampling site may not represent the rest of

teachers working in monastic/nunnery education schools, the

findings will certainly be reliable and useful mainly for the

nunnery education sector and for further research as well.

Note: This example is a much shortened version of a report

produced as an exercise developed during a training on social

research methods; it is given here for clarification purposes

only.

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သေတသနရလဒမား စစစေလလာမႈအပငးတြင အခနေသခာေပးရန အလြနအေရးၾကးသည။ သေတသနစမကနးဟသည အခကအလက

စေဆာငး႐မသာ မဟတေပ။ အခကအလကမားက အျမင႐ေထာငတစခအျဖစ ေျပာငးလေပးရမညျဖစျပး ၄ငးမဘာက

ေလလာႏငမညနညးဟ၍ ပငျဖစသည။ သေတသအေနျဖင ကနးဂဏနးဇယားကြကမား က “သဘာသာေျပာလမမည”ဟမယဆသငေပ။ ၈။ေတြ႕႐ခကမားႏင စစစေလလာခကအား တငျပျခငး - သေတသနေတြ႕႐ခကမားအား တငျပရနႏင စစစေလလာရန

သေတသမား လကနာေဆာင႐ြကႏငသည ပစမးစ႐သည။ သေတသနအေၾကာငးအရာေပၚမတညျပး သေတသသည

ပစသးခအနကမ တစခ ေ႐ြးခယႏငသည။

(က) သေဘာထား၊ အသပညာႏငလကေတြ႕ဟ၍ သတငးအခကအလကမားအား ခြျခားထားေသာ ပစသည

ေလလာသည ကစၥရပႏငပတသကျပး နဂမလထငျမငယဆထားသညမ ကြထြကေနသည။ သေတသန

လပေဆာငေနစဥ အတြငး စေဆာငးရ႐ေသာ အခကအလကမားသည သေတသန မျပလပမ ၾကတင သ႐ထားေသာ အေၾကာငးအရာႏင မညသ႔မညပ ကြျပားေနသနညး။ ၄ငးအခကအား မညကသ႔ အတညျပ သနညး။

(သ႔) (ခ) သေတသနတြင ပါဝငေသာ အခကအလကေပးသမား၏ အဆအတငး အေရးၾကးသည အလကစစဥ

ထားသည၊ ေထာကက သကေသႏငတကြ အဆျပခကမား

(သ႔)

နညးန သ႔မဟတ သေတသနနညးလမးမား ဤသေတသနအားရနကနတငး၊ မဂၤလာဒျမ႕နယ႐ သလ႐င စာသငေကာငးတစခတြင ျပလပထားျခငးျဖစသည။ သေတသနတြင အရညအခငးႏင အေရအတြက တငးတာခကမားထညသြငးထားသည။ အေရအတြက တငးတာခကမားအားစစတမးေမးခြနးလႊာပစျပစ၍ ၾကရာနးစပ နမနာေကာကယနညးကအသးျပျပးေကာကယထားသည။ အရညအခငးသေတသနအတြကမဆရာမားအားလခြျပးအထကအေလာက ပစခထားေသာလေတြ႕ေမးျမနးမႈမားျပလပခပါသည။ လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးမႈ တစခခငးစသည တစနာရခန႔ၾကာပါသည။ ေတြ႕႐ခကမားသည ဆရာမားထမသာ ရ႐ခေသာသတငးအခကအလကမားကစစစေလလာျခငးေပၚ၌ တညေဆာကထားပါသည။

သေတသနအတြက အခကအခမား စစတမးေမးခြနးလႊာကအေျချပေသာအေရအတြက သေတသနအတြက ၾကရာနးစပ နမနာေကာကယနညးကအသးျပျပးအရညအခငးသေတသနအတြကမသလ႐ငစာသငေကာငးမ ဆရာ (၄) ေယာကတညးကသာလေတြ႕ေမးျမနးခသည။ သ႔ျဖစပါ၍ သေတသနနမနာစေဆာငးရာေနရာသည အျခားေသာဘနးၾကး/သလ႐င စာသငေကာငးမားတြင အလပလပလက႐ေသာဆရာမားကကယစားျပလမမညမဟတေသာလညးေတြ႕႐ခကမားကမသလ႐င စာသငေၾကာငးပညာေရးအခနးက႑အတြက ကနးေသကးကားေလာကျပးအသးတညပါလမမည။ သတျပရန - ဤဥပမာသည လမႈသေတသနနညးနပငးဆငရာသငခနးစာအတြက ထတႏတထားေသာအစရငခစာပစငယမသာျဖစျပး ႐ငးလငးျမငသာေစေရးအတြကသာရည႐ြယရငးျဖစသည။

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(c) Interpretations of data and evidence arranged in thematic order.

These three types of structures for organizing the presentation of findings are

recommendations ONLY. Other types of structures may also be valid. Whatever

structure is eventually chosen, the researchers are recommended to stick to one and

only one structure. They should not mix various structures together. If they do, it may

be very confusing for future readers.

When presenting their findings, the researchers have to use as much supporting

evidence as possible. Chapter on ‘Supporting Details’ gives explanations as to the three

types of supporting details: examples, quotes, and statistical data. Depending on

whether the research uses more quantitative or qualitative research, the report includes

more of one of these types of supporting details. This means that if the research used

quantitative methods, statistical data are more numerous in the report; if the research

used qualitative methods, quotes and examples are more numerous in the report.

9. Conclusion: Summary of major findings.

For example, if the analysis follows the (a) structure about Knowledge, Attitude, and

Practice for a specific issue, the conclusion emphasizes whether the knowledge people

have a certain issue is consistent with or opposed to their practice. In other words, the

conclusion has to mention the difference or similarity between what people say of the

issue under investigation and what they actually do.

A research project is conducted about youth environmental

awareness in different regions of Myanmar. In the ‘Practice’

section of the report presenting the findings, one question

assesses the preferred mode of transportation for covering

short distance. This question is believed to provide

information about the level of awareness towards

environmental protection: if someone walks, the person does

not contribute to pollution, if someone uses a car or a

motorbike even for short distance, the person contributes to

environmental pollution. Overall, 40% of the respondents

mentioned that even for short distances, they went around by

motorbike, followed by nearly 35% mentioning that they walk.

Question: How do you go around from your home to a place not far away from your place?

Motorbike (40%)

By foot (34.5%)

Bike (13%)

Car (12.5%)

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(ဂ) အေၾကာငးခငးရာအလကစစဥထားေသာ အခကအလကႏင သကေသအေၾကာငး ႐ငးလငးခကမား အဆပါ ေတြ႕႐ခကမားအား စစညးတငျပပသးမးသးစားမာ အၾကေပးခကသကသကမသာ ျဖစသည။ အျခားပစ အမး အစားမားကလညး အသးျပ၍ရႏငသည။ မညသညပစက ေ႐ြးခယေစကာမ သေတသတ႔သည ၄ငးတစမးတညးကသာ

တသမတတညး အသးျပရမည။ ပစေပါငးစက ေရာေထြးအသးမျပရ။ အကယ၍ ေရာေထြးအသးျပလကပါက ေနာကတြင စာဖတသအတြက ႐ပေထြးေစလမမည။ သေတသတ႔သည၄ငးတ႔၏ ေတြ႕႐ခကမားက တငျပရာတြင ေထာကကသကေသမား ႏငသမ မားမား အသးျပေပးရ

မည။ ‘ေထာကကျပ အေသးစတ အခကအလကမား’ အေၾကာငး အခနးတြင ဥပမာမား၊ ေကာကႏတခကမားႏင စာရငးအငးဟ၍ ေထာကကျပ အေသးစတအခကအလက အမးအစားသးမးအေၾကာငးက ႐ငးလငးတငျပထားသည။ အရညအခငးႏင အေရအတြက သေတသနတ႔အနက မညသညက ပမအသးျပသနညးဆေသာ အခကေပၚ မတည၍

အစရငခစာတြင ေထာကကျပ အေသးစတအခကအလက အမးအစားတစခခသညလညး ပမ ပါဝငလာလမမည။ ဆလသညမာ အကယ၍ သေတသနတြင အေရအတြက သေတသန နညးလမးမားက အသးျပသညဆပါက စာရငးအငး အခကအလက အေျမာကအျမား အစရငခစာတြင ပါဝငလမမည။ အကယ၍ အရညအခငး သေတသန နညးလမးမား အား ပမအသးျပပါက အစရငခစာတြင ေကာကႏတကးကားခကမားႏင ဥပမာမားအား ပမေတြ႕ရလမမည။

၉။ေကာကခက - အဓကေတြ႕႐ခကမား အကဥးခပ ဥပမာ စစစေလလာမႈသည တစစတစခေသာ ကစၥရပအတြက ပစ (က) အသပညာ၊ သေဘာထားႏင လကေတြ႕အတငးျပ

လပသညဆပါက ေကာကခကခသည အပငးတြင လအမားစသည ကစၥရပတစခခႏင စပလဥးျပး ၄ငးတ႔သ႐ထားသည

အတငး လကေတြ႕ လပေဆာငျခငး မလပေဆာငျခငးက အသာေပးေဖာျပရမည။ တနညးဆေသာ ေကာကခကသည

စးစမးေလလာသည ကစၥရပတြင လတ႔၏ အေျပာႏင အလပ အၾကားကြာဟခက (သ႔) တညခကက ေဖာျပျခငးျဖစသည။

လငယမား၏ သဘာဝပတဝနးကငဆငရာအသအျမင ႏးၾကားမႈ စပလဥးျပး ျမနမာျပညအႏအျပားတြင သေတသနျပလပသည ဆပါစ႔။ ေတြ႕႐ခကမားကတငျပသည အစရငခစာ ‘လကေတြ႕’ ပငးတြင ေမးခြနးတစခသည ခရးတတစခအတြက မညသ႔ ကးသနးသြားလာသနညးဟေမးျမနးထားသည။ ေမးခြနးသည သဘာဝပတဝနးကင ထနးသမးကာကြယေရးသျမငႏးၾကားမႈဆငရာအဆင သတမတခကအတြက သတငးအခကအလကမားေပးႏငမညဟယၾကညယဆထားသည။ အကယ၍ လမးေလာကပါကထသသည ပတဝနးကင ညစညမးမႈ မျဖစေစေပ။ အကယ၍ ခရးတသြားရနအတြကပင ကား (သ႔) ဆငကယကအသးျပပါကထသသည ပတဝနးကင ညစညမးမႈ ျဖစေစသည။ ျခငၾကညလကပါက ၄၀% ေသာေျဖဆသတ႔သည ခရးတသြားရန အတြကပင ဆငကယအသးျပၾကသည။ ၄ငးေနာကတြငမ ၃၀% ေသာသတ႔ကလမးေလာကသညဟေျဖဆၾကသည။

အေမး။ ။ အမမ မနးမေဝးတစေနရာသ႔ မညကသ႔ သြားေလ႐သနညး။

Motorbike (40%)

By foot (34.5%)

Bike (13%)

Car (12.5%)

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If the analysis follows the (c) structure (Thematic order), the conclusion has to reflect this thematic order and come up with general statements for each of the themes.

It is also important to acknowledge the possible shortcomings of the research, that is, possible aspects of the issue or problem that could not be studied due to various limitations. The researcher acknowledges that, if he/she had been able to address all aspects of the issue, the findings might be slightly different.

10. Recommendations: Recommendations are formulated based on the researchfindings, especially if the research is conducted with the position of supporting the advocacy activities of an organization (see Chapter 21 for further details on this).

11. References: Articles, surveys, reports, and books that are used in the analysis bythe researcher are given full references in this section. Full referencing includes the following: author’s name, title of the source, publisher or printing press, year of publishing, and page number.

12. Appendices: Any significant item that researchers used for the research(questionnaire sample, interview discussion guide, etc.) and interview schedules. Only sample documents alone may be included in the appendices. The appendices do not have documents reporting any of the respondent’s answers (these documents have to remain strictly confidential).

To recap all elements that a report typically includes, here is the outline of a report

TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THE CHAPTER ARE:

A good report is a report that is clear in its wording, structured in its contents,

and informative in its use of supporting details;

When writing a report, researchers are encouraged to acknowledge the possible

shortcomings of the research, when certain aspects of the problem could not be

fully addressed due to limitations and constraints.

1. Research title

2. Executive Summary

3. Introduction

4. Background of the research or Overview of the Problem

5. Literature review

6. Research methods used

7. Limitations to the research

8. Presentation of the findings and Analysis

9. Conclusion

10. Recommendations

11. References

12. Appendices

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အကယ၍စစစေလလာမႈသညပစ (ဂ) (အေၾကာငးခငးရာအလကစစဥမႈ) အတငး ျပလပသညဆပါက

ေကာကခကသညအေၾကာငးခငးရာအစစဥကထပဟပေဖာျပေပးရမညျဖစျပးအေၾကာငးအရာတစခခငးစ၏

ေယဘယအဆျပခကကတငျပရမည။

သေတသန၏ အကအေပါကမားက သျမငရနလညး အေရးၾကးသည။ ၄ငးမာ ေျမာကျမားစြာေသာ အကန႔အသတမားေၾကာင ေလလာရန မျဖစႏငေသာ ကစၥရပ (သ႔) ျပနာရပ၏ ႐ေထာငျဖစႏငသည။ ကစၥရပ၏ ႐ေထာငေပါငးစကျမငႏငစြမးမ႐ပါက ေတြ႕႐ခကမားသည စဥးငယမ ကြျပားမႈ ျဖစႏငသညဆေသာအခကက သေတသမား အေနျဖငသေဘာေပါက လကခထားသည။

၁၀။ေထာကခအၾကျပခကမား - ေထာကခအၾကျပခကမားသည သေတသနေတြ႕႐ခကမားေပၚတြင အေျခချပလပထားျခငး ျဖစသည။ အထးသျဖင အဖြ႕အစညး တစရပအတြငး လသမား ကယျပန႔ေအာင လပေဆာငသညလပငနးေဆာငတာမားက အေထာကအကျဖစေစရန ရည႐ြယျပလပသည သေတသနမားတြင ထနညးအတငးပငျဖစသည။

၁၁။ကမးကး - စစစေလလာေရးအတြက သေတသအသးျပသည ေဆာငးပါး၊ စစတမး၊ အစရငခစာ၊ စာအပ မညသညကမဆ အကနလး ဤေနရာတြင ကးကားစာရငး အျပညအစေဖာျပေပးရမည။ ျပညစေသာ ကးကားခကဟသည စာေရးဆရာ အမည၊ စာအပစာတမး အမည၊ ထတေဝသ (သ႔) ပႏပတက၊ ပႏပထတေဝသညႏစ၊ စာမကႏာ။

၁၂။ေနာကဆကတြေဖာျပခက - သေတသန ျပလပရနအသးျပခေသာ အေရးပါသည မညသညအရာမဆ (ေမးခြနးလႊာ၊နမနာ၊ လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးေဆြးေႏြးမႈ လမးညႊနစသညတ႔) ႏင လေတြ႕ေမးျမနးသည အခနဇယားမား။ နမနာ စာ႐ြကစာတမးမားသာ ေနာကဆကတြအေနႏင ထညသြငးရနလသည။ ေနာကဆကတြ ေဖာျပခကမားတြင ေမးခြနးေျဖဆသတ႔၏အေျဖတစတရာမ ေဖာျပျခငးမျပရ (အဆပါစာ႐ြကစာတမးမားအား သပသညးစြာ လ႕ဝကသမးဆညးထားရမည)။

အစရငခစာတြင ပမနပါဝငေလ႐ေသာ အစတအပငးမားအား ျပနခပလကပါက အစရငခစာတစေစာင၏ အစအစဥကေအာကပါအတငး ျမငေတြ႕ႏငသည။

အခပအားျဖငဆေသာဤအခနးတြငမတသားရမညအဓကအခကမားမာ

အစရငခစာေကာငးတစေစာငဟသည စကားအသးအႏနး ႐ငးလငးရမည။ အေၾကာငးအရာပငးတြငစနစတကစစစညးစညး႐ရမည။ ေထာကက အေသးစတအခကအလကမား အသးျပရာတြင ခကကလကက႐ရမည။

အစရငခစာတစေစာငေရးသားရာတြင သေတသအေနျဖင အတားအဆး အကန႔အသတမားေၾကာငျပနာ၏ ႐ေထာငတခ႕လစဟာသြားႏငေၾကာငးက လကခသေဘာေပါကရမည။

၁။ သေတသနေခါငးစဥ ၂။ မတတမးအကဥးခပ ၃။ နဒါနး ၄။ သေတသနေနာကခရာဇဝင ႏင ျပနာရပ၏ ေယဘယအျမင ၅။ သကဆငရာစာအပစာတမးေလလာခက ၆။ အသးျပခေသာသေတသနနညးလမး ၇။ သေတသနအတြက အခကအခမား ၈။ ေတြ႕႐ခကမားႏင စစစေလလာခကအားတငျပျခငး ၉။ ေကာကခက ၁၀။ ေထာကခအၾကျပခကမား ၁၁။ ကမးကး ၁၂။ ေနာကဆကတြေဖာျပခက

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INTERMEDIATE 21. POLICY AND ADVOCACY BRIEF WRITING

THE CHAPTER IS ABOUT:

The use of a brief based on research findings for future action;

The difference between a Policy Brief and Advocacy Brief;

The typical structure followed for writing Policy and Advocacy Briefs;

______________________________________________________________________

A Policy or Advocacy brief is, as the term ‘brief’ suggests, a very short document. It

sums up the recommendations formulated by experts or activists that have a deep

knowledge of a specific issue or have conducted research on this issue. The

formulation of these recommendations is usually based on research findings.

When a policy or advocacy brief is written, the research findings can form the basis

upon which action can be taken. Actions taken on the basis of these research findings

can be political, legal, or social. This depends on who takes the action and through

which channels the action is taken.

A Policy Brief is aimed at government policy-makers and other persons who are

interested in formulating or influencing policy matters based on the recommendations

made in the Policy Brief.

An Advocacy Brief is aimed at civil society actors and/or politicians who can mobilize

efforts in order to solve a problem based on the recommendations made in the

Advocacy Brief.

A typical format is a single A4 sheet (210 x 297 mm), containing perhaps 700 words.

OBJECTIVES OF THE POLICY OR ADVOCACY BRIEF

The objectives of the brief should be expressed in a very simple and clear manner. The

simplicity and clarity of the brief makes it even more compelling for those who read it

and are meant to take action based on their reading of the brief.

What should a policy or advocacy brief do?

A policy or advocacy brief should:

Give enough background for the reader to understand the problem;

Convince the reader that the problem must be addressed urgently;

Give evidence to support a plan designed to solve the problem;

Stimulate the reader to make a decision.

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အလယအလတအဆင ၂၁ - မဝါဒနငလထအကးတကတြနးေျပာဆမဆငရာ အနစခပတစရပေရးသားျခငး

ဤအခနးတြင သေတသနေတြ႕ရခကမားအေပၚ အေျချပသည အနစခပတစရပအား အနာဂတလပငနးမားအတြက

အသးျပျခငး မဝါဒဆငရာ အနစခပတစရပနင လထအကး တကတြနးေျပာဆမဆငရာ အနစခပတစရပတ႕အၾကား

ကြာျခားခက မဝါဒနင လထအကး တကတြနးေျပာဆမဆငရာ အနစခပမား ေရးသားရနအတြက ေလလာစရာနမနာပစ

_____________________________________________________________________________________ ”အနစခပ” ဆသည အသးအနနးတငးပင မဝါဒဆငရာ အနစခပတစရပ သ႕မဟတ လထအကး တကတြနးေျပာဆမ ဆငရာ အနစခပဆသညမာ အလြနတေတာငးေသာ စာတမးတစေစာငျဖစပါသည။ ကစၥရပတစခနင ပကသက၍ သေတသနျပလပထားေသာ သ႕မဟတ အဆပါကစၥရပနငပကသက၍ နကနကနန နားလညေသာ ကြမးကငသမား၊ တကၾကြလပရားသမား၏ အၾကေပးတငျပမမားက အနစခပထားျခငးျဖစပါသည။ အဆပါ အၾကေပးတငျပမမား ထတနတတငျပျခငးမာလညး မားေသာအားျဖင သေတသနေလလာေတြ႕ရမမားအေပၚ အေျချပပါသည။

မဝါဒ (သ႕) လထ အကးတကတြနးေျပာဆမ အနစခပတစရပ ေရးသားျခငးအားျဖင သေတသန ေလလာေတြ႕ရခက မားအား ဆကလကလပေဆာငရမည လပငနးမား၏ အေျခခအတျမစအျဖစ အသးျပပါသည။ အဆပါသေတသန ေတြ႕ရခကမားအေပၚ အေျခခသည လပငနးအေနျဖင နငငေရးဆငရာ၊ ဥပေဒဆငရာ၊ လမေရးဆငရာတ႔ျဖစ နငပါသည။ ဤသညတ႕မာ မညသက လပငနးလပေဆာငသည၊ မညသညနညးလမးအားျဖင လပေဆာငသည ဆသညအခကမား အေပၚမတညပါသည။

မဝါဒဆငရာ အနစခပတစရပသည အစးရပငးဆငရာ မဝါဒခမတသမားနင အနစခပတြင ပါဝငသည အၾကေပး တငျပမမားအေပၚ အေျခခ၍ မဝါဒခမတေဖာေဆာငရန စတဝငစားေသာ (သ႕) မဝါဒအေပၚ ၾသဇာသကလႊမးမးနငေသာ ပဂၢလမားအတြက ရညရြယပါသည။

လထအဆျပ ေထာကချခငး အနစခပတစရပသည အနစခပတြင ပါဝငသည အၾကေပးတငျပမမားအေပၚအေျခခ၍ ျပနာတစရပအား ေျဖရငးရနအားထတမမား စစညးေဆာငရြကနငသည နငငေရးသမားမား၊ လမအဖြ႕အစညးအကး ေဆာငရြကသမား အတြကရညရြယပါသည။

နမနာပစမာခန႕မနးစာလးေရ “၇၀၀”ခန႕ပါဝငေသာ (၂၁၀x၂၉၇မလမတာ) ရသည A4 စာရြကတစရြကခန႕ျဖစပါသည။

မဝါဒဆငရာ (သ႕) လထအကးျပ အဆျပေထာကချခငးဆငရာ အနစခပ၏ ဥးတညခကမား အနစခပတစရပ၏ ဥးတညခကမားက အလြနပင ရးရငးေသာ ပစျဖငတငျပသငပါသည။ အနစခပ၏ ဤရးရငးမ သညပင အနစခပအားဖတျပး အေရးတယေဆာငရြကမည ပဂၢလမားအား ဆြေဆာငမရျခငးျဖစသည။

မဝါဒဆငရာအနစခပ (သ႕) လထအကး တကတြနးေျပာဆျခငးဆငရာ အနစခပတစရပသည မညသညအရာမား လပသငသနညး။ မဝါဒဆငရာ (သ႕) လထအကးျပ အဆျပ ေထာကချခငးဆငရာ အနစခပတစရပ အေနျဖင-

စာဖတသအား ျပနာရပနင ပကသက၍ နားလညေစရန လေလာကေသာ ေနာကခအခငးအကငးအေျခအေနက တငျပရမည။

ျပနာရပသည အေစာတလင ကငတြယေျဖရငးရန လအပေၾကာငး စာဖတသက ယၾကညလာေစရနလပေဆာငရမည။

ျပနာရပ ေျဖရငးေရး အစအမတစရပ ေရးဆြနငရန သကေသအေထာကအထားမား ပပးေပးရမည။ စာဖတသက ဆးျဖတခက တစရပခမတလာေစရန လေဆာနငရမည။

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STRUCTURE OF A BRIEF

Because readers of brief (politicians, policy-makers, civil society actors, etc.) do not

have much time for this, the structure of the brief usually follows an outline than can be

easily and quickly understood.

A policy brief / advocacy brief is typically structured in the following way:

• 1. Title

• 2. Introduction

• 3. Body of the Brief

• 4. Recommendations or Policy Implications

This outline gives the general picture of a brief. Each of these four parts, however, has

its own features that are detailed below.

• 1. Title

The title of the brief should be:

– Short: less than 12 words;

– Catchy: a title formulated as a question can be a good option;

– To the point: title relevant to the topic.

2. Introduction

The introduction is the statement of the issue under consideration:

The introduction does three things:

– It develops the issue mentioned in the title;

– It says why the issue is important to consider;

– It explains why something should be done about the issue.

Below is an example of an advocacy brief based on a survey conducted on youth

environmental awareness. The advocacy brief was produced as part of an exercise

building the research and advocacy skills of Myanmar NGO-CSOs. The content of the

brief is therefore re-transcribed here for clarificaton purposes only.

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အနစခပအကဥး၏ဖြ႕စညးပ

အနစခပတစရပက ဖတသမား (နငငေရးသမားမား၊ မဝါဒခမတသမား၊ လမအဖြ႕အစညးအကး ေဆာငရြကသမား) အေနျဖင အနစခပအား ဖတရန အခနသပမေပးနငၾကသျဖင အနစခပ၏ ဖြ႔စညးပသည အလြယတကနင လငျမနစြာ နားလညနငမည အစအစဥ ပစျဖစသငပါသည။

မဝါဒဆငရာ အနစခပ(သ႕) လထ အကးေထာကခေျပာဆျခငးဆငရာ အနစခပတစရပအား ေအာကပါအတငး ဖြ႕စညး သငပါသည။

၁။ေခါငးစဥ

၂။မတဆက

၃။အနစခပစာကယ

၄။အၾကေပးတငျပမ (သ႔) မဝါဒဆငရာအဆမား

ဤအစအစဥပစျဖငဆလင အနစခပတစရပ၏ အေထြေထြပရပက ေပၚလြငေစသည။ ဤအစတအပငးေလးခတြင တစပငးခငးစသည ကယပငဟနမားရျပး ေအာကတြင အေသးစတေဖာျပထားပါသည။

၁။ေခါငးစဥ

အနစခပ၏ ေခါငးစဥသည - တတ--------(အဂၤလပစာျဖင) စာလးေရ ၁၂ လးထကမေကာသငပါ။ - ထမ--------ေမးခြနးေမးသည ပစေခါငးစဥသည ဆြေဆာငမရပါသည။ - လရငးေရာက------ေခါငးစဥသည တငျပမညအေၾကာငးအရာက ထငဟပရပါမည။

၂။မတဆကျခငး

မတဆကျခငးသည တငျပမညအေၾကာငးအရာနင ပတသကေသာ အဆျပေဖာျပခကျဖစသည။

မတဆကျခငးအေနျဖင လပေဆာငစရာ “သး”ရပရပါသည။

- ေခါငးစဥတြင ေဖာျပသည အေၾကာငးအရာက ပပးေပးရပါမည။

- ကစၥရပက အဘယေၾကာင အေရးတၾကး စဥးစားသငေၾကာငးက ေျပာရပါမည။

- အဆပါကစၥရပနငပကသက၍အဘယေၾကာငတစစတစရာေဆာငရြကရနလအပေၾကာငးကရငးျပရပါမည။

ေအာကတြငေဖာျပထားသညမာ လငယမား ပတဝနးကငဆငရာ သရနားလညမနင ပတသက၍ ေကာကယထားေသာ စစတမးအေပၚ အေျချပ၍ ေရးသားထားေသာ လထအကး အဆျပေျပာဆျခငးဆငရာ အနစခပနမနာ တစရပ ျဖစပါသည။ ဤလထအကး တကတြနးေျပာဆျခငး အနစခပသည ျမနမာအငနဂအ-စအကစအမား၏ သေတသနနင လထအကးတကတြနး ေျပာဆျခငးဆငရာ စြမးရညမား တညေဆာကေလကငခနး၏ တစစတတစေဒသအျဖစ ထတနတ ေရးသားထားျခငးျဖစပါသည။ သ႔အတြက ဤအနစခပတြင ပါဝငေသာ အေၾကာငးအရာမာ ရငးလငးတငျပရန ရညရြယခကျဖငသာ ျပနလညေရးသားထားျခငး ျဖစပါသည။

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• 3. Body of the Brief

The body of the brief can have different formats depending on the issue addressed, the

research findings, and the urgency of the problem.

Below are four possible options for the body of the Policy or Advocacy Brief.

Option 1 Option 2 Option 3 Option 4

Issue Problem Theme 1 Problem

Background Effects Theme 2 Intervention

Rationale Causes Theme 3 Result

The example shown below is again about youth environment awareness. In this

example, it is the Option 1 (Issue, Background, and Rationale) that is chosen by the

researchers.

Advocacy Brief Title Is it Urgent to Raise Youth Awareness on Environmental Protection in Myanmar? Advocacy Brief Introduction Environmental awareness consists in awareness about the following themes: air pollution and climate change mitigation; biological diversity (fauna and flora); climate change impacts, vulnerability to climate change, and adaptation to climate change; inland, coastal, and marine waters; sustainable consumption and production. As Myanmar is a resource-rich country and its opening up generates

an unprecedented wave of national and international investments and the rise of a strong civil society, the following years will be crucial for the country’s path towards achieving (or not) a balance between economic development and environmental protection. In short, the challenge is to promote sustainable development, of which promoting environmental awareness is a foundation. Note: This example is a much shortened version of a report produced as an exercise developed during a training on social research methods; it is given here for clarification purposes only.

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လထအကး အဆျပေျပာဆျခငး အနစခပေခါငးစဥ ျမနမာျပညတြင ပတ၀နးကငထနးသမးေရးဆငရာ လငယမား၏ အသပညာအားျမငတငရန အေရးတၾကး လအပ ျပလား?။ လထအကးအဆျပ ေျပာဆျခငး အနစခပမတဆက ပတ၀နးကငဆငရာ ဗဟသတတြင ေအာကပါအေၾကာငးအရာမားနင သကဆငေသာ ဗဟသတတ႔ ပါ၀ငပါသည။ ေလထညစညမးမႏင႔ ရာသဥတ ေဖာကျပနမအား သကသာေလာပါးေစျခငး။ ဇ၀မးကြစလငမ (ပနးမနနငသားရငး)။ ရာသဥတေျပာငးလမ၏ သကေရာကမမား၊ ရာသဥတေျပာငးလမမ ထခကနစနာနငေခမား၊ ရာသဥတေျပာငးလမအား အလကသငျပျပငေျပာငးလျခငး၊ ကနးတြငးကမးရးတနးနင ေရျပငမား၊ ေရရညတညတေစမည ထတလပျခငးနင သးစြျခငး။ ျမနမာျပညသည သဘာ၀သယဇာတ အရငးအျမစၾကြယ၀သည တငးျပညျဖစသညအေလာက တခါးဖြငဝါဒ ကငသးသည အခနမစ၍ ေရ႔ကမရဘးသညျပညတြငးနင နငငတကာရငးနးျမပနမ လငးမား၊ အားေကာငးသည အရပဘကအဖြ႔အစညးမား စသညတ႔ ျဖစေပၚလာျပး ေနာကဆကတြနစမားအေနျဖင တငးျပညအတြက စးပြားေရးဖြ႔ျဖးမနင ပက၀နးကင ထနးသမးမတ႔အား ဟနခက ညေအာင ထနးသမးနငျခငး ရမရဆသညအခကအား အဆးအျဖတေပးမည အေရးပါေသာနစမား ျဖစပါသည။ အတခပဆရလင ပတ၀နးကငဆငရာ အသပညာအား ျမငတငျခငးဆသည အေျခခအပျမစေပၚ အေျခခ၍ ေရရညတညတေသာ ဖြ႔ျဖးတးတကမအား ေဖာေဆာငျခငးဆသညမာ စနေခၚမတစရပပငျဖစပါသည။ မတခက ။ ။ ဤဥပမာသည လမသေတသနနညးလမးမားနင ပကသက၍ ျပလပေသာ သငတနးတစရပတြင ျပစထားေသာ ေလကငခနးအျဖစ အသးျပသည အစရငခစာတစေစာငအား အေတာအတန ခပထားျခငးျဖစပါသည။ ဤေနရာတြင ရငးလငး တငျပရန ရညရြယခကျဖစသာ အသးျပထားျခငး ျဖစပါသည။

၃။အနစခပစာကယ

တငျပမညကစၥရပ၊ သေတသနေတြ႔ရခကမား၊ ျပနာရပအား အေရးၾကးကငတြယေျဖရငးရန လအပမတ႔အေပၚ မတည၍ အနစခပစာကယ၌ (format) ပစအမးမး အသးျပနငပါသည။ ေအာကပါတ႔မာ မဝါဒဆငရာ (သ႔) လထ အကးတကတြနးေျပာဆျခငးဆငရာ အနစခပစာကယအတြက အသးျပနင ေသာ ပစေလးမးျဖစပါသည။ ေရြးခယစရာ၁ ေရြးခယစရာ၂ ေရြးခယစရာ၃ ေရြးခယစရာ၄

ကစၥရပ ျပနာရပ အေၾကာငးအရာ၁ ျပရပ ေနာကခအခငးအကငး သကေရာကမႈမား အေၾကာငးအရာ၂ အေျပာငးအလေဖာေဆာငမ ေၾကာငးကးဆကစပမ အေၾကာငးအရငးမား အေၾကာငးအရာ၃ အကးရလဒ

ေအာကေဖာျပပါ ဥပမာသညလငယမား၏ ပတ၀နးကငဆငရာ အသပညာအေၾကာငးပင ျဖစသည။ ဤဥပမာတြင သေတသမားအေနျဖင ေရြးခယစရာပစ(၁) [ကစၥရပ၊ ေနာကခအခငးအကငး၊ ေၾကာငးကးဆကစပမ] အား အသးျပ ထားပါသည။

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Issue

Young Myanmar adults aged 18-35 are key actors in the transition period the country is currently experiencing. They are founding families and transmitting their values and ideas to their offspring. In a transitional period which offers greater opportunities to achieve economic prosperity, what values and ideas will young Myanmar adults promote? Can Myanmar’s civil society and Myanmar media contribute to the raising of awareness regarding the need to balance economic development and protection of the natural environment? The general lack of awareness about environment protection is a challenging issue that needs to be urgently addressed.

Background

Major infrastructure projects planned in Myanmar such as the dams along the Ayeyawaddi and Thanlwin rivers or the Dawei deep-sea port have received extensive media coverage over the past two years, notably for their potentially negative environmental impact. Yet, surveys conducted on this topic showed that most respondents could not cite any of these infrastructure projects in provincial towns. Moreover, the answers given by the survey respondents show a gap between their concerns for environmental protection and their daily and occasional practices, some of these practices being clearly harmful for environmental protection. There is

therefore among the survey respondents little holistic view of how environment and human development are intertwined.

Rationale

Protection of the natural environment is a relatively new issue within Myanmar’s public sphere. Projects dealing with the protection of the natural environment clearly existed before the introduction of the political and economic reforms in 2011. They generally entailed small- and medium-scale projects of tree planting in areas previously deforested. The surge of local and international investments seeking to secure land and property in all parts of the country, however,

demands the scaling up of projects aimed at protecting the natural environment. Alongside this scaling up, new ways of reaching out more communities, policy-makers, and the civil society have to be devised.

Note: This example is a shortened much version of a report produced as an

exercise developed during a training on social research methods; it is given

here for clarification purposes only.

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ကစၥရပ အသက ၁၈ နစ မ ၃၅ နစၾကား အရြယေရာကျပး ျမနမာလငယမားသည ေလာေလာဆယ တငးျပညမ ေတြ႔ၾကေနရ သည အေျပာငးအလကာလတြင အဓကစြမးေဆာငသမား ျဖစၾကပါသည။ ၎တ႔သည အမယာထေထာငမျပျပး ၎တ႔၏တနဖးထားမမား အေတြးအေခၚမားက သားသမးမားအား လကဆငကမးေပးလကရပါသည။ စးပြားေရး တးတကမမား ျဖစေပၚရနအတြက အခြငအလမးမားစြာ ျဖစထြနးလကရေသာ ယခကသ႔ေသာ အေျပာငးအလကာလ တြင အရြယေရာကျပး ျမနမာလငယလရြယမား အေနျဖင မညသညတနဖးမား၊ အေတြးအေခၚမားအား အေလးေပး ျမငတငမညနညး။ ျမနမာအရပဘကလ႔အဖြ႔အစညးနင ျမနမာမဒယာမား အေနျဖငလညး စးပြားေရးဖြ႔ျဖးတးတကမနင သဘာ၀ ပတ၀နးကင ကာကြယထနးသမးေရးတ႔အၾကား ဟနခကညေစရန ထနးသမးဖ႔လအပခကအား လထအၾကား စတ၀ငစားမျမငတငရန စြမးေဆာငနငမညလား။ ပတ၀နးကင ထနးသမးကာကြယေစာငေရာကေရးနင ပကသကျပး အသပညာနင စတ၀ငစားမကငးမလကရေသာ အေျခအေနသည အေစာတလင ကငတြယေျဖရငးရမည စနေခၚ ေနေသာ ကစၥရပတစရပျဖစသည။ ေနာကခအခငးအကငး ဧရာ၀တနင သလြငျမစေၾကာငးတစေလာကရ ဆညမား (သ႔) ထား၀ယေရနကဆပကမးကသ႔ေသာ ျမနမာနငငအတြငး စမကနးခ လပေဆာငလကရေသာ အဓကအေျခခအေဆာကအဥးဆငရာ စမကနးမားအေနျဖင ၎တ႔၏ပတ၀နးကင အေပၚဆးကးသကေရာကနငေခနင ပကသကျပးလြနခေသာ၂နစအတြငး မဒယာမား၏ အာရစးစကမက ခခရပါသည။ သေသာ ဤအေၾကာငးအရာနင ပကသက၍ စစတမးမားေကာကယခကအရ ေျဖဆသအမားစအေနျဖင ေဒသႏရျမ႔ရြာ မားရ အဆပါ အေျခခအေဆာကအဥးဆငရာ စမကနးမားနငပကသက၍ ေကာငးစြာသေဘာေပါကျပး အကးအကားျပ ဆနငျခငးမရပါ။ ထ႔ျပင စစတမးေျဖဆသမား၏ အေျဖအရ ပတ၀နးကငထနးသမးေရးနင ပကသကေသာ ၎တ႔၏ အေျခအေနနင ၎တ႔၏ေန႔စဥကငၾကေနမမားအၾကား ကြာဟမရေနျပး အခ ႔ေသာ အမအကငမားဆလင ပတ၀နးကင ထနးသမးေရးအတြကပင အႏရာယရေသာ အေလအထမားျဖစေနၾကပါသည။ သ႔အတြကေၾကာင စစတမးေျဖဆသမား အၾကားတြင လသားမား ဖြ႔ျဖးတးတကမနင ပတ၀နးကငအၾကား ပကသကဆကႏြယမနင ဆငေသာအျမငမာ ကဥးေျမာငး ေနေသးသည။ ေၾကာငးကးဆကစပမ သဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကငအား ကာကြယေစာငေရာကရမညဟေသာအသမာ ျမနမာလထအၾကားတြင စမးေနေသးသည။ ၂၀၁၁ ခနစ နငငေရးနင စးပြားေရးျပျပငေျပာငးလမမား မျဖစေပၚမကပင သဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကင ကာကြယ ေစာငေရာက ေရးဆငရာ စမကနးမားရခပါသည။ ယခငက သစေတာျပနးတးခေသာေနရာမားတြင သစပငစကပးသည အေသးစားနငအလတစား စမကနးမားျဖစၾကပါသည။ သ႔ေသာ တငးျပညအန႔အလးအရငးနင ေျမယာပငဆငမမား ရရရန ၾကးပမးလာၾကသည ျပညတြငးနင နငငတကာ ရငးနးျမပနမမားေၾကာင သဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကင ကာကြယ ထနးသမးေရး စမကနးမား၏ ပမာဏကျမငတငရန လအပပါသည။ ဤကသ႔ စမကနးမား ပမာဏျမငတင လပကငျခငး နငတကြ ရပရြာလထ၊ မ၀ါဒခမတသမားနင အရပဘကအဖြ႔အစညးမားအၾကား ပတ၀နးကင ထနးသမးေရး အသတရားမား ပမပ႔န႔ေစရနလညး ၾကဆလပေဆာငရန လအပပါသည။ မတခက ။ ။ ဤဥပမာသည လမသေတသနနညးလမးမားနင ပကသက၍ ျပလပေသာ သငတနးတစရပအတြက ျပစထားေသာ ေလကငခနးအျဖစ အသးျပသည အစရငခစာတစေစာငအား အတခးထားျခငးျဖစပါသည။ ဤေနရာတြင ရငးလငးတငျပရန ရညရြယခကျဖငသာ အသးျပထားျခငး ျဖစပါသည။

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• 4. Recommendations or Policy Implications

Just like the body of the brief (see previous section, 3. Body of the Brief), the section

of the brief which details recommendations or policy implications can follow different

formats. Below are three options that the format can follow for writing these

recommendations.

The selection of one option over the two other possible depends on how urgent the

problem is, how big the scale of the problem is, and what obstacles can be anticipated

in the implementation of these recommendations.

Option 1 Option 2 Option 3

Suggest revisions to the

existing policy;

Recommendations at

micro-level;

List several

interventions than can

contribute to resolve

the problem under

consideration;

List the changes/effects

expected from these

revisions;

Recommendations at

macro-level;

Assess the benefits

and disadvantages of

each intervention.

Explain the costs

implications and the

possible side-effects of

the suggested revisions.

Recommendations at

institutional level.

The example shown below is again about youth environmental awareness, but this time

in the context of the Mon State. The selection of Option 2 for the recommendations is

based on the scale of recommendations that can be applied at different levels.

Recommendations

Micro-level recommendations

Mawlamyaing University and its Marine Sciences Department(the only one in Myanmar) are well-positioned to developmaterials for raising awareness about the protection ofcoastal and marine waters, especially in the context of thedevelopment of the Dawei deep-sea port.

These materials aimed at raising awareness about theprotection of coastal and marine waters could possibly beincluded within the curricula of basic and middlegovernment schools. This recommendation is made upon theassumption that the newly-decentralized states of the Unionof Myanmar are actually able to develop their own textbooksas part of their school curricula.

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၄။ အၾကေပးတငျပမ (သ႔) မ၀ါဒဆငရာအဆျပမမား

အနစခပ၏ စာကယကသပင (ယခငအပငး“၃”အနစခပစာကယကၾကညပါ။) အနစခပ၏ ဤအပငးျဖစသည အၾကေပး တငျပမမား (သ႔) မဝါဒဆငရာအဆျပမမား အပငးသညလညး အမးမးေသာပစ (format) မားက ေရြးခယ နငပါသည။ ေအာကတြင ေဖာျပထားသညမာ အဆပါ အၾကေပးတငျပမမားအား ေရးသားရာတြင လကနာနငေသာ ေရြးခယစရာပစ “၃” မး ျဖစပါသည။ အျခား ၂ခ အစား နစသကရာတစခက ေရြးခယရျခငးမာ - ျပနာရပအား အေစာတလငေျဖရငးရန လအပမ၊ ျပနာ ၏ အတမအနက အရြယအစား ပမာဏနင အၾကေပးမမားအား အေကာငအထညေဖာရာတြင ၾကေတြ႔နငေသာ အတားအဆးမားတ႔ အေပၚမတည၍ ေရြးခယရျခငးျဖစပါသည။

ေရြးခယစရာ၁

ေရြးခယစရာ၂

ေရြးခယစရာ၃

လကရေပၚလစအတြက ျပနလညသး သပရနမားက အၾကျပတငျပပါ။

ေအာကေျခအဆင (မကခရ အဆင) အၾကေပးတငျပမမား

ျပနာရပက ေျဖရငးနငမည အေျပာငးအလ ေဖာေဆာငမမားက စာရငးတငျပပါ။

ဤျပနလညသးသပမမားမ ေပၚထြကလာ မည ေျပာငးအလမား၊ အကးသကေရာက မမားက စာရငးျဖငျပပါ။

လႊမးျခသးသပသညအေပၚအဆင (မကခရအဆင) အၾကေပးတငျပမမား

အေျပာငးအလ ေဖာေဆာငမ တစခ ခငးစ အလက အကးေကးဇး မားနင အားနညးခက ဆးကးမားက သးသပပါ။

အၾကေပးတငျပလကသည ျပနလညသး သပမမား၏ ျဖစနငေခရေသာ ေဘးထြက ဆးကးမားႏင ပါ၀ငတငျပလကသည အဆျပမမားနင စရတစကမားက ရငးလငးတငျပပါ။

အဖြ႔အစညးဆငရာ အဆင အၾကေပး တငျပမမား

ေအာကတြငေဖာျပထားသညဥပမာသညလညးလငယမား၏ပတ၀နးကငဆငရာအသပညာအေၾကာငးပငျဖစျပးဤတစ ၾကမတြငမြနျပညနယတြငေနာကခအေျခအေနျဖစပါသည။အဖြ႔အစညးနငက႑အဆငအမးမးအေပၚအၾကျပတငျပသညအၾကျပတငျပမပစေရြးခယစရာ၂ကေရြးခယအသးျပထားပါသည။ ေအာကေျခအဆင (မကခရအဆင) အၾကေပး တငျပမ - ေမာလျမငတကသလနင ၎၏ အဏၰ၀ါသပၸဌာန (ျမနမာတစျပညလးရ တစခတညးေသာဌာန) သည ကမးရးတနးနင ပငလယေရျပငကာကြယထနးသမးေရး အထးသျဖင ထား၀ယေရနကဆပကမးတညေဆာကေနသည အေျခအေနမး၌ အသပညာ ျမငတငေရးနငပကသကျပး သငရးညြနးတမးအေထာကအကမား ေကာငးစြာေရးဆြနငသည အေနအထား တြင ရပါသည။ - ကမးရးတနးနင ပငလယေရျပငကာကြယထနးသမးေရး အသပညာ ျမငတငေရးဆငရာ အဆပါသငရးညြနးတမးမား အေပၚ အေျချပ၍ အစးရအလယတနးနင မလတနးပညာေရးအထပင ျပျပငခမတထညသြငးျပဌာနးနငပါသည။ ဤသ႔အၾကျပရျခငးသည ေလာေလာလတလတပင ဗဟခပကငမ ေလာခထားေသာ ျပညေထာငစသမၼတျမနမာနငင၏ ျပညနယနငတငးေဒသၾကးမားအေနျဖင ၎တ႔၏ ေကာငးသငရးညြနးတမးပါ ျပဌာနးစာအပမားက ကယပငေရးဆြနင သည ဟေသာယဆခကက အေျချပ၍ ျပလပရျခငးျဖစပါသည။

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Sectoral recommendations

Media sector (1): Training of local journalists specializing inenvironmental issues should be encouraged, so that coverage ofthese issues be more accurate and reliable.

Media sector (2): Popular Myanmar singers/actors should beapproached by networks of local CSOs and CBOs specializing inenvironmental protection and be asked to promote the cause ofenvironmental protection.

Building and Industry sector: Networks of NGOs specializing inenvironmental protection should be encouraged to deliver anannual ranking of economic projects developed in Myanmar. Thisranking would include the most beneficial projects for

environment protection and the most harmful ones. Awards couldalso be given to the most beneficial projects.

Empowering and Capacity Building to individual environmentalactivists and environmental CSOs. This should take the formtechnical training. With this training, persons and organizationscould become the ‘watchdogs’ monitoring initiatives that are seenas causing environmental degradation.

Collection of information and evidence linked to projects deemedharmful to the environment. This collection of information couldbe undertaken by NGOs-CSOs specializing in environmentalprotection. Testimonies, statistics, and research could becompiled and represent a baseline survey. The final documentcould be submitted to all stakeholders for information-sharing

purposes.

Institutional recommendations

Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry and newly-established Environmental Conservation Department responsible forimproving the legal framework concerned with environmentalprotection. The validity and relevance of the current Forest Lawenacted in 1992 should be assessed in light of the political andeconomic reforms implemented since 2011 and the surge of nationaland international investments and the law possibly amended.

Strategy of ‘Public Awareness’ to be properly and effectivelydeveloped by the Ministry. The Ministry lists 6 imperatives forits overall policy, i.e. protection of soil, sustainability offorest resources, meeting people’s basic needs, efficiency in theexploitation of forest, people participation, and publicawareness. This last imperative is the only one which does notshowany development on the ministry’s website.

Note: This example is a shortened version of a policy brief produced as an

exercise developed during a training on social research methods; it is given here

for clarification purposes only.

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က႑အလက အၾကေပးတငျပမမား

- မဒယာက႑(၁) ။ ။ ပတ၀နးကငေရးရာကစၥရပမားအား အေလးေပး အာရစကသည ျပညတြငးဂာနယလစမားအား သငတနးမား ပ႔ခေပးျခငးက အားေပးျခငးအားျဖင သဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကငဆငရာ ကစၥရပမားနင ပကသကေသာ ေရးသား ေဖာျပခကမားမာ ပ၍တကခငမာလာမညျဖစသည။

- မဒယာက႑ (၂) ။ ။သဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကငထနးသမးေရးအား အထးျပလပေဆာငေသာ ျပညတြငး စအကစအႏင႔ စဘအမား၏ ကြနယကမားအေနျဖင႔ ျမနမာနာမညၾကး အဆေတာမား၊ သရပေဆာငမားအား ခဥးကပ၍ သဘာ၀ ပတ၀နးကင ကာကြယေစာင႔ေရာကေရး အေၾကာငး ျမင႔တငရနအကအည ေတာငးခသင႔သည။

- လပငနးနယပယမားအား တညေဆာကျမင႔တငျခငး။ ။ပတ၀နးကငထနးသမးေရးအား အထးျပ လပေဆာင ေသာ အငနဂအမား၏ ကြနယကမားအေနျဖင႔ ျမနမာျပညအတြငး အေကာငအထည ေဖာေဆာငလကရေသာ စးပြားေရး စမကနးမား၏ ႏစအလက အဆင႔အတနးက ထတျပနႏငဖ႔ရန အားေပးသင႔သည။ ဤႏစအလက အဆင႔အတနးမာ ပတ၀နးကငထနးသမးရးအတြက အကးေကးဇးအျပဆးေသာ စမကနးမားမသည ပတ၀နးကငအား အႏရာယ အျဖစဆးသာ စမကနးမားအထ အဆင႔မား စေပးျခငး ျဖစသည။ ပတ၀နးကင ထနးသမးေရးအတြက အကးျပ ဆးေသာ စမကနးမားအား အသအမတျပဆမား ခးျမင႔ႏငသည။

- သဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကင ေရးရာစအကစအမားႏင႔ တစဥးခငးတကၾကြလႈပရားသမားအား စြမးေဆာငရည ျမင႔တင ေပးျခငးႏင႔ အားေပးအားမာကျပ ျခငး။ ။ဤေနရာ၌ နညးပညာပငးဆငရာ သငတနးမားေပးရန ျဖစသည။ ဤက႔သ႕သငတနးမားအားျဖင႔ အဆပါ လပဂၢလမားႏင႔ အဖြ႕အစညးမားသည သဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကင ေလာ႔ပါး ပကစးလာမႈႏင႔ ဆငေသာ ကစၥရပမားက “သတထား” ေစာင႔ၾကည႔ ေလ႔လာသမားျဖစလာေပမည။

သဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကငအား အႏရာယျဖစေစႏငသညဟ ယဆရေသာ စမကနးမားႏင႔ပတသကေသာ အေထာကအထားမား၊ သတငးအခကအလကမား ေကာကယစေဆာငးျခငး။ ။ဤကသ႔ သတငးအခကအလက ေကာကယျခငးအား သဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကင ထနးသမးကာကြယေရး အေလးေပး လပေဆာငေနၾကေသာ အငနဂအ၊ စအကစအမားက လပေဆာငႏငသည။ သကေသခခကမား၊ စာရငးအငးမားႏင႔ သေတသနျပမႈတ႕စစညးတညးျဖတ၍ အေျချပစထား တငးတာေလ႔လာမႈစစတမး (Baseline Survey) တစရပျပစႏငသည။ ရရလာေသာ ေနာကဆးအဆင႔ စာရြကစာတမးမားအား သတငး အခကအလက ဖလယေရးရညရြယခကအားျဖင႔ ပတသကဆကႏြယသ အားလးတ႕ အၾကား ျဖန႔ေ၀ႏငသည။

အဖြ႔အစညးပငဆငရာအၾကေပးတငျပမႈမား

ပတ၀နးကငထနးသမးေရးႏင႔ သစေတာ၀နၾကးဌာနႏင႔၊ သဘာ၀ပတ၀နးကင ကာကြယထနးသမးေရးႏင႔ သကဆငေသာ ဥပေဒေရးရာတ႔အား တးတကျမင႔တငေရး တာ၀နရသည႔ အသစဖြ႕စညးလကေသာ ပတ၀နးကင ထနးသမးေရး ဥးစးဌာန။ ။၁၉၉၂ တြင ျပဌာနးခ႔ေသာ လကရသစေတာဥပေဒ၏ အကးေၾကာငး ညညြတဆေလာ အသးတ႔မႈအား ၂၀၁၁ ခမ စတင အေကာငအထည ေဖာခ႔ေသာ ႏငငေရးႏင႔စးပြားေရး ျပျပငေျပာငးလမႈမား (ျပညတြငး ႏင႔ ႏငငတကာမ အလးအရငး ျဖင႔ ၀ငေရာကလာေသာ ရငးႏးျမပႏမႈမားစသည႔ ) ရႈေထာင႔တ႕မ ျပနလည သးသပျပး လအပလင ဥပေဒအား ျပငဆငသင႔ပါသည။ “လထအသပညာေပးေရး” မဟာဗဟာအား ၀နၾကးဌာနအေနျဖင႔ ေကာငးမြနထေရာကစြာ အေကာင အထညေဖာသင႔

-၀နၾကးဌာနအေနျဖင႔ - ေျမဆၾသဇာထနးသမးေရး၊ သစေတာသယဇာတ ေရရညတညတ႔ေရး၊ ျပညသမား၏ အေျခခ လအပခကမား ျပည႔မေရး၊ သစေတာမားထတယသးစြမႈ၌ အကးရေစေရး၊ ျပညသမား၀ငး၀နးပါ၀ငေရးႏင႔ လထအသ ပညာေပးေရးဟေသာ ျပဌာနးခက ၆ ရပ ျဖင႔ ၄ငး၏အေထြေထြမ၀ါဒေရးရာႏင႔ ပတသက၍ ျပဌာနးထားပါသည။ ဤ ေနာကဆး ေျခာကခေျမာကျပဌာနးခကမာ ၀နၾကးဌာန၏ ၀ကဘဆဒအငတာနကစာမကႏာတြင တးတကေျပာငးလမႈ တစစတစရာ မေတြ႔ရေသာ တစခတညးေသာ အခကပငျဖစပါသည။

မတခက။ ။ဤဥပမာသည လမႈသေတသနနညးလမးမားႏင႔ ပတသက၍ ျပလပေသာ သငတနးတစရပအတြက ျပစထားေသာ ေလ႔ကင႔ခနးအျဖစ အသးျပသည႔ မ၀ါဒဆငရာ အႏစခပတစရပအား အတခးထားျခငး ျဖစပါသည။ ဤ ေနရာတြင ရငးလငးတငျပရန ရညရြယခကျဖင႔သာ အသးျပထားျခငး ျဖစပါသည။

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TO SUM UP, THE MAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THIS CHAPTER ARE:

Research findings not only expand knowledge about a particular issue; they

also form the basis upon which political, legal, or social action can be taken.

Research therefore has also a very practical and effective purpose;

Policy and advocacy briefs help people in different positions of responsibilities

and duties decide about the problems addressed in these briefs. Based on these

decisions, action can be taken;

Policy and advocacy briefs have to be clear and directly to the point, helping

those who read them makeinformed decisions.

Page 360: Authors - Inya Institute€¦ · Authors: Maxime Boutry, a social anthropologist (Ph.D. EHESS - Paris) specializing on Myanmar, has been Lead Researcher for a number of development

354

အႏစခပရလင ဤအခနးတြင ပါ၀ငေသာ မတသားရန အဓကအခကမားမာ

သေတသန ေလ႔လာ ေတြရခကမားသည ကစၥရပတစခႏင႔ ပတသက၍ အသပညာတးပြားရမသာ မဟတပ

ႏငငေရး၊ ဥပေဒေရး၊ လမႈေရးဆငရာမား အေရးယ ေဆာငရြကရန အေျခခအေနအထားကလညး ဖနတး

ေပးပါသည။ ဤသ႔ဆလင သေတသန ေဆာငရြကျခငးမာ အလြနလကေတြ႔က၍ ထေရာကေသာ

ရညရြယခက တစရပလညး ရပါသည။

မ၀ါဒဆငရာႏင႔ လထအကးတကတြနးေျပာဆျခငးဆငရာ အႏစခပတ႔သည တာ၀န၀တရား အမးမး ရၾက

ေသာ လအမားအား ထအႏစခပတ႔မ ညႊနးဆလကရေသာ ျပနာရပမားႏင႔ ပတသက၍ ဆးျဖတခက မား

ခမတႏငရန အကအညေပးပါသည။ ထဆးျဖတခကမားအေပၚ အေျခခ၍ လပေဆာငစရာ ရသညမားက

ဆကလက လပေဆာငသြားႏငပါသည။

မ၀ါဒဆငရာႏင႔ လထအကးတကတြနးေျပာဆျခငးဆငရာ အႏစခပတ႔အေနျဖင႔ ရငးရငးလငးလငးႏင႔

လရငးက ေဖာျပျခငးအားျဖင ၄ငးတ႕က ဖတေသာသမားအေနျဖင႔ ထထ၀င၀င နားလညမႈျဖင႔ ဆးျဖတ

ခကမားခမတ နငပါသည။