ED 106 167

AUTHORTITLE

INSTITUTIONPUB DATENOTEAVAILABLE FROM

DOCUMENT RESUNE

SO 008 217

Lagace, Robert O.Nature and Use of the ULF Files: A Research andTeaching Guide.Human Relations Area Files, Inc., New Haven, Conn.7464p.BRAY hANUALS, Human Relations Area Files, Inc., P.O.Box 2015 Y.S., New Haven,.Conn. 06520 ($1.00 percopy, bulk orderS; free on request to individualscholars)

EDRS PRICE BF -$0.76 HC Not Available fro EDRS. PLUS POSTAGEDESCRIPTORS *Anthropology; *Area Studies; Behavioral Science

Research; Comparative Analysis; Cross CulturalStudies; *Culture; *Data Collection; InformationStorage; intonation Utilization; Microforms;*Primary Sources; Research; Setrch Strategies; SocialSciences

IDENTIFIERS *Ethnographies

ABSTRACT.This guide is designed to give teachers and students

an understanding of the Human Relations Area Files (HRAF). The REIFFiles are a collection of primary source materials on selectedcultures representing all major areas of the world. In general,intonation on Ian's behavior, customs, and social institutions maybe found in the Files. The guide also provides case examples of soreparticularly suitable uses of the files. Opening with *Study andResearch Applications of the HIM Files,*.examples are given of thekinds of information retrievable in a cross-cultural or area searchas well as suggestions for the information of other questions andways of approaching the material.- Another section on teachingapplications includes use of the Files for training in research, forindividual or class projects, and for the teachers' own preparation.Sections on the use and organization of the Files discuss methods forretrieving information based on the classification and'indexing ofinformation in the files, given a particular research problem, anddescribe the physical format of the files. Other components of theHRH' system include an orientation film reference tools, and acomputerized archive. A reference section and appendices containingresearch topics and explications of the system's technicalitiesconclude the guide. (JH)

or

.11

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EDUCATIONTHIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPROOUCEO EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROMTHE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONSSTATED 00 NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL NATIONAL INSTITUTE OFEOUCATION POSITION OR POLICY

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OWC

Code

Name of Society

HUMAN. RELATIONS AREA FILES AVAILABLE AS OF JANUARY 1, 1973

FILES ALSO INCLUDED, IN ORAF-MICROFILES COLLECTION ARE INDICATED

BY ANNUAL SERIES NUMBER IN PARENTHESES

No.of

No.of

OWC

No:of

No.of

OWC

Code

Name of Society

Sources

Pag 3

Code

Name of Society

Sources

Pages

No.of

No.of

Sources

Pages

NORTHAMERICA

NA6

Aleut, (58)

++ NA12

Tlingit (60)

ND8

Copper Eskimo (63)

ND12

Nahane THY--

NE6

Bellacoola (66)

NEll

Nootka (63)

NG6

Ojibwa (58) (63)

NH6

Montagnais

NJ5

Micmac (67)

NL7

Historical Massachusetts

887

Delaware (66)

889

Iroquois (64)

8811

Creek (61)

NO6

Comanche

6919

29781926

1881

15

403

10

2,003

1,778

2,277

758

1,561

1,547

4,354

1,013

1,016

533

1,733

2,704

4057

745

NP12

1840

802

803

8Q17

NQ18

NR4

++ NR10

NR13

NR19

N818

NS22

8629

NS31

NT8

Winnebago (73)

Crow (58)

Dhegiha (70)

Gros Ventre (68)

Mandan (60)

Pawnee (62)

Plateau Indians

Klamath

Northern Paiute

Southeast Salish

Pomo (61)

Tubatulabal

Yokuts (61)

Yurok (59)

Eastern Apache(72)

10

24

33810

1449157

22416

134

915

1,479

1,968

1,086

1,297

1,703'

303

1,617

910

945

1,220

180

975

1,101

589

N713

NT14

NT15

NT18

NT20

NT23

++ NU7

NU28

NU31

NU33

NU34

NU37

++ NV9

NV10

Navaho (73)

aiiit Yumans (62)

River Yumans

Tewa (64)

Washo

Zuni (66)

Aztec (59)

Papago (62)

Seri

Tarahumara (61)

Tarasco (67)

Teportlan (70)

Tzeltal

Yucatan Maya (69)

146

146159

16

1819

12

131159

11

11,626

927

561

1,274

521

2,842

1,942

2,183

616

2,055

855,

859

1,109

1,870

OCEANIA

OM.

Philippines (83)

0A5

Apayao (63)

0A14

Central Bisayan (63)

++ 0A19

Ifugao (63)

OB1

Indonesia (64)

006

Iban (59)

075

Alor (63)

OF7

Bali (67)

OF9

Flores

0G6

' Makassar (69)

0011 Toradja

084

Ambon

018

Aranda (58)

58

7,451

Subfile

Subfile

2918

1739

Subfile

1379

52,391

Subfile

40

3,259-

2,983

4,367

1,162

726

1,297

0117

0119

0120

++ 0J13

03 23

0J27

0329

OL6

086

0810

0N6

0N13

Murngin (62)

Tasmanian% (63)

Tiwi (66)

Kwoma

Orokaiva (62)

Wogeo (61)

Kapauku(72)

Trobriand:, (58)

Manus (65)

New Ireland (68)

Buka (59)

Santa Cruz

1511324

145247566

1,731

293

563

501

652

460

869

2,991

1,639

467

721

420

0012

0(15

OR11

++ OR19

OR21

OR22

++)T11

OU8

OX6

012

OZ4

OZ11

Malekula (62)

Lau (60)

Marshall, (62)

Truk (72)

Woleai (58)

Vii(67)

Tikopla 163)

Samoa (63)

Marquesas (61)

Easter Islanders (62)

Maopi (68)

Pukapuka (81)

3883

10

997

21

2,199

25

2,208

41

2,665

20

1,535

26

2,727

19

3,008

13

1,163

15

960

10

3,257

12

860

RUSSIA

RIRBI

RB5

RC1

'RD1

RF1

RG4

Soviet Union

Baltic Countries

Lithuanians

Belorussia

Ukrain6 (69)

Great Russia

Estonians

81

11,987

IPM

3211

RIl

11

990

RI3

5191

RL1

20

2,219

RL4

4386

++ RQ2

5615

RR1

Caucasia

Georgia

Abkhaz

Turkestan

Turkic Peoples

Kazak

Siberia.

41',500

++ RU4

5759

RV2

4207

RX2

4707

RY2

1235

RY3

7969

RY4

4809

Samoyed

Yakut

Gilyak (72)

Chukchee (61)

Kamchadal

Koryak

L

35

2,073

32

933

13

2,281

21

2,191

11

840

5810

SOUTH AMERICA

SA15

Mosquito (61)

SA19

Talamanca (65)

6135

Qat (68)

SC7

Cagaba (72)

SC13

Goajiro (62)

SC15

Paez

SDG

Cayapa (64

SD9

Jivaro (58)

8E13

Inca (67)

SF5

Aymara (59)

SF10

Chiriguano(73)

SF21 Biriono

SF24

Uru (68)

SG4

Araucanians (59)

4- SH4

Ona

36347

10843313

14759

124

263

479

3,932

1,134

724

700

747

2,315

2,646

172

1,,5770

692

434

1,397

1,629

SH5

Tehuelche (63)

8SH8

Yahgan (82)

3814

Abipon (82)

2SI7

Mataco (69)

8SKS

Choroti (441)

2SK7

GUana

6SIG

Caingang 04)

4++ SM4

Guarani

6SOS

Timbira

2SOB

Tooinamba (58)

26

++ S011

Bahia Brazilians

5SP7

Bacairi (70)

6++ 8P8

Bororo

SP9

Caraja (69)

1SP17

Nambicuara (61)

898

611

1,700

452

595

523

407

308

484

379

1,837

1,333

1,085

816

887

438

SP22

5P23

SQ13

++

SQ

18++ 5Q19

SRS

SR9

$816

::119

SV3

SY1

Tapirape (82)

Trumai

Mundurucu (65)

Yanoanm

Tucano

TUcuna

Bush Negroes(72)

Carib (68)

Pawn

Warao

Yaruro

Callinago (60)

Puerto Rico(73)

Haiti (73)

Jamaica

13

369

1120

14

649

15

1,284

71,320

5259

61,411

1317

4602

6722

7284

13

524

31,750

31,052

2459

Total - number of Major Files available (including in proceas)

290

Total somber of tent pages

488,433

Total number of sources in Files

Total number of File slips it east' sot (estimate)

2

4,240

HUMAN RELATIONS AREA FILES AVAILABLE AS OF JANUARY 1, 1974

FILES ALSO INCLUDED IN

RA

RI

COLLECTION ARE INDICATED BY ANNUAL

ENUMBER IN PARENTHESES

owC

Code Name of Society

++ AA1

Korea (60)

++ AB6

Ainu

++ AC7

Okinawa

AD1

Formosa

AD4

FormosanAborizinesJ

AD5

Taiwan Hokkien

AE3

Sino-Tibetan Border

AE4

Lolo

AE5

Miao (70)

AE9

Monguor (65)

AF1

China (74)

AF12

North China (68)

AFI3 Northwest China

AF14

Central China(74)

AF15

East China(74)

AF16

Southwest Chiria (67)

AF17

South China (69)

AG1

Manchuria(74)

AH1

Mongolia(74)

AH6

Inner Mongolia(74)

AH7

Outer Mongolia(74)

Europe

Slavic Peoples

Poland (69)

Czechoslovakia.(69)

Hungary

Rumania

FlFAS

FA16

FA28

FC7

FEll

FE12

FF38

FF52

FF57

FF62

FH9

Africa

Bambara (64)

Dogon(74)

Mossi (61)

Mende (61)

Tallensi (59)

Twi (60)

Katab (70)

Nupe (64)

III (59)

Yoruba (72)

Fang (61)

61

MA1

MAll

MB1

MD1

MD4

6E1

MG1

MI1

'

Middle East (68)

Iran (58)

Kurd (67)

Turkey (68)

Syria

Rwala (64)

Lebanon

Jordan (69)

Iraq

Kuwait

No.of

No.of

owC

No.of

No.of

Sources

Pages

Code

Name of Society

Sources

Pages

ASIA

58

6,224

All

Sinkidng (64)

3860

11

1,571

++ AJ1

Tibet (67)

26

6,831

3817

AJ4

West Tibetans (73)

22

1,905

40

1,836

AK5

Lepcha (59)

11

1,038

Subfile

AL1

Southeast Asia(70)

22

3,851

41,387

AM1

Indochina (71)

153

19,633

7529

AM4

Cambodia (71)

Subfile

5564

AM8

Laos (71)

Subfile

12

1,182

AM11

Vietnam (71)

Subfile

51,221

AN1

Malaya (65)

193

10,142

80

19,442

AN5

Malays (65)

Subfile

82,595

AN7

Semang (65)

3786

2553

A01

Thailand (60)

40

6,114

21,130

++ A07

Central Thai

71,199

31,384

AP1

Burma (62)

31

4,680

72,800

AP4

Burmese (62)

Subfile

81,846

AP6

Kachin

Subfile

61,250

AP7

Karen

SUbfile

91,358

++ AR5

Garo

91,169

12

1,279

++ AR7

Khasi (61)

21

998

31,428

EUROPE

91,599

EE1

Bulgaria

7998

7903

EF1

Yugoslavia (79)

13

2,765

31

3,940

++ EF6

Serbs (64)

19

3,382

75

6,491

EG1

Albania(72)

91,975

16

1,401

EH1

Greece (67)

10

1,153

91,245

8814

Sarakatsani

2441

AFRICA

12,339

FJ22

Nuer (61)

16

1,541

41,127

FJ23

Shilluk (66)

29

1,073

71,132

FK7

Ganda (65)

16

2,261

12

942

FL6

Dorobo

14

354

8605

FL10

Kikuyu (65)

81,438

10

954

FL11

Luo (68)

11

463

26

3,045

++ FL12

Masai (67)

19

2,095

4252

1714

Chagga (61)

61,986

9858

F817

Ngonde (66)

14

1,474

30

2,891

++ F04

Pygmies

51,350

45 8

1,637

1,117

++ F07

7032

Mande (60)

VOE/3-(64)

68 9

3,264

773

MIDDLE EAST

72

13,908

MJ1

Saudi Arabia (64)

30

3,371

72

7,000

MJ4

Bedouin (73)

Subfile

6703

MK2

MaPitime Arabs

4103

14

1,493

MK4

cial Oman

3'256

11

1,395

ML1

Y en

14

446

21,042

MM1

Aden

8,683

11

657,

MM2

Hadhramaut (59)

23

765

22 8

3,358

1,825

++ 104

++ MP5'

Somali (68)

Amhara (01)

31 12,

2,856

7877

++ New additions 1m process to s5iiting Files

OWC

Code

Name of Society

No.of

No.of

Sources

Pages

AU1

Afghanistan (59)

AV1

Aashmir (68)

AV3

Bard

AV4

Kashmiri (68)

AV7

Burusho (64)

AW1

India (70)

AW2

'

Bihar

AW5

Coorg

AW6

East Panjab (68)

AW7

Gujarati (69)

,A611

Kera3a(72)

AW17

Telugu

AW19

Uttar Pradesh

++ AW25

Bhil (60)

AW32

Gond (62)

AW37

Kol (66)

AW42

8antal(72)

A160

Toda (58)

++ AX4

Sinhalese

AX5

Vedda (66)

AZ2

,Andamahs (59)

74 6 4, 5 8

41 1 4 3 413 1 4 8 4 1 5

13 7 511

6,234

2,006

711

893

.2,157

14,980

619

802

1,106

627',

989

265

255

1,175

1,552

347

1,318

1,553

1,004

776

1,229

++ 119

881

801

++ EP4

++ ER6

EZ6

Imperial Romans

Austria

Finland

Lapps (66)

Rural Irish (81)

Malta (69)

3740

61,334

1402

17

3,915

17

1,673

91,069

7042

FP13

7Q5

FQ6

++ FQ9

F5

FT6

FT7

Eit3

1.1:4

Rundi (63)

MbundU (69)

Baba (59)

Ila (62)

Loti

Ngoni (70)

Thongs (68)

Tao (64)

Bushmen (64)

Hottentot (59)

Lovedu (63)

Tanala (68)

10 610 6

1014 311

16

14 5 1

1,314

847

830

998

1,635

1,123

1,231

555

1,259

1,359

455

334

MR13

Fellahin (66)

MR14

Siwans (66)

++ M812

Hausa. (63)

"11814

Bantri

M825

Tuareg (62)

M830

Wolof (66)

MS37-. Senegal (86)

++ M811

Shluh

MX3

Rif

1012

,

Bahrain (70)

Underlinine indicates

9 716 4 8

42

23 4 4 8

a File made up substaatially efle14:Bayskpil! flips

1,262

518

1,679

902

1,225

1,382

849

1,024

379

7.-428

NATURE AND USE OF THEHRAF FILES

A RESEARCH AND TEACHING GUIDE

Robert O. LagaceDirector of Educational Programs, HRAF

Human Relations Area Files, Inc.New Haven, Connecticut

00005

Copyright © 1974Human Relations Area Files, Incorporated

All rights reserved.

library of Congress Catalog Card Number 73.92580

00006

CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . vii

PREFACE viii

INTRODUCTION ... ix

PART I. THE NATURE OF THE 'HRAF FILES: AN OVERVIEW 1

PART II. STUDY AND RESEARCH APPLICATIONS OFTHE HRAF FILES 1

A. Studies of Specific Cultures or Areas 11. The Study of a Particular Culture 1

2. The Study of a World Area 4

B. Cross-Cultural Studies 41. The Study of Specific Topics 52. Testing Hypotheses Cross-Culturally 63. The Study of Culture Types 9

PART III. TEACHING APPLICATIONS OF THE IIRAF FILES 11

A. Training in Research 11

B. Individual Projects 11

C. Class Projects 11

1. Testing an Hypothesis Cross-Culturally 11

2. Cultural Role Playing 13

D. Preparation of Lectures 14

PART IV. HOW TO USE THE HRAF FILES:PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES 15

A. Studying a Research Problem in the Files 15

1. Formulation of a Research Problem 15

2. Use of the Subject Classification System (0C111) 15

3. Sample Research Problems 16

4. Considerations of Data Context 17

5. What About the Negative Case? 17

6. Considerations of Data Control 18

B. Orientation to Specific Files 20

1. Use of the File Guide: Category 10 202. Detailed Identification of the Cultural Unit 21

3. Bibliographic Information 21

C. Suggestions for Taking Notes 24

0991,70

PART V. ORGANIZATION OF THE HRAF FILES 24

A. Coverage of Cultures and World Areas 241. The Outline of World Cultures (OWC) 242. Selection of Cultures for the HRAF Files 253. Present Culture and Area Coverage 25

B. Source-Materials 281. Bibliographic Research 282. Types of Information Sought 283. Preparation of Translations 28

C. File Page Headings 29

D. Subject Classification System 301. The Outline of Cultural Materials (OCM) 302. Coding Techniques 313. Multiple Filing Techniques 384. Inclusion of Complete Page-Order Texts 38

E. Physical Format of the Paper Files 38

F. Microfilm Card Formats 38

PART VI. TOWARD A COMPREHENSIVE CULTURALINFORMATION SYSTEM 43

A. The HRAF Orientation Film 43

B. Bibliographic Components 431. The HRAF Source Bibliography 432. Library Catalog Cards 433. Culture Unit Bibliographies 434. Bibliographies of Cross-Cultural Studies 43

C. The HRAF Index 43

D. Coded Data Archive 44

APPENDIX A. LIST OF ADDITIONAL CROSS-CULTURALRESEARCH TOPICS AND PROBLEMS FOR STUDENTS(Including Relevant OCM Category Numbers) 45

APPENDIX B. DEFINING THE FILE UNITS 48

APPENDIX C. ADDITIONAL PROVISIONS FOR MAINTAININGDATA CONTEXT s 47

REFERENCES 48

0000 ti

ILLUSTRATIONS

1. Sample File Guide from Category 10 22

2. Sample Bibliography Slip from Category 111 23

3. Sample Page from the Outline of World Cultures . 26

4. Sample Page from the Outline of World Cultures Index 27

5. Sample Page from the Outline of Cultural Materials 32

6. Sample Page from the Outline of Cultural Materials Table of Contents 33

7. Sample Page from the Outline of Cultural Materials Index 34

8. Sample File Page, Annotated 36

9. Sample File Page, Translation with Bracketed Categories,Partly Annotated 37

10. Sample File Page (Old Style), Partly Annotated 39

11. Sample Jacketed Microfilm Card, Annotated 40

12. Sample Jacketed Microfilm Card from Category 116 (Texts), Annotated 40

13. Sample Microfiche Card, Annotated 41

14. Sample Microfiche Card from Category 116 (Texts), Annotated 41

DIAGRAMS

1. Arrangement of Old Style File.Pages on a Jacketed Microfilm Card 42

2. Arrangement of Current Style File Pages on a Jacketed Microfilm Card 42

TABLES

1. List of HRAF Files by Major World Areas 2-3

2. Social Complexity and Games of Strategy 8

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

In writing this Guide, I have drawn freely from the HRAF ResearchGuide, the Outline of Cultural Materials, and the Outline of World Cul-tures. I wish to express my sincere appreciation to George Peter Murdockand to all the other persons who shared in the development of one or moreof these manuals. Among my colleagues at HRAF, I received valuable,.guidance from Frank M. Le Bar, Frank W. Moore, Barbara Yanchek,Geraldine Kelly, John Beier le, and Stanley Witkowski. The editing wasdone by Elizabeth Swift of HRAF. To all of these, and to my students atSouthern Connecticut State College, who patiently provided the indis-pensable testing-ground for many of my ideas, I am profoundly grateful.

Photographs of Micronesia and Thailand are reproduced through thecourtesy of Frank M. Le Bar.

vii

PREFACE

The RRAF Files were developed by the Human Relations Area Files,Incorporated (HRAF), a nonprofit research organization sponsored andcontrolled by twenty-four major universities. Approximately two hundredand twenty-five educational and research institutions throughout theworld presently participate in HRAF's programs.

For some twenty-five years, HRAF has served the educational communityand contributed to an understanding of man send his ways of life, byorganizing and malting available primary research materials and studyaids relevant to the human sciences and by stimulating and facilitatingtraining and research in these fields.

In all, HRAF currently has three interrelated File programs. The basicFile program consists of the HRAF Paper. Files. Source materials are re-produced on standardized 5" x 8" paper slips called File pages, which arethen filed by.culture and subject. There are now Paper Files on approxi-mately 300 cultures. Each of HEAF's sponsoring; institutions has a com-plete set of the Paper Files.

Wider distribution of the HRAF Files was made possible by the develop-ment in 1958 of the HRAFMicrofiles, which are produced in a 3" x 5"microfilm card format. Materials from the Paper Files are processed intothe HRAFMicrofiles at a rate, of approlimately 100,000 File. pages peryear, and are issued in annual series to i:aticipating institutions. HRAF'sqtro is for the HRAFMicrofiles eventually to contain most of the materialin the Paper Files.

The ri IMF Collection is the newest File Program. It consists of a specialselection of sixty Files from the basic Paper Files, reproduced on 3" x 5"microfiche cards. The Collection was developed primarily as a .curriculuinsupport program for culture, area, and general social science studies at thetwo-year college level, but subscribing membership is also available toa broader range of qualified institutions. Since a study guide to the HRRFCollection has already been published (cf. Lagace 1973), this Collectionwill not be discussed further in the present guide.

viii

L14.0012

INTRODUCTION

The growing concern of students, scholars, and the general public withunderstanding man and his problems has created a demand for educa-tional and research programs emphasizing the worldwide, comparativestudy of human behavior, culture, and society. The development of cross-cultural and area studies requires, however, large quantities of readilyavailable, organized cultural\ data. Conventional sources of such data arewidely scattered, often inaccessible, and very expensive to assemble andutilize effectively. The HRAF Files are especially designed to overcomethese problems in meeting modem cultural data requirements.

The HRAF Files are a collection of primary source materials (mainly pub-lished books and articles,-but including some unpublished manuscripts) onselected cultures or societies representing all major areas of the world.The materials are organized and filed by a unique method designed for therapid and accurate retrieval of specific data on given cultures and topics,and are produced in formats which enable convenient handling and com-pact storage. The collection brings the necessary cultural data to theteacher and student and presents the data in a form which significantlyincreases the usefulness of the original source materials.

Utilizing the HRAF Files is a relatively straightforward process. Mechan-ics of use and researeL techniques are similar in many respects to standardlibrary practices. Once the basic system is understood, it should be possiblefor a researcher to use the Files as readily as he uses his school or collegelibrary. One of the main purposes of this guide is to develop such an under-standing. Mastery of the more complex aspects of the system is not essen-tial to an effective utilization of the HRAF materials. This mastery may bedeveloped gradually as the researcher acquires experience in the Files.

The other main purpose of the guide is to illustrate, by means of case ex-amples, some of the principal uses for which the HRAF Files are particu-larly suitable. However, the guide itself can be no more than suggestive ofthe range of possible uses. Anyone who is interested in man's behavior,

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customs, and social institutionswhether in anthropology, sociology, ge-ography, politics, psychology, or in fields as widely diverse as literature,home economics, art or agricultural developmentmay find relevant datain the Files.

Anyone intending to use the HRAF Files for serious study or researchshould become thoroughly familiar with Parts IV and V of this guide, andshould also scan Part VI. However, if a researcher wishes first to obtainsome idea of what use the Collection may be to him, he can start with PartII, where suggested applications of the Files are discussed in detail, andAppendix A, which contains a listing of additional topics and problemswhich may be studied in the Files. The categOry numbers mentioned inPart II and Appendix A refer to the code numbers of the subject categoriesinto which the material in the Files is classified. Finally, the teacher con-cerned with the question of how to utilize the Files for a course or class-room may wish to look first at Part III, where patterns of individual andgroup study are explored, along with other teaching applications.

It is recommended that for students with little social science training orexperience, Parts IV and V of this guide be studied in the classroom underthe guidance of a teacher. Advanced social science students should becapable of dealing with the information on their own.

In any event, Part I should be read carefully before turning to other partsof the guide.

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PART I. THE NATURE OF THE HRAF FILES: AN OVERVIEW

The organization of the HRAF Files is described indetail in Part V of this guide, but a brief synopsis ofseveral key points may be helpful as background toParts II, III, and IV.

The Collection is organized first of all into separateCultural Files, each of which contains descriptive in-formation on one culture or on a closely relatedgroup of cultures. Each Cultural File coordinates witha cultural unit listed in a manual entitled Outline ofWorld Cultures (OWC) (Murdock 1972). The OWCcontains an inventory and classification of the knowncultures of the world, with each distinct culture orgroup of cultures listed as a separate cultural unit anddesignated by a name and a unique letter/numbercode called the OWC code.

( It should be noted that a unit in the Files or an entryin the OWC is referred to as a "culture" or "culturalunit" regardless of whether it is actually a geographi-cal region, a national state, an ethnic group, and soforth. For further explanation of the usage of theseterms see section V.A.1., on p. 25.)

Within each Cultural File there are a number of

sources ( i.e. books, articles, and manuscripts), someof them original translations from foreign languages,which have been selected by culture or area expertson the basis of extensive bibliographic research..

The HRAF Files are more than just a collection oftexts, however. Essentially, the Files provide a majordata retrieval system, which has been developed tofacilitate-study, teaching, and research in the social-behavioral sciences, in world area studies, and in thehumanities. The source materials in each File areorganized according to a comprehensive subject classi-fication system which is presented in a manual en-titled Outline of Cultural Materials (OCM) (Murdocket al. 1971). The OCM consists of over 700 distinctsubject categories, with each category briefly de-fined and designated by a unique number code. Thuseach File contains both a complete, page-order, textcopy of every source included in that File, plus aseries of numbered category divisions within whichall pages dealing with a particular subject are broughttogether.

A list of the cultures in the HRAF Files, arranged bymajor world areas, is given in Table 1, on pp. 2-3.

PART II. STUDY AND RESEARCH APPLICATIONS OF THE HRAF FILES

This section explores the range of study and researchpossibilities offered by the HRAF Files. Potentialuses fall into four major types: cross-cultural studies,studies of specific cultures or areas, teaching andtraining in research, and the preparation of lectures.Each of these types will be discussed and illustratedwith specific case examples. It should be emphasized,however,-that the _actual potentials of the Files arealmost limitless, depending upon the ingenuity andimagination of the researcher.

A. Studies of Specific Cultures or Areas

Typically, studies of a particular culture or a worldarea have tended to be descriptive and content ori-ented. This is a useful and valid approach, but it isalso possible to approach the study of a culture orworld area with theoretical questions or problems inmind, perhaps similar to those reviewed in section B,below. A theoretical orientation has the great advan-

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tage of making the cultural data more meaningful andinteresting to study.

1. The Study of a Particular Culture. It must be em-phasized at the outset that the following discussion isnot intended for the expert on a given culture. Ifthere is a File on a culture in which he is a specialist,it should prove useful to him in many ways, but hisresearch will undoubtedly encompass a much broaderrange of materials than can be incorporated in theFile.

There are innumerable-reasons why a researcher maywish to study particular cultures. We can only indi-cate here some especially interesting aspects of a fewcultures in the HRAF Files, in order to stimulatefurther thinking about this approach. But it may alsobe noted that it would normally be impossible for theaverage student to study many of these cultures indepth without the Files, because the sources were

TABLE 1. List of HRAF Files by Major World Areasl

OWCCode2 Name of Cultural Unit

OWCCode2 Name of Cultural Unit

*AA1

AB6

AC7AD1

AD4*ADSAE3AE4AE5AE9AF1AF12AF13AF14AF15

AF16AF17AG1

AHIAH6AH7AllAJ1AJ4AILS'

ALlAM1

AM4AN8AM11AN1

ANSAN7A01

*A07API

AP4AP6AP7*ARS*AR7

AU1AV1AV3AV4AV7AW1AW2AWSAW6AW7AW11AW17AW19AW2SAW32AW37

*AW42

AW60

*AX4AXS*AZ2

ASIA

El

E16EA1EB1

EC1ED1EE1EF1

*EF6EG1

EH1EH14EI9EK1

E01

*EP4ER6*ES10

EZ6

FlPA8*FA16FA28FC7FEll*FE12FF38FF52*FF57FF62FH9FJ22FJ23*FrFL6FL1OFL11*FL12FN4

FN17*F04*F07F032F042FP13*FQ5FQ6*FQ9FRSFT6FT7FX10FX13FX14FY8

EUROPE

Korea (60)Europe

Slavic PeoplesPoland (69)

Czechoslovkia (69)HungaryRumaniaBulgariaYugoslavia (73)

Serbs (64)Albania (72)Greece (67)SarakatsaniImperial RomansAustriaFinland .Lapps (66)Rural Irish (61)Highland ScotsMalta (69)

AFRICA

AinuOkinawaFormosa

Formosan Abori inesTaiwan Ho ikk

Sino-Tibetan BorderLoloMiao (70)Mongour (65)ChinaNorth China (68)Northwest ChinaCentral ChinaEast ChinaSouthwest China (67)South China (69)ManchuriaMongoliaInner MongoliaOuter MongoliaSinkiang (64).Tibet (67)West Tibetans (73)Lepcha (59)

Southeast Asia (70)Indochina (71)

AfricaBambara (64)DogonMossi (61)Mende (61)Tallensi (59)Twi (60)Katab (70)Nupe (64)Tiv (59)Wuba (72)Fang (61)

Nuer (61)

Shilluk (66)Ganda (65)Dorobo

Kikuyu (65)Luo (68)

Masai (67)Chagga (61)

Ngonde (66)Pygmies

Azande (60)

.Cambodia (71)Laos (71)Vietnam (71)Malaya (65)Malays (65)Semang (65)Thailand (60)Central ThaiBurma (62)

Burmese (62)KachinKarenGaroKhasi (61)

Afghanistan (59)Kashmir (68)DardKashmiri (68)Burusho (64)India (70)BiharCoorgEast Panjab (68)Gujarati (69)

Kerala (72)TeluguUttar PradeshBhil (60)Gond (62)Kol (66)Santal (72)

Toda (58)SinhaleseVedda (66)

Andaman (59)

Mongo (64)Rundi (63)Mbundu (69)Samba (59)Ila (62)

LoziNgoni (70)Thongs (68)Yao (64)

Bushmen (64)

Hottentot (59)Lovedu (63)Tanala (68)

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ARR,P1.6

Code2 Name of Cultural Unit

MIMA1

MB1MD1MD4MEIMGIMHIMI1MJ1MJ4MK2MK4ML1MM1MM2*M04*I4P5MR13MR14*MS12*MS14MS2S*MS30MS37*Mr9

*MW11MX3MZ2

MIDDLE EAST

Middle East (68)Iran (58)Kurd (67)Turkey (68)SyriaRwala (64)LebanonJordan (69)IraqKuwait

Saudi Arabia (64)"Bedouin (73)Maritime ArabsTrucial OmanYemenAdenHadhramaut (59)

Somali (68)Amhara (61)Fellahin (66)Siwens (62)Hausa (63)KanuriTuareg (62)Wolof (66)Senegal (66)Libyan BedouinShluhRifBahrain (70)

NORTH AMERICA

NA6 Aleut (58)*NA12 Yrigit (60)*ND8 Copper Eskimo (63)ND12 Nahane (61)NE6 Bellacoola (66)NEll Nootka (63)

*NF6 Blackfoot*NG6 Ojibwa (58) (63)'0I6 MontagnaisNJ5 Micmac (67)NL7 Historical Massachusetts1117 Delaware (66)

1149 Iroquois (64), NN11 Creek (61)

NO6 ComancheNP12 Winnebago (73)NQ10 Crow (58)NQ12 Dhegiha (70)NQ13 Gros Ventre (68)NQ17 Mandan (60)*NQ18 Pawnee (62)NR4 Plateau Indians*NR10 KlamathNR13 Northern PaiuteNR19 Southeast SalishNS18 Pomo (61)NS22 TubatulabalNS29 Yokuts (61)NS31 Yurok (59)

Ott2

Code

TABLE 1. List of HRAF Files by Major World Areasl

OWC2

Name of Cultural Unit CodeOWC

Name of Cultural Unit Code2

Name of Cultural Unit

NT8*NT9

NT13NT14NT15NT18

NT20NT23NU7NU28NU31

-*NU33NU34NU37*NV9NV10

OA1

OAS0A14*0A19

OBI*OC6OF5OF7

OF90G6*OG11

OH4*0180117011901200J130J230J27*0J29

*0L6

0M601410

CN6,2413

0012

*0Q6OR11*0R19OR21OR22

*OT11OU80X60Y2OZ4OZ11

.Eastern Apache (72)HopiNavaho (73)Plateau Yumans (62)River YumansTema (64)

WashoZuni (66)Aztec (59)Papago (62)SeriTarahumara (61)Tarasco (67)Teportlan (70)TzeltalYucatec Maya (69)

OCEANIA

Philippines (63)

Apayao (63)Central Bisayan (63)Ifugao (63)

Indonesia (6")Iban (59)Alor (63)Bali (67)FloresMakassar (69)ToradjaAmbonAranda (58)Murngin (62)Tasmanians (63)Tiwi (66)

KwomaOrokaiva (62)Wogeo (61)Kapauku (72)Trobriands (58)

Manus (65)New Ireland (68)Buka (59)Santa CruzMalekula (62)Lau (60)Marshalls (62)Truk (72)Woleai (58)

YE7F-77)Tikopia (63)Sawa (63)Marquesas (61)

Easter IslandersMaori (66)Pukapuks (61)

RI

RBI

RB5

RC1RD1RF1

RG4RH1

RI1

RI3RL1

RL4RQ2RR1RU4

*RV2

RX2*RY2

RY3

RY4

SA1SSA19*S85

*SC7

SC13SC15SD6SD9SE13*SF5

SF10SF21

SF24SG4

*SH4

SH5SH6SI4*SI7

SK7SM3

*SM4

S08S09

*S011SP7

*SP8

SP9SP17

RUSSIA

Soviet UnionBaltic CountriesLithuaniansBelorussiaUkraine (69)Great RussiaEstoniansCaucasiaGeorgia

AbkhazTurkestanTurkic PeoplesKazakSiberiaSamoyedYakutGilyak (72)Chukchee (61)

WER51Koryak

SOUTH AMERICA

Mosquito (61)Talamanca (65)Cuns (68)Cagaba (72)Goajiro (62)PaezCayapa (64)Jivaro (58)Inca. 67)Aymara (59)Chiriguano (73)SirionoGU-13I)Araucanians (59)OnaTehuelche (63)Yahgan (62)Abipon (62)Masco (69)Choroti (68)GuamCaingang (64)GuaraniTimbiraTupinamba (58)

Bahia BraziliansBacairi (70)BororoCaraja (69)Nambicuara (61)

SP22SP23SQ13*SQ18*SQ19SQ20*SR8SR9SS16SS18SS19ST13SU1SV3SY1

Tapirape (62)TrumaiMundurucu (65)YanoamaMeant,TucunaBush Negroes (72)Carib (68)PeaonWargoYaruroCallings, (60)Puerto Rico (73)Haiti (73)Jamaica

1 The eight major world areas are those delineated in the Outline of World Cultures.2 These are the alphanumeric code designations for the respective cultural units as listed in the Outline of World Cultures.3 Files also included in the HRAF-Microfiles Collection as of 1973 are indicated by the annual series number in parentheses

following the name of the cultural unit.4 Underlining of the cultural unit name indicates a File made up substantially of old style File pages.5 When an asterisk ( ) appears before the OWC code; it indicates that this cultural unit is included in the sixty HRAF Probabil-

ity Sample Files. (See p. 7 for further discussion of this matter.)

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written in several different foreign languages. A goodexample of this point is the SC7 Cagaba File, whichincludes six translations from three different lan-guagesFrench, Spanish, and German.

The Cagaba File offers an excellent case studyfor the researcher who wishes to explore thefunctioning of a theocratic culturei.e. a culturewhich is dominated by a priestly class. Further-more, a researcher interested in psychologicalproblems will find in this File a fascinating anal-ysis of the focal conflicts in Cagaba culture,which are related to food, sex, and associatedpatterns of aggression.

Another File containing a good deal of data ofpsychological as well as cultural Merest is thaton the Yanoama (SQ18). Yanoama culture ischaracterized by an extraordinary degree ofinternal hostility and aggression, which raisesmany interesting questions about the factorsresponsible for these conditions and the waythey may have influenced other aspects ofculture.

For resea.zhers with a political science interest,the Ashanti (FE12) provide a striking casestudy of a traditional African state which wasevidently created and maintained by war, andwhich was marked by a strong military ideology.

The researcher who is interested in comparativeor traditional law and case studies of disputesettlement will find excellent data on these mat-ters in the Tiv File (FF57), the Lozi File(FQ9), the Ifugao File (0A19), and the Kapau-ku File (0J29).

Any of the Files within the Middle East areawould be useful for a study, perhaps in a com-parative religion course, of how a major worldreligion, Islam, has been adapted within a par-ticular culture, and how it has influenced thatculture.

Finally, the Bemba File (FQ5) contains one ofthe best available studies on the food patternsand nutrition of a non-Western culture. Studentsin home economics, public health, rural develop-ment, and related fields may find this File to beof particular interest.

Perhaps these examples will suffice to motivate theresearcher to explore the Files further on his own, inorder to discover other cultures and topics of specialinterest to him.

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2. The Study of a World Area. Interest in area studieshas now spread throughout the educational system.The HRAF Files contain a sufficient number of cul-tures to constitute a good basis for area-orientedcout.es and research on most of the major worldareas. (See the listing of cultures by areas in Table1). Also, it is interesting to compare the results ofstudying a given topic or hypothesis on an area basisin contrast to studying this same topic or hypothesison the basis of a worldwide sample of cultures or onthe basis of cultures classified within a particular cul-ture type. By doing so, the researcher may develop aclearer idea of the distinctive nature and organiza-tion of cultures in different world areas.

r B. Cross-Cultural Studies

Here again it should be clearly understood that thediscussion in section B is not directed at specialists incross-cultural research. This is simply an introductionto cross-cultural approaches intended for the non-specialist, whether student or scholar. HRAF doesplan to publish before long a detailed manual ad-dressed to the cross-cultural specialist.

The study of-particular topics or problems across cul-tures is greatly facilitated by use of the Files. This isespecially true for students and teachers who are notfamiliar with the vast amount of ethnographic litera-ture that is available today. Even for the professionalanthropologist, the Files make it possible to carry outa research project which otherwise might be prohib-itively time-consuming and costly. A good example ofthis point, based on research in the HRAF PaperFiles, is a study of "Family stability in non-Europeancultures," which was published by Professor GeorgePeter Murdock. He states that his paper "was under--taken as a specific test of the efficiency of the HumanRelations Area Files as an aid in comparative [i.e.cross-cultural] research." It must be acknowledgedthat Professor Murdock was intimately familiar withthe Files when he did this research, but the resultsare still most impressive:

From the initial planning of the article, throughthe assembly of the material from the Files andits analysis, to the completion of the writing andtyping of the paper, the total elapsed time wasonly twenty-nine hoursas compared with atleast as many days consumed in the preparationof earlier comparable studies conducted by theordinary laborious processes of library research[Murdock 1985: 311].

This quotation should not be understood as implyingthat a student's research project must take anything

like twenty-nine hours. The point is that a studentmay be able to gather the necessary data for hisproblem in several hours from the Files, whereas byusing traditional library methods and resources itwould probably take several days to gather a com-parable body of data.

Three basic types of cross-cultural studies will be pre-sented here. Since only a limited number of examplescan be discussed, an extensive list of suggested re-search problems suitable for student assignments hasbeen compiled in Appendix A. In addition, the re-searcher is urged to scan one or two cross-culturalbibliographies, such as those by O'Leary (1969 and1971), in order to get a further idea of the great di-versity of topics and problems that may be studiedthrough a cross-cultural approach.

1. The Study of Specific Topics. Any aspect or featureof man's culture may constitute an appropriate re-search topic. The research problems described in sec-tion IV.A.3., pp. 16-17, of this guide are all examplesof this type of cross-cultural study. The paper byMurdock referred to above also falls within this cate-gory and provides a goad illustration of a piece ofresearch which pertains equally to the fields of an-thropology and sociology:

Murdock's study focuses on the stability of mar-riage in forty selected non-European cultures,with his object being to place the family situa-tion in the contemporary United States in cross-cultural perspective. The forty cultures consti-tuted a worldwide sample. His first significantfinding was that nearly all cultures make somestandardized provision for the termination ofmarriage through divorce. (The solitary exceptionin his sample was the Incas.) The major find-ing was that in twenty-four out of the forty cul-tures, i.e, in 60 percent of the total, the divorcerate definitely exceeds that of the United States.From this he concludes that "despite the wide-spread alarm about increasing 'family disorgani-zation' in our society, the comparative evidencemakes it clear that we still remain well withinthe limits which human experience has shownthat societies can tolerate with safety" (Murdock1965: 312-16).

Although Murdock also covers other factors, astudent focusing on the central issue of divorcerates could make a very interesting restudy ofthis problem by using a different sample of cul-tures from the Files. It would be a fairly simpleresearch task, since the relevant data should be

found almost entirely in a single category in eachFile, namely category 586 (Termination of Mar-riage).

A comparable type of problem of psychological inter-est would be a study of the degree to which the mani-festations and control of aggression are culturallydeterminedin other words: How and to what ex-tent do these aspects of aggression vary in differentcultures?

A fairly small sample of eight cultures from theFiles, one from each major world region, wouldbe sufficient for a useful preliminary analysis ofthis problem. From the standpoint of subjectcategories, the research would be more compli-cated than the study of divorce rates, becausea number of categories would have to be exam-ined. The index to the OCM contains the follow-ing entry with category references under theterm Aggression: control and repression of, 578;definitions of and sanctions for, 683; expressionsof, 201; incidence and quality of, 152; control ofin children, 865; training, 865. In addition, sub-stantial information on this subject might befound under such categories as 186 (Ethnocen-trism ), .266 (Cannibalism), 477 (Competition),522 ( Humor), 526 ( Athletic Sports), 586 (Ter-mination of Marriage), 626 (Social Control),628 (Informal Intergroup Justice), 668 (PoliticalMovements), 691 ( Litigation), 721 (Instigationof War), 754 (Sorcery), and 798 (ReligiousIntolerance). Generally, the student would notbe aware at the start of his project that all ofthese categories might be relevant. Their de-termination would require a close scanning ofthe OCM and probably consultation with a so-cial science teacher as well. Given this potentialrange of categories to search, the concept ofaggression would have to be clearly and pre-cisely defined for the student to gather onlypertinent data.

Another study exemplifying this type of cross-culturalapproach is the HRAF "Food Habits Survey" (1964):

Data were gathered on the food patterns of 383cultures, with one of the principal objectivesbeing to determine the most commonly eatenstaple foods in the developing areas of the world.The research design for this study will not bedescribed here, since it was quite complex andinvolved the search of numerous OCM cate-gories. The point of interest is that the study offood patterns turns out to be linked to nearly

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lk"000149

all major aspects of culture, and can provide avery useful focus for a project which would beof relevance to such widely diverse fields ashome economics, nutrition, agriculture, botany,animal husbandry, zoology, human geography,anthropology, sociology, and psychology. Itwould well repay a student to read the summaryof this HRAF project that was published byMoore (1970). Among the obvious categoriesto be searched in the Files are those in divisions22 through 27, plus such cross-referenced cate-gories as 146 (Nutrition) and 853 (Infant Feed-ing). The single most important category wouldgenerally be 262 (Diet).

Students and scholars in the Fine Arts will also findthe Files to be an excellent source of data for manyunusual and enlightening projects:

The number of cultures to be used may varyfrom few to many, depending on how the prob-lem is phrased. Relevant categories may be lo-cated by checking the table of contents of theOCM, while additional categories may be deter-mined from the cross-references to those cate-gories or the OCM index. In fact, all of the keycategories may be found in a single major divi-sion, 53 Fine Arts. Art is covered in categories531 (Decorative Art) and 532 (RepresentativeArt), music in 533 (Music) and 534 (MusicalInstruments), the dance in 535 (Dancing),drama in 536 (Drama), while category 537 dealswith oratory and 538 with literature. Thus astudent of any one of these art forms would usu-ally have only a small number of categories tosearch in the Files. Even within these categories,the problem can be further narrowed down to astudy of the use of color in representative art,for example, or a study of one type of musicalinstrument.

2. Testing Hypotheses Cross-Culturally. An hypothesisis a statement or question concerning the relationshipbetween two or more factors (commonly called vari-ables). A simple example would be "X causes Y," inwhich case "X" is called the independent variable and"Y" the dependent variable. it is also possible to pro-pose that X and Y are related, in the sense that theyinfluence one another, without specifying which is thecause (i.e. the independent variable) and which theresult (i.e. the dependent variable). In the conteit ofthe Files, we are concerned with hypotheses dealingwith cultural variables or with the relationship be-tween a cultural variable and some noncultural vari-able, such as an aspect of the physical environment.

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For instance, the hypothesis discussed briy in sec-tion IV.A.6., on p. 18 involves two cultural variables,plural marriage (X) and divorce (Y). Similarly, onemight propose the hypothesis that cultures located ina cold climate tend to have a higher rate of divorcethan cultures located in a warm climate. (The under-lying assumption would be that climate in some wayaffects marital relations.) This hypothesis involvesa physical variable, climate (X), and a cultural vari-able, divorce (Y).

The cross-cultural testing of hypotheses is essentialfor the development of valid general theory in the so-cial and behavioral sciences, and this is the type ofusage for which the HRAF Files were originally de-veloped. Several of the early studies along these lineshave become classics in the social science literaturefor example Murdock's Social structure (1949) andWhiting and Child's Child training and personality(1953).

There are various ways of testing hypotheses cross-culturally, but scientifically the most powerful method(and the one used by Murdock, Whiting, and Child)is the statistical comparison of a worldwide sample ofculturesor what is now becoming known as the"hologeistic" method. (For a good, recent survey ofhologeistic methodology, see Naroll, Michik, andNaroll 1974.)

One of the few available guides to conducting a holo-geistic study is an article by Otterbein (1969). An-other useful but quite technical article by Sipes(1972) presents criteria for evaluating the methodo-logical adequacy of such studies. The discussion ofdata provenience, i.e. the spatio-temporal and socialderivation of the data, in item (a) of section IV.A.6.is also directly pertinent. A thorough review of gen-eral problems in cross-cultural methodology cannotpossibly be undertaken here, but two of these prob-lems warrant at least a brief commentary because oftheir broad significancenamely, sampling and cod-ing. Both of these problems may be relevant to othertypes of cross-cultural studies, but they are of crucialimportance to the proper testing of hypotheses.

Sampling refers to the selection of cultural units to beincluded in a study, and it is one of the most basicand controversial problems in cross-cultural research(cf. Naroll 1973a for a comprehensive review of thisproblem). Among the key issues are: (1) definitionof the type of cultural unit to be sampled (2) deter-mination of the number of cultural units to be se-lected, i.e. the sample size (3) specification of thegeographical distribution of the cultural units, i.e. use

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of a worldwide sample vs. a regional or other type. ofsample, and (4) the question of the historical inde-pendence of cultural units, commonly called Calton'sproblem.

These are complex issues, but fortunately the studentor nonspecialist using the Files now has available ameans of undertaking a good cross-cultural studywithout becoming deeply entangled in sampling tech-nicalities (although he should certainly be aware ofthe problem ). The means of conducting such a cross-cultural study is through utilization of the HRAFProbability Sample Files, a special selection of sixtyFiles chosen so as to meet probability samplingrequirements. These Files are clearly indicated inTable 1, pp. 2-3, by an asterisk ( ) placed before theOWC code. ( For a description of the methods usedin selecting this sixty-culture sample, see BehaviorScience Notes 2 (1967 ): 70-88.) If a smaller samplesize is desired, it would be a fairly simple matter toselect randomly thirty or forty cultural Files from thetotal sixty, although roughly the same proportionaterepresentation of the major world areas should bemaintained, if possible.

Two cautions should be noted concerning the use ofthese Probability Sample Files. First, some Files con-tain data on several cultural units, only one of whichshould be used in the sample. For instance, the FE12Twi File contains data on the Akyem, Ashanti, andFanti; only the Ashanti should be used as the sampleunit. The specific cultural units in the HRAF sampleare listed on pp. 84-88 of the reference cited above.The second caution is that orw or more of these Filesmay not be available yet in the particular HRAF Col-lection being used by a researcher. In such a case, adifferent File from the same sampling cluster may besubstituted. Again, these sampling clusters are listedon pp. 84-88 of the reference cited above. If there isno alternative File listed for a cluster, then simplydrop that cluster from the sample.

The other methodological problem to be discussed iscoding. Ember (1973) and LeBar (1973) providevery useful reviews of this problem, the latter withparticular reference to the Files. Coding involves es-sentially the classification of cultural units accordingto a set of categories which define operationally,measure, or classify a variable being studied. Tech-nically, the categories pertaining to one variable areusually called the values of that variable. Again tech-nically, these categories may take the form of a nom-inal, ordinal, interval, or ratio scale (cf. Stevens 1948).In simplified terms we can say that the categoriesmay constitute a typological classification, such as a

7

present-absent dichotomy, or a more denotative set oftypes, such as the residence pattern typology tradi-tionally used in anthropology (i.e. patrilocal, matri-local, etc.), or the categories may constitute somekind of scale or continuum, such as percentages, arange of high-medium-low, etc.

Examples of the different types of categories appearin the case studies by Murdock, Roberts et al., Forde,and Mead, which are discussed below. To take just oneexample, in the study by Forde (cf. p. 9) the mainvariable is "subsistence economy." He categorizes thisvariable into a three-fold typology: food gatherers,cultivators, and pastoral nomads. The cultural tmits inhis study are then classified according to this typol-ogy.

Obviously, there are many other aspects of codingwhich cannot be treated here. One additional pointshould be emphasized, however, since it is becomingstandard practice in cross-cultural research. When-ever a researcher codes a variable, he should givespecific page references for the data used in arrivingat a particular code.

Several examples of theoretically oriented cross-cul-tural studies will be described to demonstrate thechallenge and potentials of this approach. Again,Murdock's article on family stability in non-Europeancultures may serve as a good point of departure:

It may be recalled that Murdock found that 60percent of his sample cultures had a higher rateof divorce than the rate in the United States. Hedid not really attempt, however, to deal with thequestion of what factors may have been respon-sible for different rates of divorce in differentcultures. Obviously, many variables could be in-volved. The only way to determine what mightbe the major causal variables is to develop andtest a series of relevant hypotheses. One possibleproposition is that the practice of polygyny(plural wives) is in some way related to the rateof divorce. From this proposition one might draWa testable hypothesis as follows: Cultures with ahigh incidence of polygyny will tend to have alow rate of divorce. Once the variables of polyg-yny and divorce are clearly defined, the re=searcher must devise some way of measuring andclassifying (as high or low, by percentages, etc.)the frequency of polygyny and divorce in thecultures included in his sample. Then the rele-vant data in the Files may be gathered. Thisshould be a relatively simple procedure, sincenearly all of the data would be found in two

subject categories, 586 (Termination of Mar-riage) and 595 (Polygamy). The researcher mustthen analyze and code the data and tabulate theresultsfor example Culture A may be classifiedas having a high incidence of polygyny and ahigh rate of divorce, etc. From the completed

. tabulation, the researcher may determine (usu-ally by means of a statistical measure) whetheror not the hypothesis is supported by the data,and then he should interpret what this conclu-sion means in terms of the underlying theory.

The next case example is taken from an article byRoberts, Arth, and Bush (1959), which was partlybased upon the Files. Professor John M. Roberts andhis colleagues have conducted a series of original andintriguing studies on the significance of games invarious cultures:

In this article they define a game as a "recrea-tional activity characterized by: (1) organizedplay (2) competition (3) two or more sides (4)criteria for determining the winner, and (5)agreed-upon rules?' Games are then classifiedinto three basic types in terms of distinctive pat-terns of play: (1) physical skill (2) strategy, and(3) chance. The elements of strategy and chancemay be involved in games of physical skill ( e:g.prize fights or hockey). Games of strategy mayalso-involve chance but not physical skill ( e.g.chess or poker), and neither physical skill norstrategy can be involved in games of chance, asin the case of dice games ( Roberts et al. 1959:594).

The general theory' is that since games occur sowidely in cultures around the world, they mustmeet some general human needs, although theydo so in complex and usually indirect ways. Es-sentially, it is proposed that games represent( through signs or symbols) and simulatei.e.are 'expressive models" ofother aspects of cul-ture. For example "many games of physical skillsimulate combat or hunting, as in boxing andcompetitive trap shooting" ( Roberts et al. 1959:598-99):

More specifically, games of strategy which aremodels of social interaction should be relatedto the complexity of the social system; gamesof chance which are models of interactionwith the supernatural should be linked withother expressive views of the supernatural;and there :3 a possibility that games of phys-ical skill may be related to aspects of the nat-

8

ural environment [Roberts et al. 1959: 599-600].

Only one of the hypotheses used as a test of thistheory will be reviewed here. The hypothesis isthat since games of strategy simulate social sys-tems, those systems should be complex enoughto generate such needs for expression. Simplecultures should not possess games of strategyand should resist borrowing them.

Two measures of social complexity wereadopted: level of political integration and levelof social stratification. Political integration wasdivided into high or low, and social stratificationinto present or absent. Forty-three cultures werefound to have rafficient information to classifyaccording to these variables and ace -ding to thepresence or absence of games of strategy. Theresults of the study confirmed the hypothesis, ascan be seen from the following table (a modifica-tion of Table 2 in Roberts et al. 1959: 600).Note that the numbers in the table represent thenumber of cultures classified into each category.

Table 2. Social Complexity and Games of Strategy

Games of StrategyPresent Absent

LowPolitical

Integration

HighPolitical

Integration

Social StratificationAbsent 3 13

Social StratificationPresent 2 5

Social StratificationAbsent 2 4

Social StratificationPresent 12 2

In 20 cultures with a high level of political in-tegration, games of strategy were present in 14and absent in only 8, while in 23 cultures witha low level of political integration, games ofstrategy were absent in 18 and present in only 5.When a high level of political integration iscombined with the presence of social stratifica-tion, games of strategy were present in 12 out of14 cultures; whereas in cultures with a lowlevel of political integration and the absence ofsocial stratification, games of strategy wereabsent in 13 out of 16 cases.

If a researcher were to do a restudy of this hy-pothesis using the HRAF Files, the followingwould be among the key categories to search in

each File: for data on games of strategy, cate-gory 524 (Games); for data on level of politicalintegration, categories 622, 63, 631, and 642; fordata on the presence or absence of social stratifi-cation, categories 563 through 567. Those cul-tures found to have adequate information on allthree variables could then be used in the re-study. But before beginning any of this work,the researcher should read carefully the articleby Roberts, Arth, and Bush to be sure he thor-oughly understands the underlying theory andthe definition of each variable.

A final case example will be discussed briefly. It is toocomplex to review in detail, but it deserves mentionbecause of its relevance to one of the most vital prob-lems in the modern worldnamely the issue of war orpeace. This is a study by Professor Raoul Naroll, basedon the HRAF Files, which is entitled "Does militarydeterrence deter?" (Naroll 1966):

The author states that there are two major rivalhypotheses about the relationship between arma-ments and warfare, the arms race hypothesis andthe 4eterrence hypothesis. The deterrence hy-pot ens holds that to preserve peace one must

'are for war; in other words, that cultureswith strong military orientations should have lessfrequent war. The arms race hypothesis holds thatpreparation for war tends to make war morelikely; thus an orientation to war is directly re-lated to the frequency of war. These hypotheseswere tested with data from forty-eight cultures.The findings in one respect were clear-cut:"This study gives no support at all to the deter-rence theory" (Naroll 1966: 18). The competinghypothesis gave more ambiguous results: "thesedata offer a kind of mild and tentative supportfor the arms race hypothesis" (Naroll 1966: 19).Naroll's study provides a wide range of ideas forfurther research and merits careful reading byany interested student.

3. The Study of Culture Types. Rather than studyinga specific topic or testing an hypothesis in the mannerdescribed above, another approach which the re-searcher may use with the HRAF Collection is toclassify the cultures into broad culture types, andthen study the similarities and differences among thecultures within the same culture type or different cul-ture types. Also, once a system of culture types isestablished, any of the topics or hypotheses discussedin the two previous sections can be tested within stieli

a framework in order to determine the extent to whichelese phenomena vary by culture types.

Almost any aspect of culture may serve as a basis forthe classification of culture types, but if such a classi-fication is to be of value for research purposes, itshould be based upon significant cultural factorswhich have broad implications for other aspects ofculture. The three examples discussed below are of-fered primarily as a guide to the kinds of culture typeswhich may be theoretically useful.

Sailing canoe, Castro! Cardin% Mictvowla

One commonly used basis of classification is the sub-sistence economy:

Such a classification may be fairly elaborate, dis-tinguishing relatively fine variations in subsist-ence patterns, or rather simple, using only grossdistinctions. It is recommended that the studentstart with a simple classification, since the re-kited cultural patterns will be more sharply de-fined. An example of a relatively simple schemeis that presented in a well-known book by C.Daryll Forde (1950). Forde classifies culturesinto three general subsistence types: (1) foodgatherers ( i.e. hunting, collecting, fishing) (2)cultivators, and (3) pastoral nomads. He thenproceeds to analyze a series of cultures withineach type, describing theeconomic patterns andconsidering their relation to the physical envi-ronment, to social organization, and to majorfactors in the growth of civilization (Forde1950: vi).

Each of these subsistence types is represented inthe Files, and it should not be difficult for theresearcher to classify each culture by type. Per-

Subsistence economy refers to a people% means of livelihood, especially their activities, organization, and technolo 4, for obtainingfood.

9

haps a good starting poi& would be to searchcategories 262 (Diet) and 433 ( Production andSupply). When based on the data in these cate-gories, the pertinent categories in divisions 22( Food Quest ), 23 (Animal Husbandry ), or 24(Agriculture) may be examined. After this classi-fication has been accomplished, specific researchproblems should be formulated as discussed inthe first paragraph of this section. Ideally, theseproblemi should reflect some general theoryabout the influence of the subsistence economyon the other aspects of culture. Relevant theo-retical statements or propositions may be foundin Forde's book or in almost any general intro-ductory text in cultural anthropology.

Another frequently used basis for the classification ofculture types is the level of social complexity:

One of the most widely known schemes is that byService (1971), who classifies cultures into fivelevels of social complexity: (1) bands (2) tribes(3) chiefdoms (4) primitive states, and (5)archaic civilizations. The theoretical bases andcriteria for this classification are explained inService's book, on pp. 488-501, and this explana-tion should be studied before any research alongthese lines is undertaken. The process of classi-fying cultures in the Files according to theselevels would be somewhat more complex than inthe case of subsistence types. Pertinent cate-gories to be searched include 101 (Identifica-tion), 619 (Tribe and Nation), 621 (CommunityStructure), all of the categories in division 63(Territorial Organization), and category 642(Constitution). Guidance in the formulation ofresearch problems relevant to this classificationmay be found in Marsh (1967), Lenski (1970:118.42), and in many other general sociology oranthropology texts.

A third and rather different kind of classification ap-proach is provided in a book edited by Margaret Mead(1961):

Three major cultural emphases are delineatedwhich pertain both to different aspects of be-havior within a culture and to the culture as a

10

whole. Behavioral patterns and cultures are-classified along a continuum as being predom-inantly cooperative, competitive, or individual-istic. Other cultural variables are then related tothese differing emphases. This approach offersa most interesting area of research for the moreadvanced student or the scholar, but specificproblems should be carefully formulated beforeturning to the data in the Files. In order to dothis, the researcher must make a close study ofthe introductory and concluding sections ofMead's book, and perhaps scan one or two ofthe included cultural descriptions.

This completes the survey of suggested study and re!search applications of the HRAF Files. These usagesshould be sufficiently diversified and flexible to meetthe needs of most researchers. Many other approachesare possible, however, and researchers are encouragedto experiment with different ways of utilizing the richbody of data in the Files.

Shaping a canoe hull ovA Truk, Miaow&

PART HI. TEACHING APPLICATIONS OF THE HRAF FILES

This part of the guide shifts to a consideration ofthe general ways of implementing the previously dis-cussed types of usage, particularly ie. a classroom con-text.

A. Training in Research

There are several ways in which the HRAF Files sig-nificantly facilitate the training of students in researchmethods and techniques based upon the use of writ-ten materials. First, the necessary cultural data aremade readily available, and these data are organizedfor maximum efficiency of usage. The importance ofthese points should be stressed, because they are easilyoverlooked. The development of research skills re-quires working with cultural data; otherwise discus-sions of methods and techniques tend to remain tooabstract and sterile. But often a teacher is severelylimited in the kinds of practice assignments he cangive his students, because the school library does nothave a sufficient range or depth of cultural descrip-tions. Furthermore, beginning or general studentsmay find it difficult to deal with technical culturalmonographs or articles as such, and may waste a gooddeal of time trying to locate and select the pertinentdata. By using the Files, the pertinent cultures andsubjects may be located rapidly, and most of the stu-dent's time can be spent working with and analyzingthe cultural data that are relevant to his assignment.

Second, the HRAF Collection is ideal for use on aclass basis. The same set of instructions can be givento all the students in the class, because they will all beusing the same data system. Furthermore, the rangeof cultures and subject categories that are availableallows the teacher a great deal of flexibility in deter-mining appropriate assignments.

Third, because of the way the Files are; organized, adisciplined approach is required on the part of thestudent. If he has been accustomed to approaching aresearch task haphazardly, without thinking throughhis problem beforehand, he will soon discover that hecannot use the Files effectively in this manner. Effi-cient use of the Files requires that a student clarifyhis basic ideas, define his concepts carefully andlucidly, and formulate a clear-cut, specific researchproblem.

R. Individual Projects

Probably the most common way in which the HRAFFiles have been used since their development hasbeen for individual projects: an individual researcher

11

formulates a problem and then uses the Files as asource of data. Typically, a student may turn to theFiles as a source of data for a term paper; eithera teacher may have assigned the topic he isstudying or he may have developed his own researchproblem within the context of a particular cause. Ineither case, he is generally on his own insofar as useof the Files is concerned. This may be a perfectlyfeasible approach for the scholar or an advanced so-cial science student, but it is definitely not a recom-mended approach -for the general student.

Until a student has mastered the Files system andhas had research experience with the Files, it isstrongly recommended that the teacher guide andsupervise his work as closely as possible. The degreeto which this can be done will vary, of course, withthe number of students for whom a teacher is respon-sible. At a minimum, if the teacher wishes his stu-dents to work on individual projects, he should in-struct the class as a whole in the nature of and tech-niques for using the Files, preferably with this guideas a basis.

A more effective method, however, is for the teacher,or the teacher and students working together, to de-velop a class project built around the use of the Files.

C. Class Projects

There are many different ways of organizing a classproject, and the following two examples are offeredsimply as a basis for further thinking along theselines. The key principle to keep in mind is that in-struction in the nature and use of the Files is muchmore effective if it is done as an intrinsic part of asubstantive research project. The student must actu-ally use the Files and work with the subject cate-gories and data toward a particular objective beforethe system can have real meaning for him. Two corol-lary but highly rewarding advantages of a class proj-ect should be noted: first, the inexperienced studentcan often participate in working on a more sophisticated and interesting research problem than he couldnormally do on his own and second, because the stu-dents must cooperate in the project, it may generatea more positive and effective learning experience.

I. Testing an Hypothesis Cross-Culturally. The firstexample is of a class project organized around thecross-cultural testing of a relatively simple hypothesis.This project is more complex than one dealing with aspecific topic, but there are advantages which more

4ci tta 00025

than compensate for the increased complexityespe-cially the rigorous data analysis that is required andthe necessity for students to rely upon one another'sfindings.

There is no set sequence for carrying out such a proj-ect; the following is presented as one feasible ap-proach, using for illustrative purposes the study ofgames described in section 11.112. (Also consult Otter-bein (1969) on cross-cultural methodology.) It isstrongly recommended that section II.B., on pp. 4-10,be read before proceeding further.

(1) The general problem area should be devel-oped in class, based on both the lectures andrelevant reading assignments. In this case thestudents should obtain a broad perspective onthe variety of games in human cultures, as wellas some theoretical ideas concerning the func-tions of games in culture and how games maybe related to other aspects of culture. Theseideas may serve as a basis for formulating atestable hypothesis.

(2) Each student should be assigned certainCultural Files for which he will be responsible..It is suggested that ideally each student be as-signed two cultures, each t-ort a different worldarea, to help him retain, a balanced culturalperspective. But each teacher must determinewhat is a feasible work load in the context of aspecific course.

(3) The organization of the Files may then beexplained, based on Part V of this guide, andusing copies of the two basic manuals, the Out-line of World Cultures and the Outline of Cul-tural Materials. In conjunction with this explana-tion, or immediately following it, the studentsshould actually look at their respective CulturalFiles to get acquainted with the physical format.

(4) Next, the general principles and proceduresfor using the Files may be studied, based onPart IV of this guide.

(5) The first specific assignment in the Files mayfollow and it is suggested that this consist of eachstudent's gathering data for a detailed identifi-cation of his cultures. (The procedure is outlinedin section IV.B., "Orientation to Specific Files,"but the factors discussed in section IV.A.6.,"Considerations of Data Control," should also beapplied.)

(6) The students will then be ready to gatherdata on the specific variables involved in thehypothesis to be tested. It is preferable that thehypothesis as such not be stated until after thedata have been gathered and analyzed, so as toavoid biasing these procedures. Only the vari-ables and how to analyze them should be pre-sented to the students at this time.

It may be recalled that the hypothesis to betested is the statement that since games of strat-egy simulate social systems, those systems shouldbe complex enough to generate such needs forexpreision; and simple.cultures should not pos-sess games of strategy and should resist borrow-ing them. The variables used as measures ofsocial complexity are the level of political inte-gration: divided into high and kw, and the levelof social stratification, divided into present orabsent. The games of strategy variable is di-vided into present or absent.

The wxt step is to decide which subject cate-gories to search for the pertinent data on thesevariables. Usually, this information should beprovided by the teacher or worked out in class.(In this instance, they have already been listedin section II.B.2.) Then each student mustgather the necessary data on his particular cul-tures. He will need enough data to enable himto code the variables being studied as high orlow (i.e. political integration), or present or aly-sent (i.e. social stratification and games ofstrategy ), for each of his cultures. Page refer-ences should be given to the data used fOr eachcoding.

(7) The findings of the students are then pooledin class, so that every student Aare% the find-ings on all of the cultures studied. This can bedone in the form of a simple listing of the cul-tures, together with the coding! f..1 foe variablesby culture. If a culture lacks sufficient informa-tion for coding games of strategy, then it mustbe discarded from the study. If a culture lackssufficient information for coding both politicalintegration and social stratification, it must alsobe discarded; but if there is sufficient informa-tion on one of these variables, the culture canbe used In that case, however, the relationshipbetween each of these two variables and gamesof strategy must be analyzed separately.

(8) The final stage is for each student to take thecombined findings, do his own analysis, and

12

00026

draw his conclusions as to the validity of thehypothesis. The key step in analyzing the find-ings is to develop a frequency table, such as theone shown in Table 2, p. 8. If the hypothesisis valid, the predicted relationship between thevariables should have the highest frequencies inthe table. The results can be evaluated to someextent by a simple computation of percentages,although a statistical measure such as chi-squareswould allow a more meaningful evaluation.

A separate report can then be made by eachstudent, who should also include the data hegathered on the variables in his cultures.

Street vendor, Chiengmai , North Thailand

2. Cultural Role Playing. The second example dealswith the study of a particular culture and focuses ona quite different kind of approach, namely culturalrole playing. Among the many different ways ofstudying a culture, role playing is one of the most in-teresting methods, and one which happens to be espe-cially suitable for a class project.

Within any culture there are a large number of socialroles: kinship roles, such as "father" or "wife;" eco-nomic roles, such as "cultivator" or "blacksmith;" po-litical roles, such as "village chief' or "tribute collec-tor;" legal roles, such as "judge" or "mediator;" ritualroles, such as "priest" or "medicine man," and so forth.The same person occupies many different roles, butcultures also differ in the degree to which they mergeor differentiate specialized roles. In any event, social

roles bracket all aspects of culture, and, in fact, theirtotal inventory and description would encompass amajor dimension of, any culture. Each role involves notonly characteristic patterns of behavior but also pat-terns of cultural norms, values, beliefs, knowledge,emotional loadings, etc. Social roles, therefore, offera basic key to the understanding of a culture.

The Files are particularly useful for a class projectbased on cultural role playing, because the system ofsubject categories into which each File is organizedclearly distinguishes many of these social roles, andthe relevant data on any one role are pulled together,often from a rather large number of sources.

A Suggested Method for Implementing a Projecton Role Playing

(1) The first project requirement is to select aCultural File in which the data meet highstandards of quantity and quality; such selectionis essential if this method is to be applied effec-tively. Concrete behavioral descriptions or de-tailed life histories are especially valuable.Among the better Files in terms of these cri-teria are the following: FE12 Ashanti, FE57Tiv, MS12 Hausa, NG6 Ojibwa, NT13 Navaho,NT23 Zuni, NU37 Teportlan, 0A19 Ifugao, OL6Trobriands, OR19 Truk, and OT11 Tikopia.

(2) Once a particular culture has been selected,the entire class should acquire an overall famil-iarity with the culture. Reading a good culturalsummary, if one is available, may be the bestway to accomplish this objective. Otherwise, thestudents should read the data in the subject cate-gories listed in sections IV.B.1. and 2., on pp.20-21.

(3) Then, depending upon the number of stu-dents, the class may be divided into severalteams, with each team concentrating on a par-ticular set of roles related to a significant cul-tural institution or event. One team could focus,for instance, on a case of dispute settlementsay a case involving a dispute over the control ofland. Such a case would probably involve theroles of "judge," "plaintiff," "defendant," andperhaps other personnel. Each member of theteam should identify with one of these roles. Hemust learn as much as possible about this role,so that he can effectively play his part in thesimulated case. In addition, each member of

'A statistical test used to determine the goodness of fit of the actual data to a theoretical distribution.

13

00027

the team should become thoroughly familiarwith the customs relevant to this type of case.Thus a dispute over land control would involvethe cultural norms and practices concerning theallocation of land rights, norms and expectationsregarding the conditions under which theserights may vary, the degree to which variationsin the status or prestige of the participants inthe case may influence the interpretation of therules, and so forth.

(4) When the members of the team have ade-quately prepared themselves, they may then en-act the case in the classroom, playing out thepertinent roles as they perceive would be appro-priate to the culture under study.

Additional Suggested Topics

Another team could enact the roles of variousfamily members and other persons involved inarranging a marriage; while a third team mightdevelop a scene involving a ritual curer, thepatient he is treating, and interested on-lookers,who could comment on the proceedings.

Cultural role playing requires both a complete absorp-tion into the pertinent social roles of that culture anda comprehensive understanding of the cultural situa-tion in which the roles are activated, if it is to be ef-fective as a teaching device. Do not try to make ateam do too much role enactment until the membershave become thoroughly familiar with the culturaldata.

D. Preparation of lectures

By utilizing the Files, teachers can prepare lectures onan almost limitless variety of cultural topics in a frac-tion of the time required by the use of any othermethod. They can also include a better range of caseexamples than would normally be used.

Generally, three types of culture samples may be usedas the basis for a lecture focusing on a particulartopic: ( 1) a worldwide sample of cultures (2) thecultures classified within a major culture type (as de-scribed in section II.B.3., on pp. 9-10), or (3) the cul-tures within a specific world area. The type of cul-ture sample used would depend upon the nature ofthe course, while the subject categories to be searchedfor any given topic would remain the same, regard-less of the type of sample. Two examples should beadequate to illustrate these points:

First, suppose one were teaching a course on

14

traditional African political systems and wishedto prepare a lecture on forms of political leader-ship. The culture sample should consist of a se-lection from the African cultures includedin the Files. ( Note, however, that some ofthese cultures are classified within the . MiddleEast area.) Only a relatively small number ofcategories would have to be searched in each ofthe selected Files, since the lecture could be fo-cused on forms of political leadership at the com-munity level (categories 622, 823, and 824), atthe sovereign state level ( categories 643, 644,645), or at intermediate levels, such as a district( categories in division 63). If, however, theteacher preferred to take a cross-section of theentire political hierarchy in each selected.culture,then only a rather small number of culturesshould be used.

For the second example, suppose one were teach-ing a course on child development and wishedto prepare a lecture on some aspects of socializa-tion. Any of the three types of culture samplescould be used in this case, each serving some-what different objectives. The subject mattershould be limited to one or two aspects of social-ization, if it is to be dealt with effectively withinthe scope of a single lecture. There are numer-ous subject categories in the Files relevant tosocialization, any one of which -might providesufficient data for an outstanding lecturee.g.category 861 (Techniques of Inculcation) orcategory 866 (Independence Training).

Undoubtedly, most teachers will be able to devisemany other ways of using the Files effectively in theclassroom. The suggestions offered in Part III are in-tended as a stimulation, not a prescription.

Shop scene, Chignons', North Thailand

00028

PART IV. HOW TO USE THE HRAF FILES: PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES

It may be well to re-emphasize at this point that theFiles are primarily a tool for research. They assist theresearcher by making available to him, quickly andreliably, items of information from many cultures. Thefact that information is presented to the researcher inthis fashion in no way lessens his responsibility; it isthe researcher who must formulate the problem, de-cide upon an approach, select and analyze the data,and determine his conclusions. Nevertheless, there aresome general guidelines which may facilitate this re-search process.

A. Studying a Research Problem in the Files

The factors to consider when using the Files for thestudy of a research problem depend to some extentupon the level of approach. The beginning studentshould focus mainly on those factors which are neces-sary to carry out the research task adequately. Thesefactors are discussed in items 1, 2, and 3, below. Themore advanced student must also be concerned withmethodological factors of greater complexity, such asthose covered in items 4, 5, and 6.

1. Formulation of a Research Problem. There are sev-eral points which the researcher should keep in mindwhen phrasing a question or research problem for theFiles.

(a) The problem should require and guide asearch for data rather than theory. The Files con-stitute an organized collection of data, and theyshould be used to retrieve data, not theory. It is theresearcher who must provide the theory. It is truethat some categories in the Files, especially in the12 (Methodology) division, are designed to con-tain information on method and theory found inthe sources processed. But these sources werechosen principally for the data they present, andthe source materials were classified for data con-tent whenever possible, rather than for the theoreti-cal implications of the data. Information found inthe methodology categories is best used for datacontrol purposes (see the discussion of this in sec-tion A.6., below) or for special studies of researchmethods and techniques.

(b) The problem should be clearly stated. The re-searcher should define his technical terms or con-cepts as clearly and precisely as possible and shouldstrictly limit the number of concepts and the rangeof information encompassed by each concept. By

15

following this rule, specific, unambiguous researchquestions can be posed, and the basic data to besearched for will be limited and manageable.

(c) The problem should be phrased in OCM terms.\Vhen searching for data organized in terms of anyclassification system, it is necessary to phrase,translate, or in some way equate one's terms andconcepts with the categories of that classificationsystem. A researcher does this whenever he uses areference work, such as an almanac or an encyclo-pedia, or whenever he uses library subject head-ings to locate a book. The same principle holds forusing the Files. Since data within each File areorganized according to the categories in the Out-line of Cultural Materials, these are the categoriesthat the researcher must use in searching for thedata.

2. Use of the Subject Classification System (QCM).Specifically how does a researcher go about phrasinghis problem in OCM terms or, in other words, decid-ing which categories to use in his data search?

(a) The researcher should first check the table ofcontents and the index in the OCM to locate cate-gories that may be relevant to his problem.

(b) He should then turn to the appropriate pagesin the OCM and read carefully the complete defini-tions of these categories. Neither the category titlesin the table of contents nor specific index termsare fully indicative of the total coverage of cate-gories. By reading the full definition of a category,the researcher will see exactly what is meant bythat category, and what kind of information itincludes.

(c) Since the OCM categories are grouped by gen-eral topics, the categories adjacent to those deter-mined to be most pertinent to his problem shouldalso be checked, to see if they cover some relevantinformation.

(d) Finally, the researcher will note that most cate-gories in the OCM are cross-referenced to relatedcategories, and these should also be examined.

By following these steps, the researcher should beable to compile a preliminary list of categories per-tinent to his problem. He should then test the useful-ness of this list by actually searching these categoriesin a few Files for the required data. Since any one

category may cover various kinds of information, it ispossible that much of the data included in that cate-gory will not bear upon the researcher's specific prob-lem, and he must decide what is relevant and what isnot. He should not be led astray by material whichdoes not directly apply. Furthermore, as he workswith the categories and data, the researcher will oftenfind that he can limit his search to several key cate-gories which seem to contain most of the informationsought, and that the results of searching additionalcategories may not be worth the time and effort.

3. Sample Research Problems. Several sample prob-lems are outlined below, to illustrate the principlesand procedure discussed so far.

(a) Questions of Fact or Information 'RequiringUse of Only One OWC/OCM Reference:

"Do the Iroquois (OWC code NM9) have the insti-tution of blood brotherhood?"

This is the simplest kind of question that can beasked of the Files. It is specific and unambiguous,and it requires the use of only one category in oneFile. The researcher should first check the indexof the OCM to locate the entry for blood brother-hood. There he would find a reference to category608. He should then turn to category 608 ( which isentitled Artificial Kin Relationships) and read thedefinition completely, so that he will be aware ofthe range of information which may be included inthis category. The final step is to look in the NM9Iroquois File fol. category 608.

All the material relating to the topic of bloodbrotherhood should be found there, if the Iroquoisdo indeed have this institution and if the pertinentinformation was contained in the sources that havebeen processed for the Iroquois File. (For a dis-cussion of the general issues raised in the last sen-tence, see section A.5., below.)

(b) Complex Questions of Fact or Information (inOWC/OCM System):

"Did any major 'Revitalization Movements' appearamong the Plains Indians of the United States dur-ing the latter part of the nineteenth century (i.e.the period of White conquest)?"

["Revitalization Movements" are deliberate, organ-ized efforts by members of a society to achievesubstantial cultural change, and most of their mani-festations may be political in nature, with some re-ligious and culture contact aspects (cf. Wallace1956).] In this case, unless the researcher knows

16

the names of the various Plains Indian cultures, hemust first consult the index of the OWC to ascer-tain whether an appropriate File is available. Theindex contains the entry Plains Indians, NQ4, whichturns out to be a general cultural unit for data onthe Plains Indians as a whole. Examination of othercultural units listed in the NQ section of the OWCreveals, however, several cultures which are in-cluded in the HRAF Files: for example, NQ10Crow, NQ13 Gros Ventre, and NQ18 Pawnee.

AlthoUgh the index of the OCM does not list "Re-vitalization Movements," inspection of the table ofcontents reveals several categories which might per-tain to this topic. The first of these, Political Move-ments (668), has in its definition the following (p.99): "mass movements for substantial politicalchange; types ( e.g. messianic, nativistic . . .)." Ex-amination of category 668 in the Pawnee File re-veals that it does indeed contain a good deal ofinformation on a major revitalization movementcalled the "Ghost Dance." (The OCM index lists"ghost dance," with references to categories 668and 769, but presumably the researcher would nothave known at the start that the Ghost Dance wasa type of revitalization movement.) Religious as-pects of the Ghost Dance should be found in cate-gory 769 (Cult of the Dead) and perhaps in cate-gory 794 (Congregations, which includes "specialcult groups"), and culture contact aspects in cate-gory 177 ( Acculturation and Culture Contact);whereas objectives of the movement might befound in category 185 (Cultural Goals).

Since positive information on the problem wasfound in the Pawnee File, it would not be neces-sary for the researcher to examine the other PlainsFiles, although he might wish to do so for compara-tive information.

(c) Nonspecific Informational Inquiries:

"What is the range and what are the variations inthe cultivation, processing, and use of sugar?"

In terms of Files usage, this is a more complicatedproblem, since, in effect, one is asking for all theinformation available about sugar, in any location.The first step is to divide the question into its vari-ous aspectscultivation, processing, and use. Thenthe researcher should look in the index of the OCM,where, under sugar, there are references to cate-gories 249, 257, and 263. These categories wouldprovide information only about large-scale sugarcultivation, the confectionery industry, and condi-ments. Eventually, therefore, depending on the ex-

tent and ramifications of the information he need-ed, the researcher would have to study the table ofcontents of the OCM and refer also to the follow-ing categories, any of which might bear upon otheraspects of the subject:

241 Tillage242 Agricultural Science251 Preservation and Storage of Food252 Food Preparation261 Gratification and Control of Hunger262 Diet272 Nonalcoholic Beverages273 Alcoholic Beverages274 Beverage Industries407 Agricultural Machinery412 General Tools415 Utensils417 Apparatus654 Research and Development

From the above categories, the researcher shouldbe able to find out not only how sugar is plantedand grown but also how it is used, what tools andmachines are used in its cultivation and processing,what scientific knowledge people have of this crop,and any plans for its future development. The num-ber of different Files to be searched for these cate-gories would depend upon what geographical orother limits the researcher wished to impose.

( d) Questions Which Require Rephrasing or Adap-tation into the OCM System:

"What are the values of the Tikopia (OWC code011.1)?"

This is the most difficult question of all. It is anexample in fact, of the kind of question that mustbe rephrased before extensive searching of the Filescan begin. Although there is a "values" category in

the Files (category 181, Ethos), material is notclassified in this category unless the author is clear-ly writing about values. All other data on valueswould have to be synthesized by the researcherhimself. The first thing for him to do, therefore,is to modify theqiiestion. Instead of asking a gen-eral question about values, he would have to de-cide exactly what he means by values and in whatparticular values he is interested. Are the peoplecompetitive or cooperative? What ideas do theyhave concerning the worth and dignity of labor?Answers to these and other similar questions mightthrow some light on the problem of values. Then onthe basis of such questions, the researcher must de-cide what categories in the OCM might provide

17

the relevant information. The economic categories,the social structure categories, the religious cate-gozies, or, in fact, almost any category may con-tain data pertinent to some aspect of values.

4. Considerations of Data Context. A perennial prob-lem in using cultural data is the possible misinterpre-tations or distortions that may occur when data aretaken out of their cultural context for purposes ofanalysis or comparison. A system such as the HRAFFiles, which classifies the cultural information withina document, rather than the document as a whole, in-evitably takes data out of context to some extent. Butseveral provisions have been built into the Files sys-tem to minimize the dangers of misinterpretation ordistortion.

(a) The source materials in the Files are not ab-stracts or excerpts from documents, but exact re-productions of the original text (except in thecase of translations made by HRAF, or of materialsprocessed before 1952, when it was necessary tomake typewritten excerpts).

( b ) Complete pages, not separate phrases or sen-tences, are filed by subject categories. Thus nosingle passage is torn from its surrounding dis-course.

(c) If a researcher thinks for any reason that hewould like to see the broader context of a particu-lar File page found in a subject category, he canturn to category 116 in that File, where he will finda complete, page-order text copy of the source fromwhich that page was takenand of all the othersources processed for that File as well. This is theultimate control for any possible distortion or mis-interpretation of what an author has written.

A few other procedures of a more technical natureare also employed for maintaining data context. Sincethese procedures are more easily understood after onehas read Part V of this guide, they are described in aseparate section (see Appendix C).

5. What about the Negative Case? One of the mosttroublesome special problems of cultural researchbased on the existing literature is the negative case,i.e. the absence of a particular trait, practice, or insti-tution in a given culture. For many research prob-lems it is as important to know that a specific featuredoes not occur in a culture as it is to know that itdoes occur. There is no difficulty when a definitestatement to this effect appears in the source materi-als: e.g. "Culture A does not have agriculture." Butwhat if such a flat statement fails to appear?

Since the HRAF Files do not contain all the literatureavailable on any one culture, there is the possibilitythat the desired information may appear in a sourcewhich has not yet been processed for the File on thatculture. Generally, it is not feasible for the researcherto search the entire literature for this information.Moreover, it is quite possible that the information doesnot occur in the existing literature, since it is mani-festly impossible for authors to mention all the cul-tural features that do not occur in any given culture;they generally limit their comments about absences tofeatures they consider to be particularly significant orto those which have especially drawn their attentionfor some reason. Is there any way, then, for the re-searcher to deal with this negative case problemwithin the framework of the source materials avail-able to him in the Files?

There is no definitive solution to this problem, butthere is a rule of thumb which may be applied; name-ly to judge on the basis of the quantity and quality ofinformation presented concerning the general topicwithin' which the specific cultural feature at issuefalls. For example, if the sources on a given cultureinclude a comprehensive description of the subsist-ence economy, yet no statement about agriculture ap-pears, then it may be reasonably safe to conclude thatthe culture does not have agriculture. Even then, thisconclusion should not be taken as a certainty, butsimply as a reasonable probability. On the other hand,if the sources do not include a comprehensive descrip-tion of the subsistence economy, the lack of any state-ment about agriculture cannot be interpreted to meanthat agriculture is absent.

Usually, the researcher can expect to find more ade-quate coverage of those topics which form the centraland conventional concerns of ethnographerse.g. kin-ship, economy, politics, and religionso that it is oftenpossible to make reasonable inferences about the ab-sence of particular features within these topics. As theresearcher moves farther from the central concerns ofethnographers, the lack of information becomes harderto interpret. For example, the fact that juggling is notmentioned in the source materials on a particular cul-ture cannot be interpreted to mean that juggling isabsent, even if the sources include a fairly extensivediscussion of games. It is more probable that observershave either overlooked juggling or neglected to recordits absence than it is for them to have overlooked orneglected recording key information about agricul-ture. (See Moore 1969: 256-57 for further discussionof this issue.)

The same principles just discussed in terms of the

18

negative case apply equally to the problem of theunreported positive case, i.e. the possible presence ofa particular feature in a culture when a definite state-ment to this effect fails to appear in the availablesource materials. Both of these cases constitute essen-tially the same problem.

6. Considerations of Data Control. In order to evalu-ate and use cultural data properly. there are certaincontrols which may be applied. These controls involvethe determination of three sets of factors: the pro-venience (i.e. origin or source) of the data; the nature( i.e. primary, secondary, etc.) of the data; and thetrustworthiness of the data. The factors involved inevaluating trustworthiness are often referred to asdata quality control factors.

(a) Provenience of the data. Data on a particularculture may manifest differences related to threekey factors; time, space, and social complexity. It isimportant, therefore, that the provenience of thedata in any processed source be specified as pre-cisely as possible in terms of these key factors. Thisis essential, for instance, for the valid testing of hy-potheses as discussed in section II.B.2. An examplemay clarify this point. Suppose a researcher wishesto test the hypothesis that cultures with a high in-cidence of plural marriage also tend to have a highrate of divorce. In order to determine validlywhether or not these two features are significantlyrelated, the researcher must know if they do or donot actually occur together. This means that the dataon the incidence of plural marriage and on the rateof divorce must pertain, in any given culture, toroughly the same time period, location and socialgroup. Thus if one source reports that the Wolof(OWC code M530) practiced plural marriages, in1850, and another source presents data on Wolofdivorce rates in 1950, this information cannot beused as the basis for any statement about the rela-tionship between plural marriage and divorce rateamong the Wolof. The same restriction applies ifthe data on plural marriage and divorce rates,respectively, were derived from widely separatedlocales within the Wolof area, or from different"caste" groupings within Wolof society. This re-striction holds true even if the data pertain to thesame time period.

The time factor includes two aspects, field date anddate of coverage. Field date refers to the time pe-riod when the data were actually gathered in thefield through direct contact with the peoplestudied. When this date can be determined, it is in-cluded in the heading of each File page, as noted

r--

in section V.C. on pp. 29-30. The field date is alsonoted at the bottom of the ,bibliography slip foreach source in category 111 (cf. Illustration 2 onp. 23). Further information about field datesspecific months, total time in the field, etc.maybe obtained from the information classified in cate-gories 101 and 114.

The field date, however, is not necessarily the sameas the date of coveragei.e. the time period cov-ered by the data presented in a particular sourceand this distinction must be specified when it exists.When a different date of coverage applies to sub-stantial portions of a source, this date will be print-ed in the heading of the relevant File pages di-rectly below the field date, and also enclosed inparentheses. When a different date of coverage ap-plies to only a short section of a source or to scat-tered pages, then a headnote containing this datemay be written or typed above the text on the rele-vant File pages and enclosed in brackets, if it seemsthat this would be useful to.the researcher. Other-wise the researcher may attempt to determine thedate of coverage by searching categories 101 and114.

Space refers to the specific geographical locale inwhich the data were collected or to which the datapertain. This may be a region, a village, an urbanneighborhood, etc. In any case, this locale shouldbe identified as clearly as possible by name, geo-graphic coordinates, political district, or other dis-tinctive locational data. Often the name of a par-ticular region or community covered in a sourcewill be printed in the heading of the relevant Filepages directly beneath the name of the OWC unit( cf. section V.C.), or, if only a small number ofpages are involved the name may be written ortyped in a headnote enclosed in brackets on thosepages. Otherwise the researcher again may be ableto find this information in categories 101 and 114.

Social complexity refers to the fact that differentsocial groups within a culture may manifest differ-ences not based on time-space variations. Such so-cial groups may consist of ethnic or racial minori-ties, or of different class or caste groups, etc. There-fore, when a culture is characterized by social dif-ferences of this kind, it is necessary to know if thedata derive from or pertain to the members of thatculture in general, or only to certain social seg-ments. This information is not provided in the Filepage headings and will have to be determined bythe researcher. Key categories to search would

19

include 101, 114, 115, and most of the categories inthe 12 (Methodology) division.

(b) Nature of the data. This factor refers mainlyto the question of whether the data are primaryi.e. direct, first-hand dataor secondary, and to thequality of the data i.e. good, poor, etc. Informationon these points appears in coded form in the head-ing of each File page and at the bottom of thebibliography slips in category 111..Coded num-bers are used according to the following evalua-tion scale:

1 Poor sources2 Fair sources3 Good, useful sources, but not uniformly

excellent4 Excellent secondary data (e.g. compilations

and/or interpretations of original data andprimary documents)

5 Excellent primary data (e.g. travelers' ac-counts, ethnological studies, etc., as well asprimary documents such as legal codes,other legal documents, autobiographies,etc.)

A source may contain both secondary and primarydata, in which case the source is coded for bothnumbers 4 and 5. The location of the code num-ber in the File page heading may be seen in Illus-tration 8 (cf. p. 36).

It should be noted that evaluations 1 and 2 rarelyappear in the Files, since a source that the HFIAFresearch staff feels is inadequate is not included inthe Files unless other material on the subject or cul-ture is unavailable.

(c) Trustworthiness of the data. A basic problemin the social sciences is how to detect systematicerrors or biases in written reports containing pri-mary field data. Traditionally, the approach to thisproblem has been rather intuitive, with one gen-erally used criterion being the author's backgrotnad.The assumption, which has yet to be validated, isthat a professional social scientist, for instance, willproduce a more trustworthy or less systematicallybiased report than a government official or mission-ary. This criterion is reflected in the Files by meansof a letter code in the heading of each File pagewhich indicates the profession or discipline of theauthor, and the same information is spelled outat the bottom of the bibliography slip in category111. The following identification code is used:

144 t#t., 1,

00033

Author Identification

A Archeologist, AntiquarianB FolkloristC Technical Personnel (engineers, agricul-

tural experts, foreign aid advisors, etc.)D Physician, Physical AnthropologistE Ethnologist, Social Anthropologist (for-

merly used also for Sociologist, see Z)F Foreign ResidentG Government Official (administrator, sol-

dier, foreign diplomat)H HistorianI indigenej JournalistK GeographerL LinguistM Missionary, ClergymanN Natural or Physical ScientistO Lawyer, Judicial PersonnelP PsychologistQ Humanist (philosopher, critic, editor,

writer, etc.)R Artisan (artist, musician, architect, dancer)S Social Scientist (other than those desig-

nated)T Traveler (tourist, explorer)U Unknown

Political Scientist, PropagandistWOrganizational Documents and Reports

(constitutions, law codes, government orUN reports and documents, censuses)

X Economist, BusinessmanY Educator (teacher, school administrator)Z Sociologist

The location of the author identification code in theFile page heading may be seen in Illustration 8.

The author's background is only one of many pos-sible quality control factors, by which is meantcharacteristics of the data collection process whichare relatedor thought to be relatedto the accu-racy of the data reported (cf. Naroll 1973b; Koh1966; Lagace 1970). In recent years, starring withthe work of Naroll (1962), more precise methodsof identifying and testing such factors have beendeveloped. At least five specific bias-sensitive qual-ity control factors have now been tentatively vali-dated through several research projects (Naroll1973b; Rohner, Dewalt, and Ness 1973; Schaefer1973), and in the future, information on these fac-tors will regularly be incorporated the bibliog-raphy slips for sources processed in lie Files. Thefive quality control factors are: (1) length of timein field, i.e. the total duration of fieldwork or field

20

observations (2) time lapse, i.e. the difference intimeif anybetween the field date and the dateof coverage, the main purpose being to differenti-ate between descriptions of ongoing cultures andwhat is known as "memory ethnographies"re-constructions of earlier days by elderly inform-ants (3) field language, i.e. whether a researcherhad sufficient knowledge of the indigenous lan-guage to be able to work without an interpreter,whether or not he actually did so (4) verifica-tion methods, i.e. whether a researcher used anyspecial verification techniques such as censuses,sampling surveys, multiple informants, or psy-chological tests, and (5) references listed, i.e.the number of citations listed in the bibliographyof a field report relating to reports by otherauthors on the same culture. (For informationon the kinds of data biases that may be relatedto these quality control factors, see the studiesby Naroll, Rohner, and Schaefer, cited above.)

Among the key categories to be searched in theFiles for information relevant to the listed qual-ity control factors are 101, 111, 113, 114, andmost of the categories in division 12 (Methodol-ogy ).

B. Orientation to Specifk Files

Whenever the researcher uses data from any cate-gories in a particular Cultural File, he should becomesufficiently familiar with that File as a wholeparticularly the cultural unit covered in the File and thesource materials includedso as to develop a frame ofreference for properly understanding and placing thedata in overall cultural context. Several aspects of the .

Files will help the researcher in this task.

1. Use of the File Guide: Category 10. Eventually, incategory 10 of each File there will be a more or lessextensive guide to the File, which has been preparedby the HRAF research staff. The File guide providesa basic orientation to the File as a total entity, and itis strongly recommended that where available thisguide be read by a researcher before he begins towork with any of the other materials in that File.

The File guide is planned to include the followingrange of information, although this may vary some-what from File to File:

(a) an identification of the culture or culturescovered in the File, including names, the nature ofthe cultural unit(s), location, any major temporal,spatial, or social subdivisions, any special charac-teristics, etc.;

. 00034H)

(b) a short summary outline of the cultureMei:A-ing especially the sociopolitical organization, or areference to such a summary in the publishedliterature;

(c) population size and trends;

(d) indigenous language and linguistic affiliations;

(e) a general review of the literature.included inthe File, especially noting the languages in whichthe sources were written, subject coverage, andhow this literature relates to any major subdivisionswhich have been identified;

( f) a general evaluation of the File in terms of thetotal existing literature on the culture(s) covered,adequacy of subject coverage, quality of thesources, etc.; and

(g) any special features in the organization of theFile, or any special subject classification decisions;for example the guide to the FQ5 Bemba File notesthat information on the paramount chief of theBemba has been classified in category 643, whileinformation on the territorial chiefs may be foundin category 622, and on village headmen in cate-gory 624.

The main purpose of the File guide is to help the re-searcher to judge the nature, relevance, reliability, andresearch usefulness of the File.

(For a sample of one of the shorter File guides, seeIllustration 1 on the following page. For a model Fileguide see Lagace 1968.)

2. Detailed Identification of the Cultural Unit. Theresearcher will often require more detailed identifica-tion data about the cultural unit covered in a Filethan can be provided in the File guide (e.g. see thefactors listed in Lagace 1967: 97-99). The key cate-gories to search for specific types of information areas follows:

(a) categories 101 and 619for names, nature ofthe unit, main subdivisions, etc.;(b) category 131for geographic location;(c) categories 161 and 162for population size andcomposition;( d) category 197for language and linguistic affili-ations;(e) category 631for general sociopolitical struc-ture above the community level (if any);(f) category 105summary statements on the cul-ture in general or on major cultural aspects.

21

3. Bibliographic Information. The researcher mayalso desire more extensive bibliographical informationabout the cultural unit(s) covered in the Files. Thereare three categories in each File that deal entirelywith bibliographical information, plus a fourth cate-gory that does so in part. These are categories 111(Sources Processed), 112 (Sources Consulted), 113(Additional References), and 114 (Comments). Byreferring to these categories, the researcher will beable to obtain references to a substantial portion ofthe existing literature on any culture covered in theFiles. The nature of each of these categories will bedescribed briefly. (Also see sec. VI.B.3. on p. 43.)

Category 111 in each Fi contains a full bibliographi-cal citation for each so ce processed for that File,together with a brief d ription of the contents ofthe source, biographical information about the author(if available), the call number assigned to the sourceby the library from which it was borrowed, the evalu-ation of the source by the HRAF staff, the date offieldwork or observation, the name of the staff mem-ber( s) who classified the data in the source, and anyinformation pertinent to the handling of the sourceby HRAF, such as preparation of bibliographies orglossaries, omission of material, etc. These bibliogra-phy slips are arranged in sequence by source number.A sample bibliography slip is reproduced in Illustra-tion 2, on p. 23.

Categi ry I! . in each File contains bibliographical in-formation on sources which the HRAF research staffhas consulted, but which have not been processed forthat File. ...he reason why a source has not been proc-essed -should be stated on the bibliography slip. Itmay be that the source duplicates material presentedin other sources in the File, or the source may be ofsuch poor quality that it does not warrant processing.Occasionally, a source is reviewed in category 112which should and eventually will be included in theFile, but which has not yet been processed becauseof lack of funds or because of other priorities. Bibliog-raphy slips in this category are arranged alphabeti-cally according to the author's surname.

Category 113 in each File usually contains any biblio-graphical information that appears in sources thathave been included in that File. Bibliographical cita-tions appearing as lists or footnotes at the ends ofchapters or at the end of the source are normallyclassified simply for category 113. However, when thebibliographical information is scattered throughoutthe text of a source in footnotes, a bibliographical listmay have been compiled by the HRAF research staffand classified in category 113. When neither of these

ILLUSTRATION I

Sample File Guide: Category 10

10 SC7 CagabaI.2

GUIDE TO THE SC7 CAGABA FILE

(For purposes of this file, the term "flpba" refers to a group of four Chibchan-speaking tribes of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Matta, a mountain massif in northernColombia, S.A., plus two linguistically related lowland tribes, the Chimila(probably extinct) and the Tairona (extinct in the 17th century). The four SierraNevada tribes, often called collectively the "Arhuaco," consist cf the Buntigwa,the Ica, the Kogi, and the Sanki. Many variant names have been used for these tribesin the ethnographic literature, so it may be helpful to list the main alternatenames the researcher is likely to encounter. The Buntigwa are also known as theAtinquez, Busintana, or Kankuima; the Ica as the Bintukua, Businka, Busintana, ljka,or Iku; and the Sanki as the Guamaca or Sanhi. The most important possible sourceof confusion in nomenclature, however, concerns the Kogi; in -the literature, includingmost of the sources in this file, they are generally called the Capba (Ktipba), theterm used here for the entire group of tribes. Kogi is the preferred term since itis more specific, and also it is the name used by the people themselves (cf. 1:Reichei-Dolmatoff, pp. 17-20).

This file focuses on the Kogi, the largest and least acculturated of themountain tribes, and there is also a substantial amount of information on the Ica.Very little data are included on the other tribes. The Kogi population has beenestimated as somewhat under 1,800, while the Ica and Sanki populations are usuallyplaced at about 500 each; the Buntigwa may now be extinct (cf. 1: Reichel-Dolmatoff,pp. 17, 38, 40; 5: Park, p. 870).

10 SC7 Capba--2

Seven sources have been processed, one in English and six translations; of thelatter, one was translated from the French, two from Spanish, and three from German.I: and 2: Reichel-Dolmatoff (a two-volume work) is the major source. This is acomprehensive, basic ethnography of the Kogi, covering material culture, economy,social organization, life-cycle, values, religion, mythology, and psychoculturalpatterns. In this excellent study, the Kogi emerge as a highly distinctive andfascinating people whose society is dominated by a priestly class called mama;, andmany of whose activities reflect two fundamental cultural themes, food and sex.Reichel-Dolmatcfrs field week was done between 1946 and 1950, whereas the data in3: Brettes and 6: Sievers /Jerive from the latter part of the 19th century. Brettespresents miscellaneous ethnographic data on the Kogi, while Sievers, although emphasizingthe Kogi, has data on the Cagaba in general, and includes a discussion of accultura-tion trends. 4: Preuss contains data mainly on Kogi mythology and religion, some ofwhich may be unreliable.

The other principal monograph in this file is 7: Bolinder. This is primarilya general description of Ica ethnography, but the social organization is poorlycoveted. Bolinder also includes short sections on the Buntigwa and the Kogi basedupon quite brief field work periods. Finally, 5: Park is a compact culturalsummary of the Cagaba as a whole, with particular reference to the Kogi.1

Processed in 1966-1968 File Guide prepared in 1971by Robert 0. Lagace

22

t

ILLUSTRATION 2

Sample Bibliography Slip: Category I I I

111 SC7 Capba

4: Preuss, Konrad Theodor. Forschungsreise zu den Kiba/Journey ofExploration to the Capba/. St. Gabriel-Modling bei Wein:Administration des "Antluopos," 1926.

Pp. xii, 423; 16 plates; 1 map; index./HRAF MS: pp. vi, 219/.

Yale: Fzh K827 P92.

Translated from the German for the Human Relations Area Files by MarianneMoerman.

Pages processed for the Files: pp. Part I, "Travel Impressions and Results,"on pp. 1-131; the map facing p. 96; and the 16 end plates. The title page andthe index on pp. 415.423 have been processed for the foreign text only. Part II,"Texts and Translations," pp. 132-350, and Part HI, "Grammar," pp. 351.414,have not been processed.

/The author presents a large body of data on the mythology and religion ofthe Cagaba. Much of this was gathered in the form of native texts during somefive months of field work. However, these data plus the author's observationsare not sufficient to give a full picture of the religious system. Scattered infor-mation on social life and some aspects of material culture are also presented, butmainly in connection with the discussions of ritual and belief./

Field date: 1914-1915 Evaluation: Ethnologist-5

Analysts: Sigrid Khera Processed in 1967-68Robert 0. Lagace

23

3 00037

techniques proved feasible, a note may have beenadded to the pertinent bibliography slip in category111, and a cross-reference slip inserted in category113, telling the researcher where the bibliographicalcitations in that stmt., may be found in the 116(Texts) category.

Category 114 in each File was designed in part tocontain an author's comments and critiques of othersources, regardless of whether the other sources havebeen processed for that File or not. But comments byan author on purely historical documents would usu-ally be classified for category 175 (Reccrded His-tory), rather than 114. Review articles or referencesto published reviews concerning a processed sourcemay also appear in 114.

C. Suggestions For Taking Notes

It is recommended that the researcher use 5" x 8"cards or paper slips for note taking, since they can beeasily handled and conveniently filed. Separate cardsshould be used for each subject and culture on whichdata are gathered. If there is no information on a sub-ject in a given File, a note should be ,nade of this facton a separate card.

Each card should be headed with th name of the cul-ture to which the data on that card pertain, the OWCcode for that culture, and the appropriate 0011 cate-gory number. This, information may ')e obtained fromthe heading on the microfiche card, ch. from the head-ing on the component File page( s) together with thecategory number written in the margin of the Filepage.

Specific data noted on a card should also be identifiedas to its source by the source number, the author'ssurname, and the pertinent page number( s). Again,each File page contains this information.

When the researcher has finished extracting data fromany one File, he should look in category 111 for thefull bibliographic citation for each of the sources ac-tually used. These citations arc arranged sequentiallyby source utunber. Citations for the sources usedshould then be recorded on a separate bibliographycard.

.1111..1

ishaura..

Silk weaving, Chiengnsai, North 'Thailand

PART V. ORGANIZATION OF THE HRAF FILES

This section will explain the hvo classification systemson which the organization of the HRAF Files is basedand will describe the physical format of the Files.

A. Coverqte of Cultures and World Areas

The HRAF Collection is organized first of all intoseparate Files, each of which focuses on a particularculture or society. Some Files also include data on

24

other closely related cultures. Since these CulturalFiles constitute only a sample of all the cultures ofthe world, it is important to understand how the se-lected cultures relate to the total cultural universe,and on what basis they were selected.

1. The Outline of World Cultures (OWC). The OWCis a manual which presents a preliminary inventoryand classification of all the world's cultures known to

history and ethnography. Each File corresponds moreor less closely to a cultural unit defined in the OWC.The basic classification system used in the OWC willbe outlined briefly, but the researcher should consultthe Preface to the OWC for fuller details.

4

.41-07 '41-',cr ro4-4, e-

+W.

Karen bill village women, North Thailand

At the most general level, the OWC divides the worldinto eight major geographical regions or areas, eachdesignated by a code letter:

A AsiaE EuropeF AfricaM Middle EastN North AmericaO OceaniaR RussiaS South America

(Some very gcneral cultural units are defined atthis broad level, and designated by an addednumber: e.g. F2 Black Africa; S3 South Ameri-can Indians.)

Each of the major regions is then subdivided, usuallyon a political basis, into subregions designated by theaddition of a second letter: e.g. FF designates theAfrican country of Nigeria and its component culturalunits, while SC designates the South American coun-try of Colombia and its component cultural units.

Finally, within each subregion, more specific culturalunits are defined and designated by an added num-ber; these may be country entities, such as FF2 Co-lonial Nigeria or SC2 Historical Colombia, or culture-bearing population unitsvariously called "cultures,""societies," "tribes," "ethnic groups," etc.such as

25

FF57 Tiv or SC7 Cagaba. ("Culture," "society," etc.are not equivalent terms, but for the sake of simplicityand consistency, the terms culture and cultural unitare used as the basic designations throughout thisguide.)

Each cultural unit defined in the OWC and designatedby a distinct alphanumeric (i e. letter + number)code, called the OWC code, constitutes a potentialFile of cultural data. (See Appendix B for further dis-cussion of this point.)

Each Cultural File may be placed in its proper re-gional, political, and cultural context by locating thecorresponding cultural unit in the OWC by means ofthe OWC code.

The Table of Contents of the OWC lists only the ma-jor regions and subregions, but the OWC index con-tains an exhaustive listing of all the named units in theOWC, referenced to the proper OWC codes.

Illustrations 3 and 4, following, show first, a samplepage of cultural units from the OWC, and second, asample page from the OWC index.

2. Selection of Cultures for the HRAF Files. Severalthousand cultures are listed in the OWC. The culturesin the Files were selected mainly on the basis of thefollowing criteria:

(a) Maximum cultural diversitythe culturesshould represent, as far as possible, the knownrange and variety of cultural types in terms of lan-guage, history, economy, and social organization.

(b) Maximum geographical dispersalthe culturesshould be geographically representative of all themajor world areas and major types of ecologicalsettings.

(c) Adeiasz.--0, of literaturewithin the scope of thetwo preceding criteria, the cultures should have aquantitatively and qualitatively adequate literaturecoverage.

3. Present Culture and Area Coverage. Table 1 on pp.2-3 lists the Files that are now or soon will be avail-able, at least in the Paper Files. Those Files whichhave been incorporated into the HRAF-Microfiles asof 1973 are noted by the date of inclusion. There isnow a total of 294 Files, most of which are organizedaround specific ethnic groups or societies, rather thannational or country-level units.

1-1-4411039

ILLUSTRATION 3

Sample Pap from the Outline of World Cultures

(reduced)

Ghana

FEL Ghana. General data oi, the geography. demography, ani, indigenouspeoples and cultures, and specific data on the national institutions,multi-ethnic urban areas, non-indigenous inhabitants, and broadsociocultural trends of the Republic of Ghana (formerly the GoldCoast and British Togo land).

FEZ. Colonial Ghana. General data on the geography, demography, and indi-genous peoples and cultures, and specific data on the colonial rule,non-indigenous inhabitants, Eurafrican urbanization, and broadsociocultural trends of Ghana during the colonial period.

FE3. Traditional Ghana. General data on the geography, demography, andAfrican peoples and cultures, and specific data on European orother contacts, non-African inhabitants, and broad socioculturaltrends of Ghana from the beginning of recorded or oral history upto the onset of colonial rule. For data oa Prehistoric Ghana seeFE14.

FE4. Dagari. Specific data on the Dagari-speaking Birifor (Lobar), Dagaa-Wiili, Dagaba, and Lonagaa, the last comprised of the LoDagabaand the LoWiili.

FE5. Dagomba. Specific data on the Dagomba or Dagbamba tribe, includingthe related Nanumba.

FE6. Ga. Specific data en the Ga tribe, including the related Adangrne.

FE7. Grusi. Specific data on the Grusi (Grunshi)-speaking Awuna (Acute),Bui lsa (Kanjaga), Chakalle, Degha (Dyamu, Mo), Isa la (Sisala),Kasena, Nunuma, Siti, Tampolense, and Vagala.

FES. Guang. Specific data on the Gonja (Ngbanya) nation, including the relatedAtyuti, Bazanche, Brong (Abron), Chimbaro, Chumbuli, Krachi,Kunya, Nawuru, and Nchumuru (Nchumbulung) peoples.

FE9. Mamprusi. Specific data on the Mamprusi tribe.

FE10. Nankanse. Specific data on the Nanlcanse or Gurensi (Gorensi), plus thekindred Kusasi and Namnam.

FE11. Tallensi. Specific data on the Tallensi people.

FE12. Twi. Specific data on the Twi-speaking peoples, including the Akwapim,Akyem, Asen-Twi`. Ashanti, Fanti, Kwahu, and Wasa. For dataon the related Anyi-Baule see FA5, on the Chakossi see FA13.

-46-

26

.0041113

ILLUSTRATION 4

Sample Page from the Outline of World Cultures Index

(reduced)

Snake, N/114Snake River Shoshone,

NR14Snohomish, NR15Snuqualmi, NR15SO, AX37Soai, A117Sobs, FL8Sobaipuri, NU29Soboyo, SE6Soce, F, 7SOCIETY ISLANDS, OX7Socotra, MM3Soft, FJ18Sofyan, MW9Sop, FK7Soghaua, MS5Sokha, MW5Sokile, FM17Sokna, KT9SOKO, FC44SOKORO, 7131Sokwia, F1(13Soliman, MS9, SQ25SOLOMON ISLANDS, ON1Solomon, Historical,

ON2Solomon, Prehistoric,

ON3Solon, RU5Solongo, F021Solor, OFSSOMALI, 1404Somaliland, Historical,M02

Somaliland, Prehistoric,M00

SOMALI REPUBLIC, MOISumba, FA9Sombrero, SUSSORRA!, 7132Sonde, F028Souse, 7027SONGHAI, MS20Songhay Expire, FA2Songish, NR15Songo, F030, FP6SONGOLA, FC45Songoseno, F016Sonhraie MS20SONINKE, MS21Sonjo, FN25Sonsorol, ORI8Sooke, KRISSop, AM29Sorol, OR20Sorotua, FP7Soso, FA33Sosse, FA27Sossi, FF40SOTHO, FW2Sotho, Transvaal,FXI6

Soto, SSIC,Soussou, FA33SOUTH AFRICA, FXISouth Africa, Historical,FX2

South Africa, Traditional,FX3

SOUTH ALASKA ESKIMO,NA10

SOUTH AMERICA, SISouth America, Historical,

S2SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS,

S3SOUTH AMERICAN ISLANDS,

SZ1SOUTH AMERICAN NEGROES,S5

South America, rehistoric,S4

Southampton IslandEskimo, ND5

South Arabia, ML2,MI3

South Arabia, Historical,ML2

South Arabia, Prehistoric,XL3

SOUTH BRAZIL, SM1South Carolina, NN1SOUTH CENTRAL STATES,

*01South Central SHistorical, NO2

South Central States,Prehistoric, NO3

SOUTH CHINA, A717South Dakota, NQ1SOUTHEAST ASIA, ALISOUTHEASTERN INDIANS,

NN3SOUTHEASTERN STATES,

NN1Southeastern Yavarai,

NT14SOUTHEAST SALISH,

NR19Southeast, Prehistoric,

NN4SOUTHEAST SIBERIA,

RX1Southern Africa, Prehistoric

FX4Southern Bushmen,FX10

Southern Cayapo, SP11Southern Dynasties,

AF6SOUTHERN FILIPINOS,

0A32Southern Lunda, FP14SOUTHERN NEGROES,NN6

SOUTHERN PAIUTE, NT16Southern Rhodesia,FS2

SOUTHERN THAI, A08SOUTHERN YEMEN, 100South Georgia, SZ1South Elnan,, AW18SOUTH KOREA, AA6SOUTH NGUNI, FX17South Orkney, SZ1South Ossetian AutonomousOblast, RH9

South Sandwich, SZ1South Shetland, SZ1South Slays, EF1SOUTH VIETNAM, A1113South West Africa,FX22

South West Africa,Prehistoric, FX4

SOUTHWEST CHINA, AF16SOUTHWESTERN INDIANS,

NT5SOUTHWESTERN STATES,

NTISouthwest, Historical,

N72SOUTHWEST ISLANDS,

ORI8Southwest, Prehistoric,

NT3Soviet Central Asia,

RL1SOVIET UNION, RISowe, FN9SOYOT, RS3SPAIN, EX1Spanish Morocco, MWI,MXI

SPANISH REGIONAL CULTURES,EX6

SPANISH SAHARA, MYISparta, EH9

-212-

27

Spartans, Ancient,E119

Spiti, AJ4SPITZBERGEN, EZ10Spokan, NR19Spreewald District,

EL12Squasish, NEI3Squaxon, NR15Sragna, 11W10Sre, AM27Stalo, NEI3Starbuck Island, OV6St aaaaa ki, 111413

Stewart Island, 025Stewart Islands, OTIOSTIENG, AM39Stoney, NF4Stono, NN12Subs, FIRSubano, 0A33SUBANUN, 0A33SUBIA, FQ11Subiya, FQ11SUB-TAINO, SX5SUBTIABA, SA18Subu, FH7Subya, FQ11SUCRE, SF22,SUDAN, MQ1Sudan, FJ1, FJ3, FJ26,

MQ2, M0, 1151-MS3SUDETEN GERMANS, EL9Suerre, SA17SUEZ CANAL, MR15Suga, FH14Sugaree, 10413Sugbuhanon, 0A14Sul, AF5Suichichi, SEI4SUI-SUNG, AF5Suk, FLI3Suka, FL5SUKU, FC46Sukuma, FN18Sukur, FFI2SULA, OH15Sulawesi, OGISulu, 0A16Sulu, Cagayan, OA1$Suma, NU20SUMATRA, ODISumatra, Historical,

OD2Sumatra, Prehistoric,

010SUMBA, OFI7SUMBAWA, 0718Sumbawanese, 0718Susbe, FP6Sumbwa, 7N18SUMERIANS, MH9Sumo, SAI5SUNDANESE, 0E7Sundt, F021Sunesua, SS17Sung, AF5Sungor, MQ16Sungu, FC47Sura, FF6Surara, SQ18Surf, MP22SURINAM, 5114Surma, MP22Suro, MP22Surprise Valley Paiute,

NRI3Susquehannock, NMSSUSU, FA33Suvorov Island, ozsE mranozy, AB9SUYA, SP21Svan, 8112SWAHILI, FM2

i00041

SWAN, RII2Swanet, RII2SWAZI, F112SWAZILAND, FU1Swaziland, Historical,F10

Swaziland, Prehistoric,FX4

SWEDEN, EN1Sweden, Historical,EN2

Sweden, Prehistoric,EN3

Swedes, ENISweta, FLE1SWITZERLAND, EllSwitzerland, Historical,EJ2

Switzerland, Prehistoric,EJ3

SURAI, MH12Syeba, FH9Synteng, AR7SYRIA, MD1Syria, Historical,MD2'

SYRIAN BEDOUIN, MDSSyrian Christians,

AW11Syrians, MDISyria, Prehistoric,MDO

Szechwan, AF16

Taaisha, MQ5Ta -ang, AP10Tabak, 7 211Inbalosa, SEI4Inbancal, SEI7TABAR, 0112Tabasco, NVITabs n, RH8Ta b1, F.113

FQ5Tacase, NUI2TACANA, SF23Tacarigua, SS8Tachoni, FL4Taclaudub, SQ18Tacunyape, SQ26Tadjik, R02Tadjoni, FL4India, MW10Tadmekket, MS25TADZHIK, R02Tadzhik S.S.R., ROITADZA1KSTAN, ROITselba, MQ5Taensa, NO8TAS4RILI, 0A34TAGAKAOLO, 0A35Tagalagad, 0A10Tagali, FJ21TAGALOG, 0A36Tagaydan,TAGBANUA, 0A37Tagdapays, 0A7Tagoy, FJ21Tagu, MQ7Tahami, SC9TAHITI, O148Mahan, NDI2Tahue, NU41Tikidnapam, NRI8Taifasy, FY16Taimoro, FY7Taimyr National Okrug,?Ul

TAIMO, SV5Tsioba, SM4Taiposhishi, SP10T't.:, SRI2Tairona, SC7Masaks, FY17

1

The numerical distribution of the Files by major worldareas is as follows:

Asia: 62 North America: 45Europe: 19 Oceania: 37Africa: 36 Russia: 20

Middle East: 30 South America: 45

It should be recalled that this delineation of majorworld areas follows Murdock's classification in theOWC. A different classification would produce a dif-ferent distribution. For example, the "Middle East"area includes twelve Files on cultural units locatedwithin the continent of Africa; if these were groupedwith the other Files on Africa, there would be a totalof forty-eight African Files.

B. Source Materials

This section will describe the kinds of information in-cluded in the Files and how this information was ob-tained.

1. Bibliographic Research. Once the decision has beenreached to build a File of information on a particularculture, intensive bibliographic research is undertakento identify as thoroughly as possible all of the signifi-cant literature on that culture. This work is done bythe HRAF research staff, either independently or inconsultation with area experts whose services areavailable to HRAF on an advisory basis. Researchersare also urged to inform HRAF of any material theythink should be included in the Files which mightotherwise escape the notice of the staff. (For an indi-cation of the scope and complexity of this biblio-graphic research task, see O'Leary 1973b.)

2. Types of Information Sought. The materials proc-essed for the Files are basically descriptive rather thantheoretical, and the great majority are primary docu-ments, resulting from field observation. The idealsource from the standpoint of the Files consists of adetailed description of a culture, or of a particularcommunity or region within that culture, written onthe basis of prolonged residence among the peoplestudied by a professional social scientist having agood knowledge of the language of these people. Ofcourse, many documents which do not meet all ofthese criteria are included in the Files, because theyare still important sources of information; in fact, theymay be the only sources available for particular timeperiods, regions, or subjects. Thus the researcher willfind many works by travelers, missionaries, colonialofficials, traders, and so forth, some of whom mayhave spent a considerable number of years among thepeople about whom they are writing, and whose ac-

28

counts may contain quite valuable information forcultural research.

In addition to searching for primary, descriptivesources, the research staff is guided by four other con-siderations in deciding what should or should not beincluded in a File. How extensive is the bibliographyon the culture in question? How reliable is a source,and what is the training of the author? To what extentdoes a source duplicate material that is available inother sources? If a source is written in a foreign lan-guage, does it warrant the cost of translation intoEnglish? Theoretically, everything that has ever beenwritten about a culture should be included in the File.For some cultures, however, the material is so exten-sive that only a sample of the literature can or shouldbe processed. This is the case, for example, with theLapps (OWC code EP4). On the other hand, the lit-erature on some cultures may be limited, as it is withthe Andamans OWC code AZ2), in which case it islikely that nearly all of the available material will beprocessed.

The major general sources that offer a comprehensivecoverage of the principal cultural institutions are proc-essed first. Then other sources are added to round outthe subject coverage and, when advisable, to providegreater time depth in the materials. Ideally, informa-tion should be included on all subjects relevant to manand his ways of life, ranging from basic sociocultura'patterns to psychological, demographic, ecological,and other data.

Generally, when a source is selected for inclusion in aCultural File, the entire source is processed. Occa-sionally, however, some sections of a source are omit-ted, the main reasons being ( 1) that these sections donot pertain to the cultural unit of the File, or (2) thatthe kind of information may not warrant its completeprocessing; in a large collection of folktales, for exam-ple, it might seem sufficient to process only a few ex-amples of each type of tale and to indicate for thespecialist the location of the unprocessed tales. In thecase of omissions, this fact is clearly noted on the bib-liography slip for that source (see section IV.B.3.,above, especially Illustration 2 on p. 23).

Over 4,000 sources have been incorporated into theHRAF Collection. They include numerous unpub-lished or rare sources, not otherwise available, andmany English translations of foreign texts which havebeen made exclusively for the Files.

3. Preparation of Translations. If a source is writtenin a foreign language, and if it is determined that thissource should be included in the Files, an English

,i. 4 = ; ',V0042

translation is made. Special rules guide the prepara-tion of HRAF translations, since these have a scientificrather than a literary purpose. The key principle is torender the exact words of the author as accurately aspossible. In the interests of this aim, some standardsof English style may be sacrificed. For example, anygiven term is translated consistently throughout asource, even though this sometimes leads to awkwardconstructions and redundancy. The author's use ofpronouns is followed, even though the antecedent maybe ambiguous. Editing the author or interpreting whathe might mean in an ambiguous or seemingly contra-dictory passage is avoided, so as not to mislead theresearcher into thinking that the author is more pre-cise or definite than he actually is. In clear cases oftypographic errors, the error may be corrected withoutnotation, but if the slightest question exists with re-gard to a term, either the term is retained and under-lined or an explanatory note is inserted in the text inslashes. Peculiar phrasings that are sometimes foundin the translation may be a feature of a particularlanguage or may be an idiosyncrasy of the author.There is an advantage beyond that of accuracy in re-taining such phrasings, however, inasmuch as the re-searcher is reminded that he is reading a translationof a work whose author is likely to have had viewsand concepts quite different from those expressed inmodern sources written in English. The editors atHRAF exert great care in choosing words that seemto be most appropriate for a given source, with con-sideration being given to the language of the source,the date of the source, the background of the author,the nature of the material, and the like.

The original foreign text is also reproduced and in-cluded in the 116 (Text) category, directly followingthe HRAF translation of the source. ( The meaning ofcategory numbers is explained in section D, below.)This copy is for the use of the researcher if he wishesto check the translation. It is only the English transla-tion that is classified according to the subject cate-gories.

C. File Page Headings

Current File Pages. After a source has been selectedfor inclusion in a Cultural File, a heading is printed atthe top of each page to be processed. (Either originalpages from the source or photocopies of the originalpages may be used.) This heading helps the researcherto identify the individual File pages and aids in thefiling of the pages. Below is a copy of the heading onthe sample File page shown in Illustration 8 (cf. p.36).

I2: Lewis E-5 (1958-1957) 1958 M04 Somali M04 I

29

This is the type of heading that appears on an Eng-lish-language source. It contains first of all a sourcenumber ( 2) followed by the author's surname( Lewis). The source number is assigned sequentiallywhen a source is selected for processing and has nosignificance except as identification. This number pre-vents confusion between works by the same authorand aids the researcher to locate the correct text incategory 116 and the correct bibliographic citation incategory 111.

The next two items consist of a letter and a numbercode (E-5), which indicate the author's backgroundor field of specialization, and a classification of thework as primary or secondary data, etc. These codesare fully explained in section IV.A.6. on pp. 19-20.

The dates in parentheses (1956-1957) indicate theperiod of original fieldwork or field observations. If nofieldwork was done, or if the dates cannot be estab-lished, the entry (no date) would appear. This is fol-lowed by the date of publication, 1958, which is notenclosed in parentheses.

The final portion of the heading contains the OWCcode (M04) and the name of the cultural unit (So-mali ). The MO4 in front of the word Somali indicatesthat the complete text of the source from which thisFile page comes is located in category 116 in theMO4 File. The MO4 after the word Somali indicatesthe File for which this particular page of text has beenclassified. This distinction is important, because somepages or parts of pages may contain data pertinent toa File other than the one for which the source in gen-eral has been processed, and the pages should be filedaccordingly. For example, if part of this page per-tained to the Masai File (OWC code FL12), theheading would be as follows:

MO4 Somali MO4Masai FL12

Thus a copy of the page would be filed in both theMO4 and FL12 Files, while the complete text wouldbe located only in the MO4 File. For further exam-ples of these procedures, see the Preface to the Out-line of Cultural Materials.

Occasicnally, a source or parts of a source may pertainonly to a subregion or subgroup within the total cul-tural unit covered in a File. In such cases, this will beindicated by a subhead without an accompanyingOWC code. For example:

MS30 Wolof MS30Cayor

r 043

This entry means that the information on this Filepage refers only to the region or former state of Cayorwithin the Wolof cultural unit.

Or take another example:

SC7 Cagaba SC7Ica

In this case, the File page pertains only to the Icatribe rather than to the Cagaba in general.

The type of heading that appears on the File page ofa source which has been translated especially for theFiles varies in only one respect from the type of head-ing just described: the page number of the translatedtext appears after the author's surname. This is exem-plified in the following copy of the heading from thesample File page shown in Illustration 9 ( cf. p. 37):

119: !Wenger- Feraud-12 D-5 (no date) 1879 N1530 Wolof M530 I

page number of translation

The main consideration is to enable the researcher togo immediately from any passage in the translation tothe corresponding passage in the original text. Sincethe pagination of the translation differs from that ofthe original, the former is put in the heading of eachFile page, whereas the latter, enclosed in slashes, ap-pears in the text where each new page begins in theoriginal work and at the beginning of the text on eachFile page. Thus Illustration 9 shows the number 13,i.e. the pagination of the original text, enclosed inslashes immediately before the first line of translatedtext, while page 14 of the original text begins with thethird paragraph.

The heading on the foreign language text itself con-tains only the source number, the author's surname,and the OWC code, followed by the name of the cul-tural unit:

I19: Berenger-Feraud MS30 Wolof

Old Style File Pages. Prior to 1952, HRAF madetypewritten excerpts of source materials. File pagescontaining typewritten excerpts are referred to as "oldstyle" File pages. Seventeen Files are composed sub-stantially of old style File pages, and these Files areindicated in Table 1 (pp. 2-3) by a line drawn belowthe name of the cultural unit.

The type of heading that appears on many old styleFile pages is exemplified in the following copy of the

heading from the sample old style File page shown inIllustration 10 (cf. p. 39):

1

22: Osgood-146-147 E-5 (1947) 1951 Koreans I118, 175, 428, 565, 665

There are three basic variations in this heading fromthe type of heading that appears on current File pagesas previously described. First following the author'ssurname (Osgood), there are two numbers (146-147)which indicate the pages in this source from whichthe excerpt on this File page was derived. Second,the OWC code does not appear adjacent to the nameof the cultural unit (Koreans), the reason being thatthe classification of cultural units that was first pub-lished in the Outline of World Cultures in 1954 hadnot yet been developed. The third variation is that thesubject category code numbers pertaining to the ex-cerpted data (i.e. 116, 175, 428, 565, and 665) appearin the second line of the heading instead of beingplaced in the margin adjacent to the relevant text.This point will be discussed further in section D.2.,below.

On some old style File pages there is a fourth basicvariation from the current format. The letter and num-ber codes (e.g. E-5) that indicate the author's back-ground and whether the data are primary or secondarydo not appear. The researcher may also encounter anumber of additional minor variations in format whenworking with old style File pages, but these shouldnot pose any significant problems, so they will not bediscussed here.

Headings on old style File pages for foreign languagetexts differ from the current format only in onerespectthey lack the OWC code.

D. Subject Classification System

The materials within each Cultural File are organizedby subject, according to a special classification sys-tem. The following section will describe this systemand explain how it is applied to the source materialsand how the resulting arrangement of materials in aFile is accomplished.

1. The Outline of Cultural Materials (OCM). TheOCM is a manual which presents a comprehensivesubject classification system pertaining to all aspectsof man's behavior, social life, customs, material prod-ucts, and ecological setting. (See the Preface of theOCM for a discussion of the rationale and theoreticalprinciples underlying this system of classification.)This system is used for the classification of materials

30

1,99044

in all the Files; therefore, the OCM functions as akind of subject index to the entire HRAF Files.

The OCAI consists of 710 numbered subject cate-gories, plus a category numbered 000 for unclassifiedmaterials (see item (d) in section D.2., on p. 38).The 710 categories are grouped into seventy-nine ma-jor subject divisions, each designated by a two-numbercode ranging from 10 (Orientation) to 88 (Adoles-cence, Adulthood, and Old Age). Within each majorsubject division, more specific categoriesup to ninein numberare defined and designated by a three-number code. For example, the 59 Family division issubdivided into seven more specific subject cate-gories as follows: 591 Residence, 592 Household, 593Family Relationships, 594 Nuclear Family, 595 Polyg-amy, 596 Extended Families, and 597 Adoption; the86 Socialization division includes among its nine spe-cific categories: 861 Techniques of Inculcation, 862Weaning and Food Training, . .. 869 Transmission ofBeliefs.

Following the number and title of each category inthe OCAI is a brief descriptive statement, indicatingthe range of information which may be classified tin-der that category. It is impossible, of course, to domore than suggest the immense variety of specificcontent. Beneath the statement there normally ap-pears a list of cross-references to other categories un-der which related information may be classified. Thesecross-references are presented in tabular form in nu-merical order. (See the sample OCM page in Illustra-tion 5 on p. 32.)

This system of subject categories was developedlargely on a practical, trial-and-error basis. The cate-gories, therefore, represent a sort of common denom-inator of the ways in which anthropologists, geogra-phers, sociologists, historians, and nonprofessionalrecorders of cultural data habitually organize theirmaterials. (See Ford [1971] for further discussion ofthe development of the OCM and Moore [1971] fora discussion of classification problems.)

Some authors organize their data into broader or moreabstract categories than do others. The OCM adopts anumber of these, e.g. 181 (Ethos), 483 (OccupationalSpecialization )2 511 (Standard of Living). It shouldbe emphasized, however, that broad categories of thistype will normally include only data thus organizedin the sources, and that much pertinent information onsuch topics will be found only under the more specificcategories employed in other sources.

To avoid overloading certain categories with massesof descriptive detail about the artifacts employed as

31

means in the particular cultural activity, or producedas results thereof, a number of categories are reservedspecifically for such descriptive data. The most im-portant of these are found in divisions 29 (Clothing),34 (Structures), 40 (Machines )2 41 (Tools and Ap-pliances), and 71 (Military Technology).

Some categories, e.g. those of divisions 77 (ReligiousBeliefs) and 82 (Ideas about Nature and Man), arereserved primarily for symbolic or ideational behavior.A number of categories are concerned almost exclu-sively with organized social relationships and groups,e.g. those in divisions 47 (Business and IndustrialOrganization ), 61 (Kin Croups ), 64 (State), 70( Armed Forces), and 79 (Ecclesiastical Organiza-tion).

A major distinction should be noted between thosecategoriesthe great majoritywhich describe the be-havior, customs, or social organization of 1 people as itappears equally to a member of that culture and to anoutside observer, and other categories which presentinterpretations or conclusions involving a level of sci-entific knowledge and abstraction usually possibleonly in a highly trained observer. The latter type in-cludes most of the categories in divisions 13 through19 and such others as 435 (Price and Value), 511(Standard of Living), 781 (Religious Experience),and 811 (Logic).

A Table of Contents and an extensive, detailed Indexaid the location of appropriate subject categories bythe researcher. (c£. Illustrations 6 and 7 on pp. 33-34).

2. Coding Techniques. "Coding" refers to the subjectclassification of source materials by the application ofthe pertinent OCM subject category code numbers tothe source pages. The following procedures pertainonly to the current File page format; procedures ap-plied to old style File pages will be discussed sep-arately.

Every File page must have at least one category num-ber entered in the margin adjacent to the first line oftext on that page. This is necessary because each pageis treated as a separate slip of paper. If no other num-bers are pertinent to the information on a page, threezeroes (000) should appear to indicate nonclassifieddata (cf. item (d), p. 38).

Classification the text information is done sentenceby sentence, though most category numbers apply toa paragraph at least. Category numbers may be en-tered singly or in groups, depending on whether oneor more subjects are discussed in any specific block

0004S,--34}1

ILLUSTRATION S

Sampk Page from the Outline of Cultural Materials

(reduced)

589 CELIBACY -- prevalence of bachelors and spinsters; reasons for celibacy;status and activities of unmarried, widowed, and divorced celibates; etc.See also:

Religious celibates 76 ChastityCate of widows 778 Mundial adulthoodMoutwlag .... 765

59 FAMILY

831885

59 FAMILY -- general statements dealing with several specific aspects of thefamily. The family is a social group consisting of two or more adults ofdifferent sex who are married to one another, and of one or more children,own or adopted, of the married parents. It is to be distinguished alike frommarriage, the social relationship uniting the parents of opposite sex, andfrom the household, the social group occupying a dwelling or other domicile.Hence, strictly speaking, a married but childlesiD couple or a widowed ordivorced 7:trant with children may form a household but not a family.

591 RESIDENCEprevailing rule governing the place of residence of a marriedcouple (e.g., matrilocal, avunculocal, patrilocal, neolocal); existence ofcombined rules (e.g., alternating, bilocal, rnatri-patrilocal); occurrence ofalternative rules under special circumstances; extent to which marriagenormally involves the removal of bride or groom to another community (e. g.,local exogamy, local endogamy); residence changes by children or unmarriedadults (e.g., removal to home of grandparents or maternal uncle); residencechanges made late in married life; evidence bearing upon former or currentchanges in residence rules; etc. See also:

Dwellings 342 latidence madJustments after divorce 586Settlement patterns 361 Organisation of the community 621Odds -minice ... 583 Residence changes by widows and widowen . . 768Posunatital visits 516

592 HOUSEHOLD--typical composition (e.g., nuclear or polygamous family, jointor extended family, clan); range, types, and incidence of variations; extentof inclusion of servants, retainers, and dependent relatives (e.g., aged grand-parents, parents-in-law); physical seat (e.g., a single small or large dwell-ing, a cluster of adjacent huts, a compound); functions and cooperativeactivities of the household unit as such (i.e. , irrespective of variations infamily composition); locus of authority; rule of succession; mechanism foradjusting disputes within the household; ownership of dwelling, food stores,and household possessions; etc. Functions associated with particular forms of thefamily rather than with the household as such will be found in separate categories.See also:

83

32

P*046

ILLUSTRATION 6

Sample Page from the Outline of Cultural Materials Tabk of 'Contents

. (reduced)

52 RECREATION521 Conversation522 Humor523 Hobbies524 Games

525 Gambling526 Athletic Sports527 Rest Days and Holidays528 Vacations529 Recreational Facilities

53 FINE ARTS531 Decorative Art532 Representative Mt533 Music534 Musical Instruments535 Dancing536 Drama537 Oratory538 Literature539 Literary Texts

54 ENTERTAINMENT541 Spectacles542 Commercialized Sports543 Exhibitions544 Public Lectures545 Musical and Theatrical Productions546 Motion Picture Industry547 Night Clubs and Cabarets548 Organized Vice

549 Art and Recreational Supplies Industries

55 INDIVIDUATION AND MOBILITY551 Personal Names552 Names of Animals and Things553 Naming554 Status, Role, and Prestige555 Talent Mobility55G Accumulation of Wealth557 Manipulative Mobility558 Downward Mobility

56 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION561 Age Stratification562 Sex Status563 Ethnic Stratification564 Castes

5GS Classes

566 Serfdom and Peonage567 Slavery

57 INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS571 Social Relationships and Groups572 Friendships

vii

33

00047);

573 Cliques574 Visiting and Hospitality575 Sodalities576 Etiquette577 Ethics578 Ingroup Antagonisms579 Brawls, Riots and Banditry

58 MARRIAGE581 Basis of Marriage582 Regulation of Marriage583 Mode of Marriage584 Arranging a Marriage585 Nuptials586 Termination of Marriage587 Secondary Marriages588 Irregular Unions589 Celibacy

59 FAMILY591 Residence

592 Household593 Family Relationships594 Nuclear Family595 Polygamy596 Extended Families597 Adoption

60 KINSHIP601 Kinship Terminology602 Kin Relationships603 Grandparents and Grandchildren604 Avuncular and Nepotic Relatives605 Cousins606 Parents-in-Law and Children-in-Law607 Siblings-in-Law608 Artificial Kin Relationships609 Behavior toward Nonrelatives

61 KIN GROUPS611 Rule of Descent612 Kiodreds and Ramages

613 Lineages614 Sibs

615 Phratries616 Moieties617 Bilinear Kin Groups618 Clans619 Tribe and Nation

62 COMMUNITY621 Community Structure622 Headmen623 Councils624 Local Officials

;

ILLUSTRATION 7

Sample Page from the Ortline of Cultural Materials Index

(rec:uced)

INDUSTRY

Industry, home or cottage. 438, 472Industry (specialised). &bereft. 399;

automobile. 398; beverage, 2741capital goods, 39; chemical, 38;coal products. 382; electrical sup-plies. 393; fertilises. 387; ironand steel industry. 327; machine.392; motion picture. 546; petroleum.382; railway equipment. 397;recreational and art supplies. 549;tubber. 383; synthetic. 354s to-bacco. 277

Infancy and childhood. 85leant. betrothal, 584; mortalfty.165;

sexuality. 864Infant care, 854; feeding. 853Infanticide. 847Infectious diseases, incidence of.164;

treatment of, 757Inferiority. incidence of, 152Inflbulation, 304Inflation.458; of currency. 652Informal in-group justice, 627; inter-

group Justice, 628Informants. 115Information, dissemination of, 203;

gathering of, for press, 204Ingestion. Ideas about. 261, 827In-group, antagonisms, 578; exalta-

tion of. 186Inheritance. 428; taxes, 651Initiation of Judicial proceedings.

694

Initiation, puberty. 881; into agegrades, 561

Injuries, treatment of, 752Innovation, 176Inns, 265, 275, 347. 485Insane persons, care of. 758; exemp-

tions from legal responsibility, 672Insanity. Incidence of, 158; treat-

ment of. 755Insecticides, manufacture of. 38, 278,

314; use, animals, 231; human, 751Insects, protective measures taken

against. 751; incidence of,136;measures to protect animals from.231. etc.; paraphernalia worn asprotection against. 293; mosquitonetting. 513; body lice, 515

Insignia, 301; as prestige symbols,554; military. 703, 714

Instigation of war, 721Instincts, 152Instruments, 41; aircraft. 506; musi-

cal, 534, navigation. 416, 502Insults, 578Insurance, 456; social. 745Insurrections, 669Integration, cultural, 178, 182;

personal. 154, 155Intellectuals, Intelligentsia, 517;

as a social group, 571Intelligence tests, 125; results of,

153

Intent, legal definition of. 672Interaction, social. 571Inter-community relations. 628Intercourse, sexual, 833Interest, 428; on public debt, 652Interior decoration and avenge-

meet. 353Internal migration, 166International relations. 648Interpersonal relations. 57Interpreters, selection and use

of, 124Intertribal relationships. 648Interviewing. 124Intimidation of gods, 782Intoxicants. 273Invalidism, 734Inventions, 176; as property, 424Investment, 464Iron and steel industry.Ironworldng. 328Irredentism, 563. 648Irregular unions. 588Irrigation. 312

J

327

Jails, 697Jealousy. 152Jesters. 522Jewelers. 306; tools, 413Jewelry manufacture, 306Jokes, 522Joking relationships, 602Judicial authority. 692

154

34

00040

LAND

Juggling. 524Juries. 693Jutisprudence, 671Jul Felmae noctb. 585Justice, 69; as an ideal, 577Justice, informal in- group. 627;

Informal inter-group, 628

KKaolin. 317Kays. as a beverage. 272;

as a stimulant, 276Kidnapping. 673Killing humans. 682Kin groups. 61Kin relationships. 602Kindred*, 612Kingship, divine, 643Kinship. 60Kinship regulation of sex, 836Kinship terminology. 601Knitting, 286Knives. forks, spoons, 412Knife sheaths, 412Knots and lashings. 284Kraal, 351, 361, 592Kula, 431

L

Labor, 46; (Weldon of, betweentown, country, 438; drafts, 0111,853; levies. 651; by age. 561;by sex, 462

Labor and leisure. 461Labor organisation.487Labor relations, 466Labor supply and employment, 464Laboratories, chemical research,

381; medical. 742Lake,, 301Lac, 231, 237Lace making. 286; embroidery, 531Lactation, 853Ladders, 417Lag. cultural, 132Laments, 533Lamps, 354Land. as propeny.423; as source of

wealth. 427. 558; cleating of. 241Land reform, specific, 423

of data. The category number or group of numbers isrecorded in the margin of the page as nearly as pos-sible opposite the beginning words of the first sen-tence to which the number or group is appropriate.This category number or group of numbers is ap-plicable until the data vary in subject matter and anew number or group of numbers is more pertinent.

If ,:liscussion of a single subject or the same group ofsubjects is continued for several pages, the same cate-gory number or group of numbers will be repeated atthe beginning of each page until another subject isintroduced or the discussion of any particular subjectceases.

Each time a new category number or group of num-bers is introduced, all previously entered numberscease to be applicable unless they are repeated in thenew series. For example, on the sample File page inIllustration 8 (cf. p. 36), category number 668 (Po-litical Movements) applies to the first three lines oftext. This initial category number ceases to apply ascategory 177 (Acculturation) is introduced at thefourth line of text. This means that there are no dataon political movements in the immediately subsequentpart of the text. If there were, nt.r..Iber 668 would berepeated along with the new number 177. When dataon political movements again appear in the bottomthree lines of text, number 668 is repeated there, alongwith the other pertinent category number 648 (Inter-national Relations). The only exception to this prin-ciple occurs in the case of category numbers enclosedin brackets, as. discussed in item (b), below.

On old style File pages, a different procedure is fol-lowed, as already noted in section C, above. The sub-ject category code numbers are listed sequentially inone or more rows directly below the first line of theheading, starting at the left-hand side of the page (cf.Illustration 10 on p. 39). In the sample old style Filepage shown in Illustration 10, the short line drawnbelow category number 565 indicates that this par-ticular copy of this File page was placed in category565 in the Korea File. Finally, it may be noted thatcategory number 116 appears on this sample Filepage. This practice has been discontinued in the cur-rent format since an extra copy of every File page isautomatically printed for inclusion in the 116 Textcategory.

As a rule, information is not classified for both a spe-cific category and the categories to which it is cross-referenced in the OCM, since it is assumed that theresearcher will investigate all of the categories towhich he is referred by the OM Similarly, cate-

35

gories which follow each other consecutively in theOCM are normally not used for the same passage. If,for example, a passage refers to both courtship (cate-gory 584) and nuptials (category 585), a decision isusually made as to which category is more appropri-ate, and the passage is classified accordingly. Theresearcher should, therefore, consult categories adja-cent to the one he is using for material that may berelevant to his topic.

Whenever possible, information is classified accordingto a specific three-number category rather than thebroader two-number categories. In addition, certainother technical conventions are used to make the Filesas useful as possible to the researcher. These includethe two-number, bracketed, asterisked, and zeroedcategories, each of which is discussed below.

(a) Two-number categories. A two-number OCMcategory is used when the nature of the material issuch that a breakdown into more specific three-number categories is not feasible. For example, apassage covering briefly information pertinent tocategories 301 (Ornament), 302 (Toilet), and 305(Beauty Specialists) may be classified only forcategory 30 (Adornment).

(b) Bracketed categories. An OCM category num-ber is enclosed in brackets to indicate to the re-searcher that only the sentence or two opposite thebracketed number contains information pertinent tothat specific category. The last preceding unbrack-eted category number or group of numbers appliesequally to material immediately opposite and suc-ceeding the position of the bracketed number. Forexample, on the sample File page in Illustration 9(cf. p. 37) most of the page deals with preventivemedicine (category 751), but there are also briefreferences to sects (category 795), ethnobotany(category 824), ethnozoology (category 825), andsorcery (category 754). The category numbers forthese brief references are all enclosed in bracketsto indicate that only the immediately adjacentpassages are pertinent to those category numbers,and that category number 751 continues to apply.

It should be emphasized that bracketed categoriesdo not indicate any difference in the importance orvalidity of the adjacent information as comparedto other material classified with unbracketed num-bers. The brackets indicate that the information somarked is brief and may be incidental or paren-thetical to the subject matter discussed at greaterlength in the larger context. The distinction be-tween material marked by bracketed numbers and

4".10049

ILLUSTRATION 8

Sample File Page, Annotated

AUTHOR'S TRAINING SOURCE EVALUATION (Original OUTLINE OF WORLD CULTURES CODE(Ethnologist) Field Work by Trained Researcher) (Indicating Location of Text Category)

SOURCE AUTHOR'S DATE OF DATE OF NAME OF OUTLINE OF WORLD CULTURES CODENUMBER LAST FIELD PUBLICATION SOCIETY (Indicating Location of Category Pages)

NAME WORK

: Lewis E-5 (1956-1957) 1958 M04 Somali M04

MODERN POLITICAL MOVEMENTS IN SOMALILAND 251

rues and a new elitealthough there is something of this especially among the Sab of 668Somalia. The nal struggle is between the ideal of national unity u opposed to thereality of the values of clanship and sectional kinship interests in the lineage system.

As a whole, the Soma Wands, because of their poverty in naturaj resources, havebeen little affected economically by European colonization. Pastoral nomadismremains tht. L..$ic economy, carrying with it for the majority of the population thetraditional political structure and kinship values described above. There has been nogeneral local industrial revolution' and correspondingly little large-scale urbanization.The main towns in the Somali territories are tabulated here for comparison withestimates of their population.

French Somaliland Jibuti, new town, population c. 30,000 (15,000 Somali)?British Protectorate Hargeisa, new town, populations c. 30,000 Somali.Huu Province of Ethiopia Harar, ancient city, population' c. 60,000 (2,000? Somali).Somalia Mogadishu, ancient city ,s population c. 110,000.

The presence of a class of traders is no new phenomenon, although the Somaliekment in it, u opposed to the Asian immigrant, has probably considerably increasedover the last twenty years. Through foreign colonization markets have widened andtrade extended. In the absence of any large European settler community in Somalilandthe middle' lass of 'new men', which has arisen elsewhere it Africa in response tocolonial rule, has been largely absorbed in posts in the administrative services. Theinfluence of a European alien community is most marked in Somalia, the formerItalian colony and the foothold for the Italian conquest of Ethiopia, But, comparedwith other African colonies, he numbers are smallat present including expatriateadministrative staff amounting to little over 4,000and economic developments andthe attraction of foreign investments Live been correspondingly slight. Certainly inSomalia the work of the agricultural associations (the largest being the SocieteAgricola halo Soma la, S.A.I.S.) constitutes an economic development of someimportance' But the number of labourers employed here and in tight industries issmall. The population of Somalia is estimated' to consist of 40 per cent. nomads, 30per cent. pastoralists who practise some agriculture, 20 per cent riverine cultivators, 162and 10 per cent. town dwellers. In the British Protectorate 5 per cent. of thepopulation are thought to practise cultivation (the north-western cultivators), 5 percent. to live in towns, and the remainder (90 per cent.) to be fully nomadic'

In the small ten;tory a French Somaliland, on the other hand, almost half of themixed Somali, Danakil, and Arab population i: concentrated in the relatively heavilyindustrialized port of Jibuti, on which the country's economy mainly depends.

As a whole, the Somali have not been harshly administered or savagely oppressedunder the colonial regimes. This common spur to nationalismin the form ofopposition to colonial rulewas probably, however, of some significance in Somalia

177

361

162

POLITICALMOVEMENTS

ACCULTURATION

SETTLEMENTPATTERNS

COMPOSITION OFPOPULATION

MERCANTILE

441 BUSINESS

563 --- ETHNICSTRATIFICATION

'This factor Is justly umsed for other parts of Almaon 7 Hodgkin's essay. ,Vanonahsar in Colonial AiwaLondon. 1956' Docarneosti et Staintoinn. No ay . Peb 1957. p 6'Colonial Reports. Somaliland Prottetoratt. 1951/3

1954. p 20, pros a figure of 32.000*TM seems a restonahle estimate for 1957 from

, 31.000 recorded on 1938 by Prancohm. 1931. p !115'Rapport Somali,. 1955, p 149See Rapport Somali.% 1955, pp 6417. Lewis.

1955. pp. 11042'Rapport Somali.% 1955. p $9'Hunt. 1951. p 121

648668

36

ei00050

COMPOSITION OFPOPULATION

INTERNATIONALRELATIONS

POLITICALMOVEMENTS

ILLUSTRATION 9

Sample File Page, Translation with Bracketed Categories, Partly Annotated

page number in the translated text

19: Berenger-Feraud--12 D-5 (no date)1879 MS30 Wolof MS30

> /13 cont./302 covered with fairly long hair, while the rest is closely cropped;855 at other times patterns are executed in this manner. We have

said that the little girls often have a little lock to which is at-corresponding cached a bead, a shell,;a small piece of money, etc.page numbers in A necessary complement to the costume of both sexesthe original 751 among the Ouolof of any age is the grigri, an amulet pur-foreign text chased more or less expensively and intended for protection

against a number of evils, misfortunes, snares, etc. Childrenoften have only a grigri for their entire dress; no Moslem,

[795] man or woman, is without one. If we look well, we shall findthat the Catholic Ouolof who do not wear one are very few innumber.

> /Pt/ The grigris are of all possible shapes; it is usuallya verse from the Koran written on a scrap of paper and coveredeither with a wrapping of cloth, a piece of leather, or a pieceof metal. The shape and size of these grigris vary infinitely:one is as spherical as a nut, another is triangi 'ar, anothersquare. There are some to be put around th., head and others

bracketed which go on the finger, on the wrist, at the ankle, crosswise,category or around the waist. Some Negroes have a vertible load ofnumbers them. Anyone who cannot get a metal cover for his grigri

[8241 uses leather or a piece of material. The tooth of a shark18251 or jackal, a bone, a shell, and a simple piece of wood some-

times constitute very venerated griarls.This grigri is intended to prevent a thousand evils.

There are some against headaches, toothaches, burns, thebite of the crocodile, shark, and snake; I have seen someintended to combat the cunning of the merchant with whom

[7541 one is dealing, the evil spells of sorcerers. In a word, thereare some against anything that might harm the physical ormoral well-being of an individual. The Negro's confidencein his grigri is blind, and when he has material proof of itsinanity, he only attributes the misfortune to the poor manu-facture of the talisman; he therefore hurries to procureanother more efficacious one, that is to say, more expensive,instead of being cured of his superstition.

M. Pichard, the French consul at Sainte-Marie, reportsthe following anecdote on this subject, which many people

Some of the comments on this sample File page obviously reflect the biases of a nineteenth-century European, but the specific data reported arc valid and useful.

37

00051

that classified by imbraeketed numbers is thus onewhich is dearly quantitative, not qualitative.

(c) Asterisked categories. An asterisk ( ) is some-times placed beside a category number to indicatethat a block of material pertinent to this categoryexists, and that this material will be found only inthe complete text (category 116). For example, in acollection of folk tales, category 539 ( LiteraryTexts) would apply to each page, and the bookmight thus appear in its entirety in both the 116and 539 categories. To avoid this duplication, sate-

_ gory 539 is asterisked ('539), a cross-referenceslip is prepared for category 539 referring the re-searcher to category 116, and File pages are printedonly for the 116 category. It is not necessary forthe pages that have been asterisked to be strictlyconsecutive; the major criteria are that they bemore than thirty pages in length and just as usefulin category 116 as in a Frooific subject category.

( d) Zeroed categories. Passages which have norelevance to any category in the 0C31 are "zeroedout," i.e. three zeroes (000) am placed oppositethe text to which they apply. Material so markedappears only in category 116 (Texts). Triple ze-roes are most frequently used for tables of contents,acknowledgmeats, speculations of the author, ran-dom comments, etc.

3. Multiple filing techniques. Within each CulturalFile, the File pages are arranged according to OCl/subject categories. This is accomplished by the follow-ing procedure. One copy of a page of text is repro-duced for each different category number on thatpage, and a copy filed under each of the appropriatesubject categories within that File. An additional copyis made and filed in the 116 Text category. Thus eachFile contains both a complete, page-order text copyof every source processed for that File, plus a seriesof category divisions within which all pages dealingwith a particular subject are brought together.

The sample File page in Illustration 8 may serve as anexample of this technique. This page was processedfor the M04 Somali File, and it contains seven differ-ent category numbers written in the margin. Sevencopies of this page were reproduced, and a copy filedwithin each of those seven subject categories in theSomali File. An eighth copy was also made and filedin the 116 Text category of the Somali File. In thisway, all of the information on, for instance, politicalmovements (category 668) among the Somali, fromall of the sources processed for the Somali File, is tobe found in a single block in Category 668 in theM04 Somali File.

38

This process of reproducing and filing nudtiple copiesof text pages by subject categories within each Cul-tural Fite is what makes tlw IIRAF Files a rapid andefficient data retrietyd system, witich can significantlyfacilitate any relevant research project.

4. Inclusion of Complete, Page-Order Texts. A com-plete copy, in page order, of every source processedfor a particular Cultural File is included in category116 (Texts) of that File. These sources are arrangedin order by source number. By referring to category116, users of a File can establish the complete originalcontext for any File page appearing in other cate-gories of that File.

If a source was translated from a foreign languageespecially for inclusion in the Files, a complete, page-order copy of the foreign text is also placed in cate-gory 116, directly following the English translation.

E. Physical Format of the Paper Files

The Paper Files are composed of standardized 5" x 8"paper slips called File pages. (There arc now approxi-mately three million File pages in each complete setof the Paper Files.) The textual content is printed (ortyped, in the case of old style File pages) on only oneside of each File page. These pages are then filed infiling cabinets with drawers of the appropriate di-mensions. There is a separate File for each distinc-tive cultural unit as defined in the OWC. Within eachFile, the File pages are arranged topically accordingto the subject categories of the OCAL For example, asnoted in the description of multiple filing techniques,all of the pages marked for information on politicalmovements ( category 668) among the Somali, fromall the sources processed, are to be found in a singleblock, between tabbed separator cards, under Cate-gory 668 of the MO4 Somali File, Within such a blockof File pages, the individual pages are arranged in adefinite order, first by sequential source number, andsecond, within each source, by sequential page num-ber.

A complete set of the Paper Files may be found ateach of HRAF's twenty-four sponsoring institutions,and a twenty-fifth set is maintained at HRAF head-quarters in New Haven, Connecticut,

F. Microfilm Card Formats

Physically, the HRAF-Microfiles consist of 3" x 5"microfilm cards. (This program was started beforethe general adoption of the now standard 4" x 6"microfiche size, and the 3" x 5" size was chosen so

ILLUSTRATION 10

Sample File Page (Old Style), Partly Annotated

(reduced)

Note: Only those items in the heading which do not correspond to theitems explained in Illustration 8 are annotated. See p. 30 for adiscussion of this heading format.

FMB 1111NOMS QM SWAM C&fl000T mu Lilt OFIN MI WORM GNI NO/111013

22: Osgood-1461-147 E-5 (1947) 1951 Koreans116, 175, 4211, 565. 66S

"The great importance of family and clan held for all the Korean people irrespectiveof class and condition, but for political and social reasons more emphasis was given tostatus by the Yangpan group. Active allegiance to a political party was almost inevitable,iince these latter organisations were primarily alliances established between pxmerfulfamilies controlling most of the land and the farmers who cultivated it. Family recordswere kept over many generations and it was inevitable that sons to inherit the positionsof power and prestige were a first requirement. Therefore, although the life pattern ofthe indi- (1471 vidv 11 is parallel in both classes, notable emphases appear in that of theTangpan, as we shall see. o

that the cards would fit regular library cataloguecard drawers.) With only minor exceptions, eachCultural File in the HRAF-Microfiles is an exact pho-tographic duplicate of the corresponding Taper File.The microfilm cards within each Cultural File arearranged sequentially according to the subject cate-gory code numbers of the OCM.

There are two types of microfilm cards. For the firstten years of the HRAF- Microfilcs program ( 1958-67),microfilm strips jacketed in acetate and cardboardwere used, capable of accommodating up to twenty-seven File page images (cf. Illustrations 11 and 12).Since 1968, a complete microfiche format has beenused that is capable of accommodating up to sixtyFile page images (cf. Illustrations 13 and 14). Thetop portion or heading of each microfilm card,whether jacketed microfilm or microfiche, carries theessential identification and control information. Theinformation elements presented in the headings ofboth types of microfilm cards are as follows: (1) eachcard is numbered consecutively within a given File asan aid in filing and refiling the cardsthis is calledthe card serial number; (2) the proper OWC codeand the name of the cultural unit are indicated; and(3) the OCM category code number(s) for the sub-ject(s) contained on that card are listed. Beyond this

39

common framework, the number, kind, and arrange-ment of information elements in the heading differ inthe two types of microfilm cards, as may be seen froman inspection of Illustrations 11 through 14. It shouldalso be noted that while the headings on the jacketedmicrofilm cards follow the same pattern in cardsmarked for both the 116 Text category and for theother subject categories, the headings on the micro-fiche cards differ in this respect, with additional infor-mation (i.e. the source number, author's surname,and the page numbers of the first and last File pagesappearing on that card) being included in the head-ing of cards classified for the 116 Text category.

Other than relatively minor variations in the headings,there are two significant format differences betweenthe jacketed microfilm cards and the microfiche cards.These differences involve the number of subject cate-gories treated per card, and the arrangement of Filepage images on a card.

On a microfiche card, only the File pages that havebeen :fled in a single subject category (in the PaperFiles) will appear, even though there may be spacefor more File page images. Or, if a card has beenheaded for Category 116 (Texts), only File pagesfrom a single source will appear on that card. On

CARD SERIALNUMBER

ILLUSTR AMY'S 11

Sample jacketed Microfilm Card, Annotated

OC:!, SUBJECT FIRST ANDOWC NAME OF CATEGORY CODE SOURCE LAST PAGECODE CULTURAL UNIT NUMBERS NUMBERS NUMBERS

4

5 t

ILLUSTRATION 12

Sample jacketed Microfilm Card from Category 116(Texts), Annotated

CARD SERIAL OWC NAME OFCODE CULTURAL UNITNUMBER

OCM SUBJECTCATEGORY CODENUMBERS

SOURCENUMBERS

FIRST ANDLAST PAGENUMBERS

40

OCM SUBJECT CATEGORYCODE NUMBER

............_

ILLUSTRATION 13

Sample Microfiche Card, Annotated

CARD SERIALNUMBER

OWCCODE/

NAME OFCULTURAL UNIT

ILLUSTRATION 14

Sample Microfiche Card from Category 116 (Telts),Annotated

SOURCE NUMBER, AUTHOR'SSURNAME, AND PAGE NUMBERS

CARD SERIALNUMBER .

OWCCODE

NAME OFCULTURAL UNIT

41

jacketed microfilm cards, in contrast, all of the avail-able space for File page images will be used, so thatFile pages that were filed in more than one, subjectcategory ( in the Paper Files) may appear on a singlecard, depending upon the number of File pages percategory. And File pages from more than one sourcemay appear on a card classified for Category 116.

The arrangement of File page images on a microfichecard follows a regular sequence, running from left toright and top to bottom, but the arrangement of Filepage images on jacketed microfilm cards is more com-plicated and variable. There arc two basic patterns,each of which will be described briefly, but the re-searcher should be alert for other specific variationsin the cards lie may be using.

The first pattern is used mainly for old style Filepages, with type running the width of the File page.On a microfilm card these pages are arranged intothree rows with up to nine File pages per rowmak-ing nine columns. The columns are then groupea intothree blocks of three columns each (meaning nineFile page images per block). For Purposes of discus-sion, we will number these blocks 1, 2, and 3. Usually,block number 1 appears on the rigid-hand side of amicrofilm card, block number 2 in the center, andblock number 3 on the left side. In this case the Filepages are sequenced from right to left and top to bot-tom within each block successively, starting withblock number 1. This pattern is illustrated in the fol-lowing diagram:

DIAGRAM 1

Arrangement of Old Style File Pages on a jacketedMicrofilm Card

IRHI

:=1Ell

26

19

Eapi111

No

asItlco

10

11116

le6

9

1111

11:1la

InIII161

OI.,,,,,1.0,11,,,i,=1, 11111,../Block 3 Block 2 Block 1

The second pattern is used for current style Filepages, which are mainly photoreproductions of orig-inal text pages. On a microfilm card these pages arearranged into two rows with up to twelve File pagesper rowmaking twelve columns. The columns arethen grouped into three block_ of four columns each( meaning eight File page images per block). Thearrangement of blocks on a microfilm card and thesequencing of File pages are the same as for the first

,pattern, as may be seen in the following diagram:

DIAGRAM 2

Arrangement of Current Style File Pages on ajacketed Microfilm Card

! I I1=iro110 riemorlf .=wie..*,

Block 3 Block 2 Block 1

Occasionally the arrangement of blocks and the se-quencing of File pages may be reversed in both pat-terns. That is, block number 1 may appear on the left-hand side of a microfilm card, block number 2 in thecenter, and block number 3 on the right side. In thatcase, the File pages are sequenced from left to rightand top to bottom within each block successively,again starting with block number 1.

This rather complex organization of materials on thejacketed microfilm cards was largely a product of themicrofilming technology available at the time. Withthe use of the microfiche format initiated in 1968, amuch simpler organization of materials is possible, aspreviously noted.

As of 1973, sixteen annual series of the HRAF-Micro-files had been issued, incorporating a total of 190 Cul-tural Files on 71,375 microfilm cards.

42

r,....,t,,049156

PART VI. TOWARD A COMPREHENSIVE, CULTURAL INFORMATION SYSTEM

The HRAF Files constitute the focal component of adeveloping information system. HRAF's over-all ob-jective is the provision of a comprehensive, integrated,cultural information system for comparative and arearesearch in the social-behavioral sciences. This sec-tion of the Guide presents brief descriptions of theother components of this system that are alreadyavailable or currently under development. Further in-formation about these components may be obtainedfrom HRAF.

A. The HRAF Orientation Film

This film (16 mm., color & sound, ca. 15 min.) is en-titled "Human Relations Area Files: A Fund of Knowl-edge." It presents (1) a brief intellectual and organi-zational history of HRAF (2) the nature and structureof the HRAF Files ( 3) some basic procedures forusing the Files most efficiently, and (4) varied usagesfor which the Files are particularly suitable. This isnot, however, a technical instructional film. Rather,it was produced by HRAF to serve primarily as a com-munications device; it provides a good introduction tothe Files for persons unfamiliar with the Collection.As such, the film has proven to be an effective meansof disseminating knowledge about the Files, and forimproving the quantitative and qualitative usage ofthe Files through its presentation to librarians, aca-demic departments, and students.

B. Bibliographic Components

HRAF has developed a sophisticated, computeriiedbibliographic system for the collection, organization,storage, manipulation, and retrieval of bibliographicdata. This system, called HABS ( HRAF AutomatedBibliographic System), is especially designed to servethe needs of the social-behavioral sciences and areastudies. Details of HABS cannot be presented here,but the interested reader may consult Koh (1973),which gives a full description of the basic character-istics and capabilities of the systeni. All of the biblio-graphic components discussed below, except for thosein item 4, were produced through the application ofHABS.

1. The HRAF Source Bibliography. This bibliographycontains a listing of all books, articles, and manu-scripts processed for the HRAF Files. Bibliographicentries are organized by cultural units and arrangedin alphanumeric sequence by OWC codes. Everyentry that has been included in the HRAF-Microfilesis annotated with the year of inclusion in parentheses.

43

The bibliography is indexed by area and alphabeti-cally by author and by cultural unit. It was first pub-lished in 1969, and it is up-dated annually by meansof HABS.

2. Library Catalog Cards. In order to make the ma-terials in the HRAF Files more accessible to potentialusers, HRAF also produces a set of standard librarycatalog cards, which may be interfiled with existingcatalog files in a subscribing institution's library. Thecards cover all of the monographs processed for theHRAF Files.

3. Culture Unit Bibliographies. Rarely, if ever, will allof the available literature on a cultural unit be proc-essed for the HRAF Files (see section V.B.2. on p. 28for a, discussion of this point). To complement thematerials in the Files, therefore, HRAF plans to pro-duce comprehensive, analytical bibliographies on allof the incorporated cultural units. These bibliogra-phies will be inserted in the pertinent Files, includingindex entries in the relevant subject categories, andwill also be issued in published form. This combina-tion of the data in a Cultural File plus the relatedanalytical bibliography will provide a new and power-ful .-search tool for social scientists. Thus far, onlythree such bibliographies have been almost fullyprocessed: Copper Eskimo, Lapps, and Pawnee. Bib-liographies on other cultural units will be producedas rapidly as is feasible.

4. Bibliographies of Cross-Cultural Studies. In sectionJIB. of this Guide, the use of the HRAF Files forcross-cultural research was explored at length. With-in the past few years HRAF has expanded its role inthis field by sponsoring the preparation of annotatedbibliographies of cross-cultural studies (see O'Leary1969, 1971, 1973a). Part of the information given foreach entry is whether or not the study was baseddirectly or indirectly on data from the HRAF Files.More importantly, since these are the only regular,comprehensive bibliographies published in this field,they make a significant and widely appreciated con-tribution to the assessment and development of cross-cultural research.

C. The HRAF Index

Another major research tool is the Index to the Hu-man Relations Area Files (8 vols., approx. 5,000pages), which was prepared under the joint auspicesof HRAF and the Council for Intersocietal Studies atNorthwestern University. This publication is a corn-

plete, page-by-page, line-by-line subject index to over4,000 sources included in the HRAF Files up to aboutthe end of 1967. The index is organized according tothe 710 subject categories of the Outline of CulturalMaterials, and contains over 2,000,000 page referenceskeyed to specific sources and specific Cultural Files.A major purpose of the index, when used in conjunc-tion with the HRAF Source Bibliography, is to enablea user to go directly to conventional library resourcesin situations where the HRAF Files are not available.Also, it can be used to check the coverage in the Fileson any given subject without consulting the Filesthemselves. Thus a researcher can determine rapidlyif there is sufficient information on a subject in theFiles to do whatever research he may be planning.Future up-datings of the index are planned by HRAF.

44

D. Coded Data Archive

HRAF is sponsoring the development of a computer-ized archive of coded data at the State University ofNew York at Buffalo under the direction of RaoulNero 11. This archive will incorporate all available cul-tural codes such as those published in Murdock'sEthnographic Atlas (1967) and Textor's A Cross-Cultural Summary (1968), and will also includequality control information and page references( when pusible ) to the data sources on which thecodes are based. Computer programs will enable re-searchers to make various statistical analyses of thearchived data. When .the archive is operational, itsservices will be made available to scholars and stu-dents.

Vi109958i,

APPENDIX A

LIST OF ADDITIONAL CROSS-CULTURAL RESEARCH TOPICSAND PROBLEMS FOR STUDENTS

(Including Relevant OCM Category Numbers)

1. Evidence for malnutrition and its effects (146).

2. Color perception (158, 822). Different peopleshave different ranges of color names, and thequestion is: Do they perceive colors differently?An interesting but tricky topic.

3. Innovation and invention (176). Lord Raglanonce said: "A savage is incapable of inventinganything." Check his hypothesis cross-culturally,but be sure to define your terms.

4. Evidence of race prejudice and/or religious in-tolerance among non-literate peoples (186, 798).

5. Concepts of progress as cultural goals (185).Get what you can from the Files and if there isnot too much, summarize it and contrast it withwhat you know of the American concept of "get-ting ahead."

6 -7. Secondary languages as a means of social inter-action. (6) A survey of the frequency, purposesand causes of bilingualism (191).( 7) The role of special marginal languages(pidgin, trade languages ), their composition andfrequency ( 198 ).

S. Culturally patterned expressions of affection ( orfear or disgust or grief) (201, 152). This couldbe an exceptional paper, showing the varieties ofculturally determined responses from a singlepsychological stimulus.

9. The organization of agricultural labor (241). Across-cultural study of the formation of specialgroups (work parties etc.) for a specific end.

10. A survey of food preservation (251). The acqui-sition of a food surplus is largely dependent onsome means of preservation, which in turn per-mits men to gather into larger cultural groups., Ifthere is too much information, narrow down topicto smoking, etc., as a means of preservation.

11. Hunger drives and gluttony (261). A sun, - ofgroups which gorge themselves periodically. Tryto find out why they do it.

45

12. Meals and eating regularity (264). A cross-cul-tural study to determine if there appear to beuniversal physiological norms which govern eat-ing habits. Limit yourself to the number of timesa day men eat.

13. The varieties of alcoholic beverages consumedby non-Wrst.zn man (273). This is always agood subject to be an authority on. Work on thekinds of foe: fermented and the methods of fer-mentation.

14. Narcotics and their nontherapeutic roles (276).

15. Uses of clothing (291). A cross-cultural study ofnormal clothing ( exclude ceremonial clothing)to determine its functions. Is it primarily used ineach group as a protection from the elements,for reasons of vanity, modesty, etc.? Do notmake this a descriptive study, but stress uses.Compare the various uses cross-culturally andarrive at generalizations.

16. Sex and status differences in the wearing of-orna-ments (301).

17. Land usage efficiency (311). Try to answer thisone question for each culture on which, you canfind information: Du they use land efficiently?After you have done this, make cross-culturalgeneralizations. There are two ways to defineefficiency. One is absolute in terms of advancedagricultural technology. The second is relative,in terms of the culture. See how they both work.

18. The role of seasonal dwellings (342).

19. Status differences reflected in dwelling types(342). Generalize on the cross-cultural kinds ofstatus roles that require special buildings.

20. Cross-cultural roles and usages of nonfunctionalmonuments (349). You will ultimately have todefine "monuments" and "nonfunctional," per-haps challenging the latter concept.

21. A survey of weapons of warfare in nonliteratesocieties (411). Read category 411 in the Outline

k,,,tifiltk)59

of Cultuil Materials and arrive at a typology ofdifferent weapons, then plot their distribution.

22. Exchange transactions (437).

23. Forms of gambling and their soci41 roles (524).Put the emphasis upon the various cultural con-texts such as laying wagers on games, contests,bets, etc.

24.-- Slavery (567). Discuss forms and functions.

25. Age stratification; a survey of social forms (561).Be sure to distinguish age grades where they ocICur.

26. A cross-cultural survey of clubs, secret societies,and other iuntary organizations with a restrict-ed membership (575).

27. Brawls and riots: a cross-cultural study of inter-personal relationships (579).

28. Ingroup antagonism; a typological survey (578).

29. Secondary marriages of the levirate type (587).

30. A survey of the typical composition of house-holds (592).

31. A survey of irregular marriages (588).

32. Types of adoption and their various cultural roles(597).

33. Patterns of behavior between grandparents and

grandchildren; a cross-cultural study of role re-lationships (603).

34. Patterns of behavior toward nonrelatives (609).

35. Community and village councils as a means ofsocial control (623).

36. Law enforcement specialization (624).

37. The prevalence of alcoholism (633).

38. A cross-cultural survey of the motives for war-fare (721).

39. Sorcery as a cause of disease (754).

40. Types of medical specialists (759).

41. Incidence of suicide and attitudes toward it(762).

42. Luck and chance (777).

43. Orgies, revels, phallic rites, and other practicesreflecting release from normal inhibitions (786)(stress forms and occurrence).

44. The prevalence and forms of divination (787).

45. Cultural definitions of adultery (837).

46. Prevalence of infanticide (847).

47. The role and prevalence of puberty rites (881).

48. Status of the aged (888).

APPENDIX B

DEFINING THE FILE UNITS

As indicated in section V.A.1. (p. 25), the culturalunits defined in the OWC are highly variable in theirnature and scale. Of particular importance here is thefact that while some of these OWC units, such asFF57 Tiv or NT23 Zuni, consist of only one distinctculture, other OWC units, such as FQ5 Bemba or SC7Cagaba, consist of a number of distinct cultures, pre-sumably closely related (in other words, a cu: urecluster). In the latter case, when building a corre-sponding Cultural File, it is necessary to decide

46

whether to cover all of the cultures included in theOWC unit, or to limit the File coverage to only onecomponent culture. Specific decisions are based onvarious factors, including the degree of similarityamong the component cultures, the total amount ofliterature available on any one of these cultures, andso forth. Thus the results vary considerably from Fileto File. For example, the SC7 Cagaba unit in theOWC includes six different cultures; the SC7 CagabaFile concentrates on the best-described culture, the

Kogi, but also includes substantial information on asecond culture, the Ica; whereas there is very littleinformation on the other four cultures (see Illustration1 on p. 22). On the other hand, the FQ5 Bemba unitin the OWC includes some fourteen different cultures,yet the FQ5 Bemba File is restricted essentially toonly one culture, the Bemba proper.

After a particular culture has been selected for cover-age in a File, there remains the further task of care-fully defining and delimiting that culture, and ofidentifying, whenever possible, the focal subgroupsor subareas best described in the literature so that

they may be emphasized in the File. A good exampleof a focal subarea occurs in the MS25 Tuareg File.The Tuareg are a Berber-speaking people who live inthe Western Sahara and adjacent regions of the Su-dan. Their population of around 300,000 is _widelydispersed in seven main regional groups or politicalconfederations. The information in the Tuareg Filefocuses on the Ahaggar confederacy, a small group ofabout 4,400 people who are isolated in the heart of theSahara desert in a mountainous region of southeasternAlgeria. (For a detailed discussion of the whole issueof defining File units see Lagace 1967.)

APPENDIX C

ADDITIONAL PROVISIONS FOR MAINTAINING DATA CONTEXT

The general problem of data context was discussed insection IV.A.4., on p. 17, and it is suggested that theresearcher read that section again before proceedingfurther. This appendix contains a description of threeadditional, rather technical provisions for maintain-ing data context in the Files.

1) Category numbers are frequently applied to apassage, even though there is nothing in that pas-sage particularly relevant to the subjects forwhich it is classified, in order to provide the con-text for what is to follow. Thus, for example, if adiscussion of a particular ceremony appears onpage 43 of a source, but a sketch of events lead-ing up to the ceremony begins on page 40, pages40-42 may also be classified for the ceremonycategory (796).

2) If the researcher requires further informationor directions to understand the context of someparticular data, notes, written by an HRAF re-search staff member, lettered by hand or typedand enclosed in brackets ( to distinguish themclearly from the original text) may be added toa File page either as footnotes or headnotes.These notes usually repeat in a location more con-venient to the researcher information that theauthor has presented on a separate page of thesame source, or they may direct the researcher tothe relevant page. For instance, when it is feltthat the necessary context can be established bya word or phrase, a footnote may be added to theFile page. Thus, if the Morning Star ceremony(of the Pawnee Indians) is identified on page 43of a source, and a succeeding page refers simply

to "this ceremony," a caret and raised numeral( e.g.! ) may be placed next to the word "cere-mony" in the text and a note written or typed atthe bottom of the File page:

1[i.e. the Morning Star Ceremony, see category116, p. 43 ff.Analyst]

A headnote in brackets may be added to theheading of a File page to identify a region, atime period, particular phenomena, etc., when thedata in the text are not clear.

3) Another technique which may help to estab-lish data context is use of cross-reference slips.These slips are typewritten, but again, clearlydistinguishable from the original text pages, andare filed in the pertinent subject categories. Themajor purpose of cross-reference slips is to pro-vide the researcher with information as to thelocation of material not appearing in the cate-gory or categories where he might ordinarily ex-pect to find it. Thus, data that are peripheral tothe main theme of a section, data that are scat-tered throughout a section and therefore diffi-cult to classify, or data that provide backgroundinformation only may not be classified for thesubject categories to which they pertain. Instead,a cross-reference slip may be prepared and filedin each of those subject categories, directing theresearcher to the appropriate pages in the sourcewhich he may consult in category 116. Cross-reference slips are also used when a categorynumber is asterisked, as explained in sectionV.D.2. on p. 38.

47

,p0061

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