Audience Theory

Attempts to explain how audiences respond Attempts to explain how audiences respond to media textsto media texts

Passive Models

Assume audience is passive and vulnerable to Assume audience is passive and vulnerable to influence of media influence of media

Mass Manipulation Model, also known as the Mass Manipulation Model, also known as the Hypodermic NeedleHypodermic Needle model model

Evidence: Evidence: Nazi/Soviet propagandaNazi/Soviet propaganda ‘‘The War of the Worlds’ 1938 radio broadcast The War of the Worlds’ 1938 radio broadcast

(Orson Welles)(Orson Welles)

Active Models

Assume audience are active in interpreting Assume audience are active in interpreting Media content. Not as likely to be Media content. Not as likely to be ‘influenced’‘influenced’

Uses and Gratifications modelUses and Gratifications model Encoding/Decoding theoryEncoding/Decoding theory Reception TheoryReception Theory

“Meaning” is dynamic not fixed

The concept that there are different possible The concept that there are different possible readings meant that meaning is:readings meant that meaning is: Created out of complex social processesCreated out of complex social processes It is not something that is fixed within a It is not something that is fixed within a

particular text particular text Audiences themselves help to create meaningAudiences themselves help to create meaning

Uses and Gratifications Model

Blumler and Katz 1974Blumler and Katz 1974 Individuals actively use media to meet certain needsIndividuals actively use media to meet certain needs Diversion - Diversion - escape from everyday problems and routine. escape from everyday problems and routine. Personal Relationships - Personal Relationships - using the media for emotional and using the media for emotional and

other interaction, eg substituting soap operas for family other interaction, eg substituting soap operas for family life. life.

Personal Identity - Personal Identity - finding yourself reflected in texts, finding yourself reflected in texts, learning behaviour and values from texts. learning behaviour and values from texts.

Surveillance - iSurveillance - information which could be useful for living nformation which could be useful for living eg) weather reports, financial news, holiday bargains.eg) weather reports, financial news, holiday bargains.

Uses and Gratifications Explained

The Uses and Gratifications Theory follows a basic model. The Uses and Gratifications Theory follows a basic model. It is an audience-centered approach. When an audience It is an audience-centered approach. When an audience actively seeks out media, they are typically seeking it in actively seeks out media, they are typically seeking it in order to gratify a need. For example, in social situations, order to gratify a need. For example, in social situations, people may feel more confident and knowledgeable when people may feel more confident and knowledgeable when they have specific facts and stories from media to add to they have specific facts and stories from media to add to conversation. By seeking out media, a person fulfills a conversation. By seeking out media, a person fulfills a need to be informed.need to be informed.

Social situations and psychological characteristics Social situations and psychological characteristics motivate the need for media, which motivates certain motivate the need for media, which motivates certain expectations of that media. This expectation leads one to expectations of that media. This expectation leads one to be exposed to media that would seemingly fit expectations, be exposed to media that would seemingly fit expectations, leading to an ultimate gratification.leading to an ultimate gratification.

Uses and Gratifications Explained

The media dependency theory, has also been explored as an extension The media dependency theory, has also been explored as an extension to the uses and gratifications approach to media, though there is a to the uses and gratifications approach to media, though there is a subtle difference between the two theories. People's dependency on subtle difference between the two theories. People's dependency on media proves audience goals to be the origin of the dependency while media proves audience goals to be the origin of the dependency while the uses and gratifications approach focuses more on audience needs the uses and gratifications approach focuses more on audience needs (Grant et al., 1998). Still, both theories agree that media use can lead (Grant et al., 1998). Still, both theories agree that media use can lead to media dependency (Rubin, 1982).to media dependency (Rubin, 1982).

The media dependency theory states that the more dependent an The media dependency theory states that the more dependent an individual is on the media to fulfill needs, the more significant the individual is on the media to fulfill needs, the more significant the media becomes to that person. media becomes to that person.

Uses and Gratifications Explained

DeFleur and Ball-Rokeach (1976) illustrate dependency as DeFleur and Ball-Rokeach (1976) illustrate dependency as the relationship between media content, the nature of the relationship between media content, the nature of society, and the behavior of audiences.society, and the behavior of audiences.

Littlejohn (2002) also explained that people will become Littlejohn (2002) also explained that people will become more dependent on media that meet a number of their more dependent on media that meet a number of their needs than on media that touch only a few ones. needs than on media that touch only a few ones.

Dependency on a certain medium is influenced by the Dependency on a certain medium is influenced by the number sources open to an individual. Individuals are number sources open to an individual. Individuals are usually more dependent on available media if their access usually more dependent on available media if their access to media alternatives is limited. The more alternatives to media alternatives is limited. The more alternatives there are for an individual, the lesser is the dependency on there are for an individual, the lesser is the dependency on and influence of a specific medium.and influence of a specific medium.

Stuart Hall & Cultural Studies

Stuart Hall’s research in Cultural Studies looked at Stuart Hall’s research in Cultural Studies looked at the ideological content of media products and also the ideological content of media products and also researched how audiences consumed these products researched how audiences consumed these products and the processes by which meaning was createdand the processes by which meaning was created

Hall came to realise that Hall came to realise that meaning meaning was not a fixed was not a fixed category rather it was the interaction by specific category rather it was the interaction by specific audiences with the text at a certain time and a certain audiences with the text at a certain time and a certain place which all contributed to the creation of place which all contributed to the creation of meaning meaning

Encoding-Decoding Theory

Stuart HallStuart Hall Preferred ReadingPreferred Reading Negotiated ReadingNegotiated Reading Oppositional ReadingOppositional Reading

Encoding-Decoding Theory Extending the concept of an active audience still further, in the 1980s Extending the concept of an active audience still further, in the 1980s

and 1990s a lot of work was done on the way individuals received and and 1990s a lot of work was done on the way individuals received and interpreted a text, and how their individual circumstances (gender, interpreted a text, and how their individual circumstances (gender, class, age, ethnicity) affected their reading. class, age, ethnicity) affected their reading.

This work was based on Stuart Hall's This work was based on Stuart Hall's encoding/decodingencoding/decoding model of the model of the relationship between text and audience - the text is encoded by the relationship between text and audience - the text is encoded by the producer, and decoded by the reader, and there may be major producer, and decoded by the reader, and there may be major differences between two different readings of the same code. differences between two different readings of the same code.

However, by using recognised codes and conventions, and by drawing However, by using recognised codes and conventions, and by drawing upon audience expectations relating to aspects such as genre and use upon audience expectations relating to aspects such as genre and use of stars, the producers can of stars, the producers can positionposition the audience and thus create a the audience and thus create a certain amount of agreement on what the code means. This is known certain amount of agreement on what the code means. This is known as a as a preferredpreferred reading. reading.

Preferred Readings

Preferred meanings are those meanings that the Preferred meanings are those meanings that the institutions which are responsible for creating the institutions which are responsible for creating the media text want to put into the public domainmedia text want to put into the public domain

These meanings may agree with or dispute the These meanings may agree with or dispute the dominant ideological meanings within society at the dominant ideological meanings within society at the time of releasetime of release

For example: at the time of writing Ken Loach’s For example: at the time of writing Ken Loach’s exploration of Britain’s role in Irish history in exploration of Britain’s role in Irish history in The The Wind that Shakes the BarleyWind that Shakes the Barley has upset many English has upset many English film critics who have read the film as anti-British. film critics who have read the film as anti-British. Irish critics have analysed the film differentlyIrish critics have analysed the film differently

Oppositional Readings

Loach’s film has a preferred reading which Loach’s film has a preferred reading which challenges the challenges the dominant ideological dominant ideological thinkingthinking in Britain about British and Irish in Britain about British and Irish historyhistory

Most British critics have made an Most British critics have made an oppositional readingoppositional reading of the text of the text

Negotiated Readings

Some of the audience for the film in both Some of the audience for the film in both Britain and Ireland will come to the film Britain and Ireland will come to the film with some historical knowledgewith some historical knowledge

Loach’s film will thus be another text Loach’s film will thus be another text adding richness to the field of analysis and adding richness to the field of analysis and interpretation of British and Irish historyinterpretation of British and Irish history

The meaning will therefore be a The meaning will therefore be a negotiated negotiated readingreading

Reception Theory

The Active ReaderThe Active Reader Audiences read texts in different ways, Audiences read texts in different ways,

often determined by demographic often determined by demographic characteristics eg gender, racecharacteristics eg gender, race

Justin Lewis: ‘The Cosby Show’Justin Lewis: ‘The Cosby Show’ Ien Ang: ‘Dallas’Ien Ang: ‘Dallas’