Attitude, group dynamics, learning theories, Decision making

7/29/2019 Attitude, group dynamics, learning theories, Decision making

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Q.1 ) What is attitude. Why you need to study attitude as a subject and discuss attitude problem with reference to

employees in an organization.

Definition

A complex mental state involving beliefs and feelings and values and dispositions to act in certain ways

Attitudes can be defined as an individuals feelings about or inclinations towards other persons, objects, events, or

activities. Attitudes encompass such affective feelings as likes and dislikes, and satisfactions and dissatisfactions.

Our needs, past experiences, self concept, and personality shape the beliefs, feelings, and opinion we hold towards

the perceived world. Once we have formed our likes and dislikes, we generally cling on to them and find it difficult

to change our attitudes, unless we make a conscious and determined effort to do so. In other words our values

shape our attitudes.

The three basic components of attitude are cognitive, Affective and Behavioral part.

Cognitive Component of Attitude refers to opinion or belief part of attitude. When you form your opinionor judgment on the basis of available information and decide whether you have a favorable or

unfavorable opinion on that, it the cognitive part of attitude we are talking about.

Affective Component of Attitude refers to the emotional aspect of attitude. This is perhaps the most often

referred part of attitude and decides mostly the desirable or undesirable aspect attitude.

Behavioral Component of Attitude refers to the behavioral part of attitude. If we have a positive attitude

for a particular object, it is likely to be translated into a particular type of behavior, such as buying or

procuring that object.


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attitudes serve four important functions from the viewpoint of organizational behaviour. These are as follows.

The Adjustment Function. Attitudes often help people to adjust to their work environment. Well-treated

employees tend to develop a positive attitude towards their job, management and the organization in general

while berated and ill treated organizational members develop a negative attitude. In other words, attitudeshelp employees adjust to their environment and form a basis for future behaviour.

Ego-Defensive Function. Attitudes help people to retain their dignity and self- image. When a young faculty

member who is full of fresh ideas and enthusiasm, joins the organization, the older members might feel

somewhat threatened by him. But they tend to disapprove his creative ideas as crazy and impractical and

dismiss him altogether.

The Value-Expressive Function. Attitudes provide individuals with a basis for expressing their values. For

example, a manager who values hard and sincere work will be more vocal against an employee who is having a

very casual approach towards work.

The Knowledge Function. Attitudes provide standards and frames of reference that allow people to

understand,and perceive the world around him. If one has a strong negative attitude towards the

management, whatever the management does, even employee welfare programmes can be perceived as

something bad and as actually against them.

Reasons for studying Attitude:

Attitudes help predict work behavior

The following example might help to illustrate it. After introducing a particular policy, it is found from an attitude

survey, that the workers are not too happy about it. During the subsequent week it is found that the attendance of

the employees drops sharply from the previous standard. Here management may conclude that a negative

attitude toward new work rules led to increased absenteeism.

Attitudes help people to adapt to their work environment

An understanding of attitudes is also important because attitudes help the employees to get adjusted to their

work. If the management can successfully develop a- positive attitude among the employees, they will be better

adjusted to their work.

Attitude problem with reference to employees in an organization:

Attitude problems of employees in an organization revolve around three types of attitude areas such as job

satisfaction, job involvement, and organizational commitment

i) Job Satisfaction:

The term job satisfaction refers to an individuals general attitudes towards their job. The likingness or

dislikingness differ from individual to individual with respect to job contextual factors or job content factors. Some

people give much importance to job contextual factors like salary, security, supervision, supportive colleagues,

company policy, working conditions, perquisites, promotions, equitable rewards etc. Whereas others may show

much interest in job content factors such as advancement, challenging assignments, career progress, appreciation

and recognition, work itself.


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Job satisfaction has a tremendous impact on the employees. They express their job dissatisfaction through so

many ways such as leaving the organization, raising their voice to demand to improve the working conditions, be

patient by passively waiting for the conditions to improve and neglecting everything in work. A person with a

positive attitude is likely to have more job satisfaction, while a person with negative attitude is likely to have job

dissatisfaction towards his or her job.

ii) Job Involvement:

Job involvement measures the degree to which a person identifies psychologically with her or his job and considers

her or his perceived performance level important to her or his self-worth. Employees with low level of job

involvement express their grievance by means of absentees, resignation, not producing effective work, etc.

Employees with a high level of job involvement strongly identify with and really care about the kind of work they

do in their job.

iii) Organizational Commitment:

Two other important work-related attitudes arc organizational commitment and involvement. Organizational

commitment is the individual's feeling of identification with and attachment to an organization. Involvement refers

to a person's willingness to be a team member and work beyond the usual standards of the job. An employee with

little involvement is motivated by extrinsic motivational factor and an employee with strong involvement is

motivated by intrinsic motivational factors.

There are a number of factors that lead to commitment and involvement. Both may increase with an employee's

age and years with the organization, with his sense of job security and participation in decision-making. If the

organization treats its employees fairly and provides reasonable rewards and job security, employees are more

likely to be satisfied and committed. Involving employees in decision-making can also help to increase

commitment. In particular, designing jobs, which are interesting and stimulating, can enhance job involvement.


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Q.3) Discuss learning theories (Conditional learning, experiential learning, behavioral modification)

Definition Introduction Theories/Principles

Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of priorexperience.

Learning has a significant impact on individual behavior as it influences abilities, role perceptions and motivation.

Along with its role in individual behavior, learning is essential for knowledge management. Knowledge

management enhances an organizations capacity to acquire, share and utilize knowledge in ways that improve its

survival and success.

Learning is understood as the modification of behavior through practice, training, or experience. This is

supplemented with the important components of learning:

1. Learning involves change: a change may be for good or bad. Change may not be evident until a situation arises in

which the new behavior can occur. Learning is not always reflected in performance

2. Not all changes reflect learning: to constitute learning, change should be relatively permanent. Temporary

changes may be only reflective and fail to represent any learning. This requirement, therefore, rules out behavioral

changes caused by fatigue or drugs.

3. Learning is reflected in behavior: a change in an individuals thought process or attitude, not accompanied by

behavior, is no learning. It should be further clarified that learning needs to result in behavior potentiality and not

necessarily in the behavior itself. The reason for this distinction lies in the fact that an individual may learn but

owing to lack of motivation, may not exhibit any changed behavior.

4. The change in behavior should occur as a result of experience, practice or training: this implies that behavior

caused from maturity, disease, or physical damages does not constitute learning

5. The practice or experience must be reinforced in order for learning to occur: if reinforcement does not

accompany the practice or experience, the behavior will eventually disappear.

6. Though not implied in any standard definition of learning: contrary to popular belief, learning is not confined to

ones schooling. Learning occurs throughout ones life.

THEORIES OF LEARNING

Conditioning

Behavior can be best explained in terms of stimulusResponse. That is, a particular stimulus will lead to a

particular response. However, responses can be conditioned or trained by presenting conditioned

stimulus/consequences.

Classical Conditioning: Ivan Pavlov and John Watson developed this theory. According to this theory,

learning/conditioning takes place when Stimulus-Response connection is established. Classical conditioning may be

defined as a process in which a neutral stimulus, when repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus, becomes

a conditioned stimulus that elicits a conditioned response.

This may be explained as under:

Unconditioned StimulusUnconditioned Response

Conditioned stimulusConditioned Response.

Ivan Pavlov developed the theory of classical conditioning on the basis of his famous experiment with dog.

Whenever he presented meat powder (Unconditioned Stimulus) to the dog, it salivated (Unconditioned Response).


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The dog did not salivate when a bell rung (Neutral Stimulus/Conditioned Stimulus). Later, Pavlov rang the bell

(Conditioned Stimulus) whenever he presented meat powder (Unconditioned Stimulus) to the dog. He repeated

the exercise several times. Afterwards, Pavlov rang the bell (Conditioned Stimulus) without presenting the meat

powder (Unconditioned Stimulus) and found that the dog actually salivated (Conditioned Response).

Critics of Classical Conditioning theory say that this theory at best explains reflexive(involuntary/automatic/impulsive) behaviour.

Operant Conditioning: B F Skinner developed Operant Conditioning theory in order to overcome the weaknesses

of Classical Conditioning. In Operant Conditioning, responses to a particular stimulus occur on the basis on

consequences of that response. Thus there is strong association between consequence and response to a

particular stimulus.

This may be explained as under:

StimulusResponseConsequencesFuture Response on the basis of consequence

Consequences can be any of the following:

Something good can begin or be presented

Something good can end or be taken awaySomething bad can begin or be presented

Something bad can end or be taken away

Consequences have to be immediate and clearly linked to the responses.

Behavioural framework debunked the Freudian proposition that behaviour came from unconscious.

Experiential learning

Experiential Learning Theory emphasizes the role that true experiences play in the learning process. It is this

emphasis that distinguishes itself from other learning theories. Cognitive learning theories emphasize cognition

over affect and behavioral learning theories deny any role for subjective experience in the learning process.

Scholars in the field of education have two contrasting views when it comes to the concept of experientiallearning. The first view defines experiential learning as a sort of learning which enables students to apply newly

acquired knowledge in a relevant setting. The relevant setting can be a sponsored institution of learning with

trainers, instructors, teachers, or professors to guide the lesson. The other school of thought defines experiential

learning as "education that occurs as a direct participation in the events of life". Thus, learning is not achieved in a

formal setting, but in the practice of reflection of daily experiences. Kolb furthers the second definition of

experiential learning by developing a model which details learning process through experiences. Kolb and Fry's

experiential learning model is a continuous spiral process which consists of four basic elements:

1. Concrete experience

2. Observation and reflection

3. Forming abstract concepts

4. Testing in new situations

Immediate or concrete experiences are the basis for observation and reflections. These reflections are assimilated

and distilled into abstract concepts from which new implications for action can be drawn.


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Behavioral modification

Behaviourism has led to the development of the technique of behaviour modification. Behaviour

modification is a technique for encouraging desired behaviours and discouraging unwanted behaviours

using operant conditioning. This technique was first used for the treatment of mental disorders, learning

disorders and phobias, and for accident and trauma recovery. Applications of this technique have been

extended to organisational settings also.

Fred Luthans developed organistional behaviour modification or 'O.B. Mod.', which consists of five main

steps:

1) Identify the critical, observable and measurable work performance-related behaviours to beencouraged.

2) Measure the current frequency of those behaviours to provide a baseline against which tomeasure improvement.

3) Establish the triggers or antecedents for those behaviours and also establish the consequences -positive, neutral and negative-that follow from these behaviours.

4) Develop an intervention strategy to strengthen desired behaviours and weaken dysfunctionalbehaviours through the use of positive reinforcement (e.g. money, recognition) and corrective

feedback. Punishment may be necessary in some instances to inhibit unsafe behaviour.

5) Evaluate systematically the effectiveness of the approach in changing and improvingperformance compared with the original baseline measurement.

Behaviour modification, as a means of changing employee behaviour, can appear particularly attractive

to managers who are in a position to manipulate the reinforcement of different employee behaviours.

This approach argues that what has to be changed is behaviour and to achieve this one needs to know

very little about the complex internal workings of the people concerned.

For example, desirable workplace behaviours could include working weekends to meet deadlines,

attending training to develop new skills and being helpful to colleagues. Undesirable behaviours could

include lateness, the production of poor quality items and being rude to customers. Behaviour

modification uses the principles of reinforcement to eliminate undesirable behaviour and to increase

the frequency of desired work behaviour.

Suppose a manager wants more work assignment completed on time and fewer submitted beyond

deadline. Table below summarizes the behaviour modification options available with the manager:

Table Behaviour Modification Options

Procedure Operationlisation Behavioral Effect

Positive Reinforcement manager compliments employee

each time work is completed on

schedule

increases desired

Behaviour

Negative Reinforcement unpaid overtime continues to be

mandatory until work is

completed on schedule, . then

overtime is rewarded

increases desired

behaviour

Punishment manager asks -employee to stay

late when work is not handed in

on schedule

eliminates or decreases

undesired behaviour

Extinction manager ignores the employee

when work is handed in late

eliminates or decreases

undesired behaviour


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Fred Luthans and colleagues describe the application of 'O.B. Mod.' in a Russian textile mill. To improve

worker productivity, two interventions were used. First, workers were offered extrinsic rewards for

performance improvement, including jeans, T-shirts with popular logos, music tapes, food, etc. Second,

workers were given `social rewards' for performing specific actions such monitoring fabric quality and

helping others. These social awards involved attention, recognition and feedback from trained

supervisors. The researchers noted that this approach had a very positive impact leading to highly

significant increases in performance.

The typical features of organisational applications of `O.B. Mod.' are:

It applies to clearly identifiable and observable behaviours such as time-keeping, carrying out

checks and repairs and the use of particular work methods.

Rewards are clearly and unambiguously contingent on the performance of the desirable

behaviour.

Positive reinforcement can take a number of forms, from the praise of a superior to cash prizes,

to food, to clothing.

Behaviour change and performance improvements can be dramatic.

The desired modification in behaviour may be sustained only if positive reinforcement is

continued.


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Q.4) Decision making. Why decision making is important in organization (all descriptive, with examples

from the industry, based on own opinion. What factors will you take?

Individuals in organizations make decisions, choices from among two or more alternatives. Individual

decision making is thus an important part of organizational behavior. But the way individuals make

decisions and the quality of their choices are largely influenced by their perceptions.

In organizations moods and emotions have important effects on decision making. Positive moods and

emotions seem to help. People in good moods or experiencing positive emotions are more likely than

others to use heuristics, or rules of thumb, to help make good decisions quickly. Positive emotions also

enhance problem-solving skills, so positive people find better solutions to problems. OB researchers

continue to debate the role of negative emotions and moods in decision making. Although one often-

cited study suggested depressed people reach more accurate judgments, more recent evidence hints

they make poorer decisions. Why? Because depressed people are slower at processing information and

tend to weigh all possible options rather than the most likely ones. They search for the perfect solution,

when there rarely is one.

Decision making occurs as a reaction to a problem. That is, a discrepancy exists between the current

state of affairs and some desired state, requiring us to consider alternative courses of action. Everydecision requires us to interpret and evaluate information. We typically receive data from multiple

sources and need to screen, process, and interpret them. Which data are relevant to the decision, and

which are not? Our perceptions will answer that question. We also need to develop alternatives and

evaluate their strengths and weaknesses. Again, our perceptual process will affect the final outcome.

Finally, throughout the entire decision making process, perceptual distortions often surface that can bias

analysis and conclusions.

Decision-making involves a number of steps which need to be taken in a logical manner. This is treated

as a rational or scientific 'decision-making process' which is lengthy and time consuming. Such lengthy

process needs to be followed in order to take rational/scientific/result oriented decisions. Decision-

making process prescribes some rules and guidelines as to how a decision should be taken / made. Thisinvolves many steps logically arranged. It was Peter Drucker who first strongly advocated the scientific

method of decision-making in his world famous book 'The Practice of Management' published in 1955.

Drucker recommended the scientific method of decision-making which, according to him, involves the

following six steps:

1. Defining / Identifying the managerial problem,

2. Analyzing the problem,

3. Developing alternative solutions,

4. Selecting the best solution out of the available alternatives,

5. Converting the decision into action, and6. Ensuring feedback for follow-up.

1. Identifying the Problem: Identification of the real problem before a business enterprise is the first step

in the process of decision-making. It is rightly said that a problem well-defined is a problem half-

solved. Information relevant to the problem should be gathered so that critical analysis of the problem

is possible. This is how the problem can be diagnosed. Clear distinction should be made between the

problem and the symptoms which may cloud the real issue. In brief, the manager should search the


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'critical factor' at work. It is the point at which the choice applies. Similarly, while diagnosing the real

problem the manager should consider causes and find out whether they are controllable or

uncontrollable.

2. Analyzing the Problem: After defining the problem, the next step in the decision-making process is to

analyze the problem in depth. This is necessary to classify the problem in order to know who must take

the decision and who must be informed about the decision taken. Here, the following four factors

should be kept in mind:

1. Futurity of the decision,

2. The scope of its impact,

3. Number of qualitative considerations involved, and

4. Uniqueness of the decision.

3. Collecting Relevant Data: After defining the problem and analyzing its nature, the next step is to obtain

the relevant information/ data about it. There is information flood in the business world due to new

developments in the field of information technology. All available information should be utilised fully

for analysis of the problem. This brings clarity to all aspects of the problem.

4. Developing Alternative Solutions: After the problem has been defined, diagnosed on the basis of

relevant information, the manager has to determine available alternative courses of action that couldbe used to solve the problem at hand. Only realistic alternatives should be considered. It is equally

important to take into account time and cost constraints and psychological barriers that will restrict

that number of alternatives. If necessary, group participation techniques may be used while

developing alternative solutions as depending on one solution is undesirable.

5. Selecting the Best Solution: After preparing alternative solutions, the next step in the decision-making

process is to select an alternative that seems to be most rational for solving the problem. The

alternative thus selected must be communicated to those who are likely to be affected by it.

Acceptance of the decision by group members is always desirable and useful for its effective

implementation.

6. Converting Decision into Action: After the selection of the best decision, the next step is to convert the

selected decision into an effective action. Without such action, the decision will remain merely adeclaration of good intentions. Here, the manager has to convert 'his decision into 'their decision'

through his leadership. For this, the subordinates should be taken in confidence and they should be

convinced about the correctness of the decision. Thereafter, the manager has to take follow-up steps

for the execution of decision taken.

7. Ensuring Feedback: Feedback is the last step in the decision-making process. Here, the manager has to

make built-in arrangements to ensure feedback for continuously testing actual developments against

the expectations. It is like checking the effectiveness of follow-up measures. Feedback is possible in

the form of organized information, reports and personal observations. Feed back is necessary to

decide whether the decision already taken should be continued or be modified in the light of changed

conditions.

Importance of Decision Making

1. Better Utilization of Resources

Decision making helps to utilize the available resources for achieving the objectives of the organization.

The available resources are the 6 Ms, i.e. Men, Money, Materials, Machines, Methods and Markets. The

manager has to make correct decisions for all the 6 Ms. This will result in better utilization of these

resources.


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2. Facing Problems and Challenges

Decision making helps the organization to face and tackle new problems and challenges. Quick and

correct decisions help to solve problems and to accept new challenges.

3. Business Growth

Quick and correct decision making results in better utilization of the resources. It helps the organizationto face new problems and challenges. It also helps to achieve its objectives. All this results in quick

business growth. However, wrong, slow or no decisions can result in losses and industrial sickness.

4. Achieving Objectives

Rational decisions help the organization to achieve all its objectives quickly. This is because rational

decisions are made after analyzing and evaluating all the alternatives.

5. Increases Efficiency

Rational decisions help to increase efficiency. Efficiency is the relation between returns and cost. If the

returns are high and the cost is low, then there is efficiency and vice versa. Rational decisions result in

higher returns at low cost.

6. Facilitate Innovation

Rational decisions facilitate innovation. This is because it helps to develop new ideas, new products, new

process, etc. This results in innovation. Innovation gives a competitive advantage to the organization.

7. Motivates Employees

Rational decision results in motivation for the employees. This is because the employees are motivated

to implement rational decisions. When the rational decisions are implemented the organization makes

high profits. Therefore, it can give financial and non-financial benefits to the employees.


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Q.2) What is group dynamics (G.D.) How GD play an important role in building positive organization and

if you dont handle this dynamics well, what problem does organization faces.

Group Dynamics

Group dynamics, which involves the influence of social behavior, is the primary determining factor in the

success of group outcomes.

Decisions made ingroupsdiffer substantially from those made by individuals, and this is why

organizations put groups to use. The presence of a well developed groupsynergy, often achieved

through healthy levels of dissent, typically results in preferable outcomes, whilegroupthinkcan lead to

harmonizing and premature consensus.

Delegating key decision making to groups,teams, or committees occurs often within organizations.

Decisions made in groups will differ substantively, often dramatically, then decisions rendered by

individuals. But this is about the extent to which researchers agree on comparative decision outcomes

between individuals and groups.

Group dynamics play a large role in determining the overall effectiveness of group decision making.However there are opportunities for group dynamics to both positively and/or negatively influence

group decision outcomes. The social nature of groups and the process of sharing information lead to

synergies, such that group performance exceeds the potential performance of its most able member.

Synergy prompts groups to quickly identify areas of disagreement among group members and

encourages dissent. Encouraging dissent might seem like a negative consequence of the group process,

however it is can be constructive and tends to create conditions where more robust and complex

decisions are made.

Dissent is also a major preventative measure in combating groupthink, certainly one of the largest

threats posed by group dynamics. Unlike dissent, groupthink is borne out of group's desire to

harmonize. Harmony leads to premature consensus within the group and normally forces decision

making without a thorough and logical examination of alternatives that might otherwise be raised in anenvironment of controlled dissent.

Considerable research has been done regarding the influence of group dynamic. Harvard professor and

researcher Richard Hackman proposed five conditions that increase the probability of success for groups

involved in decision making:

1. Being a real team: embracing a shared task, identifying clear boundaries as to group

membership, and the believability or acceptance as to individual membership.

2. Compelling direction: identifying a clear and worthwhile goal.

3. Enabling structure: maintaining a diversity of interesting and challenging tasks, suitable group

size (the larger the group, the harder it usually is to manage group dynamics), the presence of

sufficient talent amongst group members, and authentic norms governing group behavior.

4. Supportive context: occurs when groups are "nested" within larger groups, such as corporations.

Within these organizations supportive contexts involve reward systems that reward

performance and cooperation (e.g. group-based rewards linked to group performance), a

development framework that enhances group member skills, and adequate resources in terms

of data and information.
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5. Expert coaching: presence of transformational leadership within the group that neither

dominates group processes nor remains silent on key issues.

Significance of Group Dynamics in Building Positive Organisations:

The term group can be defined in a number of different ways, depending on the perspective that istaken. A comprehensive definition would say that if a group exists in an organization, its members:

1. Are motivated to join

2. Perceive the group as a unified unit of interacting people

3. Contribute in various amounts to the group processes (that is, some people contribute more time or

energy to the group than do others)

4. Reach agreements and have disagreements through various forms of interaction

Another important aspects of a group that works well together, is how individuals interact with each

other and how individuals react with the group. Positive relationships are important in a group, and

understanding them is equally important. In order to develop good group dynamics, you must first

develop good relationships.

According to LaFasto and Larson in When Teams Work Best, there are four aspects of a good

relationship: constructive, productive, mutual understanding and self-corrective. These four aspects are

the basis for LaFasto and Larsons Connect model, which can be used to develop good relationships.

The Connect Model (Summarized) 1993 Frank M. J. LaFasto, Ph.D. and Carl E. Larson, Ph.D.

1. Comment to a Relationship

2. Optimize Safety

3. Narrow to One Issue

4. Neutralize Defensiveness

5. Explain and Echo

6. Change one Behavior Each

7. Track It!

A constructive relationship can also be between a person and the team. Good relationships are

constructive for both people.In order to have a constructive relationship, there must be trust and

mutual understanding between both parties. Constructive relationships do not happen overnight, it

takes time to develop trust and to be open with others. Productive relationships are important because

if the relationship between two individuals on a team is not productive, the team may not be

productive. Productive relationships also, allow us to focus on real issues the ones that matter and to

do so in a way that makes a difference. Mutual understanding is critical because, they encourage us to

focus on and understand the other persons perspective, and they offer us the satisfaction of beingunderstood.Not only is it important to validate other persons point of view, it is important for us to be

validated. It goes back to trust and building a constructive relationship, in order to be understood, you

have to be able to understand others. Good relationships are self-corrective. It is like a marriage, each

part is committed to improving the relationship. By continuing to work on improving a relationship you

are developing trust and mutual understanding between the parties.

As you are working on developing good relationships another way to foster good group dynamics is to

identify strengths and weaknesses and assign group roles. For a new team that has not worked together,


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assigning roles can also help surface individual strengths and weaknesses. By simply assigning roles at

the beginning of the project a team can quickly focus on the tasks. Everyone should be responsible for

brain storming, problem solving and providing their experience and knowledge, but some roles are more

generic and may or may not vary by task

Problems that hinder good group dynamics

There are many problems that hinder good group dynamics. We dont usually have the luxury of picking

who we are going to work with on a team; dealing with different personalities and personal agendas are

common challenges in working within a team. Other commons challenges like, poor leadership, bad

communications, and lack of focus can be helped or eliminated by establishing team roles.

Few of the challenges that hinder good group dynamics are poor leadership, bad communications a

way for a team to be unproductive and ineffective, lack of focus which can make a team just a group of

individuals, Groupthink - is simply going along with the team on a decision because that seems to be the

consensus and they want to avoid conflict and Social loafing i.e. someone that is putting forth less

effort as a member of a group than they would as and individual.

Attitude, group dynamics, learning theories, Decision making

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