Slide 1

At a Glance: EssaysChapter 1The Essay and Its Parts

The Essay DefinedThe essay is a group of paragraphs, each of which supports a controlling idea called a thesis.Three Types of Paragraphs in EssaysIntroductory paragraph: presents the thesis (the controlling idea of the essay)Paragraphs in the body of the essay: present evidence and reasoningthe support for the thesis.Concluding paragraph: provides an appropriate ending.The Thesis DefinedAn effective thesis has both a subject and a focus. The subject is what you intend to write about. The focus is what you intend to do with your subject.Example: Wilson High School subjectoffers a well-balanced academic program. focusSources for the ThesisPrewritingSomething youve readAn assigned topicWriting the ThesisAn effective thesis includes a focus that can be developed with supporting information.An ineffective thesis presents a focus that is vague, too broad, or too narrow.Common Patterns of Support for the ThesisDescriptive narrationAnalysis by divisionProcess analysisCause and effectExemplificationComparison and contrastDefinitionArgumentPurposes of the IntroductionAttracts the readers interestStates or points toward the thesisMoves the reader smoothly into the support, or body, paragraphsIntroductory MethodsPresenting a direct statement of the thesisBackgroundDefinition of term(s)Quotation(s)Shocking statementQuestion(s)Combination of methodSupport (Developmental) ParagraphsForm the body of an essayProvide information and reasoning that justify the thesis presented in the essays introductory paragraphTwo Effective Frames of Paragraph Structure(A)Topic sentenceSupport(B)Topic sentenceSupportConcluding sentence

Effective Ways of Concluding a PaperConclude with a final paragraph or sentence that is a logical part of the body of the paperConclude with a restatement of the thesis in slightly different words, perhaps pointing out its significance or making applicationsConclude with a review of the main points of the discussiona kind of summaryConclude with an anecdote related to the thesisConclude with a quotation related to the thesisIneffective Ways of Concluding an Essaya summary when a summary is unnecessarya complaint about the assignment or an apology about the quality of the workan afterthoughtthat is, something you forgot to discuss in the body of the papera tagged conclusionthat is, a sentence beginning with such phrases as In conclusion, To conclude, I would like to conclude this discussion, or Last but not leasta conclusion that raises additional problems that should have been settled during the discussion.

Chapter 2The Writing Process: PrewritingThe Writing ProcessPrewritingExplore, experiment, and gather informationWrite the controlling ideaOrganize and develop support

WritingDraft, revise, and edit

Prewriting StrategiesFreewritingBrainstorming and listingClusteringComposing the thesisOutliningFreewritingWrite without stopping, letting your ideas tumble forth.Helps you break emotional barriers, generate topics, and discover and explore ideas.

Generating key words and phrases related to the topicBegin by asking Who? What? Where? When? Why? and How? questions about your subject or by merely listing ideas concerning your subject.BrainstormingClusteringAlso called mappingStart by double-bubbling your topic. Then ask What comes to mind? and single-bubble other ideas on spokes radiating out from the double bubble.Composing the ThesisThesis = controlling ideaIncludes a subject (what youre writing about) and a focus (what you will do with the subject)The focus not be too vague, too broad, or too narrow

OutliningDivides the controlling idea into sections of support material and establishes the sequenceCan be used two ways:Indicates the plan for a paragraph or essay you will writeShows the organization of a passage you are readingTwo main outline forms:Sentence outlineTopic outline

Main idea (topic sentence for paragraph; thesis for essay) I. Major support A. Minor support1. Explanation, detail, example2. Explanation, detail, example B. Minor support1. Explanation, detail, example2. Explanation, detail, example II. Major support A. Minor support B. Minor support

Chapter 3The Writing Process: Writing, Revising, and Editing

Writing Your First DraftFirst (or rough) draft = your initial writingAs you write, pay close attention to your outlineBut do not get caught up in correcting and polishing your writing during this stageWriting process is recursive (going back and forth)As you write, consider your audience (needs, interests, knowledge, biases, and abilities) and adjust your subject, explanations, style, and word choice to matchRevising Your WritingRevising focuses on organization, content, and language effectivenessEditing involves final correction of mistakes in spelling, punctuation, and capitalizationThe main points of revision are contained in the acronym CLUESS.CLUESSCoherence: Does the material flow smoothly, with each idea leading logically to the next?Language: Are the words appropriate for the message, occasion, and audience?Unity: Are all ideas related to and subordinate to the topic sentence?Emphasis: Have you used techniques such as repetition and placement of ideas to emphasize your main point(s)?Support: Have you presented material to back up, justify, or prove your topic sentence?Sentences: Have you used some variety of structure and avoided fragments, comma splices, and run-ons?

CoherenceOverall pattern: time, space, or emphasisTransitional terms (conjunctive adverbs that help your reader move from one idea to the next)Repetition of key words and ideasPronounsLanguageUsage (the general style of language)Tone (language that indicates the writers feelings or attitude about the subject)Diction (word choice)General and specific wordsFreshness and originality of expression (avoid clichs)

UnityAll supporting material should be related to the topic sentence or thesisStrengthen by using a strong concluding statement at the end of the unit and repeating key words and phrasesEmphasisPlacement of ideasRepetition of key words and ideasSupportExamplesDetailsQuotationsExplanationsSentencesUse both short and long sentencesUse a variety of sentence patternsBegin sentences in different waysCorrect incorrect sentence structure, including fragments, comma splices, and run-onsEditing:Examine your work carefully.Look for problems in Capitalization, Omissions,Punctuation, andSpelling.(COPS)Chapter 4Reading for Thinking, Discussion, and WritingReading-Based WritingHas a writing component and a reading componentOriginates as a response to something you have readIndicates, to some degree, content from that pieceDemonstrates a knowledge of the piece of writing

Reading TechniquesUnderliningAnnotatingOutliningTaking NotesUnderlineThe main idea in paragraphs

The support for those main ideas

The answers to questions that you bring to the reading assignment

Only the key words

AnnotatingWriting notes in the margins

Related to underlining

Usually appears with underlining to signal your understanding and extend your involvement in your reading

Represents intense involvement because it turns a reader into a writer

Your response in the margin mayEcho the authors ideas

Question the authors ideas critically

Relate the authors ideas to something else

Add to the authors ideasOutliningAfter reading, underlining, and annotating the piece, the next step could be outliningOutline shows relationships of ideas (sequence, relative importance, and interdependence)Taking NotesInvolves underlining and annotating passages and jotting down useful points in your outlineWhen writing a summary, reaction, or two-part response, you can use your notes instead of referring back to the reading(s)Reading-Based Writing FormsSummary restate main ideas in your own wordsReaction comment critically on what you readTwo-part response includes both a summary and a reactionTo Write an Effective SummaryCite the author and title of the textReduce the length of the original by 2/3Concentrate on main ideas, not detailsChange original wording, not ideasDo not evaluate the content or give opinionsDo not add ideasDo not include personal comments (dont refer to yourself)Seldom use quotationsUse author tags to remind the reader you are summarizing the work of another author: says York, according to York, the author explains.Writing a ReactionA type of reading-based writing in which you incorporate your viewsMay require evaluation with a critical-thinking emphasisMay focus on simple discussion of content presented in the readingMay concentrate on the writers experience as it relates to the content of the passageA Two-Part ResponseA clear, concise summary followed by a reaction responseUseful for critical examination of a text, or for problem-solving assignmentsHelps you avoid the common problem of writing only a summary of the text when your instructor wants you to both summarize and evaluate

Kinds of Support for Reading-Based WritingExplanations

References

QuotationsSupporting Ideas with Quotations and ReferencesQuotations are borrowed words, and you must give credit to the original writer

References point the reader directly toward the reading selection, including the page number

You must indicate the sources of all original ideas you have borrowed, even when you have changed the wordsPlagiarismBorrowing words or ideas without giving credit to the originatorsAvoiding plagiarism requires careful documentation of sourcesBasic Formal DocumentationIdentify the source if you use material from a source you have readDocument any borrowed original idea, whether it is QuotedParaphrased (written in your words but not shorter)Summarized (written in your words and shorter)Basic MLA Documentation in Reading-Based WritingNormally, give only the authors name and a page number: (Rivera, 45)If you state the authors name in introducing the quotation or idea, then give only the page number: (45).Work Cited: MLABlaylock, Richard. More Than the Classroom. Paragraphs and Essays with Integrated Readings. 10th ed. Ed. Lee Brandon and Kelly Brandon. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2008. 199-208. Print.

Chapter 5Descriptive NarrationMoving Through Space and TimeThe Narrative PatternNarrative: an account of an incident or series of incidents that make up a complete and significant actionUsually includes description

A complete narrative includesSituation

Conflict

Struggle

Outcome

MeaningDevices for NarrativesImages that appeal to the senses (sight, smell, taste, hearing, touch) and other details to advance actionDialogueTransitional devices to indicate chronological order: next, soon, after, later, then, finally, when, followingThe Descriptive PatternDescription: the use of words to represent the appearance or nature of somethingOften called a word pictureTypes of description: objective and subjectiveObjective DescriptionResents the subject clearly and directly as it exists outside the realm of feelingsUses specific, impersonal detailsFocuses on details of sightSubjective DescriptionConveys a feeling about the subject and sets a mood while making a pointInvolves personal viewsOften called emotional descriptionDevices for DescriptionImagery (sensory impressions)General and specific wordsAbstract and concrete wordsDominant impression

Useful Procedure for Writing DescriptionWhat is the subject?What is the dominant impression I am trying to convey?What is the situation?What details support the dominant impression?What is the movement (order) as I present details?Order for Descriptive NarrationTime for telling a storySpace for describing an object or a sceneTransitional Words for NarrativesFOR DESCRIPTION: Space: above, over, under, below, nearby, near, across, beyond, among, to the right, to the left, in the background, in the foreground, further, beside, opposite, within sight, out of sightFOR NARRATION: Time: after, before, later, earlier, initially, soon, recently, next, today, tomorrow, yesterday, now, then, until, currently, when, finally, not long after, immediately, (at) first, (at) last, third, previously, in the meantime, meanwhileCareer-Related Writing: Narrative Workplace ReportsExamples: Trip reports, status reports, incident reportsFollow the basic narrative form:Situation: Identify the kind of problem.Conflict: Indicate when and where it occurred.Struggle and outcome: Provide an account of what happened.Meaning: If appropriate, write a recommendation for what could be done to avoid a repetition of such an incident if it is appropriate to do so.

Guidelines for Writing an Incident ReportWrite in the first person (I).Start with the date, time, and your reason for involvement.If you use the words of anyone reporting on the incident, enclose them in quotation marks and acknowledge the source of those words.Use facts, not opinions.Do not step outside your work expertise and become a psychologist, philosopher, physician, or moralist. Use past tense.Use mostly active voice. Identify those involved.

Chapter 6Exemplification: Writing with ExamplesExemplificationUsing examples to ExplainConvinceAmuse

May take the form of single words, phrases, or a paragraph or moreCharacteristics of Good ExamplesVivid examples attract attention

Specific examples are identifiable

Representative examples are typical and therefore the basis for generalization

In exemplificationTie your examples clearly to your thesis

Draw your examples from what you have read, heard, and experienced

Brainstorm a list or cluster of possible examples before you write

Transitional Words for ExemplificationFor example, as an example, another example, for instance, such as, including, specifically, especially, in particular, to illustrate, as an illustration, that is, i.e. (meaning that is), e.g. (meaning for example)Chapter 7Analysis by Division:Examining the PartsAnalysis by DivisionFor explaining how something works or exists as a unitBreak down a unit into parts and explain how each part functions in relation to the wholeIn Analysis by DivisionStep 1 begin with something that is a unitStep 2 state the principle by which that unit functionsStep 3 divide the unit into parts according to the principleStep 4 Discuss each of the parts in relation to the unitOrganizing the Parts of a UnitTimeSpace Emphasis

To apply that procedure to a new boss:UnitManager

Principle of functionEffective as a leader

Parts based on the Fair, intelligent, stable, principlecompetent in the field

DiscussionConsider each part inrelation to the personseffectiveness as a managerTransitional Words for Analysis by DivisionTime or numbering: first, second, third, another, last, finally, soon, later, currently, before, along with, another part (section, component)Space: above, below, to the left, to the right, near, beyond, under, next to, in the background, split, divideEmphasis: most important, equally important, central to the, to this end, as a result, taken collectively, with this purpose in mind, working with the, in fact, of course, above all, most of all, especially, primarily, without question

Two Uses of Analysis by DivisionRestaurant reviewShort story reviewChapter 8Process Analysis: Writing about Doing

Two Types of Process AnalysisDirective process analysis explains how to do something; it usually addresses the reader as youInformative process analysis explains how something was (is) done by giving data; does not use the words you or yourTransitional Words for Process AnalysisOrder will usually be chronological (time-based) in some sense: first, second, third, then, soon, now, next, finally, at last, therefore, consequentlyWords used to show the passage of time such as hours, days of the week, and so on (especially for informative process analysis)Basic Forms for Process AnalysisDirective

PreparationA. B.StepsA.B.C.

Informative

Background/contextA.B.Change or development (narrative)A.B.C.

Career-Related Process AnalysisOften used for training purposesOrganizational pattern will be either Preparation and Steps or Background and StepsChapter 9Cause and Effect:Determining Reasons and ResultsWriting Essays of Cause and EffectCauses and effects deal with reasons and resultsThey are sometimes discussed together and sometimes separatelyCan inform or persuade

Using Listing to Develop Cause and Effect

Event, Situation, or Trend

Causes1.2.3.4.

Effects1.2.3.4.Composing the Thesis and OutlineThesis might focus on causes, effects, or bothWhen outlining, Consider the kinds of causes and effectsEvaluate the importance of sequenceIntroduce ideas and work with patternsKinds of Causes and EffectsPrimary (major): sufficient to bring about the situationSecondary (minor)

ImmediateRemoteOrderTimeSpaceEmphasisTransitional Words for Cause and EffectCause: as, because, because of, due to, for, for the reason that, since, bring about, another cause, for this reason, one cause, a second cause, another cause, a final causeEffect: accordingly, finally, consequently, hence, so, therefore, thus, as a consequence, as a result, resultingIntroducing IdeasDiscuss your subjectIndicate whether you will concentrate on causes or effects or a combinationTypical Pattern for Cause and EffectA typical outline might look like this:Cause or Effect 1Cause or Effect 2Cause or Effect 3

Cause and Effect in a Short Story ReviewDevelop your ideas by referring directly to the story; by explaining; and by using summaries, paraphrases, and quotations. Use present tense in relating events in the story. Use quotation marks around the words you borrow and provide documentation if directed to do so by your instructor.Although a short story review is mainly analytical, it may include your speculation and call forth references to your personal experience.Chapter 10Comparison and Contrast: Showing Similarities and DifferencesComparison and ContrastUse the 4 Ps:PurposePointsPatternPresentation

PurposeInform or persuade?During the exploration of your topic, define your purpose clearly.PointsSelect points most relevant to your purposeIndicate your points of comparison or contrast, perhaps by listingApply points equally to two parts of your subject

PatternsAfter considering your topic and the planned focus, select the Subject-by-subject patternPoint-by-point pattern

The point-by-point pattern is usually preferred in essays and used more frequently

Basic Subject-by-Subject PatternSubject XA. Point 1B. Point 2

Subject YA. Point 1B. Point 2

Basic Point-by-Point PatternPoint 1A. Subject XB. Subject Y

Point 2 A.Subject X B.Subject YPresentationCreate an outline that indicates the pattern you choseRoman numerals indicate topic sentencesArabic numerals indicate specific support (details, examples, explanations)

Transitional Words for Comparison and ContrastComparison: in the same way, similarly, likewise, also, by comparison, in a like manner, as, with, as though, both, like, just asContrast: but, by contrast, in contrast, despite, however, instead, nevertheless, on (to) the contrary, in spite of, still, yet, unlike, even so, rather than, otherwiseCareer-Related Comparison and ContrastUseful when deciding between two products, services, issues, employees, or choicesUse the 4 Ps: purpose, points, pattern, and presentationChapter 11Definition: Clarifying TermsDefinitionSimple DefinitionExtended DefinitionSimple DefinitionSynonym, phrase, or sentenceEtymology (word history)Extended Definition Use clustering to consider other patterns of development that may be used to define your term

Narration DescriptionExemplification Analysis by DivisionProcess Analysis Cause and EffectClassification Comparison and ContrastOrderThe organization of your extended definition is likely to be one of emphasis, but it may be space or time, depending on subject material.You may use just one pattern of development for the overall sequence.Transitional Words for Definitionoriginates from, means, derives from, refers to, for example, as a term, as a concept, label, similar to, different from, in a particular context, in common usage, in historical context

Ways to Introduce a DefinitionQuestionStatement of what it is notStatement of what it originally meantDiscussion of why a clear definition is importantCombination of these ways

Developing a DefinitionDevelopment is likely to represent one or more of the patterns of narration, description, exposition, and argumentation.

Whether or not you personalize depends on purpose and audience. Chapter 12Argument:Writing to InfluenceDefining Persuasion and ArgumentPersuasion: broad term that refers to influencing people to think in a certain way or to do somethingArgument: persuasion on a topic about which reasonable people disagreeTechniques for Developing Essays of ArgumentStatements of argument are informal or formalBoth provide a proposition (main point of the argument) and support (evidence or reasons that back up the proposition)Elements in an essay of argument: background, proposition, qualification of proposition, refutation, and supportQuestions to Ask When Developing IdeasBackground: What is the historical or social context for this controversial issue?Proposition (the thesis of the essay): What do I want my audience to believe or to do?Qualification of proposition: Can I limit my proposition so that those who disagree cannot easily challenge me with expectations?Refutation (taking the opposing view into account, mainly to point out its fundamental weakness): What is the view on the other side, and why is it flawed in reasoning or evidence?Support: in addition to sound reasoning, can I use appropriate facts, examples, statistics, and opinions of authorities?Basic Form for Essay of ArgumentProposition (the thesis of the essay)I. Support 1II. Support 2III. Support 3Kinds of EvidenceFactsExamplesStatisticsEvidence from, and opinions of, authoritiesTransitional Words for Argumentit follows that, as a result, causes taken collectively, as a concession, even though, of course, in the context of, in the light of, in the final analysis, following this, further, as additional support, moreover, consequently, according to, in support of, contrary to, therefore, naturallyCareer-Related Argument: Proposals for the WorkplaceBackground (indicating the problem or the need, emphasizing the urgency)Solution to the problem, or need, stated conciselyPossible explanation of why other solutions are inadequateIn detail, what you can doHow you can do itWhen you can do itWhat it will costConclusion (emphasizing the problem and solution)Chapter 13The Research PaperThe Research Paper DefinedA long documented essay based on a thorough examination of a topic and supported by your explanations and by both references to and quotations from your sourcesIn the style of the Modern Language Association (MLA)Includes a title page, outline, thesis, documented essay (text), and list of sources (Works Cited)The research paper is no more difficult than other writing assignments IF you. . .Select a good topic

Use a systematic approach

Do not get behind with your work

10 Steps to a Research PaperSelect a topic

Find sources

List sources

Take notes

Refine your thesis and outlineWrite your first draft

Revise your first draft

Prepare your Works Cited section

Write your final draft

Submit required materialsChapter 14HandbookSubjects and VerbsSubjects and VerbsThe subject is what the sentence is about.The verb indicates what the subject is doing or being.SubjectsYou can recognize the simple subject by asking Who? or What? causes the action or expresses the state of being found in the verb.Single and Compound SubjectsMy friend and I have much in common. [compound subject]

My friend brought a present. [single subject]Location of SubjectsBefore the verb:A tiny bird was in the nest.

After the verb:In the nest was a tiny bird.

Implied SubjectsThe command, or imperative, sentence has a you as the implied subject and no stated subject.

(You) Read the notes.The object of a preposition cannot be a subject.The chairperson [subject] of the department [object of the preposition] directs the discussion.VerbsShow action or express being in relation to the subject of a sentence.Action VerbsSuggest movement or accomplishment of an idea or a deedHe dropped the book. [movement]

He read the book. [accomplishment]

Being VerbsIndicate existence

They were concerned.

Verbs may occur as single words or phrases.He led the charge. [single word]

She is leading the charge. [phrase]Compound verbs are joined by a word such as and or or.She worked for twenty-five years and retired.Verbals are not verbs; verbals are verblike words that function as other parts of speech.Singing [gerund acting as a noun] is fun.

I want to sing. [infinitive acting as a nounobject]

Singing [participle acting as a modifier], hewalked in the rain.

Words such as never, not, and hardly are not verbs; they modify verbs.A verb phrase may be separated into a question.Where had the defendant gone on that fateful night?Kinds of SentencesTypes of SentencesOn the basis of number and kinds of clauses, sentences may be classified asSimpleCompoundComplexCompound-Complex

ClausesClause: a group of words with a subject and a verb that functions as a part or all of a complete sentence.There are two kinds of clauses: independent (main) and dependent (subordinate).Independent ClausesAn independent (main) clause is a group of words with a subject and a very that can stand alone and make sense. An independent clause expresses a complete thought by itself and can be written as a separate sentence.I have the money.Dependent ClausesA dependent clause is a group of words with a subject and verb that depends on a main clause to give it meaning.Functions in a sentence as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.

When you are ready.Kinds of Sentences DefinedSIMPLE: One independent clauseSusan was having trouble with her spelling.

COMPOUND: Two or more independent clausesSusan was having trouble with her spelling, and she purchased a computer with a spell checker.Kinds of Sentences DefinedCOMPLEX: One independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.Because Susan was having trouble with her spelling, she purchased a computer with a spell checker.COMPOUND-COMPLEX: Two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.Because Susan was having trouble with her spelling, she purchased a computer with a spell checker, and the results made her expenditure worthwhile.

PunctuationUse a comma before a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS) between two independent clauses.

The movie was good, but the tickets were expensive.PunctuationUse a comma after a dependent clause that appears before the main clause.

When the bus arrived, we quickly boarded.PunctuationUse a semicolon between two independent clauses in one sentence if there is no coordinating conjunction.

The bus arrived; we quickly boarded.PunctuationUse a semicolon before and usually a comma after a conjunctive adverb (such as however, otherwise, therefore, on the other hand, and in fact), and between two independent clauses (no comma after then, also, now, thus, and soon).

The Dodgers have not played well this year; however, the Giants have won ten games in a row.Spring training went well; then the regular baseball season began.

Sentence ProblemsFragmentsFragment: a word or group of words without a subject, without a verb, or without bothA correct sentence signals completeness; a fragment signals incompletenessit doesnt make sense.You expect the speaker or writer of a fragment to say or write more or to rephrase it.Dependent Clause FragmentsA dependent clause cannot stand by itself because it begins with a subordinating word.

Because he left.

When she worked.

Although they slept.Phrase FragmentsA verbal phrase, a prepositional phrase, and an appositive phrase may carry ideas, but each is incomplete because it lacks a subject and verb.

Verbal Phrase: having completed his initial researchHaving completed his initial research, he refined his outline.Prepositional Phrase: in the storeShe worked in the store.Appositive Phrase: a successful businessMarks Brothers, a successful business, sells clothing.Complete SentencesEach complete sentence musthave an independent clause, a group of words that contains a subject and a verb, and can stand alone.

He enrolled for the fall semester.Comma SplicesA comma splice consists of two independent clauses with only a comma between them.

Maria exceeded her sales quota, she received a bonus. [A comma by itself cannot join two independent clauses.]Run-onsThe run-on differs from the comma splice in only one respect: It has no comma between the independent clauses.

Maria exceeded her sales quota she received a bonus. [Independent clauses must be properly connected.]Correcting Comma Splices and Run-onsUse a comma and a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) to correct the comma splice or run-on.

Maria exceeded her sales quota, and she received a bonus.Correcting Comma Splices and Run-onsUse a subordinating conjunction(such as because, after, that, when, although, since, how, till, unless, before) to make one clause dependent and correct the comma splice or run-on.

Because Maria exceeded her sales quota, she received a bonus.Correcting Comma Splices and Run-onsUse a semicolon(with or without a conjunctive adverb such as however, otherwise, therefore, similarly, hence, on the other hand, then, consequently, also, thus) to correct the comma splice or run-on.

Maria exceeded her sales quota; therefore, she received a bonus.

Maria exceeded her sales quota; she received a bonus.Correcting Comma Splices and Run-onsUse a period to replace a comma and add a capital letter (to correct a comma splice), or use a period between two independent clauses and add a capital letter(to correct a run-on).

Maria exceeded her sales quota. She received a bonus.Combining SentencesCoordinationIf you want to communicate two equally important and closely related ideas, place them close together, probably in a compound sentence (two or more independent clauses).Combining Sentences by Using a Coordinating ConjunctionWhen you combine two sentences by using a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS), drop the first period, change the capital letter of the second sentence to a small letter, and insert a commabefore the coordinating conjunction.

I like your home. I can visit for only three months.

I like your home, but I can visit for only three months.Combining Sentences by Using a SemicolonWhen you combine two sentences by using a semicolon, replace the first period with a semicolon and change the capital letter that begins the second sentence to a small letter. If you wish to use a conjunctive adverb, insert it after the semicolon and usually follow it witha comma.I like your home. I can visit for only three months.

I like your home; I can visit for only three months.

I like your home; however, I can visit for only three months.SubordinationIf you have two ideas that are closely related, but one is secondary or dependent on the other, you may want to use a complex sentence.

My neighbors are considerate. They never play loud music.

Because my neighbors are considerate, they never play loud music.Punctuating Complex SentencesIf the dependent clause comes first, set it off with a comma.

Because the dog has no hands or words, he licks me to show affection.Punctuating Complex SentencesIf the dependent clause comes after the main clause, set it off with a comma only if you use some form of the word though or if the words are not necessary to convey the basic meaning of the sentence.Edmund Hillary was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II because he was one of the first two men to climb Mt. Everest.Other mountain climbers soon duplicated his feat, though they received less recognition.Coordination and SubordinationAt times you may want to show the relationship of three or more ideas within one sentence. If that relationship involves two or more main ideas and one or more supporting ideas, the combination can be stated in a compound-complex sentence (two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.)Punctuating Compound and Complex SentencesUse punctuation consistent with that of the compound and complex sentences.

Kafka produced illegible handwritten papers. At that time he had not learned how to operate a word processor. Now he hands in clean, attractive pages.

Before Kafka learned how to operate a word processor, he produced illegible handwritten papers, but now he hands in clean, attractive pages.

Other Methods of Combining IdeasUse a prepositional phrase, a preposition followed by a noun or pronoun object.John Elway lead the Denver Broncos to two Super Bowl victories. Both triumphs occurred in the 1990s.John Elway lead the Denver Broncos to two Super Bowl victories in the 1990s.Use an appositive phrase, a group of words that immediately follows a noun or pronoun and renames it.Garth Brooks claims Yukon, Oklahoma, as his hometown. He is a famous singer.Garth Brooks, a famous singer, claims Yukon, Oklahoma as his hometown.Drop the subject in the sentence that follows and combine the sentences.Emily Dickinsons poetry went mostly unpublished during her lifetime. It was finally discovered and celebrated more than half a century later.Emily Dickinsons poetry went mostly unpublished during her lifetime but was finally discovered and celebrated more than half a century later.Use a participial phrase, a group of words that includes a participle, which is a verbal that usually ends in ing or ed.The turtle plodded without rest stops. It won the race against the rabbit.Plodding without rest stops, the turtle one the race against the rabbit.Techniques for Achieving Variety in SentencesTypesOrderLengthBeginningsParallel StructureParallelismParallelism is a balance of one structure with another of the same kindnouns with nouns, verbs with verbs, adjectives with adjectives, phrases with phrases, and clauses with clauses.Goats, chickens, and cows [nouns] roamed the yard and caused [verbs] considerable confusion.

Tanya walked into the room and out of the room with grace. [prepositional phrases]

Tanya walked into the room, and she walked out of the room with grace. [independent clauses]Faulty Parallel StructureFaulty parallel structure is awkward and draws unfavorable attention to what is being said.

Hitting home runs and to catch balls in the outfield were his main concerns.should be

Hittingand catching orTo hitand to catch.Words that Signal Parallel StructureAll coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) can give such signals.

My car is inexpensive and plain.

My dog is ugly, but it is a good companion.Combination Words that Signal ParallelismThe most common ones are either/or, neither/nor, not only/but also, both/and, and whether/or.

Patsy decided that propagating plants could be either a hobby or a business but not both. [A noun follows each of the combination words.]Common OmissionsSubjectsVerbsThat as a conjunctionPrepositions

VerbsTwelve Verb TensesSIMPLE TENSESpresentpastfuture

PERFECT TENSESpresent perfectpast perfectfuture perfect

PROGRESSIVE TENSESpresent progressivepast progressivefuture progressive

PERFECT PROGRESSIVETENSESpresent perfect progressivepast perfect progressivefuture perfect progressivePast ParticiplesThe past participle uses the helping verbs has, have, or had along with the past tense of the verb. For regular verbs, whose past tense ends in -ed, the past participle form of the verb is the same as the past tense.Regular and Irregular VerbsWhereas regular verbs are predictablehaving an ed ending for past and past participle formsirregular verbs, as the term suggests, follow no definite pattern.

raise, raised, raised [regular]see, saw, seen [irregular]Problem VerbsCertain verbs (present tense here) can be troublesome and should be studied with care.

lie, laysit, setrise, raiseVerb TenseA word form indicating timeThere are no inflexible rules about selecting a tense for certain kinds of writing, but you should be consistent, changing tense only for a good reason.Using Present TenseUsually you should select the present tense to write about literature.

Herman Melvilles character Bartleby the Scrivener fails to communicate.Using Past TenseSelect the past tense to write about yourself or something historical.

I was eighteen when I decided I was ready for independence.If the subject is singular, the verb should be singular, and if the subject is plural, the verb should be plural.

The price of the shoes is high.

The advantages of that shoe are obvious.Subject-Verb AgreementVoiceThe active voice expression (subject, active verb, and sometimes object) is usually preferred over the passive voice expression (subject as the receiver of action, with doer unstated or at the end of a prepositional phrase.)

She read the book. [active]The book was read by her. [passive]PronounsPronouns and Pronoun CaseA pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun.Case is the form a pronoun takes as it fills a position in a sentence.Subjective PronounsSubjective-case pronouns are I, he, and she (singular) and we and they (plural). Who can be either singular or plural. Subjective case pronouns can fill subject positions.

We dance in the park.

It was she who spoke.[referring back to and meaning the same as the subject]

Objective PronounsObjective-case pronouns are me, him, and her (singular) and us and them (plural). Whom can be either singular or plural. Objective-case pronouns fill object positions.

We saw her in the library. [object of a verb]

They gave the results to us. [object of a preposition]Three Techniques for Deciding Which Pronoun Case to UseIf you have a compound element (such as a subject or an object of a preposition), consider only the pronoun part.

They will visit you and (I, me).

[Consider: They will visit me.]

Three Techniques for Deciding Which Pronoun Case to UseIf the next important word after who or whom in a statement is a noun or pronoun, the word choice will be whom; otherwise, it will be who. Disregard qualifier clauses such as It seems and I feel. The person whom judges like will win.The person who works hardest will win.The person who, we think, worked hardest won. [ignoring the qualifier clause]Three Techniques for Deciding Which Pronoun Case to Use Lets is made up of the words let and us and means You let us; therefore, when you select a pronoun to follow it, consider the two original words and select another object wordme.

Lets you and me go to town.Pronoun Agreement A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, number, and gender.Pronoun AgreementAvoid needless shifting in person, which means shifting in point of view, such as from I to you.

I was having trouble. You could see disaster ahead.

Change to I was having trouble. I could see disaster ahead.Pronoun AgreementMost problems with pronoun-antecedent agreement involve number. The principles are simple: If the antecedent (the word the pronoun refers back to) is singular, use a singular pronoun. If the antecedent is plural, use a plural pronoun.

Roger forgot his notebook.Many students cast their votes.Someone lost his or her [not their] book.Pronoun AgreementThe pronoun should agree with its antecedent in gender, if the gender of the antecedent is specific. Masculine and feminine pronouns are gender-specific: he, him, she, her. Others are neuter: I, we, me, us, it, they, them, who, whom, that, which.Pronoun AgreementThe words who and whom refer to people. That can refer to ideas, things, and people but usually does not refer to individuals. Which refers to ideas and things but not to people. To avoid a perceived sex bias, you can use he or she or his or her instead of just he or his; however, many writers simply make antecedents and pronouns plural.

Everyone should revise his or her composition carefully.

Students should revise their compositions carefully.Adjectives and AdverbsAdjectivesAdjectives modify (describe) nouns and pronouns and answer the questionsWhich one? What kind? How many?AdverbsAdverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs and answer the questionsWhere?When?Why?How?To what degree?Most words ending in ly are adverbs.Making Comparisons with AdjectivesSome adjectives follow a regular pattern.

nice, nicer, nicestlonely, more lonely, most lonelyRules for Comparative and Superlative Adjective FormsAdd er to short adjectives (one or two syllables) to rank units of two.Jethro is shorter than Cy.Add est to short adjectives (one or two syllables) to rank units of more than two.Senator Goodyear is the brightestperson in Congress.c. Add the word more to long adjectives (three or more syllables) to rank units of two.Your state is more prosperous than mine.

More Rules for Comparative and Superlative Adjective FormsAdd the word most to long adjectives (three or more syllables) to rank units of three or more.Your state is the most prosperous state in the West.Some adjectives are irregular in the way they change to show comparison.good, better, bestbad, worse, worstMaking Comparisons with AdverbsSome adverbs follow a regular pattern.

sadly, more sadly, most sadly

carefully, more carefully, most carefullyRules for Comparative and Superlative Adverb FormsAdd er to the comparative form and est to the superlative form.

Pierre works hard. [positive]

Pierre works harder than Simon. [comparative]

Pierre works hardest of all students in the class. [superlative]Rules for Comparative and Superlative Adverbs FormsAdd the word more to adverbs of two or more syllables for the comparative form and the word most to adverbs of two or more syllables for the superlative form.

Sultana proofread carefully. [positive]Sultana proofread more carefully than Venny. [comparative]Sultana proofread most carefully in all the class. [superlative]Rules for Comparative and Superlative Adverb FormsIn some cases the word less may be substituted for more and the word least for most.

Martelle examined the contract less carefully during her second reading. [comparative]

Martelle examined the contract most carefully during her third reading. [superlative]Double NegativesAvoid double negatives. Words such as no, not, none, nothing, never, hardly, barely, and scarcely should not be combined.Confusing Adjectives and AdverbsDo not confuse adjectives with adverbs. Among the most commonly confused adjectives and adverbs aregood / wellbad / badlyreal / reallyConfusing Adjectives and Adverbs The words good, bad, and real are always adjectives.The words badly and really are always adverbs.Well is usually an adverb.Well is sometimes an adjective.Incorrect: Clint did good. [Good is not an adverb]Correct: Joline felt good. [Good does not address the matter of feeling; it indicates the condition of the subject, Joline.]Correct: Clint did well. [Used here as an adverb, well modifies the verb did.]Correct: Sigmund said, Carl, you are not a well person.[Used here as an adjective, well modifies the noun person.]Incorrect: Elvis was real happy with his new disguise. [Happy is an adjective modifying the noun Elvis, and real modifies that adjective. Because only adverbs modify adjectives, we need the word really.]

Correct: Elvis was really happy with his new disguise.

Incorrect: I feel badly. [Badly is an adverb but here indicates the condition of the subject; therefore, it modifies the pronoun I.]

Correct: I feel bad. [Bad is an adjective modifying the pronoun I.]

Correct: I explained that badly. [Badly, an adverb, modifies the verb explained.]Dangling ModifiersA dangling modifier gives information but fails to make clear which word or group of words it refers to.

Incorrect: Ignoring the traffic signals, the car crashed into a truck. [The car is not ignoring; the driver is.]

Correct: Ignoring the traffic signals, the driver crashed his car into a truck.Misplaced ModifiersA misplaced modifier is placed so that it modifies the wrong word or words.

Incorrect: The monkeys attracted the attention of the elegant women who picked fleas off one another.

Correct: The monkeys who picked fleas off one another attracted the attention of the elegant women.Avoiding Wordy PhrasesCommon Wordy PhrasesAt the present time Due to the fact thatUntil such time asI personally feel thatAt that point in timeIn this day and age

PunctuationThree Marks of End Punctuation.Periods use after a statement or common abbreviations.Questions marks use at the end of a direct question, not indirect questions.She asked me what caused the slide.Exclamation points use after a word or group of words that expresses strong feeling. Dont overwork it or use double exclamation points.

CommasThe comma is used to separate and set off sentence elements.Use a comma to separate main clauses joined by one of the coordinating conjunctionsfor, and, nor, but, or, yet, soWe went to the game, but it was cancelled.Use a comma after long introductory modifiers. The modifiers may be phrases or dependent clauses.Before she and I arrived, the meeting was called to order.

CommasUse a comma to separate words, phrases, and clauses in a series.He ran down the street, across the park, and into the forest.

Use a comma to separate coordinate adjectives not joined by and that modify the same noun.I need a sturdy, reliable truck.CommasUse a comma to separate sentence elements that might be misread.Outside, the thunder rolled.

Use commas to set off nonessential (unnecessary for the meaning of the sentence) words, phrases, and clauses.Maria, who studied hard, will pass.CommasUse commas to set off nouns used as direct address.What do you intend to do, Hamlet?

Use commas to separate the numbers in a date.November 11, 1918, is a day worth remembering.

Use commas to separate the city from the state. No comma is used between the state and the ZIP code.Boston, MA 02110SemicolonsThe semicolon indicates a longer pause and stronger emphasis than the comma. It is used principally to separate main clauses within a sentence.SemicolonsUse a semicolon to separate main clauses not joined by a coordinating conjunction.

You must buy that car today; tomorrow will be too late.SemicolonsUse a semicolon between two main clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb (such as however, otherwise, therefore, similarly, hence, on the other hand, then, consequently, accordingly, thus).

It was very late; therefore, I remained at the hotel.Quotation MarksQuotation marks are used principally to set off direct quotations. A direct quotation consists of material taken from the written work or the direct speech of others; it is set off by double quotation marks. Single quotation marks are used to set off a quotation within a quotation.

He said, I dont remember if she said, Wait for me.Quotation MarksUse quotation marks to set off slang, technical terms, and special words.

The platoon system changed the game of football. [technical term]ItalicsItalics (slanting type) are also used to call special attention to certain words of groups of words. In handwriting or typing, such words are underlined.ItalicsItalicize (underline) foreign words and phrases that are still listed in the dictionary as foreign.

modus operandiperestroikaItalicsItalicize titles of books; long poems; plays; magazines; motion pictures; musical compositions, newspapers; works of art; names of aircraft and ships; and letters, numbers, and words referred to by their own name.War and PeaceApollo 12Leaving the second o out of sophomore.The DashThe dash is used when a stronger pause than a comma is needed. It can also be used to indicate a break in the flow of thought and to emphasize words (less formal than the colon in this situation.)

I cant remember the townnow I doits Tupelo.The ColonThe colon is a formal mark of punctuation used chiefly to introduce something that is to follow, such as a list, a quotation, or an explanation.

These cars are my favorites: Cadillac, Chevrolet, Toyota, Oldsmobile, and Pontiac.ParenthesesParentheses are used to set off material that is of relatively little importance to the main thought of the sentence. Such materialnumbers, parenthetical material, figures, supplementary material, and sometimes explanatory detailsmerely amplifies the main thought.The years of the era (1961-1973) were full of action.I paid twenty dollars ($20) for that mousepad.BracketsBrackets are used within a quotation to set off editorial additions or corrections made by the person who is quoting.

It [the Yalta Agreement] contained many mistakes.The ApostropheThe apostrophe is used with nouns and indefinite pronouns to show possession, to show the omission of letters and figures in contractions, and to form the plurals of letters, figures, and words referred to as words.mans coatgirls clothescant five andsits [contraction]The HyphenThe hyphen is used to link two or more words together into a single compound word. Hyphenation, therefore, is essentially a spelling problem rather than a punctuation problem. Because the hyphen is not used with any degree of consistency, it is best to consult your dictionary to learn current usage.Uses of the HyphenUse a hyphen to separate the parts of many compound words.about-facego-between

Use a hyphen between prefixes and proper names.all-Americanmid-July

Use a hyphen with spelled-out compound numbers up to ninety-nine and with fractions.Twenty-sixone hundredtwo-thirds

Use a hyphen to join two or more words used as a single-adjective modifier before a noun.First-class servicehard-fought gamesad-looking motherCapitalizationUse English Conventions for Capital LettersCapitalize the first word of a sentenceCapitalize proper nouns and adjectives derived from proper nouns such as the names of persons, countries, nationalities and races, days of the week, months, and titles of booksCapitalize words denoting family relationships when they are used before a name or substituted for a name.The minister greeted Aunt May, my grandfather, and Mother.