Assessing Organizational Communication: Strategic Communication Audits Chapter 4 Choosing Focal...

Assessing Organizational Communication:

Strategic Communication Audits

Chapter 4Chapter 4

Choosing Focal Areas to AssessChoosing Focal Areas to Assess

Phase 3: DiagnosisChoosing Focal Areas to Assess

Auditors should view communication as Auditors should view communication as a key organizing process.a key organizing process.

As such it should be related to other As such it should be related to other organizational processes.organizational processes.

The best assessments:The best assessments: Cover a broad range of Cover a broad range of

communication processescommunication processes Relate at least some of those Relate at least some of those

communication processes to other communication processes to other organizational variables in some organizational variables in some depth.depth.


Twelve GuidelinesTwelve Guidelines1.1. Examine how the task processes Examine how the task processes

impact communication.impact communication.2.2. Determine the adequacy of Determine the adequacy of

information exchange.information exchange.3.3. Check the directionality of information Check the directionality of information

flow.flow.4.4. Assess how well employees use the Assess how well employees use the

communication media/technologies.communication media/technologies.5.5. Be sensitive to differences in Be sensitive to differences in

communication functions.communication functions.6.6. Check the quality of communication Check the quality of communication

relationships.relationships.


Twelve GuidelinesTwelve Guidelines7.7. Plot communication networks.Plot communication networks.8.8. Review the organization as a Review the organization as a

communication system.communication system.9.9. Relate communication to Relate communication to

organizational outcomes.organizational outcomes.10.10. Link internal communication to Link internal communication to

organizational strategies.organizational strategies.11.11. Assess the impact of new Assess the impact of new

technologies on communication.technologies on communication.12.12. Be open to the unexpected.Be open to the unexpected.

1. Examine How the Task Processes Impact Communication

No communication assessment can No communication assessment can be completed without be completed without understanding the task processes understanding the task processes necessary for directing, controlling, necessary for directing, controlling, and coordinating work and coordinating work assignments.assignments.


Organizational LogicOrganizational Logic A listing of the task processes A listing of the task processes

and a description of how the and a description of how the organization functions.organization functions.

By analyzing tasks and how they By analyzing tasks and how they fit together, we begin to fit together, we begin to understand the demands made understand the demands made on the communication system.on the communication system.

Table 4.1 Sample tasks in an Table 4.1 Sample tasks in an OrganizationOrganization


The auditor should use the logic to The auditor should use the logic to gain insight into how work is done, gain insight into how work is done, as that affects the communication as that affects the communication that needs to occur.that needs to occur.

The logic reveals to the auditor The logic reveals to the auditor where integration across tasks is where integration across tasks is necessary – in other words, where necessary – in other words, where people/departments are people/departments are interdependent.interdependent.

2. Determine the Adequacy of 2. Determine the Adequacy of Information ExchangeInformation Exchange

One aim of communication is to One aim of communication is to circulate information.circulate information.

Three issues are related to how Three issues are related to how adequately this is accomplished:adequately this is accomplished: Type of InformationType of Information Timing of InformationTiming of Information Information LoadInformation Load


Type of InformationType of Information Every audit ought to explore whether Every audit ought to explore whether

people get the information that they people get the information that they need to perform their jobs.need to perform their jobs.

Adequacy can be gauged in two ways:Adequacy can be gauged in two ways:Employees know they don’t get all the Employees know they don’t get all the

informationinformationEmployees sometimes don’t know Employees sometimes don’t know

information is availableinformation is available


Type of InformationType of Information Auditors need to search out what Auditors need to search out what

information is, and should be, made information is, and should be, made available to employees and not be tied available to employees and not be tied to employees’ perceptions only.to employees’ perceptions only.

Because communication is one of the Because communication is one of the principal ways of integrating people into principal ways of integrating people into an organization, they often want an organization, they often want information not related to their own information not related to their own processes.processes.


Timing of InformationTiming of Information Since information is only useful if Since information is only useful if

it is received on time, the auditor it is received on time, the auditor can look for ways of developing a can look for ways of developing a timely distribution system.timely distribution system.

This is not always easy to do.This is not always easy to do.


Information LoadInformation Load Load refers to the frequency and Load refers to the frequency and

amount of communication that takes amount of communication that takes place.place.

Optimal Load – dictated by the receiver’s Optimal Load – dictated by the receiver’s ability to processability to process

Underload – when people think they need or Underload – when people think they need or could use more informationcould use more information

Overload – when people have more Overload – when people have more information than they can possibly process.information than they can possibly process.


Information LoadInformation Load Although the most common Although the most common

complaint in organizations is that complaint in organizations is that employees do not get enough employees do not get enough communication, tension usually communication, tension usually develops when moving from develops when moving from underload to overload.underload to overload.


Information LoadInformation Load Load may also be related to technologyLoad may also be related to technology

PhotocopiersPhotocopiers Computers – emailComputers – email

In a real sense, the best most assessments In a real sense, the best most assessments can do is to measure whether people feel can do is to measure whether people feel underloaded or overloaded, but this is underloaded or overloaded, but this is important information because it reveals important information because it reveals how people are responding to message how people are responding to message exchanges.exchanges.

3. Check the Directionality of 3. Check the Directionality of Information FlowInformation Flow

Downward FlowDownward Flow

Upward FlowUpward Flow

Horizontal FlowHorizontal Flow


Downward FlowDownward Flow Refers to those message systems that Refers to those message systems that

proceed vertically down the chain of proceed vertically down the chain of command from managers to command from managers to subordinates.subordinates.

Employees receive a great deal of Employees receive a great deal of information from many different information from many different sources, but how much of this sources, but how much of this communication is effective has always communication is effective has always been disputed.been disputed.


Downward FlowDownward Flow There has long been a difference There has long been a difference

between management’s between management’s perceptions of what employees perceptions of what employees needneed to know and what employees to know and what employees say they need and say they need and wantwant to know. to know.


DownwardDownward Flow Flow Two functions:Two functions:

Employees need to have the information Employees need to have the information necessary to do their jobs. In many necessary to do their jobs. In many organizations such information is late in organizations such information is late in coming or totally lackingcoming or totally lacking

Good downward communication is not Good downward communication is not limited to immediate work assignments; it limited to immediate work assignments; it integrates people into their environments. integrates people into their environments. This is the aspect that many organizations This is the aspect that many organizations neglect.neglect.


DownwardDownward Flow Flow Downward communication may be Downward communication may be

informal as well as formal; it goes informal as well as formal; it goes beyond task information; it focuses beyond task information; it focuses on the employee, the unit, and the on the employee, the unit, and the company; it often does not meet the company; it often does not meet the expectations for employees; and it expectations for employees; and it must be constantly adapted to must be constantly adapted to changing circumstances.changing circumstances.


UpwardUpward Flow Flow Communication also flows from Communication also flows from

employees up the chain of command, employees up the chain of command, either formally or informally.either formally or informally.

Some of the most important information Some of the most important information processing goes from employees at one processing goes from employees at one level to their superiors.level to their superiors.

Without an effective system of reporting Without an effective system of reporting upward, no organization could possibly upward, no organization could possibly function for long.function for long.


UpwardUpward Flow Flow Upward communication sets the tone Upward communication sets the tone

for the communication climate.for the communication climate. Whether employees have the freedom to Whether employees have the freedom to

initiate communication with superiors initiate communication with superiors characterizes how employees perceive characterizes how employees perceive the communication climate.the communication climate.

Employees often deliberately filter Employees often deliberately filter upward communication.upward communication.


UpwardUpward Flow Flow Upward communication is important to Upward communication is important to

the organization as well as to its the organization as well as to its individual members.individual members.

Being able to communicate upward Being able to communicate upward gives one a stake in the organization gives one a stake in the organization and promotes a sense of dignity or and promotes a sense of dignity or importance.importance.

Upward communication affects Upward communication affects individuals’ satisfaction levels.individuals’ satisfaction levels.


UpwardUpward Flow Flow Filtering upward communication can be Filtering upward communication can be

dysfunctional for overall organizational dysfunctional for overall organizational health.health.

Upward communication also affects Upward communication also affects productivity.productivity.

Thus, auditors need to assess it closely.Thus, auditors need to assess it closely.


HorizontalHorizontal Flow Flow Much of the communication at work Much of the communication at work

takes place horizontally with peers, takes place horizontally with peers, colleagues, or fellow workers with colleagues, or fellow workers with whom one does not have a hierarchical whom one does not have a hierarchical relationship.relationship.

Those interactions often stimulate Those interactions often stimulate organizational commitment.organizational commitment.

Horizontal communication is sometimes Horizontal communication is sometimes neglected not out of intent but out of neglected not out of intent but out of carelessness.carelessness.

4. Assess How Well Employees Use the 4. Assess How Well Employees Use the Communication Media/TechnologiesCommunication Media/Technologies

Messages have to be transmitted through Messages have to be transmitted through some channel or media.some channel or media.

The choice of media is often the key to The choice of media is often the key to whether or not any communication is whether or not any communication is effective.effective.

Those choices probably most often reflect Those choices probably most often reflect what is convenient for the sender, but the what is convenient for the sender, but the choices also reflect certain values employees choices also reflect certain values employees have about the appropriateness of using have about the appropriateness of using certain media for tasks or about the symbolic certain media for tasks or about the symbolic importance of using those media.importance of using those media.


In many circles, there continues to be a In many circles, there continues to be a bias in favor of face-to-face bias in favor of face-to-face communication.communication.

““Email is not communication.”Email is not communication.”


Five useful questions to ask:Five useful questions to ask: Are the sender’s objectives compatible with Are the sender’s objectives compatible with

the attributes of the intended message?the attributes of the intended message? Are the messages sent compatible with the Are the messages sent compatible with the

channels utilized?channels utilized? Are the sender’s objectives compatible with Are the sender’s objectives compatible with

the type of channels utilized?the type of channels utilized? Are the messages compatible with the Are the messages compatible with the

receivers’ characteristics?receivers’ characteristics? Are the channels utilized compatible with the Are the channels utilized compatible with the

receivers’ characteristics? receivers’ characteristics? (Clampitt)(Clampitt)


EmailEmail The new appeal of E-mail is the old The new appeal of E-mail is the old

appeal of print. It isn’t instant; it appeal of print. It isn’t instant; it isn’t immediate; it isn’t in your isn’t immediate; it isn’t in your face.face.

What we actually want from our What we actually want from our exchanges is the minimum human exchanges is the minimum human contact commensurate with the contact commensurate with the need to connect with people.need to connect with people.


Two general research approaches Two general research approaches help to define important concerns help to define important concerns that influence communicator’s that influence communicator’s perceptions of specific media:perceptions of specific media: Media richness theoryMedia richness theory Social information-processing Social information-processing

theorytheory


Media Richness TheoryMedia Richness Theory - Categorizes - Categorizes media according to a continuum of media according to a continuum of interactivity and cues available.interactivity and cues available. Media offering more interactivity and Media offering more interactivity and

communication cues (visual and communication cues (visual and auditory) are on the “rich end” of the auditory) are on the “rich end” of the continuum.continuum.

As media lose their interactivity and As media lose their interactivity and communication cues, they are situated communication cues, they are situated on the “lean end” of the continuum.on the “lean end” of the continuum.


Media Richness TheoryMedia Richness Theory Messages higher in ambiguity Messages higher in ambiguity

would require richer would require richer communication media, whereas communication media, whereas messages lower in ambiguity messages lower in ambiguity require leaner communication require leaner communication media.media.


Social Information-processing TheorySocial Information-processing Theory Expands the focus from the specifics Expands the focus from the specifics

of the task to the participants of the task to the participants involved.involved.

The meaning and use of specific The meaning and use of specific media are constructed by the media are constructed by the participants involved.participants involved.


It is critical to explore the characteristics of the It is critical to explore the characteristics of the communication media in the context of the communication media in the context of the organization’s norms and its formal and informal organization’s norms and its formal and informal communication relationships by following three communication relationships by following three steps:steps: Auditors should assess their client organization’s media Auditors should assess their client organization’s media

comprehensively.comprehensively. Gauge employee reactions to these media. Over time, Gauge employee reactions to these media. Over time,

people develop a general belief that some media provide people develop a general belief that some media provide important information and others do not.important information and others do not.

Evaluate the appropriateness of channel use given the Evaluate the appropriateness of channel use given the interrelationships among messages, media interrelationships among messages, media characteristics, and organizational communicators.characteristics, and organizational communicators.


Because employees have different Because employees have different channel preferences for receiving channel preferences for receiving messages, one guideline is to use messages, one guideline is to use multiple channels to send any message.multiple channels to send any message.

Channel redundancy helps messages Channel redundancy helps messages reach a wider audience.reach a wider audience.


Other guidelines to help auditors make Other guidelines to help auditors make recommendations:recommendations: Does the communication require knowledge sharing?Does the communication require knowledge sharing? Do people want to emphasize the message or the Do people want to emphasize the message or the

source?source? How complicated is the message?How complicated is the message? Is immediate feedback desirable?Is immediate feedback desirable? Is it necessary for the sender and the receiver to Is it necessary for the sender and the receiver to

communicate simultaneously?communicate simultaneously? Is the message persuasive in nature or is it more Is the message persuasive in nature or is it more

informative?informative?


Auditors should adapt these recommendations to Auditors should adapt these recommendations to the specific context of the client organization.the specific context of the client organization.

Auditors should distinguish between formal and Auditors should distinguish between formal and informal channels.informal channels. Informal channelInformal channel generally refers to the grapevine or generally refers to the grapevine or

rumor mill.rumor mill. Informal horizontal linkages help employees Informal horizontal linkages help employees

accomplish work and establish powerful accomplish work and establish powerful communication networks.communication networks.

Informal channels can compete with formal channels, Informal channels can compete with formal channels, but they can also reinforce the formal channels.but they can also reinforce the formal channels.

5. Be Sensitive to Differences in 5. Be Sensitive to Differences in Communication FunctionsCommunication Functions

Task/Work FunctionTask/Work Function Social/Maintenance FunctionSocial/Maintenance Function Motivation FunctionMotivation Function Integration FunctionIntegration Function Innovation FunctionInnovation Function The interdependence among the functions The interdependence among the functions

is key. Sometimes management may value is key. Sometimes management may value the task-oriented function most, but a the task-oriented function most, but a weakness in any of the other areas can weakness in any of the other areas can affect task communication.affect task communication.

6. Check the Quality of 6. Check the Quality of Communication RelationshipsCommunication Relationships

Superior-Subordinate RelationshipsSuperior-Subordinate Relationships TrustTrust Amount of message exchangeAmount of message exchange Communication style of supervisorCommunication style of supervisor

Coworker RelationshipsCoworker Relationships Manager RelationshipsManager Relationships Unit RelationshipsUnit Relationships The Rules Governing RelationshipsThe Rules Governing Relationships

Procedures or contentProcedures or content

7. Plot Communication Networks7. Plot Communication Networks

FormalFormal InformalInformal Communication RolesCommunication Roles

IsolatesIsolates Group MembersGroup Members LiaisonsLiaisons Virtual positionsVirtual positions

Technology - EmailTechnology - Email

8. Review the Organization as a 8. Review the Organization as a Communication SystemCommunication System

Systems theorists look holistically at the Systems theorists look holistically at the unit being audited. The unit being audited. The systemsystem is the total is the total unit or organization being examined, but it unit or organization being examined, but it is made up of many is made up of many subsystemssubsystems that one that one can define according to one’s purpose.can define according to one’s purpose.

The systems perspective calls attention to The systems perspective calls attention to the way things are related, and it the way things are related, and it underscores the fact that the isolation of underscores the fact that the isolation of any one variable often distorts one’s any one variable often distorts one’s perceptions.perceptions.


An important way to distinguish how systems An important way to distinguish how systems operate within their environments is to label operate within their environments is to label them as them as closedclosed or or openopen..

The The closed systemclosed system is insulated and has is insulated and has apparently impermeable boundaries so that it apparently impermeable boundaries so that it does not react to and is not influenced by does not react to and is not influenced by what goes on around it.what goes on around it.

An An open systemopen system is one in which is one in which communication enables the organization to communication enables the organization to sense its environment and to adapt to the sense its environment and to adapt to the changes taking place.changes taking place.


Six subsystems:Six subsystems:1.1. Individual to individual – same unitIndividual to individual – same unit2.2. Individual to individual – acrossIndividual to individual – across3.3. Unit to unitUnit to unit4.4. Individual to organizationIndividual to organization5.5. Work unit to organizationWork unit to organization6.6. Environment to each of the other Environment to each of the other

componentscomponents

9. Relate Communication to 9. Relate Communication to Organizational OutcomesOrganizational Outcomes

SatisfactionSatisfaction Profitability and CostsProfitability and Costs ProductivityProductivity Organizational CommitmentOrganizational Commitment


Satisfaction – In a real sense Satisfaction – In a real sense most most communication assessments are communication assessments are heavily based on satisfactionheavily based on satisfaction..

Satisfaction becomes the standard Satisfaction becomes the standard by which employees judge their by which employees judge their organization.organization.


Positive links with Satisfaction andPositive links with Satisfaction and Openness in communicationOpenness in communication Communication relationshipsCommunication relationships Communication loadCommunication load Communication apprehensionCommunication apprehension Nonverbal behaviorNonverbal behavior Communication styleCommunication style Amount of feedbackAmount of feedback Congruence of communication rulesCongruence of communication rules Accuracy of communicationAccuracy of communication Organizational commitmentOrganizational commitment Communication from top managementCommunication from top management Communication satisfactionCommunication satisfaction Communication qualityCommunication quality


Profitability and CostsProfitability and Costs As important as it is, As important as it is,

communication is costly.communication is costly. Expense considerations are Expense considerations are

legitimate and necessary aspects legitimate and necessary aspects of communication assessments.of communication assessments.


ProductivityProductivity There is considerable evidence that There is considerable evidence that

communication can be directly related communication can be directly related to productivity.to productivity.

Because communication is just one of Because communication is just one of many variables affecting productivity, many variables affecting productivity, one needs to be careful in claiming that one needs to be careful in claiming that a given communication phenomenon a given communication phenomenon always affects productivity in a certain always affects productivity in a certain way.way.


ProductivityProductivity Specifying exactly how Specifying exactly how

communication’s particular communication’s particular components influence behavior components influence behavior can be difficult.can be difficult.

Research merely points out that Research merely points out that any aspect of communication may any aspect of communication may be related to productivitybe related to productivity


ProductivityProductivity The auditor must look for the connection in a The auditor must look for the connection in a

particular instance keeping several factors in particular instance keeping several factors in mind:mind:

The environment has a significant influence.The environment has a significant influence. The link between communication and The link between communication and

productivity may not be direct but may operate productivity may not be direct but may operate in a two-step approach.in a two-step approach.

Organizations have multiple productivity goals, Organizations have multiple productivity goals, and it is important to sort out which are most and it is important to sort out which are most important.important.

Productivity demands may also become points Productivity demands may also become points of dissatisfaction.of dissatisfaction.


Organizational CommitmentOrganizational Commitment Organizations are concerned about Organizations are concerned about

the “erosion of corporate loyalty.”the “erosion of corporate loyalty.” Research shows repeatedly that Research shows repeatedly that

across organizations and cultures, across organizations and cultures, it is the formal communication that it is the formal communication that affects employees’ organizational affects employees’ organizational commitment.commitment.


Organizational CommitmentOrganizational Commitment Just as there are multiple measures of Just as there are multiple measures of

productivity, there are also multiple measures productivity, there are also multiple measures of organizational commitment.of organizational commitment.

Because each instrument defines commitment Because each instrument defines commitment differently, the survey instrument choice differently, the survey instrument choice affects auditors’ findings.affects auditors’ findings.

Auditors must be cautioned against taking Auditors must be cautioned against taking rigid cause-effect positions on the link rigid cause-effect positions on the link between communication and commitment.between communication and commitment.

10. Link Internal Communication 10. Link Internal Communication to Organizational Strategiesto Organizational Strategies

Auditors can add value to their Auditors can add value to their clients by introducing a strategic clients by introducing a strategic view of communication.view of communication.

More and more executives see the More and more executives see the need for tying their communication need for tying their communication thrusts directly to the strategies they thrusts directly to the strategies they set for the organization.set for the organization.


The focus on strategy requires a paradigm The focus on strategy requires a paradigm shift for some auditors if their focus tends shift for some auditors if their focus tends to be primarily on organizational to be primarily on organizational operations.operations.

Too many managers see communication Too many managers see communication initiatives as a quick fix to apply initiatives as a quick fix to apply defensively. This mind-set separates defensively. This mind-set separates communication from the daily task of communication from the daily task of accomplishing work and achieving goals.accomplishing work and achieving goals.


Managers need to see how strategic Managers need to see how strategic communication is an integral part of communication is an integral part of achieving the organization’s objectives achieving the organization’s objectives rather than a separate function.rather than a separate function.

Strategic communication is integral to Strategic communication is integral to accomplishing what companies want and accomplishing what companies want and need to do rather than something they do need to do rather than something they do on the side to make people feel good.on the side to make people feel good.

11. Assess the Impact of New 11. Assess the Impact of New Technologies on CommunicationTechnologies on Communication

New technologies affect how people New technologies affect how people communicate, but they also affect communicate, but they also affect the network, the task processes, and the network, the task processes, and the chain of command.the chain of command.

12. Be Open to the Unexpected12. Be Open to the Unexpected

Assessments should be open Assessments should be open enough to permit observations about enough to permit observations about the unexpected.the unexpected.

If they are arranged too tightly that If they are arranged too tightly that tightness limits the potential for tightness limits the potential for discovery.discovery.

ConclusionConclusion

Diagnosis begins with a focus.Diagnosis begins with a focus. Covering all areas referred to in this Covering all areas referred to in this

chapter gives a comprehensive chapter gives a comprehensive impression of the organization; such impression of the organization; such a general overview is described in a general overview is described in terms of a communication climate or terms of a communication climate or an organizational culture.an organizational culture.

ConclusionConclusion

These concepts reflect an attempt to These concepts reflect an attempt to discover those stable communicative discover those stable communicative characteristics of the environment, characteristics of the environment, whether or not created purposefully by the whether or not created purposefully by the organization.organization.

To the extent that such climates or To the extent that such climates or cultures “provide a common frame of cultures “provide a common frame of reference for participants, they would be reference for participants, they would be expected to exert potent influences on expected to exert potent influences on individual performance and satisfaction.”individual performance and satisfaction.”

Assessing Organizational Communication:

Strategic Communication Audits

Chapter 4Chapter 4

Choosing Focal Areas to AssessChoosing Focal Areas to Assess

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