Aspects of Lengo Grammar

7/13/2019 Aspects of Lengo Grammar

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SPECTS OF LENGO GR MM R

by

P UL UNGER

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS

in

THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES

LINGUISTICS

We accept ti! te!i! a! c"n#"$%in& t" te $e'(i$e) !tan)a$)

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+* Ran)",p Ra)ney- P*D*. Te!i! S(pe$/i!"$

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E%%a Pa/ey- P*D*. Sec"n) Rea)e$

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B"nnie Hen!"n- P*D*. Ti$) Rea)e$

TRINITY WESTERN UNI0ERSITY

1 Ap$i, 2334

5 Pa(, Un&e$


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BSTR CTLen&" 6,an&(a&e c")e 7,&$89- an A(!t$"ne!ian Oceanic ,an&(a&e- i! a %e%be$ "#

te Ge,a b$anc "# te S"(tea!t S","%"nic !(b&$"(p* Len&" i! !p":en by !"%e ;ic

/e$b! )e$i/e #$"% n"(n! an) n"(n! )e$i/e #$"% /e$b!- a pa$tic,e ana,y!e) a! a $ea,i!

,"cati/e- an) a )i!c(!!i"n "# Len&"! /a$i"(! !e$ia, /e$b c"n!t$(cti"n!*

A,"n& >it a p$e!entati"n "# Len&"! &e"&$apic an) #a%i,ia, !it(ati"n in te

S"(tea!t S","%"nic ,an&(a&e #a%i,y an) a b$ie# )i!c(!!i"n "# "$t"&$apy i!!(e! a!

appen)ice!- a !e,ecti"n "# te?t! #$"% %y #ie,)>"$: in G(a)a,cana, 6c* 2332=2339 a$e

inc,()e)* F"($ "# t"!e inc,()e) e$e >e$e $ec"$)e) an) t$an!c$ibe) >it te e,p "#

Len&" !pea:e$!* Te #i#t >a! &i/en t" %e in an)=>$itten #"$%*

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CNOWLEDGEMENTSA p$"ect ,i:e ti! i! ne/e$ te p$")(ct "# "ne pe$!"n* T"!e >" e,pe) )e!e$/e

c$e)it an) tan:!*

I tan: %y Len&" #$ien)! >" t"": te ti%e t" ta,:- a) te patience t" e?p,ain-

an) a) te &$ace t" &ent,y c"$$ect a! I ,ea$ne) tei$ ,an&(a&e*

I tan: %y !(pe$/i!"$ an) $ea)e$! >" !a/e) %e #$"% %any %i!ta:e! an)

%i!(n)e$!tan)in&!- an) "pene) (p >ay! "# ,"":in& at an) tin:in& ab"(t Len&" tat I

a) n"t p$e/i"(!,y e?p,"$e)*

I tan: %y #$ien)! Cate$ine- +"n&=H""n- an) +"natan #"$ tei$ e?a%p,e "#

'(iet pe$!e/e$ance an) %any enc"($a&e%ent!*

I tan: %y #a%i,y #"$ e,pin& %e t$"(&"(t %y ci,)$en Hanna 6>" ca%e

"%e >it e$ !i?=yea$=",) !a$e "# Len&" >"$)! ,ea$ne) >i,e p,ayin& >it e$

#$ien)!9- I!aac 6>"!e b"(n),e!! ene$&y $e!t"$e) %ine at te en) "# %any ,"n& )ay!9-

Natan 6@I "pe y"( a/e a !a#e $i)e t" !c"", "n te %"t"$cyc,e- Da))y9- Aa$"n 6>"

>a! !"$tin& "(t En&,i! &$a%%a$ >i,e I >a! !"$tin& "(t te Len&"9- an) Racae, 6>"

>a! b$"(&t int" te >"$,) ab"(t >en ti! te!i! >a!9- an) %y >i#e Cata$ine

>it"(t >"% n"t*

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BBRE0I TI ONS ND OTHER CON0ENTIONSTe abb$e/iati"n! (!e) in ti! &$a%%a$ a$e &i/en be,">*

A a&ent LIM ,i%ite$ 6po9ABIL abi,iti/e 6tangomana9 LOC ,"cati/e 6i, tena9AD0 a)/e$b N n"(nALT a,te$nati/e 6pa-p-9 NEG ne&ati/eAPPR app$een!i/e 6b=9 NR n"%ina,i!e$ART a$tic,e 6a, na9 OO "bectCAUS ca(!ati/e 6=Caghini9 PAU pa(ca, 6tu-, -tu-, -tu9CLF c,a!!i#ie$ PFCT pe$#ecti/e 6g=9COM c"%itati/e 6kolu9 PL p,($a,COMP c"%p,e%enti!e$ 6thi, tha9 POC P$"t"OceanicCOND c"n)iti"na, 6ghua9 PREP p$ep"!iti"nCON+ c"n(ncti"n 6ma, m-9 PS p"!!e!!"$ p$"n"(n pe$!"nDAT )ati/e 6vani9 PURP p($p"!e 6ne9DEM )e%"n!t$ati/e 6deni, deri, dini9 R $ecipientDEO )e"ntic 6ba9 RDP $e)(p,icati"nDES )e!i)e$ati/e 6ngao9 RECP $ecip$"ca, 6vi=9DIR )i$ecti"na, REFL $e#,e?i/e 6tibo9DO )i$ect "bect REL $e,ati/e p$"n"(n 6thi, tha9DU )(a, 6ko-, -ko-, -ko9 RL $ea,i! 6t-9EMPH e%patic 6ne9 S !(bectEP e%patic p$"n"(n SG !in&(,a$E e?c,(!i/e !*"* !"%e"neFUT #(t($e 6ba9 !p* !pecie!GEN &eniti/e 6ni9 SRP !(bect $e#e$ence p$"n"(n

IMPF i%pe$#ecti/e 6bo9 !*t* !"%etin&IN inc,(!i/e T te%eINST in!t$(%enta, 6ghini9 TAM ten!e a!pect %"")INT inte$$"&ati/e TR t$an!iti/i!e$ 6=Ci9INT+ inte$ecti"n 0 /e$bINTS inten!i#ie$ 6koto, ne9 0i int$an!iti/e /e$bIO in)i$ect "bect 0t t$an!iti/e /e$bIRR i$$ea,i! 6k-9

Ti! te!i! >a! type) (!in& te Genti(% #"nt*;Te te?t "# ,an&(a&e! "te$ tan

En&,i! i! $en)e$e) initalics* B",)#ace type i! (!e) in Len&" te?t in an atte%pt t"

i&,i&t te #eat($e6!9 (n)e$ c"n!i)e$ati"n in a &i/en e?a%p,e* G$a%%atica, &,"!!e!

; Genti(% >a! (!e) #"$ te !i%p,e $ea!"n tat Ti%e! Ne> R"%an )"e! n"t a/e a !in&,e=!t"$y J n"$an "pen=b">, K- b"t "# >ic a$e nee)e) t" e?p$e!! p"netic )ata in Len&"* Te Genti(% #"nt i!#$ee,y a/ai,ab,e at ttp!c$ipt!*!i,*"$&Genti(%*

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a$e p$e!ente) in SMALLCAPS#",,">in&- a! nea$,y a! p"!!ib,e- te abb$e/iati"n! #"$

inte$,inea$ %"$pe%e t$an!,ati"n appen)e) t" te Leipi& G,"!!in& R(,e!*2Inte$,inea$

e?a%p,e! a/e a Len&" ,ine 6>it %"$pe%e b$ea:! in)icate) >it te app$"p$iate

p(nct(ati"n9- a &,"!! ,ine- an) a #$ee t$an!,ati"n ,ine*

Len&" ma k-ami soni iti-i vati tuthivo-gu inauG,"!! CON+ IRR=;E*PL t$"> (p=OPL "($ney!*en) >ate$#$"nt*,an)in&=PS;SG EP;SGF$ee at "($ney! en) >e %ay t$"> 7te !tic:!8 (p at %y ">n >ate$=#$"nt ,an)in&

It i! i%p"$tant t" n"te tat >i,e e%patic 6EP9- "bect 6O9- an) p"!!e!!"$ 6PS9 p$"n"(n!

a$e in)icate) >it abb$e/iati"n! be#"$e te app$"p$iate pe$!"n an) n(%be$ 6e*&*- inau

EP;SG9- te !(bect $e#e$ence p$"n"(n i! in)icate) >it pe$!"n an) n(%be$ "n,y* F$"%

ti%e t" ti%e a #"($t ,ine i! inc,()e)* Ti! i! t" in)icate a %"$p"p"ne%ic p$"ce!!- a!

>it teme#ate$=PSSG be,">- "$ e,i!i"n 6e*&*- teigha nate'na. denide9* In te!e

e?a%p,e!- te %"$pe%e b$ea:! an)"$ #(,, >"$)! a$e in)icate) "n te !ec"n) ,ine*

Len&" a J. te dea kolua a teme i leo ni ponoM"$pe%e a + t=e )ea :",(=a a ta%a=a i ,e" ni p"n"G,"!! ART + RL=SG &" COM=OSG ART #ate$=PSSG LOC in!i)e GEN b(!F$ee +* >ent >it i! #ate$ t" te b(!

Wen nece!!a$y !'(a$e b$ac:et! 7 8 a$e (!e) in te #$ee t$an!,ati"n ,ine t" in)icate n"n=

"/e$t ite%! 6!(c a! 2SGy"( in i%pe$ati/e !entence!9 an) "te$ e?t$ane"(!

in#"$%ati"n* An a!te$i!: 69- (n,e!! "te$>i!e n"te)- %a$:! (n&$a%%atica, !entence!*

Fina,,y- #"$ $ea!"n! "# p$i/acy- te p$"pe$ na%e! "# pe$!"n! an) p,ace! a$e $ep$e!ente)

by a capita, ,ette$ in Len&" e?a%p,e!* I "pe tat ti! e,p!- an) )"e!nt )i!t$act- te

$ea)e$*

2 Te Leipi& &,"!!in& $(,e! a$e a/ai,ab,e at ttp>>>*e/a*%p&*)e,in&(a$e!"($ce!&,"!!in&=$(,e!*pp- >i,e ttp>>>*(n%*e)(>c$"#tPape$!TypAbb$e/*p)#p$"/i)e! a !"%e>at ,a$&e$!et "# abb$e/iati"n!* I a/e c$eate) !"%e "# %y ">n abb$e/iati"n! a! tey >e$e n"t in eite$ ,i!t*

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Tab,e "# C"ntent!ABSTRACT******************************************************************************************************************************************iiACNOWLEDGEMENTS******************************************************************************************************************iiiABBRE0IATIONS AND OTHER CON0ENTIONS***************************************************************************i/; INTRODUCTION*****************************************************************************************************************************;2 PHONOLOGY***********************************************************************************************************************************e,!*****************************************************************************************************************************

2*2 P"n"tactic!**************************************************************************************************************************2*2*; Sy,,ab,e !t$(ct($e*********************************************************************************************************2*2*2 E,i!i"n an) c"nt$acti"n***********************************************************************************************4

2* M"$p"p"ne%ic!***************************************************************************************************************1 NOUNS- PRONOUNS AND NOUN PHRASES*****************************************************************************;2

*; N"(n!************************************************************************************************************************************;2*;*; De$i/ati"n an) in#,ecti"n******************************************************************************************;

*;*2 N"(n c,a!!e! an) a$tic,e!******************************************************************************************;*2 P$"n"(n!******************************************************************************************************************************2

*2*; E%patic**********************************************************************************************************************21*2*2 S(bect $e#e$ence*********************************************************************************************************2* Obect****************************************************************************************************************************4*2*< Di$ect p"!!e!!"$**********************************************************************************************************


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COMPLE SENTENCES**************************************************************************************************************;41*; C""$)inate c,a(!e!************************************************************************************************************;41

*;*; Si%(,tane"(!*************************************************************************************************************;41*;*2 Se'(entia,******************************************************************************************************************;1;*;* A,te$nate********************************************************************************************************************;1

*2 S(b"$)inate c,a(!e!**********************************************************************************************************;1*2*; C"%p,e%ent**************************************************************************************************************;1*2*2 Re,ati/e***********************************************************************************************************************;14*2* P($p"!e***********************************************************************************************************************233*2*< Rea!"n*************************************************************************************************************************232*2* C"n)iti"na,****************************************************************************************************************23

4 REPORTED SPEECH********************************************************************************************************************231 CONCLUSION******************************************************************************************************************************231APPENDI A S"(tea!t S","%"nic ,an&(a&e #a%i,y************************************************************2;2APPENDI B O$t"&$apy*********************************************************************************************************2; "# te @etnic ten!i"n i! p$"/i)e) by F$aen:e,- +"n* 233


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p,ain* Te ,"n& te$% e##ect ti! >i,, a/e "n Len&" $e%ain! t" be !een* Te$e a$e #"($

$ec"&ni!e) )ia,ect! "# Len&" A",a- Pa$ipa"- Re:"- an) Ta!i%b":" 6G"$)"n 2339* In

%y e?pe$ience- te )i##e$ence! a$e in te$%! "# p$"n(nciati"n an) n"t %"$p","&ica, "$

!yntactic /a$iati"n*

Acc"$)in& t" te Etn","&(e %ap "# S","%"n I!,an) ,an&(a&e! 6G"$)"n

23344e!t- Bi$a" t"

te !"(t- an) L"n&&( t" te ea!t* Inte$e!tin&,y- B(&"t( 6!"(te$n Santa I!abe,9 i! e,)

t" be %"$e c,"!e,y $e,ate) ,in&(i!tica,,y t" Len&" tan te i%%e)iate nei&b"($ L"n&&(

6a Ma,aitan i!",ate9* Len&"! c,"!e!t ,in&(i!tic nei&b"($ i! Ge,a- !"%e 3 :% ac$"!!

Sea,a$: Canne, t" te n"$t*

Lan&(a&e e?a%p,e!- e?cept a! n"te)- a$e #$"% %y )ata* Ti! i! c"%p$i!e) "#

te?t!"$a, an) >$ittenan) !"%e a))iti"na, e,icite) %ate$ia,* Te te?t! >e$e c",,ecte)

in A",a >a$) "# G(a)a,cana,- t"(& !"%e !a%p,e! ca%e #$"% Ea!t Ta!i%b":" an)

Pa$ipa" >a$)!- "/e$ a #"($ yea$ pe$i") #$"% 2332=3* It !"(,) be n"te) tat te )ata

>e$e n"t c",,ecte) >it te e?p$e!! p($p"!e "# c"n!t$(ctin& a &$a%%a$. in #act

!"%e>at )i##e$ent )ata >"(,) a/e been c",,ecte) i# !(c >a! te ca!e* Ha/in& !ai)

tat- I a/e t$ie) t" $ep$e!ent te )ata #ai$,y- n"t p($p"!e,y e?c,()in& e?a%p,e! tat

%i&t c"nt$a)ict a &ene$a,i!ati"n I a/e i)enti#ie)* C"nt$a)ict"$y e?a%p,e!t$"(b,in&

t"(& tey %ay be #"$ !"%e"ne !"$tin& "(t a &$a%%a$a/e been inc,()e) at /a$i"(!

p"int! in ti! &$a%%a$*

M(c "# %y #ie,)>"$: >a! )"ne (!in& S","%"n I!,an)! Piin- te ,in&(a #$anca "#

< A/ai,ab,e "n,ine atttp>>>*etn","&(e*c"%!">%ap*a!pna%eSB* See Appen)i? A S"(tea!t S","%"nic ,an&(a&e #a%i,y* Un#"$t(nate,y- te$e a$e n" p(b,i!e)

)e!c$ipti"n! a/ai,ab,e #"$ Bi$a"- Ga$i- "$ Ma,an&"* Te nat($e "# te !i%i,a$itie! an) )i##e$ence!bet>een te!e ,an&(a&e! an) Len&" i!- at p$e!ent- )i##ic(,t t" e!tab,i!*

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S","%"n I!,an)!- a! a %eta,an&(a&e* A! %any )e!c$ipti/e ,in&(i!t! >i,, >e,, (n)e$!tan)-

c"%in& (p >it a !(itab,e &,"!! >en >"$:in& >it t>" ,an&(a&e! i! n" %ean #eat* Te

t$(t "# ti! i! n"t %ini%i!e) >en >"$:in& >it t$ee* Te$e a$e in!tance! in >ic

Piin !ee%! t" capt($e te e!!ence "# a Len&" >"$) "$ c"n!t$(cti"n %"$e ab,y tan

En&,i!* In t"!e in!tance! Piin i! p$"/i)e) #"$ t"!e >" %ay bene#it #$"% it!

inc,(!i"n* F"$ t"!e >" )" n"t $eap te!e !pa$!e bene#it!- te En&,i! &,"!! >i,, a/e t"

)"*

Ti! &$a%%a$ i! "$&ani!e) acc"$)in& t" te &ene$a, ,ay"(t #"(n) in Lync- R"!!-

an) C$">,ey 623329* Tei$ >"$:- "/e$ te yea$! an) in tat /",(%e- $ep$e!ent!

!"%e>at "# a !tan)a$) #"$ Oceanic ,an&(a&e!* We$e te$e i! a !tan)a$) it !ee%!

p$()ent t" #",,"> it* O# c"($!e- te$e a$e p"int! at >ic ti! &$a%%a$ >i,,- "(t "#

nece!!ity- )epa$t #$"% tei$ ,ay"(t- b(t it i! "pe) tat ti! &$a%%a$ >i,, #it int" te

,a$&e$ Oceanic ,in&(i!tic >"$,)*


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2 PHONOLOGYA! i! "#ten te ca!e >it Oceanic ,an&(a&e!- te in/ent"$ie! "# b"t c"n!"nant!

an) /">e,! in Len&" i! #ai$,y !%a,,- te$e a$e #e> 6i# any9 a,,"p"ne!- an) c"%p,e?

a$tic(,ati"n! a$e &ene$a,,y a/"i)e) in ca$e#(, !peec* St$e!! i!- >it #e> e?cepti"n! in

%y ,e?ic"n- #"(n) "n te pen(,ti%ate !y,,ab,e* Te e?cepti"n!- in >ic !t$e!! i! "n te

#ina, !y,,ab,e- a$e 7%be%be8 &$a!!,an) 6c"%pa$e 7%be%be8 b(tte$#,y9- 7inJ(8 EP;SG-

an) 7!J:Ji8 "ne* T"ne i! n"t c"nt$a!ti/e* Sy,,ab,e !t$(ct($e i! 6C90609*

2*; P"ne%e!2*;*; C"n!"nant!

Len&" a! ; c"n!"nant!*

p t :b ) K/ V ! % n X

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Figure $.": Consonants

0"ice) !t"p! a$e p$ena!a,i!e) 67%b8- 7n)8- 7XK89* Te /"ice) ,abia, #$icati/e /a$ie!

$e&i"na,,y bet>een bi,abia, 69 an) ,abi")enta, 6/9- >it te ,atte$ bein& #a$ %"$e

c"%%"n* Te /"ice) )enta, #$icati/e V a,!" /a$ie! $e&i"na,,y >it apica, * Te

p"ne i! e!pecia,,y p$e/a,ent in te $e&i"n !($$"(n)in& R(a/at(- b(t i! $a$e

e,!e>e$e* N"te te ,ac: "# b"t a /"ice,e!! ,abia, an) /e,a$ #$icati/e c"(nte$pa$t 6#

an) ?9 #"$ t"!e tat a$e /"ice) 6/ an) 9*S"%e %ini%a, pai$! a$e !">n in 6;9*

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7t(%(8 #a,,

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7%Jne8 %a,e

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7XJtJ8 !t$"n&* 7%J%(8 bait

7%Jn(8 bi$):* 7n)Ji8 ci,)

7$Ji8 a>a:en,* 7n)eni8 ti!

7n)e$i8 tat

%*7en"8 ,ay )">n7eX"8 #,y 6n"(n9

n*7Jni8 eat7J,i8 b(i,)

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p* 7tJ/e8 #,"")7JVe8 &i/e

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$* 7(n)(8 #$ien)7($(8 )i/e

!* 7(n)(8 #$ien)7(,(8 ea)

t* 7($(8 )i/e7(,(8 ea)

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Figure $.$: %o&els

Te #$"nt "pen %i) /">e, Z i! '(ite $a$e- appea$in& in #i/e >"$)! in te )ata

7:Zn)e8 c$i!p p"tat"- 7:Zn)i8 b"tt,e- 7%Z%Z,e8 c""!e- 7tZtZ8 c"p- an) 7tZtZte8 i,,*

S"%e %ini%a, pai$! a$e &i/en in 629*

629 a* 7ni8 GEN7ne8 PSSG

b*7/(ti8 p(,,7/"ti8 b$ea:

c*7:Zn)e8 c$i!p p"tat"7en)e8 ye,,">=,ea# &$een!

)*7n)eni8 ti!7n)Jni8 )ay

e* 7J$"8 !"(,)e$7J$J8 tey

0">e, !e'(ence!- e?a%p,e! "# >ic a$e !">n in 69-a$e n"t (nc"%%"n*


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p* 7b(J8 bete,n(t '* 7t(e8 "ne !e,, $* 7:(i8 !:in:A!i)e #$"% Z- >ic i! ne/e$ #"(n) #",,">in& "$ #",,">e) by an"te$ /">e,- te$e a$e

t>" /">e, !e'(ence!- Je an) ("- >ic )" n"t "cc($* E/e$y "te$ /">e, !e'(ence i!

#"(n) in te ,an&(a&e*

Te$e a$e >at !ee%- "n #i$!t ea$in&- t" be ,"n& /">e,!* F($te$ ana,y!i!

$e/ea,! tat te!e a$e in #act t>" /">e,! "# te !a%e '(a,ity tat appen t" be "ne

#",,">in& te "te$ ac$"!! a %"$pe%e b"(n)a$y- a! in 6ait %e*

b* me garaa tine%=e &a$a=a tina=aCON+=SG p(,,=OSG %"te$=PSSGan) it 7te c$"c")i,e8 p(,,e) i! %"te$

Te!e a$e inte$p$ete) a! 00 !e'(ence!*

Te$e i! a !in&,e >"$) in %y ,e?ic"n "# app$"?i%ate,y 233 >"$)!- tat appea$!

t" a/e a ,"n& /">e, tat )"e! n"t "cc($ ac$"!! a %"$pe%e b"(n)a$y 7:""8 )ea)#a,,.

a t$ee $"ttin& "n te &$"(n)* It i! )i!tinct #$"% te !(bect $e#e$ence p$"n"(n 7:="8

IRR=2SG an) te %")a, /e$b 7:"(8 (n>i,,in&*

2*2 P"n"tactic!2*2*; Sy,,ab,e !t$(ct($e

Len&" !y,,ab,e! a$e 6C90609* Te$e a$e n" c,"!e) !y,,ab,e! in Len&"- tat i! te$e

N"te tat >en -aPSSG "in! t" a >"$) en)in& in J a! in 7tinJ=J8- te t>" J! $ai!e t" an e$e!(,tin& in 7tine8* Ti! i! )i!c(!!e) be,"> be&innin& "n pa&e 1*


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a$e n" !y,,ab,e #ina, c"n!"nant!- n"$ a$e te$e c"n!"nant c,(!te$!*4C0 !y,,ab,e! a$e by

#a$ te %"!t c"%%"n- t"(& 0 an) C00 !y,,ab,e! a$e a,!" p$e/a,ent* S"%e e?a%p,e!

a$e p$"/i)e) in69*

69 a* 7(8 ;SGb* 7t(8 !*"* !tan)!c* 7tJ(8 !p"(!e)* 7e*"8 ye!e* 7i*nJ(8 EP;SG

0">e, !e'(ence! a/e p$e)ictab,e !y,,ab,i#icati"n* I# 0;02a$e i&=%i)- i&=

,">- %i)=%i)- "$ %i)=,"> tey a$e %e%be$! "# )i##e$ent !y,,ab,e!* I#- ">e/e$- 0;02a$e

,">=%i)- ,">=i&- %i)=i&- "$ i&=i& tey a$e %e%be$! "# te !a%e !y,,ab,e*

Fina,,y- i# 0;02a$e te !a%e tey a$e %e%be$! "# te !a%e !y,,ab,e* Te )ata #$"% 69

ab"/e a$e p$e!ente) a&ain- ti! ti%e >it !y,,ab,e b$ea:! in)icate)*

69 a* 7%Ji8 !*"* c"%e! b* 7J"*:a8 #e%a,e- >"%an c* 7J(8 :ni#e)* 7)e*J8 !*"* &"e! e* 7:ei8 ba!:et #* 7,e*"8 in!i)e&* 7,e*(8 !*"* #i&t! * 7b(*,i*J8 !ca$ i* 7/J*ti*e8 #"($t* 7,i*"8 nec: :* 7ni(8 c"c"n(t ,* 7)"*J8 !*"* i! b,in)%* 7i*"*e8 EP2SG n* 7,"i8 #$"& "* 7)"(8 ea$tp* 7b(*J8 bete,n(t '* 7t(*e8 "ne !e,, $* 7:(i8 !:in:

Te "ne e?cepti"n t" te !y,,abi#icati"n $(,e! ab"/e i! tat te /">e,! in te %i)=i&

/">e, !e'(ence e( a$e %e%be$! "# )i##e$ent !y,,ab,e!- a! i! !">n in 69&*

Sy,,ab,e !t$(ct($e at %"$pe%e b"(n)a$ie! #",,">! te!e !y,,abi#icati"n $(,e!*

C"n!i)e$ te )ata in 69*

69 a* 7pi*t(=(8 >ait=O;SGb* 7tJ(*=J8 !p"(!e=PSSG

In 69a* te !y,,ab,e !t$(ct($e i! C0*C00* Te 00 !e'(ence tat $e!(,t! >en te t>"

%"$pe%e! c"%e t"&ete$ i! ea$) a! a )"(b,e ((* Te !it(ati"n in69b* i! !"%e>at

4 L"an >"$)! !(c a! 7:,ini:i8 c,inic an) 7!pe)i8 !pa)e- !"/e,- >ic a/e c"n!"nant c,(!te$!- a$e n"tc"n!i)e$e) in ti! ana,y!i!*


18/239

%"$e c"%p,e?* Te ,">=i& /">e, !e'(ence J( i! pa$t "# a C00 !y,,ab,e* Te

%"$pe%e =J- #",,">in& a! it )"e! te i& /">e, (- i! a %e%be$ "# a )i##e$ent

!y,,ab,e* Te $e!(,tin& !y,,ab,e !t$(ct($e i! C00*0*

2*2*2 E,i!i"n an) c"nt$acti"nLen&" !pea:e$! a$e &i/en t" c",,ap!in& ce$tain >"$)! in >at a%"(nt! t" e,i!i"n*

S"%e e?a%p,e! #$"% nat($a, !peec a$e &i/en in649*

649 a* 7!J:Ji8 7!:Ji8"neb* 7!i:i8 7!:i8anyc* 7!i:i pi,eJ8 7!:pi,eJ8a$"(n)- app$"?i%ate,y

Wen !,">e) )">n- ">e/e$- te >"$)! a$e $e!t"$e) t" tei$ ,e?ica, #"$%!* Wat i!

e/i)ent e$e i! tat c"n!"nant c,(!te$!- >ic a$e n"t #"(n) >en >"$)! a$e (tte$e) in

i!",ati"n- a$e p$e!ent in c"nnecte) !peec*

Te$e a$e !"%e Len&" >"$)! tat a$e !"$tene) by %"!t !pea:e$!* Wen

!"$tene)- te!e >"$)! ta:e "n a ea/y !"(n) 6Len&" !pea:e$ )e!c$ipti"n9 "n te #i$!t

!y,,ab,e* S" mamala,i&t>ei&t bec"%e! mala- >it a !"%e>at ea/y e%pa!i! "n

te #i$!t !y,,ab,e* Ti! i! t" )i##e$entiate mala,i&t>ei&t #$"% malana:e)* I ,ea$ne)

ti! )($in& a /",,eyba,, &a%e* S"%e"ne >a! )e!c$ibe) a! bein& mala tupa,i&t #"$

(%pin&. I )i)nt &et it '(ite $i&t an) ca,,e) i% mala tupana:e) n(t * * * I a) been

pe$p,e?e) #"$ !"%e ti%e by >at appea$e) t" be an a!pi$ate) : "n kauc$ab tat

)i!tin&(i!e) it #$"% kau)"&- a! it >a! te "n,y in!tance "# te appa$ent a!pi$ati"n* A

!"%e>at >i)e$ )i!t$ib(ti"n %i&t be e?pecte) i# a!pi$ate) : >a! in)ee) a Len&"

p"ne%e* At te /",,eyba,, &a%e I >a! &i/en a pa$tia, ,i!t- &i/en in619- "# !"$tene)

>"$)! tat ta:e "n ti! ea/y !"(n)in& '(a,ity*

4


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619 a* 7:J:J(8 7:J(8 c$ab. c#* 7:J(8 )"&b* 7:i:i,(8 7:i,(8 !*"* )e%an)! %"$e. c#* 7:i,(8 p,ant !p*c* 7%J%J,J8 7%J,J8 !*t* i! ,i&t>ei&t. c#* 7%J,J8 na:e)- 7%J%J,J8 t$ee !p*)* 7pJpJ$J8 7pJ$J8 !*"* acc(!e! an"te$. c#* 7pJ$J8 !*t* i! "te* 7p"p"$"8 7p"$"8 !*"* i! c,"te)

#* 7t(t(pJ8 7t(pJ8 !*"* (%p!. c#* 7t(pJ8 n(t !p*&* 7/J/JXJ8 7/JXJ8 !*t* i! !a$p. c#* 7/JXJ8 !*"* eat!

It !"(,) be !ai) tat te )i##e$ence i! n"t "ne "# t"nei& /e$!(! ,">b(t e%pa!i!*

Wit !"%e !pea:e$! te ea) act(a,,y %"/e! #"$>a$) >en (tte$in& te #i$!t !y,,ab,e "#

!"%e "# te!e >"$)!*1

E,i!i"n i! >i)e!p$ea) in n"$%a, !peec 6tat i!- n"t !,">e) )">n #"$ Len&" a! a

!ec"n) ,an&(a&e !pea:e$!9* In En&,i!- #"$ e?a%p,e- "ne #in)! )" n"t )"nt. >"(,)

n"t >"(,)nt* S"%e e?a%p,e! "# e,i!i"n- %a$:e) e$e >it an ap"!t$"pe 69- a$e

6;39 a* 7pJ$J nJ JV"8 7pJ$J nJV"8 it! "t 6,it*- "t ART!(n9b* 7e teiJ !i:i tJ/e8 7e te!itJ/e8 it 7te $i/e$8 i! n"t #,"")e)c* 7:e !J:Ji ni8 7:e!:i8 be#"$e)* 7teiJ nJ 08 7tenJ 08 NEGART0

Te )i!appea$ance "# J #$"% te a$tic,e nai! '(ite $e&(,a$ an) p$e)ictab,e be#"$e

>"$)! tat be&in >it J* It i! n"t )$"ppe) be#"$e te "te$ /">e,!* Te ne&ati/e

teigha- >ic i! #",,">e) by naART- i! #$e'(ent,y !"$tene) t" te' na* Ti! i! n"t te

!a%e a! tenaLOC*

2* M"$p"p"ne%ic!Te$e i! an inte$e!tin& t>"=!tep %"$p"p"ne%ic p$"ce!! in Len&"* It in/",/e!

/">e, $ai!in& an) /">e, a$%"ny in ti$) pe$!"n !in&(,a$ )i$ect,y p"!!e!!e) n"(n!*

Wen =aPSSG "in! t" a n"(n tat en)! in ,"> /">e, J- te t>" J! a$e $ai!e) t" a

!in&,e %i) /">e, e* In a))iti"n- any J #($te$ ,e#t in te >"$) a$%"ni!e! >it te

1 Spect$a, ana,y!i! "# te!e ea/y !"(n)in& >"$)!- t"(& bey"n) te !c"pe "# ti! pape$- >"(,) %a:ean inte$e!tin& t"pic #"$ #($te$ in/e!ti&ati"n*

1


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>"$)=#ina, e* Ti! c"ntin(e! (nti, a /">e, "te$ tan J i! #"(n)- in >ic ca!e

any J t" te ,e#t "# te inte$/enin& %i) "$ i& /">e, $e%ain! J* Ti! /">e, $ai!in&

)"e! n"t a##ect %i) 6e- "9 "$ i& 6i- (9 /">e,!* E?a%p,e6;;9)e%"n!t$ate! -a

PSSG "inin& t" n"(n! tat )" n"t en) in J*

6;;9 a* kuliea$ [ =aPSSG kuliaea$=PSSG. e$ ea$b* abea$%pit [ =aPSSG abeaa$%pit=PSSG. i! a$%pitc* livot""t [ =aPSSG livoat""t=PSSG. it! t""t)* uluea) [ =aPSSG uluaea)=PSSG. e$ ea)

E?a%p,e 6;29)e%"n!t$ate! -aPSSG "inin& t" n"(n! en)in& in te ,"> /">e, J*

6;29 a* gha"$a,*CLF [ -a 'PSSG ghe"$a,*CLF-PSSG'b* limaan) [ =aPSSG limean)=PSSGc* longa,an)>a$) [ =aPSSG longe,an)>a$)=PSSG)* vungaai$ [ =aPSSG vungeai$=PSSGe* athana%e [ =aPSSG ethena%e=PSSG#* ghalagha(p=c"a!t [ =aPSSG gheleghe!*t*! (p=c"a!t !i)e&* ghanaghanatin:in& [ =aPSSG gheneghenetin:in&=PSSG

E?a%p,e! "# an inte$/enin& n"n=,"> /">e, tat )i!$(pt! J a$%"ny a$e &i/en in 6;9*

6;9 a* kabula inne$ ti& [ =aPSSG kabuleinne$ ti&=PSSG 6n"t kebuleb* vanua/i,,a&e [ =aPSSG vanue/i,,a&e=PSSG 6n"t venue

Te "bect p$"n"(n !(##i? -aOSG a! te !a%e !ape a! te p"!!e!!"$ pe$!"n

!(##i? =aPSSG* H">e/e$- >en -aOSG i! "ine) t" a /e$b tat en)! in ,"> /">e, J-

te t>" J! a$e n"t $ai!e) t" an e b(t bec"%e a )"(b,e JJ* Ti! i! e/i)ent in6;i,e in6;9b*sapai!

(!e) a! a /e$b in)icatin& %"ti"n t">a$) te !ea*

;3


21/239

6;9 a* pala sepe ni vaepa,a !apa=a ni /ae!i)e !ea>a$)=PSSG GEN "(!e!ea>a$) !i)e "# te "(!e

b*sapaa na thinaghe!apa=a na tina&e!ea>a$)=OSG ART can"e,a(nc te can"e 6,it* 7,i#t it8 !ea>a$) te can"e9

In 6;9a* =aPSSG !et! "## a p$"ce!! "# /">e, $ai!in& an) a$%"ni!ati"n* N"te tat te

p$"ce!! "# /">e, a$%"ny i! $e!t$icte) t" te >"$)- tat i!- te J! in te p$ece)in&

>"$)pala!i)e a$e n"t a##ecte) by te p$"ce!! >icsapa!ea>a$) (n)e$&"e!* In

6;9b* =aOSG )"e! n"t !et "## te /">e, $ai!in& an) a$%"ni!ati"n p$"ce!!*

;;


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NOUNS- PRONOUNS ND NOUN PHR SEST" te cate&"$y n"(n be,"n& >"$)! #"$ pe$!"n!- p,ace!- an) tin&!* N"(n! can

be in#,ecte) a! )i$ect,y p"!!e!!e) n"(n!;3- tey a$e p$ece)e) by an a$tic,e- tey a$e

!"%eti%e! %")i#ie) by a)ecti/e! !tati/e /e$b!- an) tey can act a! %")i#ie$! in

att$ib(ti/e c"n!t$(cti"n!* Len&" a! an e?ten!i/e !et "# p$"n"(n! tat )i!tin&(i!e!

#"($ pe$!"n! 6#i$!t pe$!"n inc,(!i/e an) e?c,(!i/e- !ec"n) pe$!"n- an) ti$) pe$!"n9-

an) #"($ n(%be$! 6!in&(,a$- p,($a,- )(a,- an) pa(ca,9- b(t n" &en)e$*;;In a))iti"n t" te

pa$a)i&%atic p$"n"(n!- te$e i! a $e#,e?i/e p$"n"(n !te% t" >ic )i$ect p"!!e!!"$

p$"n"(n !(##i?e! a$e "ine) t" )i!tin&(i! pe$!"n an) n(%be$ an) an inte$$"&ati/e

$e,ati/e p$"n"(n pai$ tat )i!tin&(i!e! bet>een (%an an) n"n=(%an*

De%"n!t$ati/e! )i!tin&(i! bet>een !in&(,a$ an) p,($a, p$"?i%a,- %e)ia,- an) )i!ta,

$e#e$ence*

*; N"(n!In Len&" >"$)! #"$ pe$!"n!- p,ace!- an) tin&! 6inc,()in& c"ncept! an)

ab!t$acti"n!9 a$e n"(n!* N"(n! can be )e$i/e) #$"% /e$b!- can be in#,ecte) a! )i$ect,y

p"!!e!!e) n"(n!-;2a$e %"!t "#ten p$ece)e) by an a$tic,e- a$e !"%eti%e! %")i#ie) by

a)ecti/e! !tati/e /e$b!- an) can act a! %")i#ie$! in att$ib(ti/e c"n!t$(cti"n! 6e*&*-gari

ghaokaci,) #e%a,e. &i$,- vae ato"(!e ,ea#. i*e*- a "(!e >it a !a&" pa,% ,ea# $""# 7a!

)i!tinct #$"% vae kava"(!e c"ppe$. i*e*- a "(!e >it a tin $""#89*

;3

In :eepin& >it te ,a$&e$ Oceanic t$a)iti"n- p"!!e!!i"n i! )i!c(!!e) (n)e$ te ,abe,! )i$ect an)in)i$ect p"!!e!!i"n* Ti! i! inten)e) a! a %ean! t" )i!tin&(i! te !ynta? "# p"!!e!!i"n #$"% te!e%antic! "# p"!!e!!i"n* Se%antica,,y- p"!!e!!i"n i! eite$ a,ienab,e "$ ina,ienab,e* Syntactica,,y- ti!i! e?p$e!!e) >it #$ee p"!!e!!"$ pe$!"n p$"n"(n! 6in)i$ect a,ienab,e9 "$ p"!!e!!"$ pe$!"n !(##i?e!"ine) t" te p"!!e!!e) n"(n 6)i$ect ina,ienab,e9*

;; Te$e a$e t>" >"$)! tat )i!tin&(i! &en)e$ in Len&" thogho!a%e=!e? !ib,in& an) vavine"pp"!ite=!e? !ib,in&* Ote$>i!e te &ene$a, te$%!ghaoka#e%a,e an) mane%a,e a$e (!e)*

;2 Tat i!- !e%antica,,y ina,ienab,e*

;2


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*;*; De$i/ati"n an) in#,ecti"n0e$b! a$e )e$i/e) #$"% n"(n! by a p$"ce!! "# !te%=initia, C0 $e)(p,icati"n*

6;9 n"(n /e$ba* vothe pa)),e vo(vothe !*"* pa)),e! a can"eb* vugho #i!in& net vu(vugho !*"* net! #i!

In te!e in!tance! C0 $e)(p,icati"n i! a p$"ce!! "# /e$bi#icati"n 6a,t"(& c"%pa$e /e$b

)e$i/ati"n 6pa&e9 >e$e n"(n! a$e )e$i/e) #$"% /e$b! by a !i%i,a$ p$"ce!! "# !te%=

initia, C0 $e)(p,icati"n9*

Inten!i#icati"n "# a n"(n i! a,!" acie/e) by !te%=initia, 609C0 $e)(p,icati"n*;

6;9 )-ami sake longa-i na leoni nimami na agu(agutu.IRR=;E*PL ca$$y ,an)>a$)=OPL ART a,, PS;E*PL ART RDPtin&We ta:e a,, "($ @ca$&" 6,it*- tin&*tin&9 a!"$e >it (!*

Ea$,ie$ in ti! te?t"ne c"nce$nin& %y #a%i,y &"in& by can"e t" te capita, cityte

n"n=$e)(p,icate) #"$% "# agutui! (!e)*

6;49 k-ami oni nimami na agutuIRR=;E*PL p$epa$e PS;E*PL ART tin&>e p$epa$e "($ @ca$&"

He$e- at te "(t!et "# te !t"$y- "($ ca$&" i! c"n!i)e$e) !"%e>at %ana&eab,e. tat i!-

te a(t"$ a!nt #(,,y c"n!i)e$e) 6"$ $eca,,e)9 te ,"t "# ca$&" tat >e ten) t" ta:e

>it (! >en >e t$a/e,* A#te$ )e!c$ibin& te p$"ce!! "# c""!in& >at >e >i,, ta:e >it

(! an) >at >e >i,, ,ea/e bein)- ca$$yin& it a,, t" te !ea!i)e- an) ,"a)in& it int" te

can"e te %a&nit()e "# te agutua! &$">n in te !pea:e$! %in)* S" >en it c"%e!

ti%e t" )e!c$ibe te (n,"a)in& "# "($ ca$&"- it a! &$">n t" agu(agutu* Te n"(n i!

inten!i#ie) t$"(& $e)(p,icati"n "# !te%=initia, 0C0*

; Wit $e#e$ence t" $e)(p,icati"n Sapi$ 6;12;9 c"%%ent! tat @N"tin& i! %"$e nat($a, tan tep$e/a,ence "# $e)(p,icati"n- in "te$ >"$)!- te $epetiti"n "# a,, "$ pa$t "# te $a)ica, e,e%ent* Tep$"ce!! i! &ene$a,,y e%p,"ye)- >it !e,#=e/i)ent !y%b",i!%- t" in)icate !(c c"ncept! a! )i!t$ib(ti"n-p,($a,ity- $epetiti"n- c(!t"%a$y acti/ity- inc$ea!e "# !ie- a))e) inten!ity- c"ntin(ance*

;


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In an"te$ e?a%p,e te n"(n daeci,) 7"##!p$in&8 i! #"(n) $e)(p,icate)*

6;19 ga(gara na vua ga(gara na da(dae m-e ga(gara ngata na dadaeRDPp(,, ART c$"c")i,e RDPp(,, ART RDPci,) CON+=SG RDPp(,, !t$"n& na )a)ae

me gara tine me gagara laka na vua%=e &a$a tina=a %=e &a&a$a ,a:a na /(aCON+=SG p(,, %"te$=PSSG CON+=SG RDPp(,, a,!" ART c$"c")i,ete c$"c")i,e p(,,e). te ci,) p(,,e)an) te ci,) p(,,e) a$). an) i!%"te$ p(,,e)- an) te c$"c")i,e a,!" p(,,e)

In ti! e?a%p,e- te ci,) "# te >"%an 6tina%"te$9 atte%pt! t" p(,, e$ "(t "# a

c$"c")i,e! &$a!p* Ea$,ie$ in ti! te?t te n"n=$e)(p,icate) #"$% daeci,) i! (!e) t>ice

#"$ te !a%e $e#e$ent*;i,e ti! %an i! in)ee) a ci,) e i! a,!" a %an- tat

te n"(n i! ,a$&e$ tan te ea$e$ %i&t e?pect- te n"(n i! $e)(p,icate)* Te$e i! an

inten!ity- a !en!e "# inc$ea!e) %a&nit()e- >it $e)(p,icate) n"(n!*;

Te !in&,e in#,ecti"na, p$"ce!! t" >ic n"(n! a$e !(bect i! tat )i$ect,y

p"!!e!!e) n"(n! a$e in#,ecte) #"$ p"!!e!!i"n pe$!"n- a! in 6239*

6239 na vae-guART "(!e=PS;SG%y "(!e

Te !yntactic cate&"$y "# )i$ect p"!!e!!i"n in)icate! te !e%antic n"ti"n "# ina,ienab,e

p"!!e!!i"n*;

;< B"t in!tance!te ghuvia a daea!e !"(te) t" e$ !"n an) me rongoa a daeaan) e$ !"n ea$)e$a$e (!e) p$i"$ t" te !t$(&&,e >it te c$"c")i,e*

; Te$e a$e t>" >"$)! #"$ ci,) in Len&" daean)gari* Te #"$%e$ in)icate! a ci,) >it pa$tic(,a$$e#e$ence t" i! "$ e$ ,inea&e 6i*e*- )e!cen)ant "#9 >i,e te ,atte$ in)icate! a p$e=p(be!cent pe$!"n*

; It !"(,) be n"te) tat agu(agutuan) da(daea$e n"t an"%a,ie! !(c a! !t(tte$in& "$ e!itati"n*; See pa&e


25/239

*;*2 N"(n c,a!!e! an) a$tic,e!Te$e a$e t>" pa$tic,e! in Len&"aan) naeite$ "# >ic a$e #"(n) be#"$e

nea$,y e/e$y n"(n*;4Te te%ptati"n i! !i%p,y t" a!!i&n te% t" te cate&"$y a$tic,e*

Te !it(ati"n- ">e/e$- i! n"t tat !i%p,e* Te cate&"$y a$tic,e i! (!(a,,y t"(&t t"

a/e !"%etin& t" )" >it a n"(n! )e#initene!!*;1In Len&"- te pa$tic,e! aan) na)"

n"t p,ay any appa$ent $",e in %a$:in& $e#e$entia,ity- tat i!- an ite%! !tat(! a! ne> "$

&i/en- $e#e$entia, "$ n"n=$e#e$entia, in a c"nte?t* F($te$- aan) nac"="cc($ >it te

)e%"n!t$ati/e!- >ic in)icate! tat tey p$"bab,y be,"n& t" a )i##e$ent c,a!! #$"%

)ete$%ine$!* B(t te %"$e te >i)e,y accepte) )e#initi"n "# a$tic,e i! !t$etce) t" t$y

t" #it te #(ncti"n "# te!e pa$tic,e!- te ,e!! !ati!#yin& it i!* Te )i##ic(,ty in te$%! "#

te!e Len&" pa$tic,e! i! >it te )e#inite in)e#inite c"nn"tati"n! tat te ,abe,

a$tic,e ca$$ie!*

T$ee "pti"n! #"$ na%in& te!e pa$tic,e! p$e!ent te%!e,/e! ;* c"%e (p >it

(ni'(e 6an) "pa'(e9 ,abe,! !(c a! @n"(n c,a!! %a$:e$ "ne an) @n"(n c,a!! %a$:e$

t>". 2* #",,">in& Ha!pe,%at 62339- capita,i!e te ,abe, @a$tic,e an) $en)e$ it

,an&(a&e !peci#ic 6e*&*- Len&" A$tic,e9 t" &ain te $ea)e$! (n)e$!tan)in& tat it i!;4 Te$e a$e !"%e in!tance! "# n"(n! tat )" n"t ta:e an a$tic,e pe$!"na, na%e! in !e$ie!"te$ tan

te #i$!t)" n"t a/e "ne. neite$ )" n"(n! #",,">in& te ,"cati/e i. n"$ )"e! te !ec"n) n"(n "#ce$tain p"!!e!!i/e &eniti/e c"n!t$(cti"n! 6an N p"!!e!!e) by a p"!!e!!e) N an) N niN9* Te a$tic,e!a$e a,!" #"(n) >it "te$ c,a!!e! "# >"$)! tan n"(n! inte$$"&ati/e an) $e,ati/e p$"n"(n! 6thi tha9-)e%"n!t$ati/e!- an) /e$b! in ce$tain c"nte?t!* Te!e e?cepti"n! a$e )i!c(!!e) be,">*

;1 T>" !a%p,e )e#initi"n! #"$ a$tic,e a$e @a pa$tic,e tat in)icate! a n"(n! )e#inite "$ in)e#inite$e#e$ence- an) ne> "$ &i/en !tat(! 6#$"% SIL! &,"!!a$y "# ,in&(i!tic te$%!. acce!!e) +(,y 233 atttp>>>*!i,*"$&,in&(i!tic!G,"!!a$yO#Lin&(i!ticTe$%!WatI!AnA$tic,e*t%9. an) @a !(bc,a!! "#)ete$%ine$! >ic )i!p,ay! a p$i%a$y $",e in )i##e$entiatin& te (!e! "# n"(n!. * * * a )i!tincti"n i!

(!(a,,y %a)e int" )e#inite an) in)e#inite type!- pa$t,y "n !e%antic an) pa$t,y "n &$a%%atica,&$"(n)! 6C$y!ta, 2339* B"t %a:e $e#e$ence t" a )e#inite in)e#inite )i!tincti"n* D$ye$6233a;49 $e%"/e! ti! ,i%itati"n #$"% i! )e#initi"n "# a$tic,e >en e >$ite!- @A,t"(& te!e>"$)! )" n"t /a$y #"$ )e#initene!!- >at tey !a$e >it a$tic,e! in E($"pean ,an&(a&e! i! te #acttat tey a$e a !et "# >"$)! >ic "cc($ >it i& #$e'(ency in n"(n p$a!e! an) >ic /a$y #"$ce$tain &$a%%atica, #eat($e! "# te n"(n p$a!e * * * Un)e$ ti! n"ti"n "# a$tic,e- te c")in& "#)e#initene!! i! n"t a )e#inin& #eat($e- b(t !i%p,y "ne "# te %any &$a%%atica, #eat($e! "# n"(np$a!e! tat a$tic,e! "#ten c")e*

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$e#e$$in& t" !"%etin& a$tic,e=,i:e b(t tat )"e!nt #it e?act,y te >i)e,y e,)

)e#initi"n! "# a$tic,e.23"$- * ca,, te% a$tic,e!- )e!c$ibe tei$ (ni'(ene!!- an)

)e%"n!t$ate tei$ (!e* Te ,atte$ app$"ac i! #",,">e) e$e* Di?"n 6;144;;en e >$ite! "# B"(%aa Fiian- an"te$ Oceanic

,an&(a&e @It i! an e!tab,i!e) pa$t "# te Fiian &$a%%atica, t$a)iti"n t" (!e te te$%

a$tic,e e$e- a,t"(& it i! bein& (!e) in an (n(!(a, !en!e* Un#"$t(nate,y- Di?"n )"e!

n"t )e!c$ibe >at i! (n(!(a, ab"(t it* R"!! 6233een a c"%%"n a$tic,e an) a pe$!"na, a$tic,e tat i! (!e)

>it a p$"pe$ pe$!"na, na%e- a :in te$% (!e) t" na%e !"%e"ne- "$ a )i!(ncti/e

p$"n"(n*2;Wat #",,">! >i,, )e%"n!t$ate tat a,t"(& te te$% a$tic,e i! (!e) in

ti! &$a%%a$ it in)icate! an a$tic,e "# a pa$tic(,a$ type*

It i! )i##ic(,t t" )$a> any :in) "# ,ine bet>een )e#inite an) in)e#initene> an)

&i/en- >en it c"%e! t" aan) na* Tey )" n"t e,p )i!tin&(i! bet>een )e#inite

in)e#inite- $e#e$entia, n"n=$e#e$entia,- i)enti#iab,e n"n=i)enti#iab,e- !peci#ic n"n=

!peci#ic- "$ acti/ate) n"n=acti/ate) in#"$%ati"n ab"(t an ite% in c"nte?t* Te #i$!t

an) a,, #",,">in& $e#e$ence! t" a n"(n a$e in/a$iab,y #"(n) >it te !a%e #"$% "# te

app$"p$iate a$tic,e a#"$ na%e) (%an! an) na#"$ (nna%e) (%an! an) n"n=(%an!*

23 Ha!pe,%at 62339 "pine!- @I >"(,) n"t $ec"%%en) te (!e "# "pa'(e na%e! t" )e!c$ipti/e,in&(i!t!* Opa'(e na%e! %ay be (!ti#ie) by te"$etica, c"n!i)e$ati"n!- b(t tey a$e n"t p$actica,

beca(!e tey a$e /e$y a$) t" $e%e%be$* Te be!t !",(ti"n i! t" (!e #a%i,ia$ te$%! #"$ %ne%"nic$ea!"n!- b(t t" capita,ie te% in "$)e$ t" e%pa!ie tat te cate&"$ie! a$e p$"pe$ na%e!*F",,">in& ti! ,"&icit !ee%! tat e/e$y &$a%%atica, cate&"$y te$% >"(,) nee) t" be capita,i!e) an)p$ece)e) by te pa$tic(,a$ ,an&(a&e na%e "# te "ne (n)e$ !t()y a! e/e$y &$a%%atica, cate&"$y i!$ea,i!e) !"%e>at )i##e$ent,y in )i##e$ent ,an&(a&e!* I# te (ni'(ene!! "# te cate&"$y! $ea,i!ati"n inte ,an&(a&e bein& )e!c$ibe) i! a)e'(ate,y e?p,aine)- te capita,i!ati"n "# te$%! !ee%! !(pe$#,("(!*

2; C$">,ey 62332a29 i)enti#ie! t>" a$tic,e! in $e,ate) Ge,a ap$"pe$ an) nac"%%"n )e#inite !(bectan) "bect*

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@Ne> in#"$%ati"n in a )i!c"($!e i! "#ten %a$:e) >it te !a%e pa$tic,e a! t"!e

in!tance! in >ic it i! @&i/en in#"$%ati"n* C"%pa$e62;9a* an) b*- >ic a$e

!e'(entia, !entence! in a te?t*

62;9 a* u dea m-u tu-ri thai-a t-i na aliva.;SG &" CON+=;SG !tep=TR a$$i/e*at=OSG RL=LOC ART centipe)eI >ent an) I !teppe) "n a centipe)e*

b* T-e mai na aliva e mai pasu i riki-gu.RL=SG c"%e ART centipe)e SG c"%e bite LOC )i&it=PS;SGTe centipe)e ca%e- it ca%e an) bit %y t"e*

In te te?t- alivacentipe)e i! int$")(ce) a! ne> in#"$%ati"n in >at i! e$e e?a%p,e

62;9a* Te n"(n alivacentipe)e- #"$ ti! #i$!t an) a,, #",,">in& in!tance! in te te?t- i!

#"(n) >it naART- a! in 62;9b* Ti! )e%"n!t$ate!- at ,ea!t in te$%! "# $e#e$entia,

%a$:in&- tat te$e i! n"t p$"pe$,y a )i!tincti"n bet>een )e#inite an) in)e#inite

$e#e$ence >it a nate !a%e pa$tic,e )"e! b"t "b!* Te pa$tic,e! aan) na"n tei$

">n a$e (n%a$:e) a! t" )e#initene!!*22

Te "n,y )i!tin&(i!in& pa$a%ete$ >it $e#e$ence t" aan) nai! tat "#

(%anity- an) e/en ti! %(!t be '(a,i#ie)* Te$e a$e t>" )i!tinct n"(n c,a!!e! >it

>ic aan) naa$e (!e)* Te #i$!t c,a!! i! %a)e (p "# @na%e) (%an!* P$"pe$ na%e!

an) te$%! "# c,"!e :in!ip 6e*&*- dae ci,)- )e!cen)ant- tama #ate$- tau !p"(!e- an)

tina %"te$9 a$e #"(n) >it te a$tic,e a*2A,, "te$ n"(n!(%an an) n"n=(%an-

22 Te$e a$e- ">e/e$- ,a$&e$ c"n!t$(cti"n! in/",/in& b"t a$tic,e! tat )" p$"/i)e !peci#ic n"n=

!peci#ic $e#e$ence* Te!e a$e aDEMnaARTDEMART an) a sakai naART"ne ART $e!pecti/e,y* See be,">*2

Na%e! a/e a !pecia, p,ace in Len&" !"ciety* In #act- te$e a$e !t$ict,y e,) na%e @tab""!pe$!"n! "#ce$tain $e,ati"n!ip t" te !pea:e$ >"!e na%e! a$e ne/e$ !p":en* Ti! ",)! t$(e #"$ pe"p,e "#i&e$ !tat(! tan te !pea:e$ "ne! pa$ent! an) "ne! !p"(!e! pa$ent! a$e ne/e$ $e#e$$e) t" byna%e* N(c,ea$ #a%i,y te$%! a$e (!e) #"$ #ate$ an) %"te$ an) te te$% tabu7tJ%b(8 #"$bi))en i!(!e) #"$ #ate$= an) %"te$=in=,a>* F"$ t"!e "# !a%e "$ ,e!!e$ !tat(! 6i*e*- !p"(!e an) ci,)$en9- tei$na%e i! n"t !t$ict,y tabu* T>" ,e!! !t$ict,y e,) c"n/enti"n! a$e t" $e#e$ t" (nc,e! an) a(nt! a! #ate$an) %"te$- an) t" pe"p,e >it te !a%e na%e a! te !pea:e$ a! !i%p,y na%e* Te!e tit,e! a$e- #"$a,, intent! an) p($p"!e!- te pe$!"n! na%e*

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ani%ate an) inani%atea$e #"(n) >it te a$tic,e na ART 6e*&*-gari ci,)- y"(t 6>it

n" $e#e$ence t" )e!cent9-ghaoka >"%an- mane %an- tinoni pe$!"n- vae "(!e- vua

c$"c")i,e9*

Te a$tic,e ai! #"(n) >it a c,a!! "# n"(n! c"%p$i!e) "# na%e) (%an!* P$"pe$

na%e! an) :in te$%! tat #(ncti"n a! na%e! p"p(,ate ti! c,a!!* E?a%p,e6229 !e$/e! t"

i,,(!t$ate*

6229 a J. te dea kolua a teme i leo ni ponoa + t=e )ea :",(=a a ta%a=a i ,e" ni p"n"ART + RL=SG &" COM=OSG ART #ate$=PSSG LOC in!i)e GEN b(!+* >ent >it i! #ate$ t" te b(!

Te na%e +* an) te :in te$% tama#ate$ a$e b"t p$ece)e) by te a$tic,e a*

Inte$e!tin&,y- tama#ate$ can be (!e) a! a p$"pe$ na%e 6a! in te p$ece)in& e?a%p,e9

an) a! a c"%%"n n"(n* C"n!i)e$ it! (!e in629*

629 ma !. igeia n a t a ma -d i ra na tinoni ni *.CON+ I EPSG ART #ate$=PSPL ART pe$!"n GEN Aan) I* e i! tei$ #ate$- te pe"p,e "# 7t$ibe8 A*

He$e tama#ate$ i! p$ece)e) by nate c"%%"n a$tic,e* Wat )i##e$entiate! te t>"

(!e! "# tama#ate$ in6229 an) 629- an) in#"$%! te ea$e$ >ic c,a!! "# n"(n i!

bein& in/":e)- i! te #"$% "# te a$tic,e*

E?a%p,e 62e$e "ne %i&t

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e?pect "ne "# te !(bect p$"n"(n! eSG "$ igeiaEPSG*

Ea$,y "n it >a! )i##ic(,t t" ea$ te a$tic,e ain !entence! ,i:e te #i$!t "# 62in& e%patic p$"n"(n!- a! in629-tat it >a! p"!!ib,e t" )i!tin&(i! aART

#",,">in& !in&(,a$ "bect %a$:e$ =a*

629 !koghami a /. ami-ko dea i nughu.\DU]EP;E*PL ART P ;E*PL=DU &" LOC $i/e$P* an) I- >e t>" &" t" te $i/e$*

Wi,e in 62a! )i##ic(,t t" ea$- it >a! te$e* Be#"$e )i$ect,y p"!!e!!e)

n"(n!- ">e/e$- te a$tic,e ai! "pti"na,*2it te

p$ece)in& J! "#- in te!e e?a%p,e!- vuac$"c")i,e an)ghu-vi-a!"(t=TR=OSG*

H">e/e$- )($in& t$an!c$ipti"n >it Len&" !pea:e$!- it "#ten e%e$&e!* B(t !"%eti%e!- a!

2< C$">,ey 62332a29 n"te! "# Ge,a tat- @In "bect p"!iti"n- pe$!"na, na%e! a$e "b,i&at"$i,y p$ece)e)by te a$tic,e J- >i,e te a$tic,e i! "pti"na, be#"$e !(##i?e) n"(n!* A! e/i)ence "# ti! e p$"/i)e!t>" e?a%p,e!

an)-

He$e 6 9 in)icate! "pti"na,ity an) 2i! te /"ice) /e,a$ #$icati/e* Beca(!e "# "$t"&$apy i!!(e!-C$">,ey @)eci)e) t" $ep$e!ent #"$%! in p"ne%ic $ate$ tan "$t"&$apic !c$ipt 629*

;1

e inu beti a tephenSGPAST )$in: >ate$ ART StepenStepen )$an: >ate$

geva ku ri2i-a 3a tama-gu,ate$ ;SGFUT !ee=SG ART #ate$=;SG,ate$ I >i,, !ee %y #ate$


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>it dae-miuci,)=PS2PL in 629be,">- aART i! n"t te$e*

629 ighamu so(soko na ti(tina ma na ta(tama a thi t-e loghoEP2PL RDP#ini! ART RDP%"te$ an) ART RDP#ate$ ART REL RL=SG a/e

dae-miu i 4. skulci,)=PS2PL LOC B !c"",a,, y"( %"te$! an) #ate$! >" a/e y"($ ci,)$en at B* !c"",

Ti! i! pa$tic(,a$,y inte$e!tin& beca(!e te a$tic,e ai! n"t #(!e) >it a p$ece)in& J* In

#act- te e?pecte) "bect %a$:e$ "n logho6=aOSG "$ =iOPL9 i! a,!" ab!ent*

Te "te$ a$tic,e- naART- i! #"(n) be#"$e c"%%"n n"(n!* In6249 t>" ani%ate

n"n=(%an n"(n! a$e #"(n) >it te a$tic,e na*

6249 ! vi ga t-e dea ga na igha e tumuri po na vonu.LOC >e$e te$e RL=SG &" te$e ART #i! SG #",,"> LIM ART t($t,eWe$e/e$ te #i! >ent te t($t,e (!t #",,">e)*

In 6219naART i! #"(n) >it te ani%ate n"n=(%an n"(n kau)"& an) te a,$ea)y

n"te) (%an e?cepti"n mane%an*

6219 * deni naghai t-e ne abu ghini-a na kau na mane.ART DEMSG ART !tic: RL=SG EMPH it INST=OSG ART )"& ART %anTi! i! te !tic: >it >ic te %an $ea,,y it te )"&*

E?a%p,e 6219a,!" )e%"n!t$ate! te !peci#ic c"n!t$(cti"n a deni naARTDEMART (!e) t"

$e#e$enceghai!tic:*

In a,, te e?a%p,e! "# te a$tic,e nap$e!ente) t" ti! p"int te a$tic,e a!

)i$ect,y p$ece)e) te n"(n* Ti! i! n"t a,>ay! te ca!e* Te$e a$e t>" c,a!!e! "# >"$)!

'(anti#ie$! an) in)i$ect p"!!e!!"$ p$"n"(n!tat can be #"(n) bet>een naART an)

te n"(n* In 639an inte$/enin& '(anti#ie$ leonia,,- e/e$y i! p$e!ent*

639 !ghamu na leoni tinoni k-amu rongo mai1EP2PL ART a,, pe$!"n IRR=2PL ,i!ten c"%eE/e$y"ne,i!ten (p^

23


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In 6;9b"t a '(anti#ie$ 6balu!"%e9 an) an in)i$ect p"!!e!!"$ p$"n"(n 6niguaPS;SG9

a$e #"(n) bet>een naan) te n"(n*

6;9 + ngao-a k-ami-tu dea tura-i na ba lu n igu a koga;

SG

>ant=O

SG IRR

=;E

*PL

=PAU

&" ca$$y=O

PL ART

!"%ePS

;SG

!tic:I >ant >e #e> t" &" ca$$y %y !tic:!

Te !it(ati"n #"(n) in 6;9i! "n,y te ca!e >en a '(anti#ie$ i! in/",/e)* Wit"(t a

'(anti#ie$ te a$tic,e #",,">! te in)i$ect p"!!e!!"$ p$"n"(n an) )i$ect,y p$ece)e! te

n"(n a! in629*

629 m-u dea i vae ni talu-a nigua na 4ibleCON+=;SG &" LOC "(!e GEN ,ea/e=OSG %y ART bib,ean) I >ent t" %y "(!e t" ,ea/e %y Bib,e

E?a%p,e 69nice,y )e%"n!t$ate! te )i##e$ent c"nte?t! in >ic te t>"

a$tic,e! a$e (!e)*

69 * thi na ethe a daemu ia5a ti na ata=a a )ae=%( iaART REL ART na%e=PSSG ART ci,)=PS2SG DEMWat i! y"($ ci,)! na%e

Te (%an a$tic,e aART i! #"(n) t>ice "nce be#"$e te (%an $e,ati/e p$"n"(n thi

an) a&ain be#"$e te c,"!e :in!ip te$% daeci,)- >i,e naART i! #"(n) be#"$e te

c"%%"n- an) in ti! ca!e p"!!e!!e)- n"(n ethe 'name-PSSG.

Te$e a$e a n(%be$ "# c"nte?t! in >ic a n"(n )"e! n"t ta:e an a$tic,e* In

a))iti"n- te$e a$e a n(%be$ "# >"$) c,a!!e! be!i)e! n"(n! tat a$e #"(n) >it an

a$tic,e*

An a$tic,e )"e! n"t appea$ be#"$e n"(n! #",,">in& te ,"cati/e i*2

One c"(,) >e,,

!ay i leghaiLOC&a$)en b(t n"t i na leghai. i oniaraLOCH"nia$a b(t n"t i a oniaraLOC

ARTH"nia$a* In #act- p$"pe$ p,ace na%e!- >en tey ta:e an a$tic,e- ta:e naART*

2 Di?"n 6;144;;9 $ep"$t! te !a%e pen"%en"n in B"(%aa Fiian*

2;


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6icte a$tic,e i! n"t (!e) >e$e it %i&t be e?pecte) i!

be#"$e te p"!!e!!e) n"(n "# a p"!!e!!e) n"(n a! in69* Ti! type "# c"n!t$(cti"n i!

c"n!i)e$e) a !in&,e (nit an) ta:e! a !in&,e a$tic,e*

69 e dea otia na lime tinee )ea "ti=a na ,i%a=a tina=aSG &" &$ab=OSG ART an)=PSSG %"te$=PSSGe >ent an) &$abbe) i! %"te$! an)

Ti! c"(,) be ,e!!=#$ee,y &,"!!e) a! e >ent an) &$abbe) it te an) "# e$ 7te8

%"te$ "# i%*

Geniti/e c"n!t$(cti"n! "# te type N niN a$e a,!" be$e#t "# an a$tic,e "n te

!(b"$)inate n"(n. an a$tic,e appea$! "n te #i$!t n"(n "n,y*

69 na vua ni niuART #$(it GEN c"c"n(tte #$(it "# te c"c"n(t

A&ain- ti! i! c"n!i)e$e) a !in&,e (nit an) ta:e! a !in&,e a$tic,e*

Fina,,y- te a$tic,e aART )"e! n"t appea$ #",,">in& te c"n(ncti"n maan)

>en %"$e tan "ne p$"pe$ n"(n i! ,i!te)*

69 !\tu]ghami a 4. ma 6. ma /. ma #. t-ami-tu uru.\DU]EP;E*PL ART B CON+ R CON+ P CON+ L RL=;E*PL=PAU )i/eWe #e>B*- R*- P*- L*- 7an) I8>e #e> >ent )i/in&*

Te a$tic,e ai! #"(n) be#"$e te #i$!t na%e "n,y*

Te pa$tic,e! a naa$e #"(n) >it a /a$iety "# "te$ >"$) c,a!!e! "te$ tan

n"(n!* Te %a$:e)=#"$=(%an pa$tic,e ai! #"(n) be#"$e te (%an inte$$"&ati/e

$e,ati/e p$"n"(n thian) )e%"n!t$ati/e! 6e*&*- a nga inauARTDEMEP;SG. I c""!e tat

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"ne9* Te %a$:e)=#"$=c"%%"n pa$tic,e nai! #"(n) be#"$e te n"n=(%an ani%ate an)

inani%ate inte$$"&ati/e $e,ati/e p$"n"(n tha- an) /e$b! #"(n) #",,">in& ce$tain

%")a, /e$b! "# a!pect an) ne&ati"n* Te pa$tic,e ai! ne/e$ #"(n) in te p,ace "# na

be#"$e /e$b! an) >i,e na)"e! c"="cc($ >it )e%"n!t$ati/e! it i! ne/e$ #"(n) )i$ect,y

be#"$e "ne 6e*&*- na mane deniART%an DEM an) n"t7na deni8 c"%pa$e a deni- >ic i!

&$a%%atica,. !ee 62199* Te )i##e$ent en/i$"n%ent! in >ic aan) naa$e #"(n) a$e

)i!p,aye) in 649*

649 a nan"(n __N 6@na%e) (%an!9 __N 6c"%%"n9inte$$"&ati/e $e,ati/e p$"n"(n __thi6(%an9 __tha6n"n=(%an9)e%"n!t$ati/e __DEM __N 6c"%%"n9 DEM/e$b __0

Te (%an inte$$"&ati/e $e,ati/e p$"n"(n thii! p$ece)e) by te a$tic,e a* In

619thi#(ncti"n! a! te inte$$"&ati/e p$"n"(n >"*

619 * thi na atha-mu ighoe5ART INT ART na%e=PS2SG EP2SGW" i! y"($ na%e

In 6"*

6


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In 62 6!ee pa&e; "b!e$/e te

2


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p"!iti"n "# te a$tic,e nain 6ant t" %a:e any @e?t$a #,a/"($

b* t-amu tangomana na ta(taghoRL=2PL ab,e ART RDP&"*#i!y"( a$e ab,e t" &" #i!in&

c* ami-ko teigha na ta(tavu thai-a na kei;E*PL=DU NEG ART RDP#in) a$$i/e*at=OSG ART ba!:et>e c"(,)nt #in) te ba!:et

)* Tabu na lavi-a na ghau: b-e ghado-gho.NEG ART &$ab=OSG ART :ni#e APPR=SG pie$ce=O2SGD"nt &$ab te :ni#e n" &"") it c(t! y"(^

e* )ou na vanga na igha.NEG ART eat ART #i!Te #i! a$e (n>i,,in& t" eat 7te bait8*

Te p$e!ence "# te a$tic,e nain te!e in!tance! t$eat! te /e$b #",,">in& a %")a, /e$b

!"%e>at ,i:e a n"(n >i,e $etainin& it! /e$ba, p$"pe$tie! 6n"tab,y te #act tat it !ti,,

ta:e! te "bect !(##i? >en $e'(i$e)9*

Stati/e /e$b! can be n"%ina,i!e) >it te a$tic,e*2

6"%an CON+ ART %an

gari mokoni, gari ghaokaci,) p"!t=p(be!cent &i$, ci,) >"%an

>e a,, >i,, ,i!ten t" e$ te bi& an) te !%a,,- 7te8 >"%en an) te %en- p"!t=p(be!cent &i$,!- p$e=p(be!cent &i$,!

N"te tat in 6"%an- #e%a,e- n"$ te !e$ia, n"(n! gari mokonici,)

7#e%a,e8 p"!t=p(be!cent an)gari ghaokaci,) #e%a,e 7p$e=p(be!cent8- a/e an a$tic,e

2 Te p$a!e na sule ma na pilee$e $e#e$! t" pe"p,epa$t "# te ; IN*PLka* Te !pea:e$ i! )e,ineatin&inc,(!i/e "pp"!ite! i%p"$tant 6c#*mane sulebi& 7i*e*- i%p"$tant- $e!pecte)8 %an9 an) n"t !"i%p"$tant- >"%en an) %en- an) !" "n* Ti! $ea)in& i! !(b!tantiate) in "te$ te?t!*

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p$ece)in&*2A! >it 629ab"/e- it i! )i##ic(,t t" e?p,ain ti!*

De!pite te #act tat te a$tic,e! in Len&" )" n"t )i!tin&(i! )e#inite an)

in)e#inite $e#e$encete$e a$e c"n!t$(cti"n! tat p$"/i)e !peci#ic an) n"n=!peci#ic

$e#e$ence* Speci#ic $e#e$ence i! !i&na,,e) by a DEMnaN >i,e n"n=!peci#ic i! by a sakai na

N ART"ne ARTN* E?a%p,e6it >ic te %an $ea,,y it te )"&*

Te n"(nghai!tic: i! &i/en !peci#ic !tat(! >it ti! c"n!t$(cti"n*

E?a%p,e 6e$e t$yin& t" "(t)" "ne an"te$ )i/in& )eep- &"in& (n)e$

$"c:!- an) !" "n* Tey >e$e eac (nab,e t" be!t te "te$ (nti, marako dea thaia a sakai

na kokomu kikikitey a$$i/e) at a !%a,, i!,an)* Ti! c"(,) a/e been any "# te

app$"?i%ate,y 113 i!,an)! tat %a:e (p S","%"n I!,an)! 6"$- in)ee)- any "te$ i!,an) in

te /a!t Paci#ic9* Te c"n!t$(cti"n a sakai naART"ne ART %a$:! ti! a! n"n=!peci#ic-

ne> in#"$%ati"n in te c"nte?t* Te ne?t %enti"n "# te i!,an) i! %a$:e) >it a

)e%"n!t$ati/e*

6, (p LOC !an) LOC i!,an) DEMan) it 7te t($t,e8 c$a>,e) (p "n te !an) "n tat i!,an)

2 An"te$ e?a%p,e "# ti! in/",/in& inani%ate "bect! i! ara kuki rais ara kuki viuvi ma na titey c"":e)$ice- tey c"":e) p"tat" an) tea* Wi,e te$e i! an a$tic,e be#"$e te #ina, n"(n titea- neite$ rais$icen"$ viuvip"tat" a/e an a$tic,e*

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He$e te $e#e$ence i! c,ea$,y !peci#ic*

*2 P$"n"(n!Len&" a! a $ic !et "# p$"n"(n! >it "/e$ 13 #"$%! in te cate&"$ie! "#

e%patic- !(bect $e#e$ence- "bectan) )i$ect an) in)i$ect p"!!e!!"$ p$"n"(n! 6!ee

Fi&($e *; P$"n"(n!9* Len&" )i!tin&(i!e! #"($ pe$!"n! 6; inc,(!i/e 6IN9- ; e?c,(!i/e 6E9-

2- 9 an) #"($ n(%be$! 6!in&(,a$ 6SG9- p,($a, 6PL9- )(a, 6DU9- an) pa(ca, 6PAU99- b(t n"

&en)e$* In a))iti"n t" te!e- te$e a$e (%an 6thi9 an) n"n=(%an 6tha9 p$"n"(n! tat

a/e b"t inte$$"&ati/e an) $e,ati/e #(ncti"n!- an) a $e#,e?i/e p$"n"(n !te% 6tibo9 t"

>ic )i$ect p"!!e!!"$ p$"n"(n! "in t" in)icate pe$!"n an) n(%be$*

e%patic !(bect$e#e$ence

"bect

6e*&*- 0=u9

p"!!e!!"$6)i$ect96e*&*- N=gu9

p"!!e!!"$6in)i$ect&ene$a,9

p"!!e!!"$6in)i$ect "$a,c"n!(%ab,e9

!in&(,a$; inau u -u -gu ni-gu-a gha-gu-a2 ighoe o -gho -mu ni-mo-a gha-mu-a igeia e -a -a, -na ne ghep,($a,; IN ighita a -ghita -da no-da gha-da; E ighami ami -ghami -mami ni-mami gha-mami2 ighamu amu -ghamu -miu ni-miu gha-miu igeira ara ira, -ra, -i -dira no-dira gha-dira)(a, 6ko9; IN i\ko]ghita a-ko -ko-ghita ko- -da ko-no-da ko-gha-da; E i\ko]ghami ami-ko -ko-ghami ko- -mami ko-ni-mami ko-gha-mami2 i\ko]ghamu amu-ko -ko-ghamu ko- -miu ko-ni-miu ko-gha-miu i\ko]ira ara-ko -ko-ira ko- -dira ko-no-dira ko-gha-dirapa(ca, 6tu9; IN i\tu]ghita a-tu -tu-ghita tu- -da tu-no-da tu-gha-da; E i\tu]ghami ami-tu -tu-ghami tu- -mami tu-ni-mami tu-gha-mami2 i\tu]ghamu amu-tu -tu-ghamu tu- -miu tu-ni-miu tu-gha-miu

i\tu]ira ara-tu -tu-ira tu- -dira tu-no-dira tu-gha-diraFigure ;.": /ronouns

Fi$!t pe$!"n n"n=!in&(,a$ 6i*e*- PL- DU- PAU9 a! inc,(!i/e 6IN9 an) e?c,(!i/e 6E9

#"$%!* Inc,(!i/e a! >itin it! !c"pe te a))$e!!ee6!9 6e*&*- i\ko]ghita\DU]EP;IN*PL. >e

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t>"y"( an) I9 >i,e e?c,(!i/e )"e! n"t inc,()e te a))$e!!ee6!9 >itin it! !c"pe 6e*&*-

i\ko]ghami\DU]EP;E*PL. >e t>"!e an) I b(t n"t y"(9*

N(%be$ a! a #"($=>ay )i!tincti"n in Len&"* Te #i$!t )i!tincti"n i! bet>een

!in&(,a$ 6SG9 an) n"n=!in&(,a$ 6PL- DU- PAU9* P,($a, i! n"n=!in&(,a$ n"n=!peci#ic- tat i! t"

!ay it can be (!e) t" %a$: t>" t" an in#inite n(%be$ "# $e#e$ent!* Witin n"n=!in&(,a$

te$e i! a #($te$ )i!tincti"n bet>een !peci#ic an) n"n=!peci#ic* D(a, 6DU9 i! (!e) #"$ t>"

an) "n,y t>" $e#e$ent!- >i,e pa(ca, 6PAU9 i! (!e) t" in)icate t$ee "$ %"$e*24Wi,e )(a,

!tan)! "(t a! '(ite )i!tinct 6t>" an) "n,y t>"9- te )i!tincti"n bet>een p,($a, an)

pa(ca, i! n"t a,>ay! i%%e)iate,y appa$ent* Wat it c"%e! )">n t" i! a %atte$ "#

!peci#icity pa(ca, i! (!e) >en !pea:e$! >ant t" )e,i%it te $an&e "# $e#e$ent!* S"- #"$

e?a%p,e- >en !"%e"ne i! a))$e!!in& a ,a$&e c$">) >it in!t$(cti"n! #"$ an (pc"%in&

#ea!t an) ba!e! tei$ !peec "n >at appene) at te ,a!t #ea!t- te pa(ca, #"$% %ay be

(!e) t" in)icate t"!e @#e> >" >e$e at te ,a!t #ea!t 6)e!pite te #act tat tey

n(%be$e) "/e$ "ne (n)$e) pe"p,e9*

Te !in&,e in!tance "# a )i!tincti"n ba!e) "n ani%acy a%"n& pe$!"na, p$"n"(n!

i! -iOPL >ic i! (!e) #"$ inani%ate "bect! "n,y 6e*&*- talu-i na kogap(t*)">n=OPLART

!tic:. p(t te !tic:! )">n9* A,, "te$ ti$) pe$!"n p$"n"(n! a$e (!e) #"$ b"t ani%ate

an) inani%ate $e#e$ence 6e*&*- na koga iraART!tic: EPPL. te !tic:! an) na mane iraART

%an EPPL. te %en9* A! %enti"ne) ab"/e- te $e,ati/e inte$$"&ati/e p$"n"(n! thian)

tha)i!tin&(i! ani%ate #$"% inani%ate*

24 R"!! 6233


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*2*; E%paticTe Len&" e%patic p$"n"(n p$"/i)e! pa$ticipant $e#e$ence "(t!i)e "# te /e$b

p$a!e* Te e%patic p$"n"(n i! (!e) #"$ !(bect!- "bect! an) p"!!e!!"$!* It can !tan)

"n it! ">n- b(t i! "#ten (!e) t"&ete$ >it a n"(n p$a!e* Te !et "# e%patic

p$"n"(n! i! &i/en in639*

639 ;IN ;E 2 SG 3inau 3ighoe i3geiaPL 3ighita 3ighami 3ighamu i3geiraDU 3i-ko-ghita 3i-ko-ghami 3i-ko-ghamu 3i-ko-iraPAU 3i-tu-ghita 3i-tu-ghami 3i-tu-ghamu 3i-tu-ira

Te e,e%ent! in pa$ente!e! a$e n"t a,>ay! !p":en >en te e%patic p$"n"(n i!

(!e)*21Ti! can ,ea) t" c"n#(!i"n >en atte%ptin& t" !"$t "(t pa$ticipant $e#e$ence-

e!pecia,,y in ,i&t "# te #act tat- >en te pa$entetic pa$t! a$e )$"ppe)- te n"n=

!in&(,a$ "bect p$"n"(n! a$e i)entica, t" tei$ e%patic p$"n"(n c"(nte$pa$t!*3Wen

e%patic an) "bect p$"n"(n! appea$ !i%i,a$- te !(bect $e#e$ence p$"n"(n p,ay! an

i%p"$tant $",e in !"$tin& "(t pa$ticipant $e#e$ence 6!ee pa&e ;49- e!pecia,,y &i/en te

/a$iab,e nat($e "# Len&" !(bect "bect >"$) "$)e$*

In 6;9b"t c,a(!e! e%p,"y te e%patic p$"n"(n* Te act"$! in eac c,a(!e a$e

&i/en e%pa!i! by %ean! "# ti! "pti"na, p$"n"(n e/en t"(& b"t a$e in)icate) >it

!(bect $e#e$ence p$"n"(n! in te /e$b p$a!e!*

6;9 ara-ko gara iti-a na thinaghe i oira m-u ghe tapa inauPL=DU p(,, (p=OSG ART can"e \DU]EPPL CON+=;SG c"ntin(e $(n EP;SGtey t>" p(,,e) (p te can"e an) I c"ntin(e) t" $(n

A %"$e @,ite$a, t$an!,ati"n i! tey t>" p(,,e) (p te can"e tey t>" an) I c"ntin(e)

21 F"$ %"!t "# te!e I a/e n"t been ab,e t" )ete$%ine te c"n)iti"n! tat &i/e $i!e t" te !"$tene)#"$%!* Te "ne tat !ee%! c"n!i!tent i! te e%patic (!e "# iraEPPL >it "bect!* See69 an)69*

3 Ti! i! n"t (ni'(e t" Len&"te En&,i! p$"n"(n


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t" $(n I* N"te tat b"t in!tance! "# te e%patic p$"n"(n a$e #"(n) #",,">in& te

/e$b in tei$ $e!pecti/e c,a(!e!- >i,e tei$ c"$$e!p"n)in& !(bect $e#e$ence p$"n"(n!

6ara-koan) m-u9a$e #"(n) be#"$e te /e$b!* Te $",e "# te e%patic p$"n"(n e$e i! t"

$eite$ate te !(bect! an)- by !" )"in&- e,p )i##e$entiate te act"$! "ne #$"% te "te$*

Tat i! t" !ay- tat te ;SGact"$ m-u = inau>a! n"t in/",/e) in p(,,in& (p te can"e

6e/en t"(& e $")e in it an) >"(,) n"$%a,,y be e?pecte) t" e,p9- n"$ )i) te PL

act"$! ara-ko$(n at ti! p"int in te na$$ati/e 6tey )i) $(n a#te$ tei$ #$ien) "nce te

can"e >a! a!"$e9* Te #act tat te ;SGact"$ a) been bitten by a centipe)e a! a ,"t t"

)" >it te )i!tincti"n "# act"$! an) acti"n! te "ne bitten i&tai,e) it "%e >i,e

i! c"%pani"n! t"": ca$e "# "te$ )etai,! be#"$e tey #",,">e)*

Wen a #i$!t pe$!"n n"n=!in&(,a$ #"$% "# te e%patic p$"n"(n i! (!e)- te

!pea:e$ )"e! n"t $ecei/e e?p,icit %enti"n- a,t"(& i! c"%pani"n6!9 )"*;

629 a*! oghami a /. ami-ko dea i nughu.\DU]EP;E*PL ART P ;E*PL=DU &" LOC $i/e$We t>"- P* 7an) I8- >e t>" >ent t" te $i/e$*

b* !tughami a 4. ma 6. ma /. ma #. t-ami-tu uru.\PAU]EP;E*PL ART B CON+ R CON+ P CON+ L RL=;E*PL=PAU )i/eWe #e>B*- R*- P*- L* 7an) I8>e #e> >ent )i/in&*

c* m-ami-tu dea talu iti itughami 4. ma 9.CON+=;E*PL=PAU &" p(t (p \PAU]EP;E*PL B CON+ N>e #e> p(t te% (p >e #e> B* an) N* 7an) I8*

Te na$$at"$ )"e! n"t $ecei/e !peci#ic %enti"n in te!e e?a%p,e!- t"(& e i!

)e#inite,y inc,()e) a%"n& te pa$ticipant! by /i$t(e "# te #i$!t pe$!"n p,($a, e%patic

p$"n"(n #"$%* N"te in te!e e?a%p,e! tat te !(bect n"(n p$a!e #",,">! te

e%patic p$"n"(n* Ti! i! a,>ay! te ca!e >en tey c"="cc($*

;C"%pa$e Len&" >e #e> an) Y an) _ t" En&,i! - Y- _- and !*

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Wen a n"n=!in&(,a$ e%patic p$"n"(n i! n"t (!e) #"$ te !pea:e$ an) e$

c"%pani"n!- te !pea:e$ can be %a)e e?p,icit a,"n& >it e$ c"%pani"n! by (!in& a

!in&(,a$ #"$% "# te e%patic p$"n"(n- !(c a!inauEP;SG in 69*

69 a* Tena ade rodo inau ma . olu-a T. ami-tu thivoLOC S(n)ay e/enin& EP;SG CON+ S COM=OSG T ;E*PL=PAU &"*)">nS(n)ay e/enin& I an) S* >it T* >e #e> >ent )">n

b*!nau, . ma T. ami-tu deaEP;SG S CON+ T ;E*PL=PAU &"I- S*- an) T*- >e #e> >ent

Te$e i! n" e/i)ence tat ti! type "# c"n!t$(cti"n #"$ na%in& %(,tip,e pa$ticipant!

$ai!e! te p$"#i,e !tat(! "# te !pea:e$ "/e$ a&ain!t e$ c"%pani"n! in c"nt$a!t t" a

n"n=!in&(,a$ #"$% "# te e%patic p$"n"(n 6a! in 6299* It i! >"$t n"tin& "#6;9 ab"/e

tat it c"%e! in te %i)),e "# te !"($ce te?t* E?a%p,e69a* c"%e! at te be&innin& "#

te !a%e te?t. an) in69a* te e%patic p$"n"(n inaui! #"(n) be#"$e te /e$b* S"

>i,e te e%patic p$"n"(n! in 6;9e,p c"nt$a!t te $e!pecti/e act"$!- te e%patic

p$"n"(n c"%in& a! it )"e! at te be&innin& "#69a*- be#"$e te !(bect $e#e$ence

p$"n"(n [ 0- !e$/e! an en(%e$atin& #(ncti"n #"$ te %ain act"$! "# te !t"$yte

na$$at"$ inauI an) i! #$ien)!*

E?a%p,e 6 (p=OPL "($ney!*en) >ate$#$"nt*,an)in&=PS;SG EP;SGat "($ney! en) >e %ay t$"> te% (p at %y ">n >ate$=#$"nt ,an)in&

b* ara gito-a t-i m-ara lavi dea-a na kei-gu inauPL !tea,=OSG RL=LOC CON+=PL ta:e &"=OSG ART ba!:et=PS;SG EP;SGtey !t",e it an) tey t"": it a>ay %y ba!:et @%ine

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Te e%patic p$"n"(n %ay a,!" in)icate in)i$ect p"!!e!!"$ pe$!"n- a! in te ca!e "#

noda"($ in 69*

69 t-e vonu noda na commitment ighitaRL=SG #(,, PS;IN*PL ART c"%%it%ent EP;IN*PLit i! #(,, 7i*e*- bi& t" "/e$#,">in&8- "($ ">n c"%%it%ent

De!pite tat #act tat p"!!e!!"$ pe$!"n i! te !yntactic cate&"$y in /ie> 6an) n"t

!(bect9- te e%patic nat($e "# ti! p$"n"(n i! e/i)ent* Te ">ne$ "# te p"!!e!!e)

n"(n i! e%pa!i!e) by te e%patic p$"n"(n* In 6e/e$- te !a%e

pe$!"n an) n(%be$ a! te p"!!e!!"$* Ti! %ean! tat te e%patic p$"n"(n i! n"t

!tan)in& p$"n"%ina,,y #"$ te !(bect b(t #"$ te p"!!e!!"$* Te$e i! n" e/i)ence in

Len&" "# a $epeate) p"!!e!!"$ p$"n"(n- n" in!tance "#- #"$ e?a%p,e- noda na > noda*

Te e%patic p$"n"(n #i,,! te $",e "# e%pa!i!in& p"!!e!!"$ pe$!"n*

In 69te "bect- te n"(n p$a!e na kogate !tic:!- i! %a$:e) by te p,($a,

inani%ate "bect p$"n"(n !(##i? 6=i9 "n te /e$b an) e%pa!i!e) >it te p$"n"(n ira*

69 )-ami-tu longa dea ma k-ami-tu dea tura-i na koga ira.IRR=;E*PL=PAU ,an)>a$) &" CON+ IRR=;E*PL=PAU &" ca$$y=OPL ART !tic: EPPLWe >i,, &" ,an)>a$) an) >e >i,, &" ca$$y te !tic:!*

Since te $et$ie/a, "# te !tic:! i! te &"a, "# te a(t"$! !t"$y in 69- tey a$e ca,,e)

t" te ea$e$! attenti"n at ti! p"intte "(t!et"# te te?t* Te (!e "# te e%patic

p$"n"(n i! a !i&ni#icant %ean! #"$ )"in& ti!*

A&ain- in69b"t te ti$) pe$!"n p,($a, /e$!i"n! "# "bect p$"n"(n an)

e%patic p$"n"(n a$e (!e)*

2


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69 t-e rongo-ni-ra na kau ma na iraRL=SG ea$=TR=OPL ART )"& CON+ ART EPPLit 7te c$"c")i,e8 ea$! te )"&! an) te "te$! 7b"y!8

Te !(##i? -rain)icate! tat te /e$b rongoea$ a! an ani%ate PL"bect* Te )"&!

an) te b"y! >" i%itate )"&! a$e- ta:en t"&ete$- te p,($a, "bect "# te t$an!iti/i!e)

/e$b rongo-ni-raea$=TR=OPL* Te #$ee #"$% iraEPPL i! (!e) p$"n"%ina,,y #"$ te

y"(n& b"y! >" tea!e te c$"c")i,e! by ba$:in& ,i:e )"&!*

An int$i&(in& (!e "# te #i$!t pe$!"n !in&(,a$ e%patic p$"n"(n i! !">n in649*

649 4. k-o dea tugu vani-a nga inauB IRR=2SG &" te,, DAT=OSG DEMSG EP;SGB*- &" te,, e$>" i! act(a,,y %e * * *

He$e inauEP;SG i! (!e) a! pa$t "# a ti$) pe$!"n $e#e$ence t" te !t"$yte,,e$ in te

!t"$y !e i! te,,in& tat in/",/e! e$*2

*2*2 S(bect $e#e$enceTe !(bect $e#e$ence p$"n"(n i! a /e$b p$a!e c"n!tit(ent >ic in)e?e!

!(bect a$&(%ent!* Te !(bect $e#e$ence p$"n"(n

;* i!- >it #e> e?cepti"n!- te #i$!t c"n!tit(ent "# te /e$b p$a!e*In te!e$a$e in!tance! >en a !(bect $e#e$ence p$"n"(n i! n"t p$e!ent- te /e$b,ac:in& a !(bect $e#e$ence p$"n"(n i! pa$t "# a ,a$&e$ cain "# c,a(!e! in>ic te !(bect i! c,ea$,y (n)e$!t"")* It i! a,!" "pti"na, in i%pe$ati/e!entence!.

2* i! a##i?e) #"$ TAM6e*&*- ba k-u deaI >i,, &"9-


44/239

Gi/en ti! pa$tic,e! $",e "# in)e?in& !(bect pe$!"n an) n(%be$ #"$ te /e$b a! >e,, a!

in)icatin& te TAM!i&nat($e "# te c,a(!e- it i! c,"!e,y $e,ate) t" te /e$b* I# ti! >a! te

,i%it "# te !(bect $e#e$ence p$"n"(n! $",e it! c,a!!i#icati"n >"(,) n"t p"!e !(c a

p$"b,e%* It i! >en te !(bect $e#e$ence p$"n"(n i! #"(n) a! pa$t "# p$e)icate n"%ina,

c"n!t$(cti"n! tat c,a!!i#icat"$y )i##ic(,tie! a$i!e* Acc"$)in& t" Payne 6;11;;it

/a$iant! "# ti! inc,()in& te a))iti"n "# a c"p(,a a! /e$b- p$"n"(n- an in/a$iant

pa$tic,e- "$ a )e$i/e) #"$%* Te a/ai,ab,e "pti"n! #"$ )e!c$ibin& ti! %"$pe%e a$e

eite$ a !(bect in)e?in& pa$tic,e tat be,"n&! t" te /e$b p$a!e "$ a p$"n"(n* Te

)i##ic(,ty i! tat ti! c,a!! "# %"$pe%e! i! b"t at te !a%e ti%e*

In te p$"n"(n !ecti"n "# tei$ typ","&ica, "/e$/ie> "# Oceanic ,an&(a&e!-

Lync et al* 623329 "b!e$/e tat- @Te$e a$e &ene$a,,y !e/e$a, !epa$ate pa$a)i&%! "#

p$"n"%ina, #"$%!* Te ti$) p$"n"(n pa$a)i&% tey n"te- an) te "ne "# inte$e!t

e$e- i!-

S(bect %"!t ,an&(a&e! a/e "ne "$ %"$e !et! "# p$e/e$ba, %"$pe%e!(!(a,,y c,itic!- b(t !"%eti%e! p$e#i?e! "$ #$ee #"$%!>ic in)icatete pe$!"n an) n(%be$ "# te !(bect* In Me,ane!ian ,an&(a&e! te!e a$e"#ten p"$t%antea( #"$%! >ic c"%bine >it te e?p$e!!i"n "# teten!ea!pect%"") cate&"$ie! "# te /e$b 6`*2. in te &$a%%a$ !:etce!te!e a$e "#ten an),e) (n)e$ te /e$b p$a!e9 69*

In !ecti"n *2 tey e?p,ain #($te$ tat-

It i! in te a$ea "# /e$ba, %"$p","&y an) /e$b p$a!e !ynta? tatOceanic ,an&(a&e! &ene$a,,y e?ibit te &$eate!t c"%p,e?ity* Oceanic

,an&(a&e! &ene$a,,y a/e p$ep"!e) /e$ba, %"$pe%e!- #a,,in& int" t>"ba!ic type!- acc"$)in& t" >ete$ te!e %"$pe%e! a$e #$ee "$ p$e#i?e) ** * St$a)),in& te )i/i)e bet>een #$ee an) p$e#i?in& !y!te%! a$e t"!e in>ic a %"$p","&ica,,y c"%p,e? p$e/e$ba, %a$:e$ e?p$e!!e! ac"%binati"n "# !(bect an) TAM cate&"$ie! 6


45/239

It i! int" ti! c,a!! tat Len&"! p$e=/e$ba, !(bect $e#e$ence p$"n"(n! #a,,* ee!in&

6;1449 p$"/i)e! %(c te !a%e ana,y!i! >en e >$ite!-

I a/e a$&(e) tat at te /e$y c"$e "# Oceanic !ynta? ,ie! a c,a(!e

!t$(ct($e %ini%a,,y c"%p$i!in& a 0P inc"$p"$atin& a !(bect $e#e$encep$"n"(n an) 6in t$an!iti/e c,a(!e!9 an "bect=%a$:in& p$"n"(n* Te!(bect NP i! an "pti"na, e?pan!i"n "n ti! 0P- a! i! an "bect NP* Once!(bect $e#e$ence i! e!tab,i!e)- >it an e?p,icit n"(n "$ c"nte?t(a,,y-$e#e$ence i! %aintaine) in !(b!e'(ent c,a(!e! >it !(bect $e#e$encep$"n"(n! >itin te 0P! te$e a$e n" !(bect NP! in !(c c,a(!e! 6;in& ee!in& I (!e te te$% !(bect $e#e$ence p$"n"(n #"$ ti! pa$tic,e*

One )i##ic(,ty p$e!ente) by ti! ana,y!i! i! tat te!e !(bect $e#e$ence

p$"n"(n! )" n"t patte$n a#te$ n"(n! in tat tey "cc(py )i##e$entan) cann"t "cc(py

te !a%e!pace! in a c,a(!e* Acc"$)in& t" Payne 6;11ic a##i? t" it* Te !(bect

$e#e$ence p$"n"(n! $",e in ca$$yin& TAM%a$:in& i! (n%i!ta:ab,e* It i! )i##ic(,t t" #in)

$e#e$ence in te ,ite$at($e t" te %a$:in& "# ti%e "n a !(bect %a$:e$. %(c "# >at

a! been >$itten !ee%! t" a!!(%e tat ti%e i! %a$:e) "n te /e$b "$ >it !"%e !"$t "#

a(?i,ia$y t" te /e$b*N"$),in&e$ an) Sa),e$ 6233it te /e$ba, >"$) 6#"$ p",y!yntetic ,an&(a&e!9 "$ /e$b p$a!e 6#"$ %"$e


46/239

c"nt$a)ict! t"!e a!!(%pti"n!*

A !tan)a$) a!!(%pti"n in ,in&(i!tic te"$y i! tat #eat($e! $e,e/ant t"te c,a(!e a! a >",e a$e a!!"ciate) >it a c,a(!a, ea)* In %"$ec"nc$ete te$%!- ti! t$an!,ate! int" te a!!(%pti"n tat c,a(!a, #eat($e!

!(c a! ten!ea!pect%"") 6ence#"$tTAM

9 a$e enc")e) by /e$b!- /e$b=,i:e a(?i,ia$y e,e%ent! "$ pa$tic,e! * * * H">e/e$- ti! a!!(%pti"n i!inc"$$ect* In %any ,an&(a&e! )epen)ent n"%ina,! an) n"%ina,%")i#ie$! %ay a,!" be in#,ecte) #"$ ten!e- a!pect an) %"") inte$p$ete)>it $e!pect t" te c,a(!a, p$e)icati"n 6;9*

Ti! p$"/i)e! te !pace $e'(i$e) t" ana,y!e te Len&" !(bect %a$:in& pa$tic,e a! a

p$"n"(n >it TAM%a$:in& a! pa$t "# te /e$b p$a!e*

Te Len&" !(bect $e#e$ence p$"n"(n! a$e !">n in 619*

619 ;IN ;E 2 SG u o ePL a ami amu araDU a-ko ami-ko amu-ko ara-koPAU a-tu ami-tu amu-tu ara-tu

Tat te !(bect $e#e$ence p$"n"(n i! be!t c"n!i)e$e) a #$ee !tan)in& p$"n"(n- an) n"t

an a##i? "$ a 6p$"9c,itic t" te /e$b- i! c"n#i$%e) by te #act tat a n(%be$ "# >"$)!

inc,()in& te TAMa(?i,ia$ie! baDEO an) boIMPF- an) a)/e$b! neEMPH-sakai nibe#"$e-

soko#ini!- an) tighi#i$!t,ycan c"%e bet>een te !(bect $e#e$ence p$"n"(n an)

te /e$b*4

Te !(bect $e#e$ence p$"n"(n- an) e!pecia,,y it! $",e in %a$:in& TAM- $ecei/e! a

%"$e )etai,e) t$eat%ent in te )i!c(!!i"n "# te /e$b p$a!e* B$ie#,y- ">e/e$- c"n!i)e$

e?a%p,e629 a&ain- $e=p$e!ente) e$e a! 639*

i!",atin& ,an&(a&e!9* R"!! 6;1449- in Tab,e 4 S(bect P$"n"%ina, C,itic! "# Se,ecte) Oceanic Lan&(a&e!- &i/e! Len&"

#"$%! "# atu;IP 6; inc,(!i/e p,($a,9 an) amo2P 62 p,($a,9* I ana,y!e a-tua! ;IN*PL=PAU an) I ea$ 2PLa! 7J%(8*

4 See te $e,e/ant !ecti"n! #"$ e?a%p,e!*


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639 a* !koghami a /. ami- o dea i nughu.\DU]EP;E*PL ART P ;E*PL=DU &" LOC $i/e$We t>"- P* 7an) I8- >e t>" >ent t" te $i/e$*

b* !tughami a 4. ma 6. ma /. ma #. t-ami-tu uru.\

PAU

]EP

;E

*PL ART

BCON+

RCON+

PCON+

LRL

=;E

*PL

=PAU

)i/eWe #e>B*- R*- P*- L* 7an) I8>e #e> >ent )i/in&*

c*m-ami-tu dea talu iti itughami 4. ma 9.CON+=;E*PL=PAU &" p(t (p \PAU]EP;E*PL B CON+ N>e p(t te% (p >e #e> B* an) N* 7an) I8*

Te !(bect $e#e$ence p$"n"(n a&$ee! >it te !(bect n"(n p$a!e in pe$!"n an)

n(%be$. it i! a,>ay! #"(n) be#"$e te /e$b. an) it i! %a$:e) #"$ TAM*

M"!t "#ten- te$e i! a !in&,e !(bect $e#e$ence p$"n"(n pe$ c,a(!e >it a !in&,e

TAMa$&(%ent*1On,y $a$e,y- an) in a ,i%ite) n(%be$ "# #"$%!- a$e !e$ia, !(bect

$e#e$ence p$"n"(n! #"(n)* Te!e a$e m- k-#"$%! >it !in&,e !y,,ab,e !(bect $e#e$ence

p$"n"(n!- !peci#ica,,y m-u k-uCON+=;SGIRR=;SG- m-o k-oCON+=2SGIRR=2SG- m-e k-eCON+=SG

IRR=SG- an) m-a k-aCON+=;IN*PLIRR=;IN*PL a! in 6;9*at y"( catc

A %"$e ,ite$a, t$an!,ati"n "# ti! i!- 7i%pe$ati/e8 y"( &" #i!in& an) y"( 7i%pe$ati/e8

y"( ta:e c"%e it 7i*e*- >at y"( catc8* Wit te %(,ti=!y,,ab,e #"$%! a !(bect

$e#e$ence p$"n"(n %a$:e) #"$ TAM6g=- t=- k=- "$ 9 i! #"(n) at te be&innin& "# te #i$!t

c,a(!e an) eite$ !(bect $e#e$ence p$"n"(n! %a$:e) >it te c"n(ncti"n m= in

c"n!ec(ti/e c,a(!e! 6e*&*- t-ara . . . m-ara . . . m-ara9 "$ te #(,, c"n(ncti"n mabe#"$e k=

%a$:e) !(bect $e#e$ence p$"n"(n! 6e*&*- ma k-ara9 in c"n!ec(ti/e c,a(!e!* Wat i! n"t

1 Wi,e te$e %ay be %"$e tan "ne !(bect $e#e$ence p$"n"(n pe$ c,a(!e- ti! ,atte$ a!!e$ti"n i!in/a$iab,e eac !(bect $e#e$ence p$"n"(n can ta:e "n,y "ne p$e#i?*


48/239

#"(n) i!- #"$ e?a%p,e- m-ara k-ara*

*2* ObectObect p$"n"(n !(##i?e!- !">n in 629- in)e? "bect a$&(%ent! "n te /e$b

c"n!tit(ent6!9 "# te /e$b p$a!e*en te$e i! %"$e tan "ne "bect=type

a$&(%ent*

629 ;IN ;E 2 SG -u -gho -aPL -ghita -ghami -ghamu -ra6ani%ate9

-i6inani%ate9DU

-ko-ghita -ko-ghami -ko-ghamu -ko-iraPAU -tu-ghita -tu-ghami -tu-ghamu -tu-ira

Te "bect p$"n"(n !(##i? "in! t" /e$b! t" in)e? te "bect*

69 a*/itu-u1>ait=O;SGWait #"$ %e^

b* *ra pitu-u.PL >ait=O;SGTey a>ait %e*

c* ? pitu-a na thinaghe52SG >ait=OSG ART can"e7A$e8 y"( a>aitin& a can"e

Te "bect i! n"t a,>ay!in)ee)- n"t "#tenin)icate) >it a #(,, n"(n p$a!e*

One tin& "# n"te c"nce$nin& te "bect p$"n"(n! i! tat te$e i! a )i!tincti"n

bet>een ani%ate an) inani%ate in ti$) pe$!"n p,($a,* C"%pa$e te e?a%p,e! in6


49/239

b* e pulu-i na ghola na ghaokaSG $",,*(p=OPL ART p())in& ART >"%ante >"%an $",,! (p te p())in&!

Te ani%ate "bect!)"&! an) b"y!a$e %a$:e) "n te /e$b >it =rain6i,e in

6i,e te )i$ect "bect i! n"t* S" in 69a !in&,e "bect i! in)e?e) "n te /e$b )e!pite

te #act tat te$e a$e b"t $ecipient 6=ghoO2SG9 an) te%e 6na bukaARTb"": an) na

ighaART#i!9 a$&(%ent! in te !entence!*

69 a* u athe-gho na buka;SG &i/e=O2SG ART b"":I &a/e y"( te b"":

b* * thi t-e athe-gho na igha5ART >" RL=SG &i/e=O2SG ART #i!W" &a/e y"( te #i!

In Len&" te$e a$e ne/e$ t>" "bect! %a$:e) "n te /e$b u athe-gho-a na bukaan) u

athe-a-gho na bukaa$e (n&$a%%atica,* By >ay "# c"nt$a!t- c"n!i)e$ 69- >ic i! a

!e$ia, /e$b c"n!t$(cti"n >it t>" "bect=type a$&(%ent!* He$e te b"": $e%ain! te

)i$ect "bect te%e an) i! %a$:e) "n te #i$!t /e$b >it an "bect p$"n"(n !(##i?

>i,e te in)i$ect "bect $ecipient i! %a$:e) "n te !ec"n) /e$b*

69 u a the-a vani-gho na buka de;SG &i/e=OSG DAT=O2SG ART b"": DEMSGI% &i/in& y"( ti! b"":

Te int$")(cti"n "# a !ec"n) /e$b a,,">! te in)e?in& "# a !ec"n) "bect a$&(%ent*

Te "bect p$"n"(n can a,!" be (!e) in &eniti/e c"n!t$(cti"n!- a! in69*

1


50/239

69 0 bo ghilaghana t-i na sanga ni ghita.SG IMPF :n"> RL=LOC ART ta,: GEN O;IN*PLHe a,%"!t :n">! "($ ,an&(a&e* 6,it*- te ,an&(a&e "# (!9

He$e te$e i! n" "bect p$"n"(n %a$:e) "n te /e$bit i! pa$t "# te ,a$&e$ "bect

&eniti/e %a$:e) by niGEN*

Fina,,y- it i! >"$t p"intin& "(t te !i%i,a$ity "# #"$% b(t te !i&ni#icant

)i##e$ence "# %eanin& bet>een =aOSG an) =aPSSG* C"%pa$e te $",e "# -ain 649*

649 a* m-e rongo-a a dae-a t-e g hu-vi dea-aCON+=SG ea$=OSG ART ci,)=PSSG RL=SG !"(t=TR &"=OSGan) e$ !"n ea$) e$- te "ne !e !"(te) t"

b* M-e ribe sakai na ghaoka m-e ghu-ghu8 e ghu-vi-aCON+=SG !($p$i!e "ne ART >"%an CON+=SG INTS=!"(t SG !"(t=TR=OSG

a dae-a.ART ci,)=PSSGS($p$i!e)- "ne "# te >"%en !ta$te) !"(tin&. !e !"(te) t" e$ !"n*

It i! i%p"$tant t" $e%e%be$ tat -aOSG "in! t" /e$b! >i,e -aPSSG "in! t" n"(n!-

p"!!e!!i/e c,a!!i#ie$! niGEN an)gha"$a,- an) $e#,e?i/e tibo* In649a*- -aOSG i! "ine)

t" te )i$ecti"na, dea&" #",,">in&ghu-vi!"(t=TR* In 649b* te -aattace) t"ghu-vi

!"(t=TR i! OSG >e$ea! te -a"ine) t" daeci,) i! PSSG*

*2*< Di$ect p"!!e!!"$Te )i$ect p"!!e!!"$ p$"n"(n!- (!e) >it ina,ienab,y p"!!e!!e) n"(n!- a$e

p$e!ente) in619*

619 ;IN ;E 2 SG -gu -mu -a, -naPL -da -mami -miu -diraDU ko- -da ko- -mami ko- -miu ko- -diraPAU tu- -da tu- -mami tu- -miu tu- -dira

Te$e a$e t>" #"$%! "# te SGb"(n) p"!!e!!"$ p$"n"(n =aan) -na* O# te!e- =ai! te


51/239

%"$e c"%%"n 6t"(& $eca,, te /">e, $ai!in& in/",/e) >en =aPSSG "in! t" a n"(n

tat a! a #ina, J9* Te b"(n) p"!!e!!"$ p$"n"(n =nai! #"(n) "n,y >it a #e> >"$)!

tua-na,e&=PSSG. i! ,e& 6c"%pa$e vanua-a >ic bec"%e! vanu-e/i,,a&e=PSSG. e$

/i,,a&e >it /">e, $ai!in&9. vua-na#$(it=PSSG. it! #$(it. an) de-dea-naNR=&"=PSSG. e$

&"in&* Te$e a$e a,!" ca!e! "# >"$)!#"$ e?a%p,e daeci,) an) vae"(!etat a$e

#"(n) >it eite$ =a"$ =na- )epen)in& "n te !pea:e$ 6i*e*- !"%e !ay dae-aci,)=PSSG.

i! ci,) >i,e "te$! !ay dae-naci,)=PSSG. i! ci,)9*

Te!e !(##i?e! attac t" te )i$ect,y p"!!e!!e) n"(n- a! in639*

639 a* na vae-guART "(!e=PS;SG%y "(!e

b* o-ghanaghana-dira na ghaoka diniDU=tin:in&=PSPL ART >"%an DEMPLt"!e t>" >"%en! tin:in&

See pa&eit te

c,a!!i#ie$ ni* T" eac "# te!e c,a!!i#ie$! i! "ine) te !et "# )i$ect p"!!e!!"$ p$"n"(n

!(##i?e! t" in)icate pe$!"n an) n(%be$* Te @&ene$a, in)i$ect p"!!e!!"$ p$"n"(n!-

(!e) >it a,ienab,y p"!!e!!e) n"(n!- a$e in6;9*

6;9 ;IN ;E 2 SG ni-gu-a ni-mo-a nePL no-da ni-mami ni-miu no-diraDU ko-no-da ko-ni-mami ko-ni-miu ko-no-diraPAU tu-no-da tu-ni-mami tu-ni-miu tu-no-dira

Te$e a$e a #e> tin&! t" n"te ab"(t te in)i$ect p"!!e!!"$ p$"n"(n !et* Fi$!t- tat te


52/239

#"$% "# te c,a!!i#ie$ nii! )i##e$ent in ;INan) pe$!"n 6noan) ne9* Sec"n)- tat te ;SG

an) 2SG#"$%! appea$ t" a/e a SG"bect p$"n"(n !(##i? -atat in)e?e! te p"!!e!!e)

n"(n 6!ee629a* an)69b*9* Te !in&(,a$ #"$% i! (!e) e/en >en te p"!!e!!e) n"(n i!

p,($a, an) =iOPL >"(,) be e?pecte) in te$%! "# n(%be$ a&$ee%ent* Te p,($a, #"$%!

"# te &ene$a, p"!!e!!"$ p$"n"(n! )" n"t a/e an "bect p$"n"(n !(##i? 6!ee 629b*- c*

an) 69c*9* Fina,,y- te 2SG#"$% a! a !,i&t ,">e$in& "# te /">e, in te )i$ect

p"!!e!!"$ !(##i?#$"% =%( t" =%" 6c"%pa$e =muPS2SG in6199* M"$pe%e b$ea:!

"# a #e> $ep$e!entati/e in)i$ect p"!!e!!"$ p$"n"(n! a$e !">n in 629*

629 a* ni-gu-a CLF=PS;SG=OSGb* ko-ni-mami DU=CLF=PS;E*PLc* no-da CLF=PS;IN*PL

Te !ynta? an) !e%antic! "# p"!!e!!i"n i! )i!c(!!e) in %"$e )ept be,">* F"$

n">- n"te tat te #$ee in)i$ect p"!!e!!"$ p$"n"(n p$ece)e! te p"!!e!!e) n"(n >it

it! a$tic,e* Te p"!!e!!"$ #"$ >"% te p$"n"(n !tan)! %ay be in)icate) by a n"(n

p$a!e #",,">in& te p"!!e!!e) n"(n- a! in 69a*

69 a*ne na be ?.PSSG ART pi& OO*! pi&

b*ni-gu-a na 4ibleCLF=PS;SG=OSG ART Bib,e%y Bib,e

c* k-ami oni ni-mami na agutuIRR=;E*PL p$epa$e CLF=PS;E*PL ART tin&>e p$epa$e "($ tin&! 7i*e*- ca$&"8

In 69a* te p"!!e!!"$- O*- i! %a)e e?p,icit >it a n"(n p$a!e #",,">in& te p"!!e!!e)

n"(n 6na be9- >i,e in 69b* an) c* "n,y te p"!!e!!"$ p$"n"(n an) te p"!!e!!e) n"(n

a$e #"(n)* In a,, t$ee e?a%p,e! te in)i$ect p"!!e!!"$ p$"n"(n i! at te be&innin& "#


53/239

te n"(n p$a!e*

Te @"$a, c"n!(%ab,e in)i$ect p"!!e!!"$ p$"n"(n! a$e (!e) #"$ tin&!

c"n!(%e) /ia te %"(t 6e*&*- #"") an) t"bacc"9* Te!e a$e p$e!ente) in 6


54/239

b* + toka tibo-gu.;SG c(t REFL=PS;SGI c(t %y!e,#*

In 69b*- te t$an!iti/e /e$b tokac(t >"(,) n"$%a,,y a/e a !(##i? t" in)icate te

"bect* He$e te "bect !(##i? i! )$"ppe) an) te /e$b i! #",,">e) by a /a,ence=$e)(cin&

$e#,e?i/e*

Te $e#,e?i/e a,!" !e$/e! a! a :in) "# e%patic p"!!e!!i/e p$"n"(n- a! in69*

69 na tha t-o lavi mai-a, na vanga tha t-o ghali mai-aART REL RL=2SG ta:e c"%e=OSG ART #"") REL RL=2SG %a:e c"%e=OSG

tena arere, ba k-e oli tena nimoa na thara tibo-muLOC Sat($)ay FUT IRR=SG $et($n LOC PS2SG ART #ea!t*$"> REFL=PS2SG>at y"( b$in&- te #"") tat y"( %a:e "n Sat($)ay- it >i,, $et($n t" y"($ ">n#ea!t $">

Te !a%e e%patic bea/i"($ in $e,ati"n t" p"!!e!!i"n i! #"(n) >it te e%patic

p$"n"(n a! %enti"ne) in te )i!c(!!i"n "n pa&e;*

*2*Q Inte$$"&ati/e $e,ati/eLen&" a! t>" inte$$"&ati/e $e,ati/e p$"n"(n! thi6(%an9 an) tha6n"n=

(%an9* Tey a$e n"t %a$:e) #"$ n(%be$* Te inte$$"&ati/e $e,ati/e p$"n"(n thi

a,>ay! appea$! >it aART p$ece)in&- >i,e thai! #"(n) >it naART*" i! "/e$ te$e >i,, c"%e ta:e a bit "# ti! #"")

b*n a vanga tha t-o ghali mai-a tena arere, ba k-e oliART #"") REL RL=2SG %a:e c"%e=OSG LOC Sat($)ay FUT IRR=SG $et($n

een te Len&" a$tic,e! aan)na%ay a/e been !t$"n&e$ at !"%e p"int in te pa!t* See pa&e; #"$ %"$e )i!c(!!i"n*


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tena nimoa na thara tibo-muLOC PS2SG ART #ea!t*$"> REFL=PS2SGte #"") tat y"( %a:e 7an)8 b$in& "n Sat($)ay >i,, $et($n t" y"( in y"($#ea!t $">

Te #(ncti"n "# thian) tha>itin $e,ati/e c,a(!e! i! )i!c(!!e) be,"> 6pa&e;149*In 619e?a%p,e! "# thian) thaa! inte$$"&ati/e p$"n"(n! a$e #"(n)*

619 a* * thi t-e athe-gho na igha5ART INT RL=SG &i/e=O2SG ART #i!W" &a/e y"( te #i!

b* 9a tha t-o ghoni-a5ART INT RL=2SG )"=OSGWat a$e y"( )"in&

Te p$"n"(n! thian) tha)" )"(b,e )(ty a! inte$$"&ati/e p$"n"(n! >" an) >at

$e!pecti/e,y* Te $",e "# thian) thain p"!in& c"ntent '(e!ti"n! i! )i!c(!!e) be,">

6pa&e ;4##9*

* Ba!ic n"(n p$a!e !t$(ct($eTe Len&" n"(n p$a!e i! %ini%a,,y c"%p$i!e) "# a n"(n* Wi,e te a$tic,e i!

$a$e,y "%itte)- it i! ab!ent #$"% ti%e t" ti%e an) %(!t be c"n!i)e$e) "pti"na,* Bey"n)

ti! te$e a$e "pti"na, in)icat"$! "# p"!!e!!"$ 6)i$ect an) in)i$ect9 pe$!"n an) n(%be$-

a,"n& >it a)ecti/e! an) )e%"n!t$ati/e!*

6439 6PS9 6NUM9 6EP9 6ART9 N 6=PS9 6AD+9 6DEM9

Te )i$ect p"!!e!!"$ p$"n"(n 6=PS9 i! te "n,y a##i? #"(n) in te n"(n p$a!e*

S"%e c""$)inate n"(n p$a!e! a$e "ine) by te c"n(ncti"n maCON+- a! na sule

ma na pilete bi& an) te !%a,, a$e in64;9->i,e "te$! a$e !i%p,y (?tap"!e)- a! a$e

gari mokoni, gari ghaokay"(n& teen &i$,!- y"(n& &i$,!*

64;9 k-a ne rongo-ni-a: na sule ma na pile, ghaoka ma na mane,IRR=;IN*PL EMPH ea$=TR=OSG ART bi& CON+ ART !%a,, >"%an CON+ ART %an


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gari mokoni, gari ghaokaci,) p"!t=p(be!cent &i$, ci,) #e%a,e>e a,, >i,, ,i!ten t" e$ te bi& an) te !%a,,- 7te8 >"%en an) te %en- p"!t=p(be!cent &i$,!- p$e=p(be!cent &i$,!

Di!(nct n"(n p$a!e! a$e "ine) by te c"n(ncti"npa "$*6429 @ari mane pa na gari ghaoka5

ci,) b"y "$ ART ci,) &i$,I! it a b"y "$ a &i$,

**; P"!!e!!i"nP"!!e!!i"n i! a !"%e>at c"%p,e? !(bect in te Oceanic #a%i,y "# ,an&(a&e!*

Te$e i! an inte$p,ay bet>een !e%antic! an) !ynta? tat $e!(,t! in )i!tinct p"!!e!!i/e

c"n!t$(cti"n! #"$ n"(n! "# pa$tic(,a$ c,a!!e!* Acc"$)in& t" R"!!-

P"!!e!!i/e c"n!t$(cti"n !y!te%! in can"nic ,an&(a&e! a$e )e#ine) a,"n"($ pa$a%ete$! 6Lictenbe$: ;14- R"!! ;114c9 a* >ete$ tep"!!e!!e) n"(n i! a,ienab,e "$ ina,ienab,e. b* "> %any !(btype! "#a,ienab,e p"!!e!!i"n "cc($. c* >ete$ te p"!!e!!"$ i! a p$"n"(n- ac"%%"n n"(n p$a!e- "$ a pe$!"na, n"(n p$a!e. )* >ete$ a n"(np$a!e p"!!e!!"$ i! !peci#ic "$ n"n=!peci#ic 6233een !e%antic! an) !ynta?- te$e i! "/e$,ap a%"n& te!e

pa$a%ete$!- e!pecia,,y >it p"int! c* an) )* Len&" a,!" a! a /e$b "# p"!!e!!i"n- logho

a/e- tat "pe$ate! b"t >it an) in)epen)ent,y "# te p"!!e!!i/e c"n!t$(cti"n! #"$

n"(n!* Te )i!c(!!i"n tat #",,">! >i,, a))$e!! te!e pa$a%ete$! in t($n in an atte%pt

t" )e%"n!t$ate p"!!e!!i"n c"n!t$(cti"n! in Len&"*

Len&" n"(n! #a,, int" "ne "# t$ee c,a!!e! ina,ienab,e "$ a,ienab,e* in!ip

te$%!- b")y pa$t!- an) ce$tain ,"cati"n! )i$ecti"n! a$e c"n!i)e$e) ina,ienab,y

p"!!e!!e)* Te$e i! an"te$ !et "# n"(n! >ic- a,t"(& tey )" n"t be,"n& t" te

ina,ienab,e cate&"$ie! atte!te) in %any "te$ Oceanic ,an&(a&e!- ne/e$te,e!! a$e (!e)

>it te ina,ienab,e p"!!e!!i"n c"n!t$(cti"n type* F"$ te p($p"!e! "# ti! &$a%%a$- I


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c"n!i)e$ te!e ina,ienab,e*it te ,a$&e$ Oceanic t$a)iti"n- it i!

nece!!a$y t" )i!tin&(i! bet>een !e%antic an) !yntactic cate&"$ie! >en )i!c(!!in&

p"!!e!!i"n* Pa,%e$ !tate! te ca!e !(ccinct,y

Oceanic ,an&(a&e! typica,,y a/e t>" )i!tinct c"n!t$(cti"n! #"$ %a$:in&n"%ina,! t" in)e? tei$ p"!!e!!"$* In "ne- te )i$ect c"n!t$(cti"n-p"!!e!!"$=in)e?in& !(##i?e! attac )i$ect,y t" te p"!!e!!(% n"(n- >i,ein te "te$ in)i$ect c"n!t$(cti"n te !(##i?e! attac t" "ne "# !e/e$a,p"!!e!!i/e c,a!!i#ie$! "$ ba!e!- $ate$ tan te p"!!e!!(% n"(n it!e,#*Ti! i! "#ten $e#e$$e) t" a! a )i!tincti"n bet>een an ina,ienab,ec"n!t$(cti"n an) an a,ienab,e "ne* H">e/e$- a,t"(& t"!e te$%! )"capt($e te p$"t"typica, #(ncti"n! "# te c"n!t$(cti"n!- tey $e#e$ t"!e%antic!- n"t %"$p","&y "$ !ynta? 6233;9*

F"$ te p($p"!e! "# ti! )e!c$ipti"n te te$%! )i$ect an) in)i$ect p"!!e!!i"n a$e (!e) t"

)e!c$ibe te b"(n) an) #$ee #"$% p"!!e!!"$ c"n!t$(cti"n! >it te (n)e$!tan)in& tat

te!e $ep$e!ent te !e%antic cate&"$ie! "# ina,ienab,e an) a,ienab,e p"!!e!!i"n

$e!pecti/e,y* Te!e pa$a%ete$! a$e $ep$e!ente) "n te ca$t in 649*

649 P"!!e!!i"n C"n!t$(cti"n!p"!!e!!i"n type )i$ect in)i$ect!e%atic! ina,ienab,e a,ienab,ec,a!! ite% ,"cati"n

)i$ecti"n"$a, &ene$a,

!ynta? b"(n) p$"n"(n #$ee p$"n"(n

Di$ect p"!!e!!i"n i! te c"n!t$(cti"n type (!e) #"$ te c,a!! "# n"(n! t" >ic

be,"n& b")y pa$t!- :in te$%!- an) ce$tain ,"cati"n! )i$ecti"n!* Wit te!e n"(n!-

p"!!e!!i"n i! e?p$e!!e) >it a p"!!e!!"$ p$"n"(n !(##i? attace) )i$ect,y t" te

$e%"/ab,e (n)e$ ce$tain i,,=)e#ine)ci$c(%!tance!*


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p"!!e!!e) n"(n* Te e?a%p,e! in 64a$)=PSSG ART "(!e=PS;SGI a% &"in& t" )i& a ",e t" %y "(!e! !ea>a$) !i)e*

)* m-e eno ti o-levugha-mami t-i a J. g-i na gariCON+=SG ,ay RL=LOC DU=bet>een=PS;E*PL RL=LOC ART + PFCT=LOC ART ci,)an) e ,ay )">n bet>een +* 7an) I8- te b"y )i)

In 64a$) i! ina,ienab,y p"!!e!!e) by te !i)e "# te

"(!e*it a )i$ect

p"!!e!!"$ p$"n"(n !(##i?- a! in64"! ci,) i! $in&in& te be,,*

In a))iti"n t" te p"!!e!!"$ pe$!"n !(##i? "ine) t" te )i$ect,y p"!!e!!e) n"(n-

te p"!!e!!"$ can a,!" be !peci#ie) by an e%patic p$"n"(n #",,">in& te p"

Aspects of Lengo Grammar

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