Saturday

Jain Culture in Telugu Literature

Prof. G. V. Subrahmanyam

jainology.blogspot.com/2008/11jain-culture-in-telugu-literature.html

The first mention of Andhras is found in the Aitereya Brahmana. Clear sources for Andhra history are traced from the Satavahana Period, Le. 2nd

or 3rd Century B.C. From then on the identity of a composite Andhra culture seems to have emerged under the influence of several streams of

tradition from time to time. Buddhism, Jainism, Veera Saivism, Vaishnavism and Vedic culture contributed to this evolution in their own

way. Though the political, economic and cultural history of Andhra society is traced from the beginnings of Christian era, the first Telugu inscription dates back to 575 A.D. and the first available literary work in Telugu to

11th Century A.D.

Each cultural tradition leaves its impact on the lifestyle, world-view, behavioural norms, arts and literature of a society. Aim of this paper is to

study the impact of Jainism on the culture and litrature of Andhras in general.

There are a few important points to be kept in mind while studying the influence of Jainism on Telugu (Andhra) society. The foremost of them is

that the total assimilation of a strong stream of Jainism into Telugu culture, without leaving any traces of distinctness, got completed by the

end of 13th Century. Upto this point of time this Jain cultural stream had a relatively more vibrant existence in the Telangana and Rayalaseema regions of Andhra Pradesh in contrast to the coastal belt which was

relatively under a stronger impact of Buddhism and Vedic culture from time to time. The third significant observation is that the impact of Jainism

on Telugu literature is not as directly traceable as in the case of Telugu culture. While powerfully penetrating into the cultural fabric of Andhras, Jainism seems to have been less aggressive in their region, Through its

soft penetration Jainism left several significant traces on the history of the Telugu people. Even today the art and architecture of Jains can be

identified in the ancient temples and other structures in the Andhra region as the reminders of the glorious past of Jain culture in this part of the

country. Even with regard to. the impact of Jainism on Telugu literature a few interesting observations may be taken note of: (a) only a few

evidences of Jain literature in Telugu are available. There are a few indications that the same poets who are known to have produced Jain literature in Kannada made attempts to produce similar works even in Telugu. (b) Jain literature in Kannada indirectly led to the evolution of

certain significant genres of Telugu literature. I shall try to elaborate these points further in this paper.

(1) The Jain Period of Andhra History:Going back to beginnings of Andhra history of the patronage of Kharavela, the King of Kalinga to Jainism was a mangnanimous beginning for the spread of Jainism in "the Andhra region.

Jainism during this period could successfully survive facing the hostile Vedic and Buddhist traditions. In between 265 and 625 AD. Jainism flourished in the Tatikonda of East Godavari and Hanumakonda of

Telangana regions. The Vemulavada Chalukyas were the next important patrons of Jainism in the Andhra region. It is to be noted here that it is these Telugu kings, especially the Arikesari I, who patronised the poets Pampa and Ranna who composed the Jain literature of Kannada. Certain historians believe that Pampa and Ranna rendered a few Jain works in Telugu which are not available today, Among the eastern Chalukyas

Vishnuvardhana III made donations to the Nadumbi Jain Vasati at Bejavada. The Jainacharyas of this Vasati belong to the Kavururi Gana.

Ammaraju II also made several donations to Jinalayas (Jaina temples). The Valahari Gana, Kotimuduva Gana, Addakali gaccha, Nandigaccha

congregations of Jainism find their mention in the inscriptions installed by this King. The dynasty of Pandaranga, the famous General of Gunaga

Vijayaditya, was a Jain dynasty. They were the hereditary rulers of Katakam. Duggaraja, the great-grandson of Pandaranga constructed the Katakaabharana Jinalaya. It is to this temple that Ammaraju donated the

Village Malayapudi. Duggaraja was the Rajavishayaadhyaksha (the political head) of the Karma Raashtra.

The Kakatiya rulers before Betaraju II were all the followers of Jainism, Betaraju II was the first Kakatiya king to get converted into Veerasaivism. His successors followed his suit stopping the royal patronage to Jainism in the Kakatiya empire. One of the most ancient Kakatiya constructions, the

Padmakshi temple, was a Jain temple to begin with. It was constructed during the reign of Prolaraju II. Mailama, wife of the minister Betana

constructed the Kadalalaya Vasati on a hill at Hanumakonda. A Digambara Jaina idol is carved in one of the stones on the hill itself. Even inside the

temple of Padmakshi we can see the idols of Jaina Teerthankara and Yakshinis. But after Kakatiyas toqk to Veerashaivism this temple got

converted into a shakti temple.After the loss of patronage from Kakatiya. kings, Jainism waged a vain battle against the hostile traditions of Veerashaivism and Vedic culture

and gradually became extinct from the main stream of Telugu culture. But this long existence of a soft but vibrant tradition lift its own indelible

marks on the Telugu culture.

(2) Traces of Jain Culture in Today's Telugu Life:There are certain imprints of Jain culture without understanding which it is difficult to explain several

features of Telugu culture even today. Some of these are very often mentioned by scholars, They are: the word 'bastl' for 'big town' in coastal

areas and for localities within a big township' in Telangana areas, is derived from the Jain word 'basatl' (vasati). The sacred phrase which is made to be written by a Telugu child while starting his script learning or

his studies in general is 'Om Namassivaya Siddham Namaha', Some scholars opine that the second part of this sacred sentence, viz., 'Siddham Namaha', is actually a reminiscence of Jain culture. This Telugu word for multiplication tables is 'ekkaalu'. This is actually derived from the first

word of the first multiplication table in Praakrit starting as 'ekka sa vaggo ekka', once brought in to vogue by Jain aacharyas in the Telugu region.

Astrologically, Telugu people prefer to treat 'varjya' as the'bad' time of the day in contrast to the Raahu kaala followed by the other south Indian

people. Varjyam is a Jain convention.Some other such interesting imprints are found in the caste names and place names. One such interesting caste name is 'Komati' which is the

native Telugu word for the Vaishya or the merchant community (caste). This word is derived from the word 'Gomathi' which means the followers of Gomatheswar. This might indicate the widespread prevalence of Jainism among the native Telugu merchants at a certain point of history. 'Muni' is

a word which is found in several place names such as Munipalle, Munikonda, etc. This word 'Muni' might refer to the Jain munis.

The most interesting reminiscence of Jain culture on the Telugu region is the stone images called 'sanyasi devullu'. These images in Kayotsarga

posture are actually Jain images but today they are worshipped by women desirous of progeny.

Some historians believe that the ritual vows of fasting, annadaanas (food offerings) and gosaala maintenance were popularised by Jains in the

Telugu region.

There are many archaeological sites in the Andhra region where reminiscences of alchemical experiments are preserved with mystic

sculptural and iconic codes. These alchemical practices were mostly in vogue among the Jains.

(3) Jainism and Telugu Literature :Though Jainism continued its dynamic existence in the Telugu region up to the middle of the 13th century A. D., i.e. for 300 years later to the beginning of independent literary works in

Telugu, it is stfimge to see that we cannot find any Jain literature as such composed in Telugu. It is said that the same poets who composed Jain

literature in Kannada rendered a few Jain works in Telugu too. But unfortunately none of these works is available today. When we say that

there is no Jain literature in Telugu, we only mean that there are no Telugu works composed for the propagation of Jainism. In fact, there are three important Telugu books of the ancient time which are associated

with Jainism. They are: (1) Pavuluri Mallana's Ganitam, (2) Malliya Rechana's Kavijanasrayam (a book on Telugu prosody) and (3)

Adharvanacharya's Adharvana Kaarikaavali which is a commentary on Aandhrasabdachintamani, a Sanskrit book of verses on Telugu grammar.

'Ganitam' is the Telugu rendering of an original Jain Prakrit work on Mathematics. But the author of the Telugu version, Pavuluri Mallana, is a Veerashaivite. But still a few examples related with Jain culture may be

found in this book. , Kavijanasrayam' 's authorship is controversial. Some

of the verses are found addressed to one Malliya Recha. This Malliya Recha is identified as the author of the book by some scholars and he is identified as a Jain. But even this work is not directly related with Jainism

as such, though a few examples in this book refer to Jain culture. Adharvanaacharya is known to be a Jain aacharya and is said to have

composed a few portions of the Mahabharata in Telugu after Tikkana had done the same work from a Vedic point of view. Whether

Adharvanaacharya's rendering of the Mahabharata was done in Jainist lines or not is not known because his composition on the Mahabharata is

not available.

Telugu people seem to have been acquainted with the Jain (and Buddhist) versions of the Ramayana (may be even of the Mahabharata). Certain

proverbs which are in vogue even today among Telugus give this indication. For example, there is a proverb which means "It seems

someone asked what is the relation of Sita to Rama after listening the story of the Ramayana the whole night". This proverb might be referring

to the confusion about the relation between Rama and Sita the Jain Ramayana creates in the minds of the people who already know the Vaalmiki version of it. (There is a similar proverb which refers to the Buddhist version of the Ramayana.) Telugu language seems to have

strangely preserved the people's memory of a literary works while the work itself is actually lost in course of history.

The indirect impact of Jainism on Telugu literature through the interaction of Telugu literature with Kannada literature seems to be very significant. It is actually the inspiration from this Kannada Jain literature that led to the

origin of the first available independent Telugu literary work, viz., Nannaya's Mahabharata.

Some scholars go to the extent of saying that the structure of Telugu Kavyas, their champu (verse and prose) form, the choice of metres (like

Utpalamala and champakamala), the metre called Kandam, the Avataarika or the prefatory structure of Telugu kavyas, etc. are all Jain

contributions. But in fact, these purely literary aspects of T elugu kavyas, though have their origin in Kannada literature, might have nothing to do

with Jainism as such. But direct conflict and competition between Veerashaivism and Jainism had led to a strong impact of Kannada

literature on the Shaiva literature in Telugu. For example, the concept of 'Vastu Kavita' found in Nannechoda's Kumaarasambhavam and the

nativity consciousness expressed .through the notions of Desi and. Jaanu Telugu in the Shaivite literature are all a few examples for the imitation of

the rival Jains by the shaivite poets.

One of the most striking consequences of this 'imitation of the rival' by Shaivite poets is the emergence of a genre called 'Puranam' under the infuence of Jaina Purana structure of the Kannada works composed by

poets like Pampa. 'Basavapuranam" is the most typical example for this interesting impact of Jainism in the origin of a 'Desi' (native) genre in

Telugu literature. The next and last section of this paper is devoted to elaborate this significant impact of Jain literature on Telugu.

(4) The Influence of Jaina Puranas on the Structure of 'Basava Purana' of Palkuriki Somanatha:Basava Purana of Palkuriki Somanatha was the first Desi Purana in Teluge literature. It was composed in Desi metre Dwipada

in the latter half of the 13th century. This work was acclaimed as the landmark in the evolution to Desi tradition in Telugu literature.

Though Somnatha's work was called a Purana, it does not belong to the Marga tradition of Purana literature. Many a critic in Telugu has tried to

interpret Basave Purana by applying the principles and characteristics of the Maha Purana tradition of Sanskrit and has failed in his endeavour. On the other hand, a few others tried to portray this work as a Kavya in the garb of a Purana, but they were not successful either. No attempt has,

however, been made to study the Purana as a form in the Desi tradition and the impact of the various trends and experiments, which were popular in South Indian languages, on the structure of the Puranas.

The impact of Veerasaivism, the teachings of Basava and the literary trends of Kannada literature of PalkUriki Somanatha are historical facts. Actually, the Telugu poets of the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries worked under the powerful influence of Desiexperiments carried out in kannada literature, though some of them had opted for the traditional forms of

Sanskrit literature. Palkuriki Somanatha was the first poet in Telugu who took up the form of the Desi Purana as a challenge in the pursuit of

creating a classic within the Veerasaiva literature. Dasava Purana mainly deals with the life of Basaveswara-- the incarnation of Basava, and his Divine Miracles along with various stories of Saiva devotees. Basava

Purana is the first Purana of Veerasaivism in Telugu; it was and still is the sacred book for the Saivites. Palkuriki Somanatha has collected the source material for his theme from various Desi literary forms of oral tradition in Kannada and Telugu. The main sources are the legendary songs depicting

the stories of ancient devotees of Siva and Basava (Narayana Rao: 11). Hence, this Purana is not a translation of any work. Palkuriki Somanatha has woven the plot of the Basava Purana from the source fabrics of oral

tradition with his own skill and imagination.

Basava Purana was writeen in seven chapters as follows: Nandikeswara's incarnation as Basaveswara, rejecting the Upanayana in favour of 'Veeramaheswara Vrata'; Basava's marriage and his surrender to

Sangameswara, are described in the first chapter. Basaveswara's initiation as a minister in the court of Bijjala; Kalyanakataka and his divine miracles are the main contents of the second chapter. The narration of the stories of Mugdha Bhaktas by Basaveswara to Channa Basava occupies a major portion of the third chapter. Stories like that of Madivalu Machaiah and

some stories about ancient Saiva devotees are the main subject matter of the fourth chapter. Stories of the contemporary devotees of Basaveswara form themselves into the fifth chapter. The sixth chapter deals with the stories of Ekanatha Ramaiah and others. The seventh chapter concludes the' narrative with the merger of Basaveswara with Sangameswara, the

assassination of Bijjala and the decline of kalyanakataka.

If we observe the contents of the Basava Purana, we can easily come to the conclusion that this work does not reflect any characteristics of the

Puranas of the Marga tradition.The Basava Purana, in its structure, has the inherent characteristics of Jaina Puranas of Kannada literature. Jaina Puranas mainly described the

life and divine powers of the Thirthankaras who attained salvation through Jnana. The Jaina poets translated Sanskrit and Prakrit Puranas into

Kannada, between 940 and 1140 A.d., which is generally called 'the age of Pampa' in the history of Kannada literature. These Puranas have become very popular. Very eminent poets like 'Ratnatraya' have contributed to

this stream of literature. 'Aadikavi' Pampa (latter half of the 10th century) had written Aadi Purana, the story of Purudeva, the first Jaina

Thirthankara, in Chempu style. It was a Kannada rendering of Jenasena's Sanskrit work. 'Ubhayakavi Chakravarthi' Ponna had composed the story

of the 16th Jaina Thirthankara as Santhi Pur ana. 'Kavichakravarthi' Ranna had written the life story of the second. Jaina Thirthankara as Ajitapurana.

In addition to these works we find many puranas in Kannada like Mallinatha Pur ana of Janna, which were popular among Jains. In Tamil

literature the Periya Purana of 'Shekkizhar'. which contains the stories of Saiva devotees known as 'Aruvathumuru Nayanars', has become very

popular. All these experiments suggest that the literary form of Pur ana in Jaina literature in Kannada and Saiva literature in Tamil has the chief

characteristic of depicting the life story of a religious preacher (Mathacharya), this central narrative being supported by various stories of a number of devotees. This popular feature of Purana of 10th century A.D.

is different from the Sanskrit Maha Purana tradition. Basava Purana followed the Desi tradition instead of Maha Purana of Marga tradition and

became popular as the first Veerasaiva Purana in Telugu.

Similarities(1) Against the five characteristics of Sanskrit Marga Purana tradition, Jains have adopted the 'Utchavapanchaka' or 'Pancha Jina Maha Kalyanas'. The poet Ranna has indicated the five characteristics of Jaina

Puranas as follows ( Gundappa: 56):Suralokavatarotsava or Garbhavatarana Kalyana;Janmabhishekotsava or Janmabhisheka Kalyana;

Parinishkranthi Mahotsava or Paarinishkramana Kalyana;Kaivalyabodhotsava or Kevaljnana Kalyana;

Parinirvanamahotsava or Parinirvana Kalyana.These five utsavas or kalyanas are the five stages of elevation in the divine life of a Jainathirthankara from his birth to his liberation. Jaina

Puranas have gained a sacred status in literature with these five qualities.

(2) Two more qualities are very familiar in Jaina Puranas. They are: Bhavavali and the stories of Sixty-Three Salaka-mahapurushas

(Thrishashti Salaka Maha Purushas).The description of the previous births of Thirthankaras in order is called

Bhavavali. In Jaina Philosophy it is believed that the Jeevatma, while

attaining Jnana, ascends from lower birth to higher birth and finally attains Jnana-siddhi, which leads to the birth of a Thirthankara. Against the characteristics of Sarga and Prathi Sarga, at the beginning of Maha

Puranas Bhavavali adorns the first part of Jaina Puranas. Hence. Bhavavali is the prologue of the main story of a Thirthankara, the hero of Jaina

Purana.

According to Jaina tradition there were 63 Salaka Purushas who followed Jaina Dharma and attained Salvation. They were called Thrishashti Salaka

Maha Purushas. They are different from the 24 Thirthankaras. Their classification is as follows: 12 Chakravarthins, 24 Kamadevas, 9

Baladevas, 9 Vasudevas and 9 Prati Vasudevas. They are subjected to Bhavabandhasnworldly attachments. The good among them are

Chakrvarthins. They are of Satwik nature. Thirthankaras are the best of men, with none to match them. The critics claim that the description of

the stories of the 63 Maha Purushas is an intrinsic feature of the structure of Jaina Purana.

(3) Orugallu ( Warangal), the living place of Palkuriki Somanatha, the capital city of Kakatiyas, attained name.and fame as the centre of political

power and religious harmoney in the 13th century. The Kakatiyas were Jains in the beginning of the 11th century and they followed Saivism from Betaraju II, who came to power in the 4th quarter of the 11th century. We

find consequently a deep conflict between Jains and Saivaities for their religious differences. Saivism was able to obtain Royal patronage and,

therefore, overpowered Jainism. That was the time when Palkuriki Somanatha had taken up his pen for the propagation of Veerasaivism.

Being a poet gifted with wit and wisdom, Palkuriki Somanatha had taken the reins of the times into his hands and dedicated himself to the cause of propagating religion through literature by creating a modern, popular and forceful literary form for the use of scholars and the general public as well.

This is how he came to choose a popular literary form, 'the Purana'.

(4) Jains are the immediate opponents of Veerasaivas. Hence, Somanatha might have keenly observed the popular Jaina Purana styles and he might have written Basava Purana with a competitive intention to surpass Jaina

Puranas in all respects. He made use, at any rate, of all the structural qualities of Jaina Puranas, without mentioning them directly and produced the first Purana of Veerasaivism to the best of his ability, without taking

anything away from his religious philosophy or poetic conviction.

(5) The influence of Jaina Puranas on the structure of Basava Purana may be observed as follows:

Jaina PuranasBasava Puranas

a. BhavavaliDescription at the beginning of Basava Purana of basaveswara's previous

birth' i.e. Asdi Vrishabha, Nandeswara and Basaveswara.b. Garbhavathara Kalayana

Basaveswara's birth as the son of Madamba.c. Janmabhisheka Kalyana

Sangameswara performing Abhisheka to child-Basava with Jangama pada thirtha and Vibhuthi.

d. Parinishkramana KalyanaRejecting Upanayana and accepting Veeramaheswara Vratha.

e. Kevala Jnana KalyanaSangameswara's preachings to Basaveswara.

f. Parinirvana KalyanaBasava's merger with Siva Linga.

g. The Stories of Trishashti Salaka Maha Purushas ( Selected stories )The Stories of Aruvadimuru ( 63 ) Nayanars ( Selected stories )

Jaina Puranas have opposed the tradition of Maha Purana or Marga Purana, and they have initiated their own type of Puranas with five

characteristics suitable for their new form and content. Some of them were translated into Kannada from Sanskrit and Prakrit. They have

become popular.

Palkuriki Somanatha, being well versed in Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada and other South Indian languages and literatures, undertook the task of

producing and presenting the first Veerasaiva Purana. He observed the intrinsic features of Jaina Puranas and incorporated them into his work. Finally, Basava Purana became popular and in turn Veerasaivism also

become popular in Telugu.

Yet it does not mean that Palkuriki Somanatha has blindly followed the Jaina Puranas. Indeed, he has carefully chosen only the suitable

techniques and adapted them for the creation of a competent literary work, a 'Purana' still, but something different from jaina Purana.

The inference that may be drawn from the above discussion is that Jainism left very deep, widespread but unconspicuous and latent impact

on Telugu culture. Though there are a few non-creative technical works in Telugu associated with Jainism, there is no religiously Jain literature in Telugu available today. Telugu people of the past seem to have been

acquainted themselves with the Jain versions of sacred epics and certain Jain literature. But the only significant impact of Jain literature on Telugu

lies in the indirect influence of Kannada Jain literature on Shaivaite literature in Telugu.

Posted by Mahavir S. Chavan at 3:07 AM

Wednesday

Conservation of Jain Monuments

BY MR. SUBHASH JAIN

2009/01/conservation-of-jaina-monuments

The known history of India is a few thousand years old. During this long time span several religions and their philosophical thoughts have

emerged. After having depth realisation of their irrespective philosophy, the ace religious leaders, preachers and philosophers have Provo gated

among the masses the best of their principles for their spiritual and general well being.

It is interesting that the main doctrines of all the religions are similar in spirit but their followers have made their own interpretation according to

their convenience, which have created gulf in religious though and thereby the aversion.

However, the great persons of all the religions have targeted upon spiritual and moral uplift of man. The religions have become strong

medium of common harmony among the followers of the same faith, whereas the different interpretations have carried the followers of one

faith distantly from the others.

Whatever may be religious differences in propagation of philosophical thoughts, for transformation into action, the man's desire to create the

magnificent and memorable monuments has been alike. Such monuments attract the people of all faiths and that is why, the places of touristic

importance having much attractive monuments invite the tourists from world over.

Whereas the affluent nations have the resources to protect and maintain their monuments on national level and increase their touristic importance more and more by publicity, renovation and keep, the poor nations face the misfortune of gradual deterioration of even the national importance monuments in the absence of adequate funds to maintain and protect

those.Jain religion is an oldest living religion. Its antiquity is yet undecided. The

Jains believe their religion as eternal whereas the historians feel the absence of the proof. However, the existence of many monuments of pre-

Christian era compels them to accept the comparative antiquity of Jain religion.

The Jain monuments, small and large, old and new, have been built in almost all parts of India. Though the Jains are decidedly a richer

community of the country, but their apathy towards maintenance of all the monuments of antiquity is agonising.

All the 24 Jain Trithankaras, according to the Jains, were born in the royal, Ksatriya families. Their influence on the common masses, both by

heredity and their great renunciation, was immense. Their followers, who mostly belonged to the trading community, effected various types of

structures to keep the memory of their 'Istdev' everlasting. That is why the Jain monuments, throughout the length and width of the country

abound in number.

All matter has certain life; decay is a natural phenomena. But it is the man's effort which can put the decay to a later period, i.e. increase the life

of the monument.

It is pity that the apathy of the Jain community towards their old monuments still exists, though lesser in degree. The last two decades

have seen a substantial urge in the Government and the elite people for protecting their monuments within the limits of their resources.

The fact remains that most of the old monuments of the Jains in the country, are still lacking funds through their managing committees,

philanthropists and governments. To over come the grim situation and to advance further in the protection of the crumbling monuments

Sunday

Jain Art and Architecture

By Dr. N. L. Jain2008/12/jaina-art-architecture

The Jainas could feel proud of their rich cultural heritage since the earliest times. It has a religious orientation in its art in varied forms. Being

predominatly idolators, they have good iconography and icon making art. They could make the victor's icons of different sizes, materials, (wood,

stone, metal, marble etc.) and postures (seated or standing). They could carve icons out of stones also. All icons have been made according to

dimensions with attractive meditating faces of victors expressing the idea of successful withdrawl from worldly life. There are many idols of

international accreditation-one of Bahubali at Shravanbelgola in Karnataka (983 AD) and Lord Rishabhdev ar Barvani in Madhya Pradesh state need

special mention for their magnificience and heights. The icons are worshipped only after consecration ceremony lasting for seven days with

high pomp and show. This ceremony has a large frequency for the last quarter of this century.

Jaina icons are found ever since 400 BC in different parts of India. They are most numerous. Seeing a number of different icons in any museum,

one can judge about the development of iconography with respect to material and aesthetic beauty. Palitana is one of the best center for variety of idols. Formerly, all Jina idols were made nude and without identification marks, but later they had the marks like lion (Mahavir),

hooded cobra (Parshvnatha) and bull (Rishabhdeva) etc. sometimes with or without eight auspicious symbols on both sides of identification marks. The images of many lesser deities were also incorporated later in this art.

They included demigods and the likc. Footprints are also a speciality of

Jaina art to make one remember to follow the path led by the Victors.. Marked and adored images were also made for sectional identification

later. This idol making art is a highly creditable one in Gujarat and Rajasthan states of India.

The temple making art is also superb in Jain architecture. Currently, one can distinguish the regional temples by their architectural designs in west

and central part of the country. These temples are places of worship where Jina idols alongwith demigods and goddesses are kept on stone or

marble made altar under aesthetic beauty. Many temples have fine decorative art of surprising nature such as at Khajuraho, Deogarh, Mt.

Abu, Ranakpur etc. The temples sometimes have a magnificient tope in front of them such as at Hastinapur, Mathura etc. Many temples have free

standing pillars called vanity-subduing pillars again a speciality of the Jains in religious field.

Cave temples-simple or rock cut are other variety found in Orissa, Bihar and south extensively. Some cave temples contain polished stone beds

per chance representing the place for voluntary death. Temple arches are also found in many places. Shrines are another forms for temple- like

places. The temple art has a Nagar or Dravidian style. The temples were made at distinct places some of whi,Ch have developed as temple cities

now like palitana, Ahar, Kundalpur, Rajgir etc. The temple art is still continuing gracefully.

Tuesday

JAINA ART AND ARCHITECTURE IN ANDHRA

Dr. I. K. Sharma

The Jainological studies in respect of Andhradesa have not been comprehensive. Except casual references in P.B. Desai's work, Jainism in

South India, and some Jaina Epigraphs, (Sholapur, 1957) and stray notices in A. Ghosh, (ED) Jaina Art and Architecture, Bharatiya Jnanapith (New Delhi, 1975), Vols. I to III; practically no work has appeared on Jaina art and architecture in so far Andhra is concerned. This being so (Late) S.

Gopala Krishna Murthy has brought out a work entitled Jaina Vestiges in Andhra in the year 1963 published by Department of Archaeology,

Government of Andhra Pradesh. But this work does not specifically deal with the development Of Jaina art and architecture, but provides an

interesting narrative on many sites with scattered sculptures of this faith. However, mention should be made of on account of literary sources

compiled by (late) Mallampalli Somasekhara Sarma entitled "Jainamatamu" - Telugu Encyclopaedia, Vol. III, (1959), pp. 544-553.

The work of Appayarya, a poet in the Court of Prataparudradeva (1295-1328 A. D.) of the Kakatiya dynasty goes by the name Jinendra

Kalyanabhyudayam.l Kalyana here means festivity of worship or jubilation pertaining to Jaina cult. Another work is Padmakavi's Jainendrapuranam.

I. BACKGROUNDIt is held generally that Jaina migration took place from North and Vardhamana Mahavira organised the first Jaina community, the Mu/asangha, its eleven disciples who were named Ganadharas. Ganas are groups of Jains who caused the expansion of Jaina philosopy. Out of these,

three were well known and regarded as Kevalis. They were Gautama, Jambu Swami and Arya Sudharma. They in turn had disciples who were known as Sruta Kevalis who were five - Vishnu, Nandimitra, Aparajita,

Govardhana, Sthulabhadra and Bhadrabahu. Bhadrabahu, the last Sruta keuali was a contemporary of Chandra Gupta Maurya (315 B.C.) The

traditional association of Bhadrabahu with Sravana (Mana) Belgola, its hold as a centre of Digambara Jainism in Deccan has been well known. Subsequently, the great Kundakundacharya, who was regarded as the

founder of this Mulasamgha, and his lineage Kundanvaya appears to have made Sravanabelgola a sacred resort of Jains from all over the country.

His first name was Padmanandl and since he hailed from the village Kundakunda, he got the name Kundakundacarya subsequently. The

various theories regarding the location of the village, date of this acarya, his proper name and suffix have been re-examined recently by A.V. Narasimha Murthy but still no sound explanation is forthcoming. The

mulasamgha branched off into four upa-samghas viz., Nandi, Sena, Deva and Simha and each subdivided into ganas and in turn contained several gacchas. All these owed to the mulasamgha for the religious guidance.

Inspite of the fairly reliable traditional accounts attesting an early spread of Jains to Sravanabelgola,it is surprisisngthat .no vestiges are3 available there or even in Deccan for that matter which could be pushed back to

Mauryan or post Mauryan times; while correspondingly on the sbuth-east coastal strip, more surer evidencdes, like the early Brahmi records over simple rock caverns and brds are available at such noteworthy sites as

Sittannavasal (Pudukkottai), Arittapatti and Tirupparankunram in district Madurai (Tamilnadu). It is interesting to note that one of the early

settlements in the Sangam period, (3rd to 5th century A. D.), Tiruppadirippuliyur was called 'Pataliputra' in the coastal part of South

Arcot between Cuddalore and Chidambaram. In the Kannada country till date not a single rock-cut Jaina cavern attributable to a pre-Christian era was reported nor any Jain vestiges have been known prior to 5th century

A. D. It appears Digambara Jainism did not reach Tamilnadu from' Sravanabelgola centre but through Orissa-coastal Andhra route in early

centuries B. C.

We learn from Mulacara and Pravachanasara, which were composed during the early centuries of the Christian era, that permanent habitation for the Jaina ascetics at a place is forbidden. Mulacara ordains the monks

to stay in a deserted house, under a tree or burial ground or in natural caves. So the varshavasa of the Jains were mostly natual rock shelters or the way-side hills and forest areas. Therefore, not many vestiges could be

assigned to this faith in specific terms.

II. JAINA TENETS:Digambara Jainism has kept up strict ascetic codes and the ritual observances continued unaltered inspite of the tremendous

growth in the activities of Jaina Sangha in South India. Ascetic life lends purity, uniqueness and unsullied fame to Jainism among Indian religions.

Jaina scriptures lay three modes of Sallekhana, that is voluntary starvation, standing motionless till death. Vardhamana, known as Nathaputra, (son of Natha clan of Kshatriyas) added to the Jaina

Chaturyama, dharma, (Ahimsa, Brahmacharya, Truth and Nonstealing), the fifth one Aparigriha (non-possession) thereby to complete victory over desire. Thus a Jina or Kevali should practice and attain three basic means

of liberation Samyakdarsana, Samyakjnana, and Samyakcharita.

III. SOME TRACES OF EARLY JAINISM IN ANDHRAThere are no authentic evidences of premedieval Jaina remains in Andhra. According to Jaina

traditional accounts, Mahavira is reported to have visited Kalinga country. Hathigumpha Prasasti refers to the episode of kind Nadaraja of Magadha who took away the figure (Agajinam) to his capital. King Kharavela (2nd

cent B. C) restored it back to the basadi at Kumaragiri near Bhuvaneshavare in Orissa and caused in his 13th regnal year caves and resorts at (Udayagiri / Khandagiri ) for Sramanas. Maharaja Kharavele appears to have made a dent into coastal Andhara too during his 11th

regnal year and captured the coastal market town of Pithunda, which was an ancient metropolis designated by Ptolemy as the capital of Maisoloi5 (Machilipatnam). Seafaring merchants are stated to be travelling by boat

from Champa (Kampuchea) to Pihumda even in the days of Mahavira.. King Kharavela also speaks of a Confedaracy of Tamil countries with

whom he fought and defeated. So early Jaina impact could have been the result of Kharavela's expeditions along the South East Coast.

When exactly Jainism spread to coastal Andhra? How it reached? are the questions that defy a clear answer. We have made a reference to a major centre of Jainism in Karnataka. Its influence over the entire south India is well documented. The acharyas belonging to the mulasangha reached far

and wide. This could be through Cuddapah (Gangaperuru, Danavulapadu)6 Badvel route to Nellore in the coatstal strip. Queen

Ayyana . Mahadevi, wife of Kubja Vishnuvardhana Maharaja (A. D. 624-41), the eastern Chalukyan monarch, gifted the village named

Musinikonda to Nidumba basadi at Bezawada. In coastal Andhra, this is the first Jaina establishment, perhaps a cave or an open rock shelter

caused originally by Ayyana Mahaddevi probably located in the Mallikarjuna hill, which has been subjected to total modernisation and almost all historical monuments have been destroyed in recent years.

Later on Vishnuvardhana-III (A. D.718-755), had restored the gifts given to this very Jaina temple for the regular worship of Arahats. The Eastern

Chalukyan rulers Gunaga Vijayaditya (849-893 A. D.) and later on Amma-II (945-970 A. D.) have patronised Jainism on a large scale. The Bezwada

basadi had monks from far off Surashtra and it appears the early Chalukyan rulers of Andhra had exchanges with the Jaina centres of North

- Mathura and Western India as well, besides the major Sravanabelgola the Jain Principle centre of Karnataka.

IV. VADDAMANU, DISTRICT GUNTURVaddamanu is a small village in district Guntur 34 Km. from Guntur on Amaravati road and 10 Km south

east of Amaravati, the famous Buddhist site of world renown. The highest hill called Peddakonda has yielded several remains and relics associated with stupas and monasteries as a result of extensive excavations during

the years 1981-85. The view that these structures datable to early centuries B.C. are of Jaina affiliation sprang up mainly from the place named Vaddamanu taken to be Vardhamana by the excavators of the site. In fact the name is also held as Vadlamanu due to its rich paddy

(Vadlu) fields on the banks of Krishna. There is no doubt that bouldered Stupa at the summit of the hill, and rock caverns, are of the early date

associated with N.B.P. and Punch-marked silver coins revealing the Magadhan influence. But to align these structures of early centuries B.C.

to Jaina faith is not borne by any evidence except some short label inscriptions noticed (13-on stone and 214 on pottery) on the sculptured-architectural members, pots, bowls used by the inmates of the monastic units located here. It may, at the outset, be- noted that in ancient India, monasteries were resorts of-moving monks, be they Jain, (Nirgranthas),

Buddhist or of Brahmanical faith.Having taken for granted that Vaddamanu is Vardhamana, and hence a Jain Kshetra scholars attempted to dovetail the literary references from Brihat Kalpa Sutra which refers to king Samprati, a patroniser of Jainism, who made his influence felth in Andhra and is as old as Mahavira. T.V.G. Sastry8 and Mrs. Kasturi Bai9 who have published several inscriptions from this place have repeatedly connected some of these short label

records to Jaina acharyas, ganas and sanghas of early centuries B. C. and A. D.

I would like to state that these shorter inscriptions, and a few somewhat longer are merely the names of the monks like Ara - taken for Aranathaj asari (da) am: arhata, (VDM, 620), Uttarudhal0 Gadodasa, and Utaradas,

etc. Sanghasll like Ukkasa, Nagara, Gavanti Sangha of Gayanasakha; Kulas like Nandige, Pratiga; names like Vadhama (564/1), Maha (564/2),

Veera (617/2), Vadhamana Pavate (567/6), Risabo (567/6), Nemi (573/14) have all been taken to be the names of Jaina Tirthan-karas and places. Somewhat lengthy record on a harmika slab which is incomplete reads, "Vadhamana nivasikasa Dhanumitisa Samatukasa Pithuka sa Bhatukasa Chu/a Dhanutikasa ku (mar and Sastry links up this Dhanumita, resident

of Vadhamanu to a Dhamati of an inscription from Mathura who is cited as an inhabitant of Punyavardhanal2. This is apparently a very imaginative linkage without basis. Punyavardhana is a place closer to Mathura and

several such pious places exist in GangaYamuna doab. It is again interesting for us to note that some references like Jinanevihara, Parivara

Sameta (569/4); Samprati Vihare Vadhamanu Pavatake{567/8); {Bhikshukasa}, Pithuda pura nivasikasa; Bhokavadhana pava (te);

antevasa (566/9) Varanasa pati (618/4), Nepano Gamanidana (574/8);

merely refer to frequent visit of monks from various places to this hill monastery and not that the monastery is aligned to exclusively Jains.

Terms like Jina, arhata apply both for the followers of Buddhism as well as Jainism. There is no question of building of Stupas and monasteries in early Jainism and the Stupa of Kankalitila, Mathura, came to existence

only during the Kushan period. The monastic life of Jainas has never been in permanent structures, they have dwelt merely in open resorts, way

ward Rock shelters for the rainy season (Varshavasa). The monasteries, both Rock cut-in caves, halls, as well as structural viharas were not

necessarily for a particular sectarian but meant for nanadesis belonging to various faiths. In the light of what has been stated above, we are of the view that Vaddamanu has no exclusive Jaina art and architectural relics.

On the other hand from recently edited copper plate grants issued by Prithivi Mula Raja discovered from Kondavidu Fort (Guntur dt.), the existence of an Aryabhikshu Sangha at Vardhamani-mahavihara

established by the Maha Meghavahana confirms that Vaddamanu was a flourishing Buddhist centre with several bhikshu Sanghas right upto 5th

century A. D. enjoying royal patronage. In fact Digambara Jainism in early centuries B. C. or A. D. (before the advent of Mulasangha of

Sravanabelgola), has no base in Andhra. Dynasties like Pallava, Chalukya, Nolamba, Rashtrakuta, Chola and Kakatiya, no doubt patronised Jainism in

Andhra after this Sravanabelgola impact, wave after wave. The rock caverns reported in the Coastal Tamilnadu were only transient shelters and early Jaina monachism did not permit permanent residences to its

ascetics and this holds good in respect of Andhra too.

IV. LATER HISTORICAL SITES:The Kalyani Chalukya, Kakatiya and the Velanati Chola rule witnessed asfairly large concentration of Jaina

architectural establishments. The square Sikhara over a plain stepped pyramidal tower, and Trikutas involving Triple shrines on plan with a front pillared mandapa are frequently seen as Vardhamana pura, Pragatur while single towered temples are at Kambaduru. Peddatumbalam, etc. But there has not been many rock cut ventures and hardly we get any pillarad caves as in the Brahmanical and Buddhist estasblishments. The extact examples known to us from Ramatirtham (Dt. Vigaz) Siddulayyakonda (Dt.Nellore), Hanumankonda (Dt. Warangal) and Chippagiri are merely shelters under

the cover of huge granite boulders and the ledges. These rock caverns are of the times of the Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas to begin with and continued by their successors like the later Chalukya and Kakatiya

dynasties. Carved middle size or miniature temple models of various types found in Vemulavada, Padmakshi, and Vijayawada give us an idea of the

Jaina temple styles. These models closely recall the early Chalukyan monolithic temples found at Mahanandi, Satyavolu, Kadamara Kaluva, Alampur, etc. These are usually Chaumukhas or Chauvisis intended for

four or twenty four Tirthankaras.

Bhima Saiki younger brother of Chalukya, Vijayaditya-II of Vengi (806-846 A.D.) was given protection by the Rashtrakuta Gonvinda-III, who placed him near Hanumakonda in early 9th century A. D. Saiki favoured Jainas

who first established a colony in the Fort, a Durga Tank and rock shelters in the bouldered hills.

During the Kakatiya times Jainism has come to the fore as the early members of the dynasty adopted Jasinism.

Bodhan (Dr. Niamabad )Known anciently as Paudanyapura during the Rashtrakuta rule. this place has become a Jaina centre. A place of

Gommata, it served as a capital of Rashtrakuta king Nityavarsha Indra (915-927 A. D.) The Jaina image is known as Kukkutesvara. In Andhra, the

figure of Gommata is rarely seen. In Pithapuram, a Gommata is found which is called Kukkutesvara - as Kukkuta sarpas surround him.15 The

Vaisyas in Andhra are called Komatis (a native Telugu word) being followers of Gomatha. They are traders by profession and followers of

Jainism.

Vemulavada: (Karimnagar district).Arikesari-II (930-955) ruled at Vemulavada. The Kannada poet Pampa,16 the author of Adipurana,

originally from Vengimandala, joined the court of Arikesari being a Jaina. A big Jaina temple named as Subhadhama Jinalaya was raised. Arikesari-III

donated a village (A.D. 966) to the Jaina pontif Somadeva Suri, who belonged to the Gaula Sangha of North Indian origin. Interestingly this gift was to cause maintenance like white washing. daily offerings, and worship - "Khandasphutita nava Sudhakarma, Bali, naivedyartham". It is therefore,

clear that the Brahmanical ritual modes were adopted in toto, though Tirthankaras in Jainism were certainly not Gods. Though the temple got

ruined we still see the Paravsnatha image of red sandstone erected in the present Raja Rajesvaralaya. Several other Tirthankara figures are found

scattered in various temples here. (five Pasrsvanatha, three Vardhamanas, Suparsvanatha, a Gommata, and four others). Vemulavada

was undoubtedly a big Jaina centre in Telangana.

The literary works like Yasastilaka by Somadeva and Adipurana by Pampa speak of the pre-eminence of Jainism in Telangana. The Sanigram

inscription of Beta-I reveals the gift to Yuddhamatta Jinalaya. Beta-II also patronised Jaina-basadis.

The Padmakshi temple inscription of the times of ProlaIII (1117 A. D.) records the construction of Kadalalaya basadi. The Garuda banner of

Pratapa Rudra is regarded by some scholars as the lanchana of Santinatha, the 16th Tirthankara. Ekasila was a Jaina resort. Several Jaina images were found in the Fort area. The Vardhamana (P1.1), Parsvanatha (P1.2), model shrine with Tirthankaras in niches (P1.3), all of back basalt

are typically Kakatiyan. Padmakshi temple on Hanumakonda hill was continuously patronised. The steep narrow path is an arduous are a but

ascetic Jains chose such places only. The Jaina basdi here enjoyed perpetual grants during the time of Pratapa Rudra17 who held all the

Samayas (faiths) in equal esteem.

The Kadalalaya basadi or Padmakshi temple is built on a large rocky out crop. The rick built Sikhara and ardhamandapa, no doubt impressive ones,

are later constructions. The sanctum is formed by a natural cavern and with a closed Cella all facing north. Seated Pasrsvanatha on lotus and a royal lady holding up an umbrella and a chief ten by the side are often taken as Mailama and her husband (P1.4). The standing Tirthankara in

Kayotsarga with a seated Yaksha - Yakshini were carvings in bold relief on the left boulder closer to garbhagriha (P1.5). Significantly among the

several Jaina figure carvings, a bookrest (Vyasapitha) is shown. Hanumakonda hill was a place of learning, like Sravanabelgola.

There are numerous rock carvings on the Hill at the northern boundary of the Fort and recall the rock shelters of Vallimalai and Siyamangalam in

Tamilnadu.

The row of Tirthankaras (P1.6) in niches on the north face afford a grand look for their oval forms and superior workmanship on hard trap.

Parsvanatha, Yakshi Padmavati, a sitting Tirthanakara in neatly cut niches are examples arising out of later Ganga-Rashtrakuta influence.18

Kollipaka: Jaina temple was built by Kumara Tailapa. The Purnaghata on the door jambs of stone, mana stambhas, carvings of Adinatha, Padmavati

and the high stone torana are fine specimens.

The Raja Raja Jinalaya was built during the time of Anantavarman 1187 A.D. The metre high Parsvanatha is very impressive. The Jaina temple at Chippagiri ( on the hill), comprises of a garbhagriha, ardhamandapa and maha. mantapa, and a mukha mandapa. The Navranga has Kakshasana

all around interiorly as in the Kakatiya or later Chalukyan period.

Ramathirtham,(Vizag): There are two caves or open shelters under a huge live rock. The way is rough. On the Gurubhakta hill at a distance of one Km. we find a natural cave sheltering a Jain figure (PI.7). Vimaladitya's guru Trikalayogi Siddhantadeva who belonged to desigana visited Durgamkonda. This Jaina monk is shown in relief on the rock and three more figures Chandraprabha (PI. 7 A). Parsvanatha, and Chandraprabha (PI. 7B, C) out of local khondolite resemble the Rashtrakuta examples. Chandavolu, capital of Velanati Chola's(12-13th century A.D.) has also several Jaina figures.

Kanchumurru, (West Godavari) was a rendezvous of Jains during the time of Ammaraja-II. A lady named Chamekamba pupil of Acharya Arhanandi, raised a temple called Sarvalokasraya Jinabhuvana.19

Penukonda in West Godavari has a Parsvanatha, which is a renowned place of learning. Jina bhushana Bhattaraka one of the Chaturdasa Vidyasthanas of Jains (PI.8). Aryavatam in East Godavari district, near Draksharama has a Jainapadu. The Vardhamana image of grey granite from here is of an early period and has

the aureole and the Triple parasol. The chauri bearers and Lions back-to-back make it Simhasana. The facial expression and serene pose in dhyana make this figure pleasant looking. Tirthanakaras existed in the Kakinada town hall compound also. Biccavolu has a fine example of Vardhamana (P1.9) now in Madras Museum. This appears to be a Rashtrakuta - Vengi Chalukya make and falls into the early class of figures, like the Aryavatam example. We are reminded of the similar Jaina sculptures of Ellora.

JAINA TEMPLES IN NELLORE DISTRICT:Nellore is known as Vikrama Simhapuri. According to Boswel.20 Vikrama Simhapura and Mulasthanesvara temples were caused by one Mukkanti (Trinetra) a legendary Pallava king. Nellore and its surroundings revealed several Jaina vestiges.21 which provide a fresh data on the nature, early history and spread of this religion.1. Parsvanatha Image in the Town Hal I (Pl.10)In the premises of Nellor Progressive Union's (Town Hall) library a relief sculpture of a Jaina Tirthankara is planted in position.This stone slab measures 1.14 metres length and 63 cm. wide out of black basalt rock. In the central part of the stone is a figure standing erect (samapadas sthanaka), nude in Kayotsarga posture. A seven-hooded snake protects the head of the image which has the Trichatravali, the symbol of royality. Besides the Prabhavali, the tiruvasi torana raised over Kudya-stambhikas was held by makaravyala mukha at the base. At the ends of these pillars are the attendant gods of the Jaina pantheon. Samvara enraged at the severe austerities of Parsvanatha Tirthankara attempts to disturb him from penance. A heavy dowopour of rain and storm was caused resulting in total deluge around the standing Parsvanatha. At this juncture Dharanendra, the Naga king came up from the Patala along with his consort Padmavati to protect the Jina. Dharanendra becomes a carytide yaksha and spreads out his hoods on the head of Parsvanatha to ward off the rain, while Padmavati holds up the feet by placing lotus flowers. Thus the Naga couple is depicted here standing either sides with folded hands while the Sankha and Lotus (Padmadala) are up the waters as if emerging to protect the central figure. In the central part are two whisk bearers. The upper loop of the torana is held by a set of elephant riders. Above the festoon is a Gandharva playing the drum.

The above sculpture was reported from the area closer to the Cathedral Church where a stepped tank also existed. This lateritic tank is now taken over by the Fisheries Department which is closer to the former bus stand. The sculpture was however shifted to the premises of the Nellore Town Hall. The stepped tank has still some ancient features preserved. The spot is called Enugulamitta, the tank was the Sarovara for the Parsvanatha temple.

Not only the above find, but another figure of Parsvanatha was noticed in the compound wall of the old bungalow of District Judge in Dargamitta area.22 Though defaced, the image has all the characteristics detailed above (no. 1) with the exception that no elephant riders are shown among the Paribhramana devatas.

Jina Vardhamana (P.11)This impressive image of Vardhamana is presently within the Narasimhasvami temple in Danduvari Street, Nellore. Some regard the figure as Mahavishnu and worship it. The image is kept within an iron-bar door on the left side room of the Gopuradvara. This rare specimen is made out of black basalt and highly polished. Seated in Dhyana, the figure is 1.16 metre high with well marked forehead, long nose, distended ears and full neck, throat marked by tri-rekhas, and head with vamavrita curls imparted the look of a peal of custard apple. The radiating face sumptuous and sturdy shoulders and in quite meditative posture, the Vardhamana looks in every sense a Manmadtha Jina. The vahana (mount) is Lion but since the base part is embedded in the earth, this is not visible.It is reported that originally the above image was within the premises of an old tank (pushkarini) built of lateritic blocks. The large tank was also closed in 1900 when the District Collector's office was raised at the very same place. It appears that during this work was going on, excavation around the sculpture revealed a temple pian. In view of the fineness of the image, the locals who were much impressed, shifted the same to the nearby Narasimhasvami temple in Danduvari Street. Several carved pieces of the temple and also the laterite blocks were used as building materials in the construction.

The above evidences when put together bring to light the existence of a Jaina Temple with an image of Vardhamana and a tank (pushkarini) was in its front. It is very important and also interesting to note that the image is called 'Konetiraya' by the elders of the town. Thus the consecreted Vardhamana was regarded as the king (raya) and greatly revered.

It may be seen from the above facts that in Nellore proper there have been in existence at least three Jaina temples and sarovaras. As prescribed in the Jaina-agamas, for the ritual of Samavasarana, Sveta or Dhaval Saras (Lotus Tank) was a must. Hence the temples of Jina at Nellore had invariably been associated with stepped tanks whose remains were traceable. This ritual tradition was streamlined and observed strictly by the Digambaras during 8th-9th centuries A. D. The Mula Sangha of Sravanabelagola (Dist. Hassan, Karnataka State), was the seat of several Digambara acharyas of renown and the Svetasarovara here was the most sacred pushkarani for Jinas in the whole country.

Digambara Jainism spread from Karnataka to the region through Siddhout-Cuddapah and Badvel perhaps at the behest of Acharya Simhanandi of Sravanabelgola during 7th-8th century A. D.

4. SOME MORE JAINA SETTLEMENTS IN NELLORE DISTRICT:It is relevant to mention here some more Jaina remains in Nellore District. Robert Sewell and Goapala Krishna Murthy.23 mention as Jaina temple at Kanuparthi padu village which is 20 Km east of Nellore. The Jaina temple here was built by Karikala Chola of legolldary fame. But during the thirty seventh year of the Chola King Raja Raja Deva his consort Pramiladevi caused steps to the Palmlichamda and gifted lands

for maintenance of the mopastery.24 The image of Parsvanatha Jina in this village bears close resemblance to the figure from Nellore described above.Ruins of a Jaina temple along with the figure of Parsvanatha are traceable at Krishnapatnam under the silt (P1.12). The image is enshrined as a mulabera and the Sasanadeuatas, respectively Dharanendra yaksha and goodess Padmavati are paying obeissance from' either sides. Although foundational inscriptions are not traced. the Jaina vestiges in jhe Nellore region were of 9th century A. D. and during the later Telugu Chola times these were renovated and expanded too.

The style of Jaina figures in Nellore district resemble those of the Chalukyas and nearer Bapatla. Nellore also became famous during A. D. 849-893 A. D. during the reign of Gunaga Vijayaditya, 25 the Eastern Chalukyan king His vassal Panduranga enriched Kandukur to look like Bezwada in its grandeur and ruled the Nellore region.26

It might be of topical interest to critically examine some of the local temples in Nellore. More specifically the temple of goddess Irukala Paramesvari worshipped under the name of Yerukalamma as a Sakti presiding the place. The temple is located in Mulappet at the North east-wards of Svarnala Cheruvu, now popular as Nellore tank. This temple is built with lateritie blocks. Kulottunga CholaIII (1178-1226) offered worship to this deity and gave munificient gifts. Though defaced, the goddess like Chamundi has owl as lanchchana. She is the counterpart of Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and prosperity.

From the Jaina inscriptions of South India the set of Sasanadevatas governing the Jaina temples and settelements have come to stay. In some other parts of south India we find similar practice in vogue. Two Jaina temples dedicated respectively to Vrshabhanatha ( 748-749 A. D.) and Chandranatha (1190-91 A.D.) existed at Perumandur village27 in Dindivanam Taluk of South Arcot district. The Jaina-Yakshas set up here were named as Irivikula Sundari Perumbali and Manganayaki named after the donor of the temple of images. The presiding deity of the Nellore temple was called like-wise Irukala-paramesvari or Irukalamma could thus be regarded as a Jaina Sasanadevi and the Svarnalacheruvu was the dhavalasaras for the Jaina ritual of Samavasarana.

It can also be reasonably held that "Lion" being the Vahana of Vardhamana Jina the king or rayadu of the place, the toponym Simhapuri to Nellore came to vogue. The Jaina acharya Simhanandi laid the seeds of Jainism, for the first time at this place, and this event also might justify the name Simhapuri to Nellore. In any case there is no doubt of the hold of Jainism in Nellore region.

Culturally the village names ending with Palli, Palai andPadu signifiedJaina settlements. In thes records of Kulottunga Chola-III (1178 1226), Nellore is called Pallinati or Palai Vikrama Simhapuri. It is quite reasonable to take the Konetirayad!,1, the principal Jina at the Jaina temple datable to 9th century A. D. as the owner of the older Jaina village. We may conclude that the name Simhapuri to Nellore originated from its being an important place of Jainism

during the times of acharya Simhanandi.28

SlDDHULAYYAKONDA: (Village Saidapuram): (14° 12'N: 79° 44'E)This place is located 50 Km. from Nellore South-West, 30 Km. East of South Rapur, A recent discovery by G. R.Gehlot.29 Superintending Archaeologist, Hyderabad Circle of the Archaeological Survey of India and his colleagues is of great importance, as this is first and only rock-cut shelter (Pl.13) dedicated to Jaina faith in the area after Vallimalai in the neighbouring North Arcot district of Tamilnadu.The sturdy Jaina Tirthan kara figures with trichatravali customary three-tiered umbrella, seated on a Simhasana in Sattva-paryanka are fixed inside Kudu like aurole. There are two such Tirthankaras, the first one measures .60 cm x 40 x 10 cms (Pls.14 and 15) is Adinatha flanked by two standing male chouri-bearers, while the other is Vardhamana, (56 x 38 x 10 cm) the Prabhavali, in tiers, with the seated Matanga Yaksha on the right, and Siddhayika on the left: The Vamavrita curls, trirekha of the neck and round bulged face and sturdy body features clearly reflect the characteristics of Vallimalai Tirthankaras and also Siyamangalam. Like in the rock caves, the cave of Siddulagavulu has an opening of a long bouldered frontage with an entrance door-way, the dripledge cut on the face of the rock above the top line meant to arrest the main water directly falling into the cave (PI. 13). This Jaina cave appears to have been ocupied in later periods by Alvars. The Jaina images too are regarded by the locals as alvars or generally Siddhu/u i.e. hermits.

Danavalapadu (district Cuddapah)According to the inscription of Rashtrakuta Nityavarsha Indra-III (915-927 A.D.) caused a Jaina basti at this place and installed on a Pitha the image of Santinatha, 16th Tirthankara. Danavalpadu presents an evolved state of ritual and iconography presents an evolved state of ritual and iconography of Jains. Several white granite/sandstone sculptures have been brought to Madras Govt. Museum. These include carved mandapa pillars, and nishidika stones, and Chaumukhas. Within a circular ridged Pitha amidst the temple ruins, (PLs. 16 & 17) clearly betray their original installation. The divinities carved in relief on the side edge of the circular Pitha (PL 18) are unique examples and chaumukhas were meant for the ablution of Santinatha. The structural jaina temple is an extensive basadi on the banks of Pennar river (PL 19). A ghat with stepped descent was also provided for use of the Jains. The introduction of abhisheka mar~s an advancement in the Jaina ritual and the sculptured Pithas with water chuta is a speciality of Danavalapadu.

The Jaina temples, Chaumukhas, a pedestal for Tirthankaras, 3-metre high figures of Parsvanatha (two in granite and Padmavati were unearthed (PL 20). Except a few at site rest are in Madras Museum. The Sarvatobhadrika was a set up in a square temple with openings at the four directions. A seated Jina, is seen who attained Kaivalya. In this case the figures could be those of Mahavira, Neminatha or Rishabhanatha.

Dharmayaram, in Ongole taluk of Prakasam district, is known as Dharmapuri for its being a place of Jaina Dharma. Two long hill ranges provided shelter to Jains.

A Jinalaya was constructed at the east of the village proper by Duggaraja the Commander-in-Chief of Gunaga Vijayaditya. This Jinalaya was named as Katakabharana Jinalaya and several land grants were caused. Among the figures found in the village, Parsvanatha, and a grey stone Tirthankara now in Sub Collector's office are good examples. Munugodu in Sattenapalli Tq. was a Jaina Kshetra. It has the name-Prithvi tilaka Jaina basadi of the Svetambara Jainas. Kulotunga Choda-I, during his 37th regnal year gave land grants.

Anantapur Area:After Konakondla, important Jaina relics were noticed at Pedda Tumbalam, Chinatumbalam Kambadur, Nayakahalli Adoni; Penukonda and more prominently Hemavati. We shall consider a few examples among these sites in a rapid way.

Hemavati, anciently known Henjeru, a capital of Nolambas who ruled between 8th-10th century A. D. and kept close contacts with Pallavas Gangas of Karnataka.

A figure of Adinatha (PI. 21) seated on a raised Simhasana Trichattravali, flanked by male chauries is an installed image and inscribed too in 9th-10th century characters. Another Jaina Tirthankara, Vardhamana in dhyana reveals the supple Nilamba features. Hemavati patronised Jains and a temple existed here. At Kambadur, the Jaina temple facing north has a plain tiered tower (pyramidal) over the garbhagriha, fronted by an ardhamandapa, a pillared hall all within a stone prakara wall. The door frame of the Pratoli shows Purnaghatas and a Jaina figures on the Lalata of the over door frame indicates its Jaina affiliation. A Jaina temple named Brahma-Jinalaya housing Parsvanatha is seen within Tailagiri Fort, in Amarapuram village of Anantapur district.

At Adoni hill, the rock-cut seated Jinas in a neat row (three nos) on the hill remind us Hanumakonda. Parsuanatha in Kayotsarga, Padmavati-Dharanendra. The huge are of Rashtrakuta vintage, boulders close the entrance.

Tadipatri on the banks of Pennar has two Jaina te!T1ples, one of Chandranatha, the other for Parsvanatha. These perhaps had been founded in 1208 A. D. by Chola Chieftan Vijayaditya by name.

BRONZES FROM BAPATLA AREA:Several bronzes of Jaina faith were found near Bapatla. Of these two are bells, eleven Tirthankaras and attendent Yaksha- Yakshini figures. These are now preserved in State Museum, Hyderabad. They are datable to 11th-12th century A.D.Vardhamana seated in dhyana is flanked by Yaksha-Yakshini (P1.22) with chauris carved above. He has a Prabha surmounted by a Chatrauali, Parsvanatha is seated on an elaborate Simhasana with a prabha behind his head (P1.25). Yakshi Ambika with the child is shown below holding the branch of mango-tree (P1.26). Others include Parsvanatha, Neminatha, Padmaprabha, a Vidyadevi, etc. (P1.23, 24).

OTHER JAINA IMAGES IN THE STAGE MUSEUM, HYDERABADa. Patancheruuu : Hyderabad area is stated to have several Jaina basad is. Standing Bahubali in Kayotsarga with creepers entwining his legs is a powerful representation. The image is of 12th century A. D. Mahavira with 23-Tirthankaras carved around is impressive. The Jaina Sarasuati is an example of a robust female in supple form, with several ornaments on the body. A Chaumukha with Sikharais interesting.

An important centre of Jainism is Nizamabad. The Parsvanatha image with all the Maha Purusha lanchanas is interesting.

b. Kurikyal, Karimnagar district: An image of Yakshi chakresvari, attendent of Adinatha is a dated example with an inscription of the donor king Jinavallabha, brother of Pampa, the great Kannada poet (950 A.D.).

c. Chilukuru: A very robust figure of Parsvanatha is sandstone measuring 3.25 em. height standing in Kayotsarga was found at Chilukuru, just 20 Km. from Hyderabad. Another Mahavira seated in Padmasana in dhyanamudra, was of black basalt and one metre high. Two chauri bearers were also found.

Sunday

The Worship Of Images In Jainism

Priyatosh Banerjee2008/05/worship-of-images-in-jainism

It is difficult to say when first the Jainas took to the practice of worshipping images. Stevenson states that an image of Mahavira was installed in

Upakeshapattana during the leadership of the Jaina leader Prabhava (4th century B.C.). That image-worship was in prevalence among the Jainas

about the same time is supported by archaeological evidence. The Hathigumpha inscription of Jaina king Kharavela records that he took back

from Patliputra the Jina idol which was carried off by one of the Nandarajas from Kalinga. This shows that the Nandas who ruled in 4th

century BC. were followers of Jainaism, Kalinga was an ancient center of Jaina faith, and Tirthankara images were made for worship as early as the

days of the Nandas.

It may be noted here that among the Patna Museum exhibits there are two nude mutilated statues found in Lohanipur, Patna Town. One of them possesses polish characteristic of Maurya age and can be attributed to 3rd

century BC. and the other can be attributed on stylistic grounds to 2nd century BC. It is quite possible that they represent Tirthankara images of

3rd century BC. and 2nd century B.C. respectively. The author of Arthashastra seems to refer to the Jaina gods in Jayanta, Vaijayanta and

Sarvarthasiddhi: Most of the important caves, viz. Ananta, Rana and

Ganesha Gumphas in Orissa were excavated in 2nd century BC. The Ananta Gumpha contains symbols like Trishula and Svastika on its back

wall. Moreover, the courtyard of the cave possesses images of many Jaina deities and saints. The Ranigumpha is elaborately decorated with scenes of human activities some of which may represent Jaina religious festivals. These facts would show that image worship was popular among the Jainas

several centuries earlier than Christen era.

Mathura was a very important seat of the Jainas during the period under review. The archaeological excavations there have laid bare the remains of a Jaina stupa, temples and sculptures ranging from 2nd century BC to

3rd century AD. mostly. The Mathura sculptures have placed at our disposal immense and varied materials with regard to the study of jaina deities. They represent most of the Tirthankaras including Rishabha, the

earliest one that shows that the belief of the Jainas in all the 24 Tirthankaras was an established fact during the period under review. The Tirthankara images are purely Indian conceptions and do not betray any foreign influence. One of the striking features of the Jaina figures is their

nudity, which distinguished them from Buddha and Buddhist images. Nudity however is true only of the Digambara images, whereas the

shvetambaras clothe their figures. The Jinas bear symbols not only on the palms and soles but also in the centre of their breasts. The hair is usually arranged in short curls in the shape of spirals turned towards the right, as

is also the case with the most Buddha images. But in the earlier specimens we find sometimes a different treatment. The hair assumes the

appearance of a per wig or it hangs down on the shoulders in strange locks. In contradistinction with Buddha the earlier Tirthankars have

neither Ushnishes nor Urna but those of the latter part of the middle ages have a distinct excrescence on the top of the head".

A very interesting type of the Tirtharikara images of our period in Mathura is that of the Jina quadruple which is known in Jaina inscriptions and

literature as Sarvato-bhadrika pratima. 'They consist of a block square in section' with a Tirthankara carved on each of the four faces. There is no injunction however as to the particular Tirthankaras to be figured there, but generally the most important ones are chosen. A quadruple image of

an 'unnamed Jina perfectly nude' is represented on an inscribed sculptured panel found in Kankali mound in Mathura. The epigraph

records that it was the gift of Kumaramita, the first wife of shreshthin called Veni. The gift was made at the request of the venerable Vasula, a female pupil of venerable Sanghamika who is in turn a female pupil of venerable monk Jayabhuti. The inscription has been assigned to the

Kushana Period on paleographical grounds. From the same site, that is Kankali mound in Mathura, we have another very interesting

representation of an inscribed Sarvatobhadrika Pratima of our period. The Jina shown there is parshvanatha with trace of his snake canopy. The

inscription states that this fourfold image was dedicated by one Sthira for the welfare and the happiness of all creatures. This inscription also

belongs to the Kushana period.

We may refer now to a few early specimens of other types of sculptured representation of Jaina Tirthankaras in Mathura. An elaborate sculpture

containing the figure of seated Jaina was found in Kankali mound in February 1890. Unfortunately the head of the figure is missing. The Jina is shown with numerous attendant deities. On the pedestal are two lions and two bulls. From the presence of the bull it is evident that the Jina depicted here is Adinatha or Rishabhadatta. The inscription (defaced) at the base

seems to be in early scripts. Another specimen of Adinatha figure (belonging to Kushana period) is to be seen on the Mathura Museum panel

No. B4. The figure was set up in a Jaina monastery as the inscription states by alady in the year 84 of the reign of Shahi Vasudeva, the

Kushana king. The relief in front of the pedestal contains a Dharma Chakra on a Pillar being worshipped by human devotees including the male and female as well. A mutilated figure of Aranatha is found represented on a sculptured panel which was got in Kankali mound in the year 1890-91. It

belongs to the Kushana period. The Jina is shown standing by the side of a wheel placed on Trishula with a piece of cloth in his left hand. Naminatha and Neminatha, the 21st and 22nd Jaina Tirthankaras seem to have been

represented along with Parshvanatha and Mahavira on a broken sculptured panel which might have formed part of the decoration of a

Torana Pillar of a Jaina monastery in Mathura during our period.

There is a fine specimen of Neminatha figurer in Mathura Museum which Vogel has described in his catalogue of the Mathura Museum antiquities. Neminatha is seated 'cross-legged in the attitude of meditation' on the throne. The throne rests on two pillars and a pair of lions. Behind the

pillars are two figures with hands joined in adoration. From the throne an ornamental cloth hangs down between the two lions. Below it there seems to be a wheel. There is conch-shell (symbol of Neminatha) on the plain rim

of the pedestal. The Jaina legends introduce very often the story of Krishna Vasudeva and his family. In the Antaga·a Dasao we are told that some members of Krishna's family joined the Jaina church at the instance of Arishtanemi, and Krishna also, as the legend goes, was proclaimed by

him, that is Arishtanemi, to be the 12th among the Tirthankaras who would arise in the Dushama Sushama age. There is a sculptured panel of Mathura which represents an ascetic receiving homage from the female

devotees. The inscription records that the panel was a gift of the wife of a person called Dhanahastin. It bears the year 95 of Kushana King

Vasudeva's reign probably. The word Kanha shramana occurs in bold types between the head of the ascetic and that of the lady devotee to the proper right. This Kanha may be the Krishna Vasudeva of the Jaina legend. Whether the Jaina viewpoint, regarding Krishna Vasudeva and his family is accepted or not, this much is true that Jainism and Vaishnavism came to a

close contact with each other during the time of Arishtanemi who was a cousin of Krishna and Baladeva. Because of the family relationship

between Arishtanemi and Krishna Vasudeva, Jainism was co-existent with Vaishnavism since Arishtanemi's time in places like Dvaraka, central India,

and Yamuna valley, the sphere of Yadava influence. Arishtanemi's emblem is a conch which may be reminiscent of his relationship with the

Vaishnavite family of Krishna and Balarama. Parshvanatha occurs very frequently in Mathura art of our period. We have already referred to his

representation as sarvato-bhadrika Pratima.

We shall consider now one or two other specimens of his figure preserved in the Mathura Museum. The mathura Mesuem panel B.70 represents a

stele (1' 101/2' in height) with nude Jina figures standing, one each on the four sides. Three fourth figures have been provided with haloes, the fourth

one is represented with a sevenhead Naga hood. This fourth figure represented with no doubt parshvanatha. The Mathura Museum panel B

71 also contains a representation of parsvanatha with similar Naga hood. Both these figures belong perhaps to our period. Vardhamana Mahavira is the most popular of all the Tirthankars. There are innumerable sculptured representations of his figure in Mathurg and other centres of Jaina faith.

We shall, however, for our present purpose refer only to two Vardhamana images found in kankali mound in Mathura which belongs perhaps to early centuries of the Christion era. In one panel he is shown seated under his sacred tree with several attendant figures, one of whom is a Naga with a canopy of cobra hoods. There is a defaced inscription on the pedestals of his image which begins with 'Namo' in early scripts. The other image in question is seated under a small canopy with two attendants, one on either side. Both the Vardhamana a figures are seated in dhyanasana

posture, and have, besides the attendants, two lions on the pedestal and angels or Gandharvas, hovering in the air and offering garlands. The

Jainas were primarily founder worshippers, but their mythology includes besides the 24 Tirthankaras a number of other deities.

One of the most important deities of this class is Naigamesha. Naigamesha is represented on the obverse of a fragment of a Jaina

sculpture discovered at Mathura. The inscription incised on the panel is written in scripts of the beginning of the Christian era. The deity

(Naigamesha) is a goat-headed one seated on a low seat in an easy attitude. He is shown with his face turned to the proper right, as if

addressing to another personage, whose image has been lost. To his right there are three female figures standing and an infant is shown close to

the knee. The deity is called in the inscription 'Bhagavat Nemeso.' Nemeso of the present inscription is a variant of the name of the deity Harinegamesi in the Kalpasutra, Naigameshin in the Neminatha Charita and Nejamesha or Naigameya in other works. In Jaina religious art he is

depicted as a figure either with the head of a ram or antelope or a goat. In the Mathura sculpture which is the subject of discussion here he is found bearing a goat's head. Cunningham discovered four mutilated figures of

Naigamesha which he failed to identify and described them simply as deities with Ox's head. According to Buhler the sculpture depicting

Naigamesha with female figures and a small child refers most probably to the legend which narrates the exchange of the embryo of Devananda and Trishala. The legend in the Kalpasutra in short is this. Mahavira took the form of an embryo in the Brahmani Devananda's body. Thinking that an Arhat ought not to be born in a low Brahmanical family, Indra 'directed

Harine gameshi, the divine commander of infantry to transfer Mahavira from the body of Devananda to Trishala, a lady of the Juatri of Kshatriyas, who was also with a child. Harinegameshi carried out successfully Indra's

order. In Jaina mythology Naigameshin is regarded also as a deity of procreation. The Antagana-Dasao refers to the story as to how, lady Sulasa propitiated Naigameshin and had a conception through his

compassion. The ancient Jainas represented Naigameshin in both male and female forms as presiding over child birth. The sculptures of the

Curzon Museum, Muttra, Nos. 2547 and E. I. represent the deity in his male aspect, and sculpture No. I. E2. (of the same museum) in her female

aspect as the goat-headed mother goddess.

The Jaina pantheon includes the deities like Sarasvati and Ganesha etc. which figure prominently in Hindu pantheon also. We have from the Jaina mound of Kankali two headless female statues. One of them has not been identified, the other is the figure of Sarasvati. The goddess is seated on a rectangular pedestal 'with her knees up.' She has a manuscript in her left

hand and the right hand which was raised up is lost. There is a small attendant on her either side. The inscription on the pedestal consists of

seven lines in Indoscythic scripts. Besides the figures of Tirthankaras and other deities of the Jaina pantheon the Mathura sculptures of Kankali

mound bear isolated symbols and designs auspicious to the Jainas, such as Svastika, Vajra, shell, bulls, elephants, goose and antelope, etc.

Svastika to the Jainas is the emblem of Suparsvana, the 7th Jina, and Vajra is that of Dharmanatha, the 15th Jina, the shell is the cognizance of

Neminatha, the 22nd Jina, elephant of Ajitanatha, the 2nd Jina, goose of Sumatinatha the 5th Jina, antelope of shantinatha, the 16th Jina and bull

of Rishabhanatha, the 1st Jina. All these would show that the art of Kankali mound was thoroughly imbued with the spirit of Jainism

Monday

A Brief History of Jainism

2010/01/brief-history-of-jainism

Compiled and edited by Dr. Tansukh J. Salgia, founding member and past President (1985-1989) of Federation of Jain Association in North America

Jainism is the religion professed by the Jains, so called because they follow the path practiced and preached by the Jinas. The term is an English

rendering of the original Jaina-dharma or Jina -dharma. German Jainologists, like, Leumann, Winternitz and Schubring, prefer the form

Jainsmus or Jinism, which they consider to be the etymologically correct rendering. Both the forms are, however, correct, Jainism meaning the religion of the Jains and Jinism that of the Jina, although the former is

more popular and in current use both in literature and common parlance.

Jainism is an important, fully developed and well-established religious and cultural system, purely indigenous to India. It is the oldest living

representative of that ancient Sramana current of Indian culture, which was, in its origin, non-vedic and probably non-Aryan and even pre-Aryan.

Dr. Hermann Jacobi, a German scholar of Eastern religions, and others are also of the opinion that Jainism was related to the ancient philosophy of

India, because of certain of its metaphysical conceptions, animistic belief, hero-worship in the form of worship as deities of perfected mortals, and of its being a very simple faith, be it in worship, rituals or morals. It has also been described as "a very original independent and systematic doctrine," of which "the realistic and rationalistic tone does not fail to attract notice

of even a casual observer." Moreover, unlike many other indigenous religious sects, Jainism has succeeded in preserving down to the present

time its integrity as a separate world religion in the midst of preponderant Hinduism. Dr. Winternitz has very justly observed in his History of Indian

Literature, "The Jainas have extended their activities beyond the sphere of their religious literature to a far greater extent than the Buddhists have done, and they have memorable achievements in the secular science to

their credit, in philosophy, grammar, lexicography, poetics, mathematics, astronomy and astrology, and even in the science of politics. In one way or other there is always some connection even of these 'profane' works

with religion. In Southern India, the Jainas have also rendered services in developing the Dravidian languages, Tamil and Telugu and especially the

Kanarese literary language. They have, besides, written considerable amount in Gujarati, Hindi, and Marwari. Thus we see that they occupy no mean position in the history of Indian literature and Indian thoughts." It is

a complete system with all the necessary branches, such as dogma or ontology, metaphysics, philosophy, epistemology, mythology, ethics,

ritual, and the rest, and is divided into several sects and subsects indicative of a long process of development. It has its own deities, gurus and scriptures its own temples, places of worship and pilgrimage, and its

own festivals and fairs. Besides devotees, it possesses well-organized monastic orders, comprising both male and female ascetics.

The Jaina community, with its unique cultural heritage, has formed from the days of yore an important section of the Indian people and has been drawing adherents from almost all the various races, castes and classes inhabiting the different parts of this ancient country. In theory, Jainism admits of no caste distinctions, but owing to the growing influence of

orthodox Hinduism in medieval times, its caste system came to be more or less adopted by the Jainas as well, though still not so rigidly. At present,

the bulk of the community is confined to more than two dozen subdivisions of the Vaisya caste, though stray members of the Brahmana,

Ksatriya and Sudra castes and of several unidentified caste-groups are also here and there seen professing Jainism. The Jainas have for long

abstained from active proselytization and there is no regular Jaina mission working in this direction, yet several Hindus, Muslims and Christians are

known to have converted to Jainism in the past hundred years or so.

Since the days of Mahavira and the Buddha (6th century B.C) till the advent of Islam in India (10th century AD), the creed of the Nirgranthas,

Jinas or Tirthankaras, that is Jainism, maintained its position as one of the three major religion of the country, the other two being Brahmanism

(Hinduism) and Buddhism. Even during this period it lost members and many a time royal patronage and popular support, due to the greater proselytizing of the Buddhist and of the Saiva and Vaisnava sects of

Brahmanism, which sometimes look the form of violent religious persecutions. Therefore, it went through a process of decline. A variety of internal and external factors made the community suffer both in influence

and numbers, till at the present time it can count a bare eight to ten million souls as its members.

No doubt, they form part of an elite and prosperous section of the Indian middle classes, and are occupied in business, industry, banking, trade and commerce, the different learned professions, services and politics, and are

scattered all over the World, residing particularly in all the big towns, capital cities and trade centers.

The percentage of literacy and education is comparatively very high and that of crime very low. They are well known for their philanthropy,

charitable institutions and works of public welfare. In the food habit, the Jainas are prefect vegetarians, rather lacto-vegetarians, do not eat meat,

fish or egg, nor drink spirituous liquors.

Jains follow in general such trade and vocations as do not involve injury to life, upholding the doctrine of ahimsa as best as they can, and avoid

hurting or killing any living being.

The members of the ascetic order, both male and female, are on the whole, saintly, puritanical, selfless, possessionless, and austere in the

observance of their vows and the rules of their order. The routine for the monk is very rigorous, and a speedier release is therefore possible. During the rainy season he seeks shelter in a monastery of the order, for then life

is more abundant and movement pregnant with danger to it. For the remaining eight months he takes the road and wanders barefoot and bareheaded; he may not sleep in a bed nor take any conveyance, and may have as his only possessions his cloth, bowl, broom, and sacred

books-indeed, these are not reckoned his own. He may not touch money; he must drink no wine, light no fire, and take no bath except in pure

water. He may not disturb the insects or vermin that neither torment his flesh, nor do anything that may harm even potential life. Thus, Jain monks

are expected to walk gently, so as not to crush the living atoms.

The two principal sects are the Digambara (sky-clad) and the Svetambara (white-clad), so-called because the male ascetics of the former in the

highest stage go about naked and those of the latter wear scanty, unsewn white cloths. Each of the major sects is further divided into at least three distinct subsects, the Digambara into Terahapantha of Suddhamnaya, the

Bisapantha, and the Taranapanth or Samaiya, and the Svetambara into the Samvegi or temple-worshipper, the Sthanakavasi or Sadhumargi and

the Teranpanth. The Digambara Terahapantha is so-called because it enjoins strict adherence to the thirteen (teraha) rules of ascetic conduct,

and is more puritanical and austere, even in the temple worship. The Bisapantha, on the other hand, is much more elaborate and lax in worship and not so strict even in ascetic discipline. The Samaiya or Taranapantha is a medieval product, does not insist on temple or image worship, and

possesses practically no ascetic order. The Samvegis among the Svetamberas are temple worshipers and constitute the majority. The

Sthanakavasis, who came into being about the same time as the Digmbara Taranapanthis, in the 15th Century A.D., are like them opposed

to image and temple worship and instead emphasize the adoration of ascetic gurus. Buildings reserved for the latter's exclusive stay are called

Sthanakas. A later derivation from the Sthanakvasi sect is the Svethambara Terapantha, which differs from the parent creed only in

certain ascetic practices and usages. The organization of the order in this subsect is more rigid and unitary, being subject to the dictates of only one

man, the Acarya or chief pontiff.

Certain misconceptions about the character, position, genesis, and history of Jainism may be noticed prevailing among even some of those who are

supposed to be educated and well informed. Many a non-Jaina pundit, Indian as well non-Indian, may be heard passing, cursorily, remarks like:

Jainism is an insignificant, little or an obscure minor sect of the Hindus, or a dissenter from Hinduism, or that it is a derivation from Buddhism. There

are others who have failed to comprehend the Jaina philosophy of Anekanta, its Syadvadic mode of predication, the Jaina metaphysics and the theory of karma, or to appreciate the scope and significance of the Jaina doctrine of ahimsa. The cultural contributions of Jainism have not

been duly evaluated, nor has the role of Jainism in the context of present day world problems been properly assessed.

Certain seals as old as perhaps five to eight thousand years, belonging to the pre-historic Indus valley civilization and bearing the figures of a nude

yogin in the characteristically Jaina kayotsarga posture (perfect bodily abandonment ) along with the bull emblem, as also the nude male harappan torso, seem to point to the prevalence of the worship of

Rasabha or Adinath (the First Lord) of Jaina tradition in that remote age. The rise of Vedicism, when the early Vedic hymns collected in the Rgveda

were composed belongs to a later period. In a number of hymns of the Rgveda, which is supposed to be the earliest known or available book in the world's library, Rsabha is alluded to directly and indirectly, as is also the case with the other vedas. Beside him, several other Tirthankaras,

who succeeded him, find mention in the Vedic literature, and the Brahamanical Puranas have treated Rasabha as an early incarnation of

the god Visnu. In the philosophical literature of ancient India, Jainism finds place as an important non-Brahmanical system. The Buddhist literary

tradition is no less explicit in indicating the prevalence of Jainism in the

time prior to the rise of Buddhism (6th century B.C.)-in fact, the last Tirthankara, Mahavirs, was a senior contemporary of Buddha. Numerous

epigraphic records, literary reference monuments and antiquities belonging to subsequent centuries speak eloquently of the important and

major role Jainism has played during the last two thousand and five hundred years in the life and culture of the Indian subcontinent.

As regards foreigners, Pythagoras and the Stoic philosophers of ancient Greece had certain beliefs and practices in common with the Jains.

Alexander the Great is himself said to have come in contact with certain nude Jaina monks. Terms like "gymnosoph," "gymnetai" and "gennoi"

used by the Greek writers, beginning with Megasthenes (4th century B.C.) to Hesychois (5th century A.D.), have generally been taken to have

referred to the naked Jaina saints of ancient India. The Chinese pilgrims of the 4th to 7th centuries A.D. and the Arab merchants and traders of the

7th to 14th centuries were well acquainted with the Jaina and distinguished them from the followers of Brahmanism and even Buddhism. The European adventurers and travelers of the 15th to 18th centuries do not appear to have noticed the distinction between the two communities, the Hindu and the Jaina, because, looking superficially with the eyes of a stranger from far off countries, there was none. The Muslim chroniclers of medieval times also generally suffer from the same lapse, but not all of

them. Abul Fazal Allami's account of Jainism is his Ain-I-Akbari is tolerably full and elaborate for such a work.

Coming to comparatively modern times, Oriental or Indological studies by Western scholars commenced about the beginning of the last quarter of

the 18th century. The credit goes to Sir William Jones, Judge of the Supreme Court at Calcutta, who took the initiative, pioneered the studies and founded the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1784. The first regular

notice of the Jaina appears to be one published by Lieut. Wilfred in the Asiatic Researches in 1799 and the contemporary existence of

monuments, literature and adherents of Jainism was first brought to light by Col. Colin Mackenzie and Dr. F. Buchanan Hamilton in 1807, followed by H.T. Colaebrooke's "Observation on the Jaina." This the most eminent

Sanskritist of his times, whose personal collections of Sanskrit manuscripts included a fair number of Jaina texts, gave a more or less

accurate account of this religion together with a hint that it must be older than Buddhism.

As time went, the Jaina system of religion and culture came to be studied more and more intensively as well as extensively, and its literature, art and architecture, archaeological remains, tenets, practices, history and

traditions became subjects of specialized studies. A host of savants worked in the field, most notable among them being Albrecht Weber,

Leumann, Rice, Fleet, Guerinot, Wilson, Jacobi, Buhler, Hoernle, Hertel, Burgess, Jarl Charpentier, Vincent Smith, F.W. Thomas, Schugring and Zimmer. It is due to the sincere efforts put in by these orientalists and

many others who drew inspiration from them or followed in their footsteps

that now Jainology has come to be an important branch of Indology and Oriental studies, and a bibliography on any branch of Indology can hardly do without a reference to Jaina works on the subject, and no account of important religions of the world, or a comparative study of religions, is

complete without Jainism included in it. Its independent existence, greater antiquity in relation to not only Buddhism but even Brahmanism, and the wholesome, abiding values inherent in its philosophy, tenets and way of

life, with a universal appeal and message of peace and goodwill for all and every one, have become admitted facts

Thursday

Spread of Jainism in India and Abroad

By Mr. Helmuth Von Glasnapp2009/10/spread-of-jainism-in-india-and-abroad

http://jainology.blogspot.com

As is well known and is accepted by all the historians, Jainism had already been established as an important religion in various provinces of India

before Mahavira and the Buddha began their missionary activities. During their period, Magadha, Kausala, Kapilvastu, Vaisali, Pava, Mithila,

Varanasi, Simhabhumi, Kausambi, Avanti etc. were prominent Jaina centres. After Mahavira’s parinirwana, Jainism was patronized by the

Sisunagas, Nandas, Kharavela, Mauryas, Satavahanas, Guptas, Paramars, Chandelas, Kalakuris, and others who provided all possible facilities to

develop its literature and cultural activities. The southern part of India was also a great centre of Jainism. Bhadrabahu and Visakhacharya with their disciples migrated to the south and propagated Jainism there. Andhra,

Satvahanas, Pallavas, Pandyas, Cholas, Chalukyas, Rastrakutas, Gangas, and others were main dynasties which rendered sufficient royal patronage

and benefits to Jainism and its followers through the spirit of religious toleration which existed in this region. The Jainas were given magnificent grants for their spiritual purpose. Numerous Jaina temples and sculptures

throughout the ages were erected by the kings of that time and many facilities were provided for literary services throughout India. As a result,

the Jaina achrayas wrote their ample works in Sansakrit, Prakrit, Aprabhramsa, Tamil, Kannada, Telagu, Marathi, and later in Hindi, Gujarati

and other modern indian languages.

Jainism crossed India from south India at about eighth century BC., if not earlier, and became one of the most important religions of Ceylon, which was known in those days by the name Lanka, Ratnadvipa or Simhala. The Mahavamsa refers to the existence of Jainism in Ceylon even before the

arrival of Buddhism. According to it, Pandukabhaya built a house at Anuradhapur for the Niganth Jotia and Giri and some Niganthas. Jaina

tradition takes the history of Jainism in Ceylon even prior to its Aryanization, or the arrival of Aryas. Ravana, a king of Lanka long ago is said to have erected a Jaina temple there at Trikutgiri. Another statue of

Parasvanatha, the 23rd Tirthankar found in the caves of Terapur is also said to be from Lanka. Jainism was a living religion of Ceylon up to the

10th century AD.

Kalkacharya, another Jaina monk, is said to have visited Burma or Svarnabhumi (Uttaradhyana Niryukti, 120). Rishabh deva is said to have

travelled to Bhali (Bactria), Greece, Svarnabhumi, Panhave (Iran) etc.(Avasyaka Nir.336-37). Tirthankara Parasvanatha also went to Nepal. The

existence of Jainism can also be proved in Afghanistan. Tirthankara images in the Karyotsarga pose or meditating pose have been found in

Vahakaraj Emir (Afghanistan). Digambara Jaina monks have been in Iran, Siam and Philistia. Greek writers also mention their existence Egypt, Abysiniya and Ethyopia. It had also propagated in Kambuj, Champa,

Bulgaria, and some other foreign countries.

Jaina art and architectureThe Jainas have been amongst the foremost in contributing to the field of art and architecture since the early days. The

images of Tirthankara Rishabha deva and the figures of standing or seated nude yogins found inscribed on some terracotta seats are ample proof of the same. The relics of the prehistoric Indus valley civilisation,

discovered at Mohenjodaro, as well as nude Harrappan red stone statue are almost equally old. The latter is remarkably akin to the polished stone

torso of a Jina image from Lohanipur (patna) which is ascribed to the Mauryan times (4th B.C.). King Kharavela of Kalinga, as the Hathigumpa

inscriptions speak, reinstalled the Jaina image which had been taken away by Nanda to Magadha in 4th Century B.C. During the Satvahana period (60 B.C. to 225 A.D.) Mathura and Saurastra were the main centres of Jainism. The earliest Mathura scriptures are represented by Kankalitila

where from Ayagapatta, Stupa, images and other Jaina cultural material were recovered. Gandhara art and Mathura art belong to Kusana period

(1st B.C. to 2nd A.D.) in which Jainism flourished to Mathura and the Ardhaphatika sect, Yapania sangha and Nagara art came into existence.

Gupta period (4th to 7th C A.D.) is said to be the golden period of ancient indian culture. Harigupta, Siddhasana, Harisena, Ravikirti, Pujyapada,

Patrakesari, Udyotanasuri and other famous Jain acharyas existed in this period and they actively helped in spreading the message of Mahavira all over India and abroad. Karnataka, Mathura, Hastinapur, Saurastra, Avanti,

Ahichhatra, Bhinnamala, Kausambi, Devagumpha, Vidisa, Sravasti, Varanasi, Vaisali, Patliputra, Rajagraha (now Rajgiri), Champa, and others were the main centres of Jain art and architecture and these places have

been mentioned in Jaina literature at various places. After the Gupta period, Kakkula, Vatsaraja and Mahendrapala were the Jaina kings in the Pratihara dynasty. King Munja, Navasaahasanka and Bhoja were ardent

followers of Jainism. Dhanapala, Amitagati, Manikyanandi, Prabhachandra, Asadhara, Dhanjaya etc. had contributed profusely to the literary field

during the same period. Chittore was the capital of Paramaras, during the early period, where Kalakacharya and Haribhadra devoted their entire

Andhrapradesha has been a stronghold centre of Jainism. Acharya Kundakunda (1st C A.D.), the spiritual leader of the time hailed from village Kondakunda, situated on the border of Andhra Pradesh. King Vishnuvardhana of Chalukyas, Akalavarsa, Amoghavarsa and Krashnaraja of Rashtrakutas, Bhima,Ganga Vijayaditya, Durgaraj etc. of Vengis, Tailapa, Vikramaditya of Badami Chalukyas, some kings of Velanatichoda period patronised Jainism by way of constructing temples, Vasadis and Vidyapeethas. Some of them, afterwards, were occupied by Virasaivaitas and Lingayatas, who have been great destroyers of Jaina monuments and the community as well.

Their devotees committed heavy atrocities on Jaina society, temples, sculptures and vasadis.The massacres went on and Jaina centres were converted into Saiva or Vaisanava temples. Jaina images and stupas have been found from many excavations in that region and these are preserved in museums at Lucknow and Patna. The crystallised forms of iconography were transferred to rocks on hills like Vaibhara hill, Udaigiri hills and Kalagumalai. The Jaina iconography was developed during the Gupta period in the 4th century A.D. Thus, it is abundantly clear that Jainism, one of the most ancient, animistic and indigenous religions has been constantly and unforgettably to the field of history and culture. Its philosophy, ethics, dogmas, spiritual disciplines and practices are based on truth and non-violence with the nature of humanistic approach, inter-religiousdialogue and understanding which can be easily perceived through the extensive and perennial literature

Friday

The Yapaniya Sect of Jainism

By Mr. A. K. Roy

2009/10/yepaniya-sect-of-jainism

Apart from the Digambaras and the Svetambaras there was, in the past, another sect of the Jainas. This sect, know as the Yapaniyas existed in Karnataka at least from the 5th to the 14th century. This we know from epigraphic evidence. The

first and the last inscription which mention them and which have been discovered so far, belong to these centuries respectively and all the inscriptions

which mention them have been found in Karnataka only.

The first inscription which mentions the Yapaniyas is by Mrigesavarman (A.D. 475-490) a Kadamba king Palasika. The Kadambas themselves were

Brahamanas, but this King erected a Jaina temple in the city of Palasika, and made a grant to the sects of Yapaniyas, Nirgranthas, and the Kurchakas. (The

Nirgranthas were, of course the Digambara, but who the Kurchakas were is not clear).

The last inscription which mentions the Yapaniyas was found in the Tuluva country - southwest Karnataka. It is dated Saka 1316 (A.D. 1394).

Thus we know that the sect existed for atleast a thousand years. We can also make the guess that the sect was ultimately absorbed in the Digambara

community. The Yapaniyas worshipped nude images which still exist and the people who worship in these temples now a days are Digambaras. The Yapaniya monks themselves also used to remain nude. There was perhaps, therefore, not

much absorption, specially if the sect ultimately dwindled to small number.Nothing authentic is known about how the Yapaniya sect originated. Devasena records a tradition in his Darshanasara (mid 11th century that the yapaniya-

sangha was started by a Shvetambara monk in the year 205 after the death of King Vikrama. Since however, the tradition is very late, not much reliance can be

placed on it. However one thing is clear. The Digambaras believed that the original affiliation of the Yapaniyas was with the Shvetambaras and the

Digambara author Indranandi counted them as one of the five improper or false sects of the Jainas. The five includes the Shvetambaras also.

The Shvetambaras author Gunaratna on the other hand makes the definite statement that the Digambaras were divided into four snaghas namely, Kastha,

Mula, Mathura, and Gopya or Yapaniya. These last i.e. the Gopya or the Yapaniyas differ form the other three sects in three matters : they allowed

women to find salvation. The net result was that neither the Digambaras not the Shvetambaras wanted to own the Yapaniyas . Indeed this is how Monier Williams

would derive the word "yapaniya" from the root ya meaning expelled : the yapaniyas were perhaps those who wandered away after being expelled by both

the communities.

It is not clear whether the Yapaniyas had any separate sacred texts of their own. There is some reference to Yapaniyatantra by the Dingambara author

Haribhadra. But no such tantra is found at present. Perhaps for religious purposes the Yapaniyas used the Shvetambara sacred texts, for there is nothing

against their principal dogmas in these works.

The Yapaniyas are a matter of only historical curiosity now. Indeed, except for their one great grammarian, Shakatayana, there is no reason to remember them. That shakatayana who was a contemporary of the Rashtrakuta king Amoghvarsa

(c. 817-877), was a yapaniya we know from the note by Malayagiri in his commentary on the Nandisutra.

All the available commentaries on the Shubdanushasana (grammar) Shakatayana are by Digambara authors who appear to have taken this grammar for their own. On the other hand two other works the Stri-mukti-prakarana and

the Kevali- bhukti prakarana which are also said to be by Shakatayana are found only in the Shvetambara collections. Thus while one work of Shakatayana is

accepted by the Digambaras, his two other works are accepted by the

Shvetambaras only. It will be recalled that the position is some what similar in the case of Umaswami or Umaswati also. While both the main sects of the Jainas

accept his great work the Tattvarthadhigama - sutra the author's own commentary on this work is acceptable to the Shvetambaras only. It is on this

analogy that Nathrfuam Premi has conjectured that Umasvami was Yapaniya, for there is nothing else to support Premi's conjecture.

Sunday

The Early Centuries of Jainism

By Mr. Paul Marett

2009/11/early-centuries-of-jainism

Jainism is one of the oldest religions in the world, so old that we cannot with certainty date its beginnings. Jain tradition tells that Mahavira twenty-forth and last of the Tirthankara or Prophets of the current cycle of the time. Some of the stories about them are truly amazing and non? Jains are rarely convinced. They

are credited with enormously long spans of life and gigantic size and various other miraculous attributes. Leaving aside the stories (which are valuable if regarded as edifying stories), we have some historical details about some of

them. The first Tirthankara was Rsabha and there are some accounts in non-Jain records which seem to fit in with the broad details of Jain tradition. He is recorded as a king of some ability who gave up his throne to become a

wandering ascetic, going around naked (a symbol of total renunciation of worldly possessions) and frequently scorned or attacked by the ignorant. After Rsabha,

Jain tradition gives us the names and some details if the next twenty Tirthankara. They were all men except perhaps the nineteenth, Malli, who is said to have been a woman (though this is not accepted by all Jains.) The twenty? second,

Neminatha or Aristanemi (both names are found) is said to have been a relative and contemporary of the Hindu God hero Krishna.

With the twenty-third Tirthankara, Parsva, modern scholars fins themselves on stronger ground. He is recorded as the son of the king of Varanasi (Benaras), the greatest holy city in India. He renounced the worlds at the age of thirty and after

a fairly brief period of meditation and austerity he attained enlightenment. Thereafter he preached his message and gathered followers around him. He

died, reputedly at the age of 100, passing to his final abode of bliss as a liberated soul. This was about 250 years before the time of Mahavira: Mahavira's parents were followers of the religion of Parsva. He taught four of the five great

moral precepts of Jainism, non-violence, truthfulness, non? stealing and non-acquisitiveness, omitting, for reasons which have been disputed, the vow of sexual restraint which was introduced or reintroduced by Mahavira. So with

Parsva the Jain religion emerges clearly into the light of history, through darkness falls again in the period between the attainment of moksa or liberation

by Parsva in the Parasanatha Hills (in Bihar) around 780 B.C.

We have looked at Mahavira's life in the first chapter. A great many people were impressed by Mahavira's personality and his teachings so that when his life on

earth ended he left behind a large number of people (reputed to be as many as a third of a million) who were trying in various ways, in the vocation of Monk

(sadhu) or nun (sadhvi) or as lay men (shravaka) and women (shravika), to follow the principles of Jainism. In his lifetime Mahavira appointed eleven leaders

(ganadhara)among his followers. Only two of them, Indrabhuti Gautama and Sudharman. were alive at the time of Mahavira's moksa and it was to Sudharman that the task fell of preserving and passing on the teachings of their master, and leading the community, when Mahavira was no longer with them. The order of

nuns was headed by Chandana. She had been placed in this position by Mahavira: nuns have always had a important place in Jainism and it is said that

the nuns under Chandana outnumbered the Jain monks of the time by more than two to one.

Mahavira and his early followers lived in north?eastern part of India, mainly in ancient kingdom of Magadh (in modern Bihar). Jain missionaries visited Kashmir and even Nepal but it was not until several centuries after Mahavira that Gujarat and the western part of India became the major center of Jainism as it is today. How ever Jainism spread southwards from Magadha into the kingdom of Kalinga (in modern Orissa) whose ruler became a convert. This king, Kharavela, lived in

the second or third B.C. We learn from an inscription that he was a pious Jain and provided for monks but he appears to not to have seen military expeditions as incompatible with his religion. This area became an important center of Jainism in the earlier centuries, though we must not forget that we are speaking several

hundred years after Mahavira. Much in Indian history of this period is not yet completely clear to historians and the spread of Jainism has to be priced together

from scattered, and sometimes cryptic, references. However, for the first centuries it is clear that the centers of this religion were in eastern India. There

seem to have been Jains in Bengal from very early times.

The teachings of Jainism made a considerable impact amongst all classes of society. There is even a story that the great emperor Chandragupta Maurya, around 300 B.C., became a Jain monk at the end of his life. Chandragupta's grandson, Asoka, ruled over an empire which included all the sub-continent

except the extreme south. As his capital was in the region of Magadha he was doubtless familiar with the Jains and they are mentioned in his records (though

Asoka himself was a Buddhist). However, one of Asoka's grandsons was certainly a Jain and he did a lot to further the progress of his faith.

In a religion as ancient as Jainism it is natural that interesting controversies about details of the faith emerge. Whilst Jains are united on the fundamental

questions, within that unity many different sects and schools of thought coexist in a tolerant manner. These may be the followers of one revered teacher or a

group placing emphasis on certain particular teachings. The important division is between the Svetambara and the Digambara sections. 'Svetambara' means

'dressed in white' and 'Digambara' means 'dressed in the sky', a reference to the fact that Digambara monks renounce all worldly possessions, including clothes, whilst the monks of the Svetambara section wear two pieces of white cloth. The

Svetambara (who form probably around two?thirds of all Jains, and the very large majority of those in the United Kingdom) are found in particular in Gujarat and the neighboring areas of western India. The Digambara are strongest in south

India. The origins of the split are not clear. One account says that, probably some three hundred years B.C., there was a terrible famine in Bihar. The crops failed, people were dying of starvation and this went on for twelve years. Some of the Jain monks, led by Bhadrabahu, moved southwards away from the famine area. It is said that the monks who left were more rigorous in certain ways than those who stayed behind and when, after the famine was over, they came back it was

found that the two groups had drifted apart in some ways. In particular, according to this account, before this time all Jain monks went naked but those

who stayed in the north had now taken to wearing a single piece of cloth to cover themselves. Other accounts place the division much later, possibly as late as the second century A.D. Quite probably it was not a sudden split but a slow process. At any rate, to this day the Svetambara and the Digambara differ on

certain minor matters, not only the clothing of monks but also such questions as whether a woman can achieve moksa (the Digambara say not until she is reborn

as a man), whether Mahavira was married before he gave up the world, and some other points.

In these early centuries, of course, reading and writing were not as common as they are today, and religious teachings (and indeed all other literature, history, stories and songs) were preserved in the memory of people. Mahavira's closest

followers must have committed to memory the things which he said in his preachments and after he left them the responsibility of passing on the

teachings fell on the new leader of the community, Sudharman, whom we have mentioned above. For nearly two centuries the collected teachings were handed down by word of mouth. It seems wonderful to us today that a man could retain

in his memory the fourteen Purva texts, each of them quite a lengthy work, which made up the basic part of the sacred literature of the Jains. But the Jain

monks of those early centuries lived a much simpler life than we do today, without the distractions of our complicated modern civilization. Moreover they doubtless did train their memories for the repetition of long texts. Even so it appears that memories were not infallible and only ten of the fourteen Purva texts were still known 200 years after Mahavira. They have now all been lost,

though much of their teaching (which was said to go back in part to the time of Parsva) was preserved in other texts, like the twelve Anga texts, eleven of which

survive to this day.

The last man who knew all the scriptures by heart was Bhadrabahu and he died 170 years after Mahavira. About that time, around 360 B.C., the Jains were

concerned that the memory of the holy scriptures might get lost. It was a difficult time in parts of India with a long famine and the death or dispersal of many

monks. Hence a great conference of monks was held at Pataliputra (now called

Patna, in Bihar) when the contents of the sacred texts (those which had not been lost) were put in order. Not all Jains believe today that the original scriptures

have survived. The Digambara in general feel that the original texts eventually disappeared from knowledge over a fairly long period of time. Some modern

scholars believe that some re?editing of the texts must have taken place so that they are not exactly in the original form. Many centuries after the conference at

Pataliputra another conference was held at Valabhi, around 460 A.D. when all the sacred scriptures were finally written down, the twelve Anga texts representing the oldest section, with a further thirty?four works which are recognize as rather later in time. There is no doubt that, in spite of some differences of opinion about

it, the Jains still have today a collection of ancient religious literature which contains the noble teaching of Mahavira as it was followed two thousand and more years ago. For a very long time these scriptures were studied only by monks and learned men. The language in which they were compiled, called

Ardhamagadhi, was once the language of ordinary people in Magadha so that the teachings of Mahavira (who preached in this language) could be understood by

them. But Ardhamagadhi died out as a spoken language and only scholars could understood it (though most Jains today know at least some of the ancient

prayers in the beautiful and solemn ancient tongue). In recent years, however, many of the Jain writings have been translated into modern Indian languages, as well as into English and other European languages, so that with little trouble we

can obtain and read them today.

We have been talking about matters which cover many, many centuries of time. Generation after generation passed, of people much like ourselves, even though

they lived two thousand and more years ago. They had the same hopes and fears, the same joys and sorrows. And like Jains everywhere today they had the

teachings of Mahavira to guide and support them.

Friday

The Ajivika Sect of Ancient India

2009/08/ajivika-sect-of-ancient-india

The Ajivikas, 'Followers of the way of Life,' are an ascetic order that started at the time of Buddha and Mahavira and lasted until the fourteenth century.

The exact nature of Ajivika doctrine is unclear because the sect's own texts have not survived. It is believed the original Ajivika texts were written in an eastern

Prakrit, perhaps similar to the Jain Prakrit Ardhamagadhi. Quotations and adaptations from these texts appear to have been inserted into Jain and Buddhist

accounts of the Ajivikas. Makkhali Gosala is regarded as the founder leader of the Ajivikas and one source of his teachings is the Buddhist Digha Nikaya. Three Tamil texts, the Manimakalai of the Buddhists, the Nilakesi of the Jains, and the

Sivajnanasiddhiyar of the Shaivites, all contain outlines of Ajivika doctrine. The Nilakesi of the ninth century CE tells us most and is about a heroine Nilakesi

visiting teachers in search of the truth, including Buddha and Puranan, leader of the Ajivikas, a dignified figure living in a flowery hermitage.

The basic principle of the doctrine according to Gosala was niyati, fate or destiny. The Ajivikas were rigid fatalists and determinists, seeing niyati as the sole

determinant of every happening. No human effort could have any effect against niyati and therefore karma is a fallacy. Nirvana was only reached after living through an immense number of lives, which proceeded automatically like the

unwinding of a ball of thread, the last life being as an Ajivika monk. After twenty-four years of asceticism, Gosala enumerated the six inevitable factors of life:

gain and loss, joy and sorrow, and life and death, together with the two 'paths' of song and dance.

Ajivika cosmology was very complex with a vast universe passing through an immense number of time cycles. Each jiva, soul, transmigrates through eighty-

four lakhs (1 lakh = 100,000) of cycles before release. The southern Ajivikas saw only a few jivas remaining in nirvana while most jivas achieved only mandala-

moksa, cyclic release, having to return to the worldly cycles.

Purana Kassapa (the Puranan of the Nilakesi), perhaps an older contemporary of Gosala, added the view that a murderer or robber commits no sin and likewise there was no merit in becoming an ascetic, for with niyati there was only one course left open to them. Pakudha Kaccayana, a contemporary of the Buddha,

held an atomic theory with seven substances, earth, water, fire, air, joy, sorrow, and life, that are uncreated and unchanging. This was absorbed into the Ajivika doctrine of the negation of free will and moral responsibility. It was argued that

since future events are already determined then in some way they already exist. The Ajivika teacher Puranan in the Nilakesi says "Though we may speak of moments, there is really no time at all." This was the theory of avicalita-

nityatvam, unmoving permanence. And to the Ajivikas the soul was also atomic and could not be divided. In its natural state outside the body it is immense in

size, five hundred leagues (yogana) in extent.

There are close links with Jainism. Gosala claimed to be the twenty-fourth tirthankara, and as a disciple of Mahavira for six years until a split, there are doctrinal similarities between Ajivikism and Jainism. In fact, Gosala may have

influenced Mahavira over nudity and he rejected the alms-bowl, a view adopted by the Digambara Jains. There are inconsistencies in Jain karma theory

inexplicable without referring to Ajivika doctrine. Mahavira disagreed with Gosala's antinomian doctrine and way of life, and the Buddha strongly

condemned the Ajivika doctrine of niyati.It is very possible that the Jains and Buddhists distorted Ajivika doctrine. Lucas thinks that "it seems doubtful whether

a doctrine which genuinely advocated the lack of efficacy of individual effort could have formed the basis of a renunciatory path to spiritual liberation"

(Dundas 1992, 26).

HistoryIn the sixth to fifth centuries BCE there were large numbers of wandering

ascetics, sometimes in groups, caused perhaps by the break up of the old tribal way of life and the rise of great kingdoms in the Ganges basin. This was the time

of the emergence of Buddhism, Jainism, and the Ajivikas.

The name Ajivikas was given to the sect by their opponents. The word ajivika is derived from ajiva, meaning one who observes the mode of living appropriate to his class. Because Gosala held peculiar views as to the ajiva of a mendicant not affected by karma, it is likely his sect was known as the Ajivikas, those who held the peculiar doctrine of ajiva. The name was supposed to be opprobrious, since Gosala was an ascetic not for reasons of salvation but as a livelihood (ajiva) and

so they were professionals.

There is a reasonably reliable account of the life of Gosala in the fifth anga of the Jain canon. He was born in Magadha, son of a mankha, professional mendicant, in a cowshed (gosala). He became a mankha and met with Mahavira, the great Jain, and insisted on becoming a disciple. After six years he felt he was more advanced than Mahavira, and started austerities which led to magical powers and a challenge to Mahavira. Gosala then set up a rival sect, the Ajivikas, with

his headquarters in the house of a potter woman in the city of Savatthi. Sixteen years later Mahavira visited Savatthi and condemned Gosala and his followers as

"the slaves of women." The two sects came to blows and two of Mahavira's disciples were disabled, but Gosala was discomfited by Mahavira in a personal

encounter and disgraced. As a result his position in Savatthi was untenable and he became unhinged, turning to drinking, singing, dancing, and the potter

woman. After six months of riotous living he was filled with remorse and before he died he told his disciples that what Mahavira had said about him was true,

and that he should be buried with dishonour and public shame. The disciples did not carry out their master's dying instructions. The Jain 'Exposition of

Explanations' says that Gosala was furious at Mahavira for not accepting his status and attacked him with a blast of ascetic heat from his body. However, this

was bounced back from the adamantine body of Mahavira causing Gosala's eventual death. Mahavira later said that Gosala would eventually attain

enlightenment. Gosala may have died a year or two before the death of the Buddha, about 484 BCE.

Since the Jains and Buddhists saw the Ajivikas as their most dangerous rivals, this shows how popular the sect was. This was especially so in the fifth and

fourth centuries BCE when the different sects were forming in India. They were influential during the Mauryan empire, and the second emperor had an Ajika

fortune-teller at court. Asoka in his Seventh Pillar Edict ranks the Ajivikas third in importance of the religious groups he patronised after the Buddhists and

Brahmans. They were therefore ahead of the Jains. Asoka also presented caves to them as monasteries in the Barabar Hills and Nagarjuni Hill, fifteen miles north

of Gaya, near the place of the Buddha's enlightenment. These caves and their

inscriptions are probably the oldest excavated ascetic caves in India and impressive evidence of the Ajivikas. The walls of the caves are brilliantly

polished. But these are the only significant surviving archaeological remains of the Ajivikas.

After this period the Ajivikas declined and the main references to them come in Tamil literature. There is evidence that they survived in South India until the

fourteenth century. It seems that at the end there were two schools of Ajivikas. One was absorbed by the devotional Vaishnavas, the other was closer to

Gosala's original teachings and was absorbed by the Digambara Jains.

Gosala started his ascetic life as a mankha, an ancient class of mendicants, whose symbol was the carrying of a bamboo staff. The practice of strict nakedness that Gosala followed may have influenced Mahavira and the

Digambaras, in what was to become the major symbol of that branch of Jain asceticism. Another influence of Gosala was to use the hands as a bowl and to

lick up food. Such ascetics were known as hatthapalekhana, hand-lickers.

The South Indian Ajivikas seem to have made Gosala a deity called Markali in Tamil. The Nilakesi says he has become a tevan, god, who occasionally comes to

earth to inspire the faith of his devotees.

There were probably large numbers of ascetic groups into Mauryan times, then a scattering of smaller numbers that extended to South India. Inscriptions of

village tax for temple upkeep mention Ajivikas, and from this evidence the main concentration was in Karnataka, east and northeast of Bangalore, and in the

Kolar district of Tamil Nadu. Ajivikas, though, were found as far as Guntur district, south of the Krishna River, and Kilur, inland from Pondicherry.

In the time of Gosala this was Savatthi (Sanskrit, Sravasti), then a city of importance. Savatthi is near Ayodhya in central Uttar Pradesh. In later times the Ajivikas centred on Karnataka and the Kolar district in Tamil Nadu, South India.

Sunday

Jainism in Andhra Pradesh

by G. V. Raju

2007/11/Jainism-in-andhra-pradesh

Dharmamrita, a classic of 12th century A. D., mentionsthat even during the times of 12th TirthankaraVasupujya, Jainism was prevalent in the Andhra

country.Tradition also says an Anga king come with his threesons to Vengi who later became Jainas and built a cityknown as Pratipalapura which is some where

near modernBhattiprolu.

The Jaina tradition also mentions that Asoka's grandsonSamprati became a Jaina and spread the religion inKalinga. The Andhra and the Kalinga countries

mighthave been strongholds of non-vedic religions for long,for Bodhayana says that whoever goes to Kinga mustperform Prayschitta .

During the regime of Kharavela (2nd century B. C.),Jainism spread into many regions of Northern Andhra andOrissa. The rock caves at Khandagiri and

Udayagiri beartestimony to the same6 . The Satavahana rulers of Pre-Christian era who ruled a vast territory which nowcomprises of Andhra, Maharashtra and Karnataka stateswere also influenced by Jainism. "Kalakasuri prabandha"writes

that one of the Satavahana rulers ofPratistanapura used to attend a Jaina monk's discourse.

Even before the reign of Chalukya king Pulakesi the(17th Century A. D.) Jainism was a dominant religionin the Karnataka. All the later kings like

Vinayaditya,Vijayaditya helped Jaina saints in spreading theirreligion. During Vatapi Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas inwhose kingdoms much of Andhra (mainly

Rayalasemsa andTelangana regions) was a territory influenced byJainism as these kings were great patrons of thisreligion.

During the Rashtrakuta king Nitya Varsha Indra Vallabha(915-927 A. D.) Bodhan was his capital and even now itis considered by the jainas as one of their

AdimaThirthas. The famous Jaina Acharya Somadevasuri of thattime wrote many books and spread the faith theTelangana region.

From 2nd century B. C. upto 800-900 A. D., there wereno inscriptions bearing the dates of that period. Itmight be the period of Jaina decline in Kalinga and itwas

only during that period of Jaina decline inKalinga and it was only during that period the Vedicand the Buddhistic religions began to flourish in Kalinga.

Tradition says that in a village known as Gangaperuluin Rayalasema, a Jaina monk known as Simhanandi Acharyalived. The princes who fled from a town

known asVijayapura in northern India, sought his protection andlater founded the famous Ganga dynasty with isblessings. Excavations conducted at Danavulapadu

inCuddapah district revealed the extent of spread ofJainism in that area.

The founder of Eastern Chalukya dynastyKubjavishnuvardhana (624-641 A. D.) was brother ofPulakesi II. During his period Vijayawada was a greatJaina centre. His Danasasana (762 A. D.) indicates thathe was a great portion of Jaina religion.

Ramatirtham in Visakhapatnam district was both aBuddhist and Jaina Kshetra and now it is a famous HinduKshetra. Excavations at Penugonda in East

Godavaridistrict revealed that it was once a Jaina religiouscentre. At the time of Kullotunga Chola son of RajaRajanarendra, Munugodu in Sattenapalli taluq was

aJaina kshetra. Another inscription of 1178 A.D.,reveals that Bhogapuram in Visakhapatnam Dt. was havingJaina temples. In Nellore district upto 13th

Centurythere were Jaina temples.

Spread of Saivism and Vaishnavism and decline ofJainism :

During the 12th and 13th centuries Saivism began tospread in Andhra and there used to be religious debatesover these religious faiths. There were many

clashesbetween the followers of these faiths and of the JainaBastis (centres) were destroyed by the Saivites.Panditaradhyacarita and Palkuriki Somanatha

andSivaratrimahatmya of Srinatha gives evidence to thisfact.

It is a wonder that though Jainism was prevalent formore than 1500 years in Andhra only one book written aby a saint of this area is available now. It

isJinendra Kalyanabhyudaya by Appayacharya (1241 Sakaera).

While Saivism became popular during Kaltiya kings,Vaishnavism became popular during Vijayanagara kings.Spread of these religions led to the decline of theJaina

faith. Bur Jainas have their piligrim even now.Kollipaka in Nalgonda district is Jaina kshetra andPenugonda in Anantapur district is one of the JainaChaturdasa

Mahavidya Sthnams.

For an Archaeologist and epigraphist who wishes tostudy Jaina history Andhra provides a rich source .

"Padu" were all Jaina villages. In many places inAndhra we find wells known as Jainabavulu. They are ofa particular type of construction. They are covered bylids so that animals in the streets may not fall in thenights. Similarly in many villages

we find idols calledas "Sanyasi Demullu". All such villages were once Jainavillages. Many such villages are found in CoastalAndhra.

Saturday

jainism in south India history & its cruel conversion to Hinduism

By Unknown

Jainism has always held a predominant position in Karnataka.The history of South India is the history of Jains, Jainism and Jain dynasties. The Gangs, Kalabhras,

Chalukyas, Rashtrakuts, Kadambs, Kalchuries, Hoysalas, Shilahars, all the great dynasties were followers and patrons of Jainism.

Kalabhras attacked and defeated Tamil Kings who were persecuting JainsKumarpal king (solankhee ) ( from Chalukyas dynasty ),was disciple of Jain

Acharya Hemchandra. He became a king by defeating his enemies under guidance of the Jain Acharya.

Bijjal was a Jain king of Kalchuri clan in Northen Karnatak. Basaveshwar, his Bramhin commander in chief killed Bijjal and tried to become a king. There was

civil war between Jains and Veershaivs. Jains caught Basaveshwar in a narrow street, but he escaped and suicided by jumping in a well.

Asatkhan, Commander of Badshah of Bijapur had destroyed many Jain temples and converted some to masjids in North Karnatak. As a result Asatkhan was

killed by a young Jain.The Kerala jain Story: by Dr. Zacharias Thundy, Northern Michigan University

Prince Ilango Adigal, the author of Shilappadikaram, is a Jain. The Jains came to Kerala with the rest of the Chera immigrants starting in the sixth century. The

only evidence of their presence in Kerala is the incontro-vertible fact that some Hindu temples of today were originally Jain temples.

In Matilakam was a famous Jain temple which Hindus shunned as late as the fourteenth century according to Kokasandesam, though at present it is a Hindu

temple. Today, the presiding deity of Kudalmanikkam Temple near Irinjalakuda is Bharata, the brother of Rama; originally it was Bharateswara, the digambara Jain saint. Kallil, near Perumbavur, has a rock-cut cave in which we can still see the

images of Parswantha, Mahavira, and Padmavati; the local Hindus worship Bhagavati in this temple today. Several places in wynad have Jain temples -an

indication that North Malabar was once a flourishing center of Jainism.

Historians believe that the decline of Jainism started about the eighth century during the Aryanization period of Kerala when Vaishnavism and Saivism were active and aggressive. Jainism seems to have completely disappeared from

Kerala by the sixteenth century; the foreign visitors from Europe do not mention the Jains at all. One lasting contribution of Jainism to Kerala, according to wi'lliam Logan, is that the architecture of the Hindu temples and the Muslim mosques of

North Malabar was influenced by the architecture of the Jain temples.

I may add here that there are some old Jain families in the Wynad-Kasargod area even today. also check :

www.hindubooks.org/temples/kerala/Introduction/page4.htm

The Jain Legacy In KarnatakaJainism in Karnataka flourished under the Ganga, the Chalukya and Rashtrakuta dynasties. Jainism prospered like never before and

what we see today is the exquisite creativity that flowered under these dynasties.In the course of time other kings followed Jainism, notably those of badami and Halebid. A time was there in written history that jainism was a

karanataka whole states religion.

The first Kannada poet, Pampa, was a Jain himself. Poets Ranna, Ponna, Janna and Lakshmeesha, who all enriched Kannada literaturee, were Jains.

The Jain legacy in Karnataka can be traced back to a great event that occurred in 297 BC when Chadragupta, the founder of the Mauryan dynasty, abdicated his

throne and came to Sravanbelagola in Karnataka to become a Jain ascetic at the instance of his mentor, Bhadrabahu. He breathed his last at this Jain centre and

the place where he is said to have sought recluse is appropriately name Chandragiri. A basadi (Jain monastery or temple) at Sravanabelagola also carries

his name. In a number of later records he is referred to as Pradbha Chandra Muni.

Soon thereafter the Jain church exhibited a steady growth and succeeded in firmly establishing itself as a vital and powerful force due to its doctrines and

asceticism, morality and ahimsa (non-violence). With such lofty notions, Jainism enjoyed the highest repute among the people particularly the ruling classes and

the mercantile community thus virtually becoming the state religion. Imbued with an intense religious feeling, lavish patronage was extended towards the

building of basadis, temples and magnificent statues. An epoch of literary activities also ensued.

The earliest dated structure is a basadi at Halasi built under the Kadamba dynasty of Banavasi thus laying the foundation for Jain architecture in Karnataka.

Besides the Kadambas, dynasties such as the Gangas, the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas made liberal endowments towards the propagation of art and

architecture to which the Jain contributions have been of classical significance. The Chalukyas of Badami built cave temples at Badami and Aihole. Puligere was a strong centre of religious activities of the Jain monks during this era. Many Jain

basadis erected by them are proof of their secular spirit in encouraging this religion. However, it was the reign of the Gangas of Talkad and the Rashtrakutas,

that were very noteworthy in the annals of Jainism.Jain architecture can be classified into two categories namely basadis and bettas.

Basadi is a Jain monastery or temple where an image of one of the twenty-four tirthankaras (saints) is installed and worshipped and most of them are located in Sravanbelagola. They were built in the Dravidian style and the oldest basadi can

be traced back to the 8th century AD. Betta is a hill with an open courtyard containing the image of Gommata or Gommateswara. These hills form a special

feature of the native art and the most outstanding examples can be found at Sravanbelagola, Karkala, Venur and Mudabidri in south Kanara district. The

image at Karkala is nearly 42 ft tall and was erected in 1432 AD, the details of which are described in the work Karkalada Gommateswara Charite by

Chandrama. The statue at Venur was set up in 1609 AD and is 35 ft in height. Mudabidri, which is hailed as the Kashi of the South has eighteen basadis, the

most important of them being the Tribhuvana Tilaka Choodamani Basadi. Completed in circa 1430 AD after about 50 years of painstaking craftsmanship,

this basadi has one thousand exquisite carved pillars each embellished with different designs and with no two pillars alike. The sanctum possesses an image

of Chandranatha which is more than seven feet in height and is made of five alloys. In addition, the temple has an invaluable collection of dazzling icons of

Jinamurthis made out of translucent marble, raw emeralds and other semi precious stones which, when illuminated, create an ethereal effect. There is also an attractive Manasthamba, the free standing pillar, and a bronze Sahasrakoota Mantapa adorned with over 1000 images of Jinamurthis and 32 hanging lamps.

Apart from the above, Lakkundi and Humcha have, over the centuries, been some of the important centres of Jains, in South India. Replicas of the statue of

Gommata can also be found at Gommatagijri near Mysore and at Basti, Hosakote

and Tipur near Mandya. Panchakuta Basadi in Nagamangala taluk of Mandya district has a group of seven shrines that are considered the oldest Jains

monuments of the State.

However, the most magnificent among all Jaina works of art is the colossal rock cut statue of their saint Gommata at Sravanbelagola. It was built in circa 982 AD and is described as one of the mightiest achievements of ancient Karnataka in the realm of sculptural art. Also referred to as Lord Bahubali, the image is nude an stands upright in the posture of meditation known as kayotsarga, reaching a

height of nearly 57 ft atop the Vindyagiri of Doddabetta hills accessible through a flight of 500 steps. The image of Gommata has curly hair in ringlets and long,

large ears. His eyes are open as if viewing the world with detachment. His facial features are perfectly chiseled with a faint touch of a smile at the corner of his

lips and embody calm vitality. His shoulders are broad, his arms stretch straight down and the figure has no support from the thigh upwards. There is an anthill in the background which signifies his incessant penance. From this anthill emerge a snake and a creeper which twine around both his legs and his arms culminating as a cluster of flowers and berries at the upper portion of the arms. The entire figure stands on an open lotus signifying the totality attained in installing this

unique statue. Amazingly, inspite of being constantly exposed to weather elements, the image has remained as new as ever.

On either side of Gommata stand two tall and majestic chauri bearers in the service of the Lord. One of them is a yakshi and the other one is a yakshi. These richly ornamented and beautifully carved figures complement the main figure. Carved on the rear side of the anthill is also a trough for collecting water and

other ritual ingredients used for the sacred bath of the image. Around the statue is an enclosure of a pillared hall where one can find 43 images of tirthankaras in different cloisters. There is also a figure of a woman called Gullikayajji sculpted with a good built and wearing exquisite ornamentation, typical of the sculptures

of the Ganga period. The Akandabagilu or the massive door, carved out of a single rock with an elaborately carved Gajalakshmi in her typical posture flanked

by two elephants, is another meritorious work of Jain craftsmanship. This also said to have been under the guidance and inspiration of Chaundaraya, the

illustrious minister who served under the successive rulers of the Gangas namely Marasimha II, Rachamalla IV and Rachamalla V.

One of the largest temples in the area is the Chaundarya Basadi dedicated to Neminatha, the 22nd Tirthankara depicted under a seven hooded canopy and flanked by male chauri bearers. This temple is unique in its style. It belongs to the era of the western Gangas and is evolved out of the Chalukyan styles at

Badami and Aihole. One the same hill can be seen the Chandraprabha Basadi dedicated to the 8th tirthankara by the same name. It is one of the oldest

basadis on the hill and can be assigned to the early 9th century under the reign of Sivamara, a Ganga king.

While at Sravanbelagola one can also gain insights into Jaina mythology through some of the finest paintings depicted on the walls of the Sri Jains matha. Rich in

colours and harmonious in composition, these paintings of the 18th century

depict royal processions and festivities, monks, women in brightly coloured sarees, forest scenes of wild animals and other topics that shed light on the

domestic, religious and social life of the people. Of particular significance is the durbar (court) scene of Krishnaraja Wodeyar indicating the warm relations that

the Wodeyars of Mysore enjoyed with this holy pilgrimage.

Another concrete expression of the intensity of Jaina art is the sthambha, the free standing pillar in front of every basadi. Elegantly carved out of granite,

these are classified as Brahmadeva Sthambha and Manasthambha. While the former portrays the figures of Brahmanical gods, the latter is depictive of Jaina

faith. Manasthambha pillars can be found elsewhere in the country but the Brahmadeva pillars are restricted to the South, a fine specimen of which can be found in front of the gigantic statue of Gommata at Sravanbelagola. Extremely attractive is the Manasthambha at Mudabidri with a small shrine at the apex

surrounded by four bells and topped with a gold finial. Such pillars at Karkala and Humcha are equally eye-catching. All these pillars, irrespective of their

connotations, are exquisite pieces of art, elegance and decoration. Another pillar of immense interest is the Tyagada Brahmadevara Kamba at Sravanbelagola

where Chaundaraya has inscribed his genealogy and his life time achievements. Only segments of the inscription are readable.

The achievements of Chaundaraya are indeed stupendous. Filled with visions of Jaina unity, he was instrumental in carving out the statue of Gommata, one of

the engineering marvels of the world at Sravanbelagola. A great scholar, he was the author of Charitrasara in Sanskrit and Chaundaraya Purana or Trishahti

Lakshana Mahapurana in Kannada prose thus setting the trend for celebrated works of literature by Jaina scholars. The period of the Gangas also witnessed literary activity in Sanskrit, Prakrit and Kannada. Notable among these are a translation of Gunadhya’s Vaddakatha from Prakrit to Sanskrit as well as a

commentary on Kiratarjunaaya by Durvinitha, a learned Ganga king.

The literary zeal of the Jains continued well into the age of the Rashtrakutas, covering not only religion but also embracing many secular branches of learning including mathematics and astronomy. Giant literary figures like Pampa, Ponna

and Ranna, thrived under the enlightened rule of the kings of this dynasty. Pamapa’s works included Vikramarjuna Vijaya also known as Pampa Bharata, giving a Jaina version of the Mahabharata Adipurana, narrating the story of Rishabadeva, the first tirthankara. Another Jain, Ranna, was the author of

Sahasra-Bhima-Vijaya, describing the fight between Bhima and Duryodhana. Neminatha Purana, a history of the 22nd tirthankara, interprets the story of

Krishna and the Pandavas the Jaina way. Ganithasarasangraha was a work on mathematics by Mahaveera, under the patronage of Amoghavarsha I. These are

the names of but a few men of letters who adorned the court of the Rashtrakutas.

The fact that Jainism exerted considerable influence over the cultural life of Karnataka during the rule of the Rashtrakutas is borne by the fact that several

basadis were erected for the further propagation of the religion in the State. Important among them is the Parsvanatha Basadi at Ron with its exquisitely

carved grills depicting gandharvas in scroll work.The vast inheritance of early and medieval Jaina architecture has been

effectively carried into the modern world by Shri Veerendra Hegde by setting up a statue of Gommata at Dharmasthala near Mangalore. This statue is nearly 40ft

high and has been carve by Ranjal Gopal Shenoy. To assert thee fact that Karnataka has been and continues to be the adobe of Jaina art and architecture.

Karnataka, in fact, is a treasure house of Jain manuscripts on subjects ranging from philosophy, grammer, vaastu, mathematics and religion. These manuscripts

are in the form of paper and palm leaves in several temples and mutts in Bangalore. Some of them are in Halegannada (ancient Kannada) and many in

Sanskrit. A national level exercise for surveying and documenting the manuscripts is already on.

Chandragupta, a Jain and founder of Mauryan Dynasty was the first emperor of India. He brought almost all of the south Asia under his control. He defeated

many kings including .selucos Necoter, General of the great Alexander. Chandragupta became a Jain monk and took sallekhana at Shravanbelgola in

Karnatak.

Ashok, the grandson of Chandragupt was also a Jain and the Emperor. He won many kings. I a war with Kaling, there was unbelievable violence killing hundred thousands of soldiers and people. It created a hate against war in the mind of Ashok. So he renounced Jainism and embraced Buddhism. Kunal, the son of

Ashok and Samprati ( again he was a very big chakravarti than ashoka too), son of Kunal also were emperors and Jains, and had involved in wars. Later emperors

of this dynasty embraced Buddhism. They were extremely non violent. As a result, last emperor of this dynasty Brahdrat was killed by his bramhin general Pushyamitra Shring. It was the end of Mourayans and rise of Shring dynasty.

Shring dynasty was totally against Jains and Buddhists. So both the faith were declined in eastern India.

Mahameghvahan Kharvel was a very brave Jain emperor who rised in 2nd century B.C. in Kaling (Orissa). He was coroneted at the age of 24 and he

defeated Satvahan kings of western India when he (Kharvel) was just 26. After two years, he attacked Ratthiks & Bhojaks of western India and defeated them.

After two years he attacked powerful Magadh and then North India and then South India. Thus whole of India including present day Pakistan and Afghanistan

became under his control.

Adishankaracharya, who had vowed to finish Jains and Buddhists and converted millions of Jains and Buddhists into Hinduism, converted many Jain temples all over India into Hindu temples and put Jain religious literature on fire was killed

by two Jain monks, for helpless jain monks found that if they wont then surely he will fully wipe out jainism.

Jainism as per kerala ( http://www.keralaeverything.com/rel.htm )Though there is evidence of practice of Jainism in Kerala before the arrival of Aryans. History is silent about it. The Famous Jainmedu temple in Palakkad is the manifestation of

Jainism in Kerala. Today few families of Jain community are found around Palakkad in Kerala.

As per kerala tourism officials :Jainism was one of the first to be introduced in Kerala. The Jains who settled in Kerala made little effort to convert the

Dravidians residing there. They came looking for a place where they could find an atmosphere of peace and quiet so that they could indulge in their meditation. During the 8th century A.D. Jainism in Kerala started its decline, and many of the

Jains were being converted into the Hindu religion.

Evidence of early Jainism Influence(http://goacentral.com/Goamonuments/early_buddhist_and_jain_influen

ce_in_goa.htm)Jainism is another ancient religion of India, similar to but older than Buddhism. Founded and popularized by Shree Mahavir Jain. Unlike Buddhism which has

almost no followers in India today, Jainism has a very strong presence in India. Many of its present day followers can be identified by their last name 'Jain".

There are ruins of three Jain temples belonging to Vijayanagar period. The first Jain Basti of Neminath is from Bandivade of Ponda taluka. The other two Jain

temples are located in Cudnem and Jainkot area of Narve and both these temples belong to the Vijayanagar period.

Ruins of the Neminath Jain Basti at BandivadeA stone inscription from Nagueshi exhibited in the Museum of Archaeological Survey of India refers to the

reconstruction of this Jain Basti during Vijayanagar period in 14th century. The Neminath Basti of Bandivade is square shaped and built of laterite blocks with grilled windows. An arch is provided at the entrance. It is possible that a dome

existed over the structure. Lime mortar has been found to have been used extensively as the binding material.

Ruins of the Cudnem Jain TempleThe "Garbagriha" as well as the "Mukha Mandapa" are constructed of laterite with Lime mortar being used as the the binding material. The entrance of garbagriha has an arch. The laterite blocks discovered in the excavation clearly indicate that there were arches in the

"Mukha Mandapa". These arches were embellished with a laterite floral pendant at the center of the arch. One such floral pendant has been discovered in a

recently conducted excavation. The presence of these arches strongly suggest that there was a overlying dome covering the temple. This "Mukha Mandapa" is 8

x 8.30 meters. There are four pillars in the center and four others on each side wall. The "Garbagriha" as well as the "Mukha Mandapa" stand on a 2meter high platform. The octagonal "Shikara" of the "Garbagriha" has five tiers. The lower most is half spherical with a rectangular small entrance for the "Garbagriha".

This is the only medieval temple of Goa which has a "Nagara" (Indo-Aryan) architectural features.

The high platform and the tall Shikara give a sense of soaring height to the temple. The "Mukha Mandapa" has a gabled roof with tiles. A "Prakara" wall with

a base of pillars has also been unearthed. This Jain temple is similar to the Saptakoteshwar temple of Narve and the Chandranath temple of Paroda. It is possible that this temple was the forerunner of these architecturally similar

temples. The use of Lime mortar and the architectural features indicate that the temple belonged to Vijayanagar period. A broken stone head of a

"Teerathankara" or a Jain saint, with beautifully sculpted curls was also found near the "Garbagriha". A stone torso of another Jain "Teerathankara" with a

"Srivasta" symbol was also unearthed. Another find occurred while desilting a nearby well in the vicinity of the temple. At a depth of 5 meters, the right leg of a Statue was discovered. It appears that the broken head and the leg belonged to

the same image. This image of a "Teerathankara" belongs to the Kadamba period. It however appears that Jains during the Kadamba period were not

prosperous to begin with but in the subsequent Vijayanagar Period, they might have gained prosperity due to their active participation in mercantile activity.

Ruins of the Narve Jain TempleThe ruins today are called "Jainkot" and are located in the Village of Narve in Bicholim taluka. They lie very near the present

temple of Saptakoteshwar . In front of the Saptakoteshwar temple, there is ancient pathway constructed of locally available laterite slabs which lead to the

ruins of Jain temple. These consist of mainly door jams, ceiling canopy and lintels chlorite schist. The Jain temple was built of laterite. Lime mortar has also been noted to have been used extensively here also. In an inscription there is only a mention of the name "Sparsvanath" and along with the name of the month and day, corresponding to the English calendar date of March 13th, 1151 AD. During

this period the Kadambas were in power and its ruler at that time was King Vijayaditya.

Sunday

Jainism In South India

By:G. V. Raju. M. A. (Hons)

2007/11/Jainism-in-south-india

Arts and Architecture :The Jaina have a due share in the development of Arts in the country.In honor of their saints they erected Stupas as the Buddhists

withtheir accessories of stone railings, umbrellas, decorated gatewaysand pillars and statues. The Gomateswara statue at Sravana Belagola(10th Century), the collosal reliefs carved on the rock face nearGwalior (15th Century A. D.), the

Hathi Gumpha caves in Orissa, PavaPuri, Rajagiri in Bihar, Girinar and Palitana in Kathiawar, possesstemples and architectural monuments of different ages. The

Jainamarble temples at Mount Abu in Rajasthan belonging to the eleventhcentury

and later. carry to its highest perfection the Indian geniusfor the invention of graceful patterns and their application to thedecoration of Masonry.

Andhra'sContribution to Jainism :For the spread of Jainism the south played a vital role. We findevidence for it in Jaina literature. During the reign of

ChandraguptaMaurya (4th Century B. C.) Magadha was ravaged by a 12 year longfamine. Some Jainas under the leadership of Bhadrabahu came to theSouth

and by that time Jainism was a flourishing religion in theSouth.

In "Hari Bhadriya Vritti" it is written that the King of Kalinga whoruled during the time of Vardhamana Mahavira was a friend ofVardhamana's father and Mahavira

came to Kalinga and preached hisreligion.

Dharmamrita, a classic of 12th century A. D., mentions that evenduring the times of 12th Thirthankara, Vasupujya Jainism wasprevalent in the Andhra

country. Tradition also says an Anga kingcome with his three sons to Vengi who later became Jainas and built acity known as Pratipalapura which is some where

near modernBhattiprolu.

The Jaina tradition also mentions that Asoka's grandson Sampratibecame a Svetambra Jaina and spread the religion in Kalinga. TheAndhra and the Kalinga

countries might have been strongholds of non-vedic religions for long, for Bodhayana says that whoever goes toKinga must perform Prayschitta5 .

During the regime of Kharavela (2nd century B. C.), Jainism spreadinto many regions of Northern Andhra and Orissa. The rock caves atKhandagiri and

Udayagiri bear testimony to the same6 . The Satavahanarulers of Pre-Christian era who ruled a vast territory which nowcomprises of Andhra, Maharashtra and Karnataka states were alsoinfluenced by Jainism. `Kalakasuri prabandha' writes

that one of theSatavahana rulers of Pratistanapura used to attend a Jaina monk'sdiscourse.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF JAINISM TO INDIAN CULTURE

jainworld.com/literature/jainhistory/chapters

A brief historical survey of Jainism attempted here gives an idea of the gradual spread of Jainism in different parts of India. The period between the ninth and the twelfth century A.D. is regarded as the golden period in the history of Jainism because Jainism made the striking progress. At this time, it enriched the Indian culture in many spheres. The life of the Jaina monks with lofty ideals was inspiring, and the Jaina Srïvakas were highly devoted to their religion. Jainism flourished along with other religions such as Buddhism, Vaishanavism and Saivism. Jainism has certain distinguishing features, and its distinct contributions to the Indian culture

are as follows

SPHERES OF ART AND ARCHITECTURE : Though most of the objects of Jaina art and architecture have been destroyed by the levelling hand of time and iconoclastic seal of the foreigners, those surviving ones give an idea of contribution that Jainism made to Indian Culture, Jaina objects of art and architecture of very early period have been found. Further, significant Jaina art objects of different periods, and also of separate regions of India are available. From this, it is evident that Jainism made valuable contribution at every stage in the evolution and growth of Indian culture in the sphere of art and architecture. The period between the ninth and the twelfth century A.D. is considered to be the golden age in the history of Jaina art and architecture because its contributions to Indian culture during this period are remarkable.

The Jaina caves of the second century B.C. have been discovered at Ghuntupalli in the East Godavari District of Andhra Pradesh

From Jaina traditions, the Mauryan ruler Samprati is known to have constructed several Jaina temples and monasteries. 'Nigaïasa Vihïra Dïpe11

inscribed on one of the pot sherds at Kasrawad in Madhya Pradesh proves the existence of Jaina monastery in the third century B.C. The

excavations12 conducted at a site called Vaddaamanu, named after Vardhamana in the Krishna Valley, yielded the Jaina remains of the

Stupas, ellipsoidal structures and monasteries of the period between the second century B.C. to the second century A.D. The names of Jinonavihara and Samprativihara are found engraved on the pottery pieces. The name

Samprati-Vihara proves tha Samprati was a historical figure

iii) TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE : The remains of the foundation of the oldest Jaina temple have been discovered at Lohanipura, near Patna. It was a square temple (8' 10" C 8' 10") of the Mauryan period i.e. third century B.C. The excavations at Kankali Tila Mathura disclosed remains of two Jaina temples of the Kushaa period, i.e. the second century A.D.

From the sixth century A.D. onwards, three main styles of temples known as the Nagara, the Dravida, and the Vasara are recognized. The fundamental characteristics of Nagara style are cruciform plan and curvilinear sikhara and it was prevalent in the region between the Himalayas and the Vindhyas. The outstanding and common characteristic of the temples of Dravida style is the pyramidal elevation of the tower,

and this tyle was confined to the part of the country lying between the river Krishna and Kanyakumari. The Vesara style is the mixed one of the above style, and it was found between the Vindhyas and the river Krishna. The Jaina temples of the above the three styles are noticed

Jainism prospered greatly in medieval period under the patronage of the ruling dynasties, Jaina temples were built during the reign of the Gangas, the Chalukyas, the Rastrakutas, the Pallavas, the Cholas and the (m)antaras in the South

(B) JAINA SCULPTURES

The earliest evidence for the worship of image is found among the Jainas. The Hathigumpha inscription of the second or first century B.C. mentions that king Kharavela brought back the image of Kalinga Jina which was taken away by Nandaraja. This proves that Jaina image was worshipped in the fourth century B.C. The earliest known Jaina image is from the Jaina temple of Lohanipura, near Patna, from which two torsos of Jina image were found. These belong to Mauryan period as they are of highly polished stone. A very old bronze of Paravanatha standing in Kayotsarga in Prince of Wale's Museum, Bombay, seems to be of the first century B.C. However the spot of discovery is not known. A unique bronze image of standing Parsvanatha in the Paddhottai Museum, Tamil Nadu, appears to be of the first century A.D. and it was carried from the North to the South.14 A bronze image of Adinatha and a few other Jaina bronze images from Chausa, near Buxar now in Patna Museum, are ascribed to the second or first century B.C.

large nmber of Jaina images of the Kushana period have been discovered at Mathura. The images of the Jaina Tirthankaras are in Kayotsarga (standing) and Padmasana (cross-legged) postures. They are made without distinctive symbols except in case of Adinatha who has a couple of loose locks falling on shoulder and Suparsvanatha marked by a canopy of a serpent hoods. The Tïrthankara images are distinguished by the srïvatsa symbol on the centre of the chest and haloes round their head. There is an image of Mahavira seated in Padmasana, and one of Sarvatobhadrika (four-fold images). The images of Sarasvatï is the earliest. There was prevalent the worship of the auspicious symbols such a Stupa dharmachakra, ratnatriya, Nandipada, Srivatsa, Kevalavrïksha, Svastika and double fish as engraved on pillars, sachis (cross slabs), Ushnias (coping slabs and the torana (Gate-way) as found in the excavations conducted at Mathura and Vaddamanu. These auspicious symbols are without any reference to the Tirthamkaras in the human form.

Some Jaina images of the Gupta period are also known. There is a seated figure of Neminatha of the reign of Candragupta II at Rajagriha. This is the earliest specimen showing the introduction of recognizing symbols of Tirthamkaras. Two images of Pushpadanta and one of Candragupta found at Vidisha were installed by Maharajadhiraja Ramagupta. A beautiful standing bronze figure of Rishabha of the Gupta period, and the inscribed bronze image of Jïvantasvamï (550-600 A.D.) were found at Akota. The Vasantagarh hoard contains two joint standing bronze images of Jinas of the seventh century A.D.

11. JHQ, XXV, pp.1 ff.

12. Arhat Vaichana, Vol. 5, II, pp. 49-59.

14. SHAH, U.P. and DHAKY, M.A. ed. Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture, p. 274.

RELIGIOUS DIVISIONS

The Jaina religions like other religions of India has suffered from the tendency of schisms and secessions. The different sects gradually sprang from time to time on account of the different interpretations put on the canonical texts. Besides, the circumstances of the particular time also compelled them to give up old ideas and to adopt new ones. The separation between the Digambaras and the Svetambaras took place in 79 or 82 A.D. A terrible famine occurred in Magadha in 293 B.C. and 14,000 monks under the leadership of Bhadrabahu with Candragupta Maurya moved on to the South. Some monks under the leadership of Sthulabhadra stayed no gaoha.

Both the traditions do not differ as regards the twelve-year famine that took place in Magadha and as regards the consequent emigration of the Jaina Samgha under his leadership. But while the Digambara tradition states that the Samgha migrated to the South, Svetambara tradition says that Bhadrabahu went to Nepal. The origin of the great schism, which later on developed into Digambara and Svetambara sects, is ultimately traced to this event.

After Bhadrabahu's departure Sthulabhadra assumed the leadership of the Sangha in Magadha. He was a contemporary of Maurya Candragupta and Bindusara. After the famine was over he convened a council at Pataliputra, at which the remnant of the Sangha left behind in Magadha tried to put in order the sacred lore that had fallen into a state of decay. Sthulabhadra was succeeded by Arya Mahagiri and then came Suhastin

who was the religious preceptor of the Maurya king Samprati who is said to have been a devout Jaina and to have done much for the glory of his religion. After Suhastin came Susthita, Indradinna (Kalaka I), Priyagrantha and Vaddhavada, one after the other. At this time lived Kalaka II of the saka-Vikrama fame. Then followed Dinnasari, Sahagiri and Vairasvami. The last of these was the last Dasaparva or keeper of a part of the original canon. It was in his time in M.E. 609 (or A.D. 82) that the gradually growing schism in the Jaina Sangha was finalised and the two sects, Svetambara and Digambara, separated for good.

JACOBI observes that the division of the Jaina Sangha into Svetambara-Digambara took place gradually, and that they became aware of their mutual differences about the end of the first century A.D. It is necessary to know what is the exact difference between these two sects, Literally, Digambara mean, 'sky-clad' and Svetambara means 'white-robed' i.e. the monks of the Digambaras are naked, while those of the Svetambaras wear white clothes. In fact there is very little difference between the two branches as regards the essentials of doctrine. The most authoritative book, namely, Tattvartha Sutra by Umasvati or Umasvami has been accepted by both the sects. However, there are some major as well as minor points on which the two sections are opposed to each other. The major points of difference between the Digambaras and Svetambaras are as follows :

(i) While the Digambaras believe that a monk who wears clothes, can not attain salvation; the Svetambaras assert that the practice of complete nudity is not essential to attain liberation.

(ii) The Digambaras hold the view that woman, is not entitled to Moksha in this life. On the contrary, the Svetambaras believe that women can attain Moksa in this life.

(iii) According to the Digambaras, once a saint has attained Kevala Jnana (Omniscience) he needs no food, but can sustain life without eating. The view is not acceptable to the Svetambaras.

Leaving aside the trivial differences in rituals, customs and manners, the following are some of the minor points on which the two sects do not agree :

(i) The Digambaras maintain that the embryo of Mahavira, the last Tïrthamkara, was not removed from the womb of Devï Anada, a Brahmin lady, to that of Trisala or Priyadarshini, a Kshatriya lady, as the Svetambaras contend.

(ii) The Digambaras believe in the complete disappearance of the ancient sacred literature and as such they disown the canonical books of the Svetambaras.

(iii) The Digambaras assert that Mahavïra never married but according to the Svetambaras, Mahavira married Yasoda and had a daughter by name Anojja or Priyadarsana.

(iv) The Svetambaras consider Mallinatha, the 19th Tïrthamkara as a female but the Digambaras state that Mallinatha was a male.

(v) According to Digambaras, the Tïrthamkaras must be represented as nude and unadorned and with downcast eyes. The need not be so according to Svetambars.6

1. Darsanasara, p.7.

2. Aramasa Bhagvan Mahavïra, IV, P. 269

3. Ibid, p. 272

4. EI, XXI, p. 85; IHQ, 1934, p. 57.

5. JACOBI H : Encylopedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. VII, p. 473.

6. VILAS A. SANGAVE : Jaina community - A Social Survey, pp. 50-51

HISTORICAL ROLE OF JAINISM

43. THE KAKATÏYAS OF WARANGAL

The Kakatiyas were at first feudatories of the Later Chalukyas, after whose decline, they rose to power in Telingana and exercised authority there. The earlier seat of Kakatïya government was Anmakoïa or Hanumankuad, but subsequently Warangal became the capital. The first prince to bring the family into prominence was Prolaraja, one of whose records is dated 1117-18 A.D. He distinguished himself in warfare against the Western Chalukyas and ruled for a long time. After the reign of Rudra (C. 1160 A.D.) and his younger brother, Mahadeva, the latter's son, Gajapati, ascended the Kakatiya throne in 1199 A.D. He was the most powerful monarch, and he continued to rule for sixty-two years. He is represented to have successfully measured swords with the kings of Chola, Kalinga, Seusa (i. e. Yadava ruler) Karïa, Lïïa and Valanaduu. Gajapati was able to win these achievements owing perhaps, to the weakness of the Chola sovereign and the confused political situation in the

Southern India in the second quarter of the 13th century. Being without an issue, Ganapati was succeeded by his daughter Rudïaïbï in C. 1261 A.D. After a reign of nearly thirty years, Rudramba, was followed by her grandson, Prataparudradeva. Prataparudradeva was the last great king of the Kakatïya dynasty, and he had to submit to the yoke of the Moslems during the Southern raid of Malik Kafur. Thenceforward, the Kakatïyas began to sink into insignificance and eventually their kingdom passed into the hands of the Bahmani Sultans of the Dekkan.

JAINISM

The Kakatïyas started their career in the Telugu country when Jainism enjoyed royal patronaga under the Rastrakutas. In Telangana particularly, the Chlukyas of Memulavada extended full patronage to that religion as evidenced by their monuments and literary works like Yasasatilaka and sdipurïa which were written by their court poets Somadeva and Pampa. The early Kakatïyas were not far removed from that period. Their association with the myth of Madhava-varman stated in the Siddhesvara-Charitra indicates their affiliation to Jainism in the early days. Beta I is stated in his Sanigram inscription to have made a gift to the Yaddhamalla Jinalaya. The Banajipet inscription of Meïarasa I records a gift to a Jaina basadi by Kakatiya Beta II. The Padmakshi temple inscription of Prola II dated A.D. 1117 records the construction of Kadalalaya basadi and endowments to the same by his minister's wife Mailama and Medaraja II.

The Garuda symbol, which adorned their banner till the time of Prataparudra, alluded to in Prataparudraya of Vidyanatha does not indicate their strong attachment to Vaishavism, as there is little evidence in that regard. It is quite possible that it may indicate some Jaina symbol like the Garuda of Santinatha, the sixteenth Tirthankara.

It may not be out of place in this connection to co-relate two identical statements occurring in the Govindapuram epigraph and the Telugu Chronical Siddheavara-Charita. According to the former, certain Madhava-Chakravartin who is stated to be the founder of the Polavasa family of chiefs, acquired his military strength consisting of eight thousand elephants, ten crores of horses and innumerable soldiers by the grace of Yakshesvarï at the command of Jina. The same in Siddhesvara-Charitra, is stated that Madhavavarman, the founder of the Kakatïya family. acquired an army comprising thousands of elephants and lakhs of horses and foot soldiers by the grace of the Goddess Padmakshï. The Daksharama inscription of Durga, son of Prola II mentions Madhavavarman as the founder of the Kakatïya family. The goddess Padmakshï on the hill near Anumakona is beyond all doubt a Jaina deity although it is present worshipped as a saiva goddess. The image of this goddess situated amidst the images of Jaina Tïrthamkaras can not be believed to be a Saiva goddess. The original Jaina deity was gradually transformed into a saiva goddess to suit the saiva leanings of the latter Kakatïyas. The said Jaina myth itself is recast into a saiva one. The goddess might have been originally Padmavatï, the Yakshesvarï or sasanadevï of Parsvanatha, the twenty-third Tïrthamkara. While editing the inscription of Prola II set up before this temple, H. KRISHNA SASTRI expressed the view that the Kadalalaya basadi mentioned in it must

have been dedicated to Kadalalaya, the Kaïlasa name for the goddess Ambika or Padmavati. All this leads us to the conclusion that the early members of the Kakatïyas were the followers of Jainism. It is not unreasonable to believe that the Jaina goddess on the Anumakona hill was set up by Garuda-Beta or Beta I and called it Kakatïya as stated in the Gudur-epigraph that Kamavasïni by reinstating Garuda Beta established Kakati.

That Jainism was patronized even by the later Kakatïya members is evidenced by the renovation work conducted by Rudra's minister Gangadhara to the Jaina Vasati on the Padmakshï hill as stated in his epigraph at Hammakonda.

A Jaina poet named Appayarya states in his Jinendra-Kalya bhyudaya that he completed his work during the reign of Kakatïya Kum�ra Rudradeva, that is Prataparudra. This is also an indication that Jainism flourished in Andhra till the end of the Kakatïya period.

To illustrate the general tendency of the society towards Jainism during this period, we have an inscription at Bekkallu, Jangaon taluk, datable to Rudra's reign. Certain Malliraya is stated to have constructed twenty-one temples for Siva, although Jainism was his family religion. It is interesting to note in the record a specific statement in Telugu prose as well as verse that the four Samayas Saiva, Vaishnava, his own Jaina and Buddha were mere causes for disbelief (Saïsaya-hetu), but the god in all faiths or Samayas was only one and that with such strong belief he constructed all those temples for the god �iva.

It is evident that the people at large in those days were following the four religions without prejudice to each other.448

448) The Kakatiyas, pp. 272-274

ANCIENT JAIN TÏRTHAS AND HISTORICAL PLACES

 

The Tïrthas are connected with the incidents of the lives of the Tïrthaõkaras and other great persons. The places, where the Tïrthaõkaras were born, first renounced the Áaãsära and initiated into religious life, practised austerities and achieved kavalajñäna (omniscience), are known as Kalyäîaka Kshetras. The places where the Tïrthaõkaras realised emancipation are called Nïrväîa Kshetras. Such places are Kailäáa, Champä, Pävä, Urjayanta and Sammeda Áikhara. The places, where the great ascetics lived and achieved liberation, are also known as the Tirthas. Generally, such Tïrthas were established on the basis of imagination in medieval times in order to increase their importance. At times, the idols in certain places are believed to bestow great favours on their devotees. Hence such places are also considered as Atiáayakshetras. Some sites are important from the point of view of art and history.

The Präkôit Nirväîakänâa of Kundakunda1 and Sanskrit Nirväîa Bhakti of Püjyapäda give information about the ancient Jaina Tïrthas. As Äáädhara mentions these belong to earlier period than the 13th centry A.D. The Sakalatïrtha Stavana by Siddharshi (of the 12th century A.D.) contains a list of holy places. The Vividhatïrthakalpa of Jinaprabhasüri written in about the 14th century A.D. gives a biref history of the holy places. The number of Tïrthas increased in the medieval period. There are even different traditions about the origin of some of these Tïrthas. In the medieval Jaina literature, we come across many examples where rich Jainas led a Saãgha or a large group of people to the places of pilgrimage. Bhaiya Lal has written The Nirvankala. (Bhora) in V.S. 1741 in Hindi language giving the list of holy places.1 In commemoration of this act, they are given the honorific title of Saãghapati by the Jainas. It is felt that they are helpful in creating self-enlightenment (Atmajägôiti) in the minds of the people who visit them. When Jainism began to decline, some of the Jaina Tïrthas have been forgotten, and were even occupied by other sects. These ancient Jaina Tïrthas have been classified on regional basis.

ÄNDHRA PRADESH

BODHAN : Bodhan is situated in Nizamabad District. The original Jina temple of this place was afterwards destroyed by the Muslims, and converted into a mosque. A teacher called Munichandra Siddhäntadeva, has been mentioned in a damaged Jaina epigraph of the time of the Western Chälukya Emperor Vikramäditya VI. This epigraph also mentions a Jina temple of this place. Its ancient name was Podanapura.4

GUÂIVÄÂÄ : Guâivädä is situated in Krishna District. It has a medieval temple of Paarávanätha.1

HEMÄVATÏ : Hemävatï is situated in Anantapur District. It was once the capital of the Nolamba pallavas and a damaged epigraph from this place of the ninth century mentions a local Jaina temple. Its ancient name was Henjeru.2

PENUGOÎÂA : Penugoîâa situated in Anantpur District, is known for its Pärávanätha temple. It has yielded a few Jaina antiquities. In the sixteenth century, it was considered an important Digambara Jaina centre.