SUBJECT: Art of South and Southeast Asia Before 1200Stokstad Chapter: 9

RESOURCESStudent discussion readings for this lecture:

MacGregor #

Student discussion videos for this lecture:

Optional in-class video resources for this lecture: Hindu Temple: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q474V62zQ80 and interior

atmosphere: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gfoSbAhnRE8&playnext=1&list=PLA0D17202366FE08A

NATO Bamiyan Buddhas: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aElJmNYkmG8 Sanchi: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BkFpizJgwYk&NR=1 Borobudur: http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/592/video Michael Wood’s The Story of India (PBS)

LECTURE NOTESKey question for the lecture:

We’ve talked about the idea of the “ideal” in Greco-Roman artToday, our question for exploring South and Southeast Asian Art are very similar – where and what is “ideal” here? How is it expressed in material culture?

The goal for today is to introduce major concepts in Buddhist and Hindu Art and Architecture in South and South East Asia. Some of our questions:

- How is sacred space expressed in Buddhist and Hindu art and architecture in India? How do elements such as pose, expression, gestures, adornments and symbols, or scale suggest a deity/the holy in these religions?

- How does architecture signify its religious context? (Pilgrimage, circumambulation)

- Where does Buddhism originate? Who is Buddha?- What is the role of aniconism in early Buddhism? How is Hinduism quite

the opposite in terms of its use of many figures?- What is a mandala, and how is this conception of space used in both

religions?

In New York, the Rubin Museum of Art is a great resource, with a collection of 2000 artworks that spans the larger Himalayan cultural sphere, determined by significant cultural exchange over millennia, includes Iran, India, China, Central Asia, and Southeast Asia.

Timeline: from Indus Valley Civilization (c. 2500 BCE) through 3rd century BCE (King Ashoka) to medieval Hindu temples (11-12th century CE).

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Historical/Geographic outline: What do we mean by South and Southeast Asia?

Southern Asia = Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Iran, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. Burma and Tibet are also sometimes included in the region of South Asia.

Southeast Asia = countries that are geographically south of China, east of India, west of New Guinea and north of Australia eg. Cambodia, Laos, Burma, Thailand, Vietnam etc.

This is a huge area, and there is no way we can do it justice in one lesson, so we are going to focus on specific and selective examples of art and architecture in India, and on the major world religions of Buddhism and Hinduism.

India is also home to other religions, especially Islam after the 9th century, but we will not focus on this aspect.

Objects covered: 1. Seal Impressions2. Mohenjo Daro3. Ashoka Pillar and Lion capital4. Great Stupa at Sanchi Pradesh; (stupa and temple diagram)5. Standing Buddha6. Bodhisattva; Mudras diagram7. Vishnu Narayana on the Cosmic Waters8. Shiva Nataraja of the Chola Dynasty9. Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, Khajuraho10. Rajarajeshvara Temple to Shiva, Thanjavur

LECTURE

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1. Seal Impressions

Earliest culture in South Asia is the Indus Civilization, in NW India and Pakistan Also known as the Harappan culture (Harappa was the first discovered site) Remember the seals from the ANE? What were they used for/evidence of?

Administration, society forming. Society formed here too, along the Indus River. Each seal is about an inch by an inch, not sure what their exact use was but

animals a common theme Began to be found in late nineteenth-early twentieth century, and this is when

excavations started too.

2. Mohenjo DaroSee http://www.mohenjodaro.net/And also PBS’ The Story of India

Archaeological excavations in the 1920s unearthed the ruins of two vast cities, Harappa and Mohenjo-daro (Mound of the Dead), that attested to the ancient roots of Indian civilization.

Both sites, now part of Pakistan, are among the chief urban settlements of the Indus Valley Civilization that developed along the floodplains of the Indus River and its tributaries and flourished between 3000 and 1900 BCE

The river valley’s fertility, augmented by the monsoon rains, made farming and herding a mainstay of the civilization’s economy, which was also supplemented by internal and external trade.

Among the key characteristics of the Indus civilization sites, which have now been found over a vast swath of Pakistan and northwestern India, is their uniformity.

The cities were constructed with standardized size bricks and feature a rectilinear street plan, granaries, drainage and sewage systems, and multi-story homes.

The civilization also developed a uniform system of weights and measures as well as a form of writing, which has yet to be decoded.

The city lacks ostentatious palaces, temples, or monuments. There's no obvious central seat of government or evidence of a king or queen. Modesty, order, and cleanliness were apparently preferred. Pottery and tools of copper and stone were standardized. Seals and weights suggest a system of tightly controlled trade.

The city's wealth and stature is evident in artifacts such as ivory, lapis, carnelian, and gold beads, as well as the baked-brick city structures themselves.

A watertight pool called the Great Bath, perched on top of a mound of dirt and held in place with walls of baked brick, is the closest structure Mohenjo Daro has to a temple. Possehl, a National Geographic grantee, says it suggests an ideology based on cleanliness

Wells were found throughout the city, and nearly every house contained a bathing area and drainage system.

In number and extent, the Indus civilization was the largest of the civilizations in the ancient world.

Although the reasons for the Indus civilization’s decline are not absolutely known, mounting geological evidence suggests that climate change may have been a factor.

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Source article: http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/archaeology/mohenjo-daro/

WATCH: Introduction to Michael Woods’ PBS The Story of India (Pt 1 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=APn07PS-5qc&feature=plcp(Pt 2 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KLeOGl14lPc&feature=plcp - Harappa(Pt 3 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hYcQwNJ8q9w&feature=plcp - Harappa contPt 4 - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UQcHVtaEWDY&feature=plcp - Buddhism

3. Ashoka Pillar and Lion capital

Q: Which three major world religions are born in India? How do they connect?India is home to several major world religions, three of which were initially formulated there:

Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism Each of these faiths constructed distinctive objects in honor of its gods. Buddhism: belief structured around one figure, the Buddha Hinduism: Multiple gods allowed/ worshipped -- Vishnu is one of the most

important, Shiva, Devi, Bhrama

In the earliest period of our chronology, around 2000 BCE, there existed a powerful priesthood known as Brahmins, which constituted the upper crust of society

They developed a series of religious texts called the Vedas, the basis of what would later become Hinduism

Within this period the class structure in India becomes static, which lasted through Indian society – caste system, complex, still inexistence today

Buddhism and Jainism reject the authority of the Vedas, and the hereditary class structure of Vedic society

Buddhism and Jainism were open to all, regardless of social position Islam began in the Arabian peninsula and reached the Indian subcontinent in the

9th c. By the 13th c it was well established. The area’s latest religion is Sikkism, formulated in the 16th c and a singular

outcome of the Hindu-Islamic encounter. Christianity arrived within years of Christ’s death.

Buddhism: Founded by Siddharta Gautama (the Buddha) in c. 6th century BC, NE India.

Buddhism gains wide acceptance. Its peak was during the Pala Dynasty (750-1200 CE). It was eventually transmitted throughout other parts of Asia while in India

Hinduism gained prominence. The great appeal of Buddhism is its teachings of wisdom, compassion and

humility. Its emphasis on moral and ethical perfection, a democratic outlook and a casteless society also widened its attraction.

Buddhism was also deliberately made compatible with other older and established religions like Daoism in China and Bon in Tibet. Followers of these religions could easily incorporate Buddhist teachings.

And Buddhism was a proselytizing religion attracting many new adherents.

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Who was Buddha? Buddha (c. 563-483 BCE) Born as a prince, groomed to become a ruler Shakyamuni = “wise man of the Shakya clan At the age of 29, after the birth of his son, he leaves the palace and wandered,

finally coming across human suffering from which he had been shielded So he turned to meditation and was enlightened at age 35. Without contradicting existing belief systems, he revealed a path of deliverance

that was, for the first time, accessible to all. Preaches until his death aged 80.

See the Life and Death of Buddha Frieze from Gandhara (first area to produce figural reps of Buddha, located in Pakistan/Afghanistan today)

With the incorporation of the Buddha’s human image into art after the 1st century AD, sculptors began to depict legends surrounding the youth of Siddhartha, including stories of his birth and death.

These legends and historical events were eventually consolidated into a clear story line that usually centers on four main events in the Buddha’s life, referred to as the Four Great Miracles.

Thereafter, these four events were frequently depicted on narrative relief panels such as this.

Such panels were often placed around the base of important stupas and can be considered in chronological order.

FIRST: represents the miracle of the Buddha’s birth. Siddhartha, complete with halo, emerges from the right hip of his mother Maya as she stands beneath a tree.

Halo signifies divine radiance, is a symbol of honor that routinely appears on South Asian images of deities and royalty.

Artistic and cultural elements borrowed from ancient Greek and Roman art include the wreaths around the women’s heads, the long-sleeved blouses and gowns, and the cornucopias held by several figures.

We’ll see in a moment other statues of the Buddha that may have been influenced by Ancient Greece

SECOND The miracle of the Buddha’s enlightenment. The Buddha sits beneath a tree in meditation. Animals and figures try to distract

the Buddha from his quest for knowledge. Despite all this activity around him, the Buddha remains serene.

With his mudra, or hand gesture, of touching the ground, the Buddha calls the earth to witness his realization of enlightenment and thus his victory over the evil Mara.

THIRD Illustrating the miracle of the first sermon at Sanarth, the third panel shows the

Buddha preaching to a crowd of monks and ordinary citizens. The wheel is a pre-Buddhist symbol of kingship, and some Hindu gods are

shown holding one. Although the Buddha gave up his earthly possessions and kingdom, this wheel refers to his spiritual authority and teaching.

His first sermon is thus referred to as the first turning of the wheel of the dharma [or law].

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FOURTH In the fourth and final relief, showing the miracle of the Buddha’s journey to

nirvana, local chieftains appear above him and express their intense grief. The monks, on the other hand, seem to be at peace, signifying understanding

that the Buddha’s passing is not death but rather a release from the endless cycle of rebirth.

So, these frieze carvings are made in the 1st AD, but Buddha is born and lives in the 6th century BC, and thus there is Buddhist art that comes long before panels like these…..

It was the North of India that emerged as the center of the first Indian empire due to its control of the river trade, forests and rich deposits of minerals.

The Emperor of this region, Ashoka (r. 269-232BCE), was the first major patron of Buddhist art. He succeeded his grandfather who had brought the whole of Northern India under his control in the 4th century BCE. He created the Mauryan Empire.

After inheriting the empire, Ashoka made a dramatic conversion to Buddhism after witnessing the carnage after his conquest battles. He became a Buddhist and a pacifist and instructed his subjects to practice compassion and ethical behavior.

The pillars of Ashoka are a series of columns dispersed throughout the northern Indian subcontinent, and erected by Ashoka during his reign in the 3rd century BC.

Originally, there must have been many pillars of Ashoka although only ten with inscriptions still survive, averaging between forty and fifty feet in height

Inscribed in Bhrami script The code of behavior (dharma) inscribed on them also showed political

astuteness (you need a belief system to unite a disparate people) and ingrained a social responsibility in an empire where tensions between urban merchants and the Brahmin caste threatened stability.

Adopted as the National Emblem of India.

Lion Capital Lions signify the Buddha himself (Shakyamuni) The Buddha’s teachings are sometimes known as the ‘lion’s roar’. 4 animals around the abacus lion/ horse/ bull/ elephant signify 4 rivers of the world Face 4 cardinal directions ~ suggesting the universality of Buddhism Wheel = Buddhist law, signaling his legitimacy as a ruler Axis mundi – will also be seen in the design of the temples and stupa –

connection between earth and heaven

Relating back to our question of how do these forms signify the divine before the figure of Buddha is allowed?- Axis mundi = connection between heaven and earth- Think of Hammurabi’s stele and the code written on it signifying laws for his people

– these perform a similar function connecting heavenly scripture with earthly ruler and his subjects.

- The lions are a stand in for Buddha – in early Buddhism, the Buddha was not portrayed as a human figure, as we’ll see in our next site, the Stupa at Sanchi.

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4. Great Stupa at Sanchi Pradesh; (stupa and temple diagram)Class exercise: Formal analysisWhat do you see?Turn to your partner and discuss for 60 seconds, be prepared to share.

This is the foundation of Buddhist sacred spaces. What is sacred here? What do you see? What elements of the architecture can

you point out? What might happen in this space that is part of pilgrimage or ritual?

Take a few minutes and really look at the space – make short notes

Great Stupa, Sanchi. India. Founded 3rd century BCE, enlarged 150-50 BCE. This was begun by King Ashoka, but in this incarnation was completed after the

fall of his Maurya empire. V well known. It is called a stupa. Stupas were erected at the sites that were important to the

story of Buddha eg. The site of Buddha’s birth, renunciation of his wordly goods, attainment of enlightenment and his passing into nirvana, as well as being built over the relics of previous Buddhas.

Acts as a reliquary (contains remains of the Buddha). Relics can be:

Mantras written out on paper Physical relics of a Buddha such as hair or nails, or objects used by him Fragments of his bones, teeth and so forth Other relics remaining after his cremation

- The first visual images of the Buddha did not portray a human likeness, but were these large burial mounds with relics

- When Buddha died, his cremated remains placed in eight reliquaries and buried in solid earth mounds (stupas)

- Under Ashoka’s reign the Buddha’s ashes were divided into 84,000 parts and enshrined in stupas throughout India.

- The Great Stupa of Sanchi was built of an important trade route and thus visited by many

The physical characteristics of the stupa: a wheel drawn around a central axisCIRCLE – MOSQUES, PARTHENON- The wheel = already seen in the pillars, underlying tenets of the faith- Also is a poetic link to be made with Buddhist cyclical rather than linear concept of

time, vast revolving wheel with cycles of creation, destruction and re-creation - Was meant to be circumambulated, Circumbulating them is a means of

accumulating merit like prayer does in Christian or Muslim faith- OPEN TO ALL TO COME AND WORSHIP IN

Because donations to monasteries and temples were helpful in reaching the goal of release from the cycle of rebirth for individual worshippers, numerous books, ritual objects, statues, other images and temples were created.

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- Local people would pay to have reliefs or inscriptions made, so sometimes favourites are repeated

- Anaconism – Buddha revealed in different types of symbol rather than in his figure.

- The first visual images of the Buddha did not portray a human likeness.- Images of the stories of the Buddha’s previous lives (jataka stories) proliferated.

This is all despite of the fact the faith was founded by the teachings of a man who did not approve of the making of images to aid in worship and preached a doctrine against worldly possessions.

Toranas – gateways- The gateways primarily tell jataka stories - stories form the life of the historical

Buddha. - These toranas contain detailed forest scenes and towns, which offer a wealth of

information about contemporary life. The toranas also provided religious instruction in an age of limited literacy by showing people stories from the lives of the Buddha.

- THESE STORIES PROVIDED A LITERARY BASIS FOR MUCH OF THE ART PRODUCTION IN EARLY AND MEDIEVAL INDIA, LIKE HOMERIC LITERATURE DID IN ANCIENT GREEK CULTURE

How is a STUPA built? (Source: http://www.stupa.org/stupas.htm)

Once a site for a Stupa has been chosen prayers are said and the earth deities addressed to seek a blessing for the site and to remove any obstacles to the successful building of the Stupa. Each Stupa sits upon a square base called the Lion’s Seat

On the Lion’s Seat there are then built five steps which are representative of the progress of the mind towards enlightenment.

There is then a rounded form built on top of the steps called the Bumpa which, depending on the size of the Stupa can contain a room for meditation or, if it is smaller will be simply filled with precious and pure representations of Buddha's mind.

Out of the Bumpa a spire forms and on top of that sit ornaments A central axis called the Sog Shing, meaning “Life Stick” is made, and is

traditionally carved from Sandalwood or Juniper. However, if it is not possible to obtain these woods, the wood of any tree which does not bear poisonous fruit can be used. In Scotland the tradition has been adapted to use Pine. Once the tree has been chosen, prayers and offerings are made to the Earth Spirits for permission to use it. A monk with full ordination vows must then craft the wood into a tapered shape and either carve or paint mantras over its surface.

The Life Stick is then wrapped in precious materials and is fixed in place on the Lion’s Seat. It is long enough to protrude to the Stupa's highest point.

The Stupa is then filled with relics Once the Stupa is complete and all the relics are in place, a blessing ceremony

takes place.

**Comparison – Borobudur c 800 AD Borobudur, or Barabudur, is a 9th-century Mahayana Buddhist monument near

Magelang, Central Java, Indonesia.

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Largest SE Asian Buddhist site The monument comprises six square platforms topped by three circular

platforms, and is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues. A main dome, located at the center of the top platform, is surrounded by 72

Buddha statues seated inside perforated stupa. Stepped pyramidal structure w/ Stupa on top

Plan shows circumambulation as a key element. The monument is both a shrine to the Lord Buddha and a place for Buddhist pilgrimage

Let’s look at the plan for a moment. It’s called a “mandala”Mandala is a Sanskrit word that means "circle".

In the Buddhist and Hindu religious traditions their sacred art often takes a mandala form.

The basic form of most Hindu and Buddhist mandalas is a square with four gates containing a circle with a center point. Each gate is in the shape of a T.

The word "Mandala" is from the classical Indian language of Sanskrit. These mandalas, concentric diagrams, have spiritual and ritual significance in

both Buddhism and Hinduism

The mandala is, in essence, a chart or geometric pattern that represents the cosmos metaphysically or symbolically, a microcosm of the Universe from the human perspective

The mandala is an aid to meditation. At both Sanchi and Borobodur: the form of the site, the mandala, helps the pilgrim or worshipper with their ritual at these scared sites.

The journey for pilgrims begins at the base of the monument and follows a path circumambulating the monument while ascending to the top

During the journey the monument guides the pilgrims through a system of stairways and corridors with 1,460 narrative relief panels on the wall and the balustrades.

Slide: gardenHow does the stupa form signal itself as a sacred space in both these instances?

Relics/reliquary for Buddha’s remains Circumambulation/pilgrimage Decoration with jataka tales Plan of the stupa – wheel, cycle of rebirth, mandala Through the dome and axis mundi, connection to heaven5. Standing Buddha

Although there was certainly figural representation of deities in Buddhism, early Buddha were symbols, not human figures as we’ve seen.

An image of the Buddha eventually did develop, probably out of necessity due to the growing elaboration of the faith. Buddhism was having to compete with Hinduism, a highly figural religion with various deities.

First Buddhas in human form:

The first anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha probably appear in the first century CE.

Buddha, once revered as an enlightened mortal increasingly became regarded

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as an enlightened divinity. Consequently, the Buddha's followers desired images of him to worship.

Gandhara and Greco-Roman art:

In Gandhara (north, Pakistan/Afghanistan), sculptors fashioned representations of the Buddha in both free standing statuary and narrative reliefs.

It has been widely debated on the origins of the style of the Buddha that developed from the 1st century AD. Here we have two very different examples.

Some believe that the origins lay in Hellenistic Greece, as pockets of Hellenistic culture had thrived in neighboring Bactria (present day Afghanistan northern/southern Uzbekistan) and the Greeks under Alexander had reached the borders of India

On the left, you can certainly see elements that might remind us of figures in Ancient Greece – contrapposto, toga, larger than life

Others believe that a purely Indian basis exists for the Buddha, the yaksha (male yakshi). Elongated limbs, high relief, wheel on palm. Attended. Enthroned.

Either way, artists were already familiar with sculpting the human image in stone (for royal kings and attendants as well as Hindu images).

For the images of the Buddha they referred to the canonical literature that described what the Buddha looked like. (See 32 SIGNS)

Thus in the religious figure of Buddha we have a number of conventional attributes that symbolize/signify his divinity:

1) as a religious leader thus in religious garb of monastic robes2) always frontal3) nearly always on a throne with usually lions in support beneath4) topknot5) Mudra (handsigns)

This is the typical Gandhara version of the gesture known as turning the wheel of the Law. Specifically, the gesture signifies the first sermon of the Buddha at the deer park at Sarnath, but more broadly suggests any occasion when Buddha preaches.

Note the realistic delineation of the muscles of the right arm, those of the torso - reflects continued influences of classical aesthetics from the Mediterranean. The emphasis on close observation is further evident in the naturalistic and sensitive delineation of the elegant fingers of the hands.

6. Bodhisattva; Mudras diagram

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Mudras

Mudras (Sanskrit for signs) are symbolic hand gestures that I Buddhist art function iconographically ie. They tell us about the state of mind of the figure portrayed or the message of the work. (See the screen)

"Gesture of Witness" This gesture is also called "touching the earth" mudra or "calling the earth to witness" mudra. The right arm hangs down over the right knee. The hand with the palm turned inward and all the fingers extended downward with the finger touching the lotus throne. The left hand lies on the lap with palm upward. This gesture symbolizes Shakyamunis victory over Mara.

"Gesture of Argument" Also called "The Gesture of Debate" or "discussion" mudra. In this gesture the tips of thumb and index finger touched forming a circle. All the other fingers are extended upwards. This is the mystic gesture of Taras and Bodhisattvas, often used when explaining the Buddha’s teachings.

"Gesture of  Charity" This gesture is also called "Gift bestowing Gesture of Compassion" or "conferring boon" or "grace" mudra. The arm is extended all way down with palm facing outwards. This is the mudra of Dhyani Buddha Ratnasamhava, Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara and (sometimes) standing Buddha Shakyamuni.

Buddha vs. BohdisattvaThe presence of jewelry often distinguishes an image of the Buddha from that of a bodhisattva.Since the Buddha rejected earthly wealth, he is never shown wearing any form of jewelry. A bodhisattva, on the other hand, is usually crowned or bejeweled because he chose to return to earth to assist others in attaining salvation.

Discuss: Bamiyan Buddhas and ICONOCLASM (short video)

7. Vishnu Narayana on the Cosmic Waters

This is a relief panel at the Vishnu temple at Deogarh in Utter Pradesh, India, from c. 530CE

The relief is situated on the outside architecture where windows might have been not to let light IN but to let out the light of the deity, Vishnu

Who is Vishnu? Vishnu is the second god in the Hindu triumvirate (orTrimurti). The triumvirate

consists of three gods who are responsible for the creation, upkeep and destruction of the world. The other two gods are Brahma and Shiva.

Brahma is the creator of the universe and Shiva is the destroyer. Vishnu is the preserver and protector of the universe.

What does he do?

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His role is to return to the earth in troubled times and restore the balance of good and evil. So far, he has been incarnated nine times, but Hindus believe that he will be reincarnated one last time close to the end of this world.

He is particularly associated with light and especially with the Sun. In early texts, Vishnu is not included as one of the original seven solar gods (Adityas), but in later texts he is mentioned as leading them.

Vishnu is represented with a human body, often with blue coloured skin and with four arms. His hands always carry four objects in them, representing the things he is responsible for. The objects symbolise many more meanings than are presented here:

o The conch: the sound this produces 'Om', represents the primeval sound of creation

o The chakra, or discus: symbolises the mindo The lotus flower: an example of glorious existence and liberationo The mace: represents mental and physical strength

Vishnu is usually represented in two positions.

Standing upright on a lotus flower with Lakshmi, his consort, close by him Reclining on the coils of a serpent, with Lakshmi massaging his feet. They are

surrounded by the Milky Ocean.

Here, he is dreaming the universe into existence. His smooth and perfect body is known as “Gupta” style

What is Hinduism? (See BBC Religion and Ethics webpage)Polytheism vs. Monotheism

Hinduism is the religion of the majority of people in India and Nepal. It also exists among significant populations outside of the sub continent and has over 900 million adherents worldwide.

In some ways Hinduism is the oldest living religion in the world, or at least elements within it stretch back many thousands of years. Yet Hinduism resists easy definition partly because of the vast array of practices and beliefs found within it. It is also closely associated conceptually and historically with the other Indian religions Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism.

Unlike most other religions, Hinduism has no single founder, no single scripture, and no commonly agreed set of teachings. Throughout its extensive history, there have been many key figures teaching different philosophies and writing numerous holy books. For these reasons, writers often refer to Hinduism as 'a way of life' or 'a family of religions' rather than a single religion.

Defining Hinduism

The term 'Hindu' itself probably does not go back before the 15th and 16th centuries when it was used by people to differentiate themselves from followers of other traditions, especially the Muslims (Yavannas), in Kashmir and Bengal. At that time the term may have simply indicated groups united by certain cultural

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practices such as cremation of the dead and styles of cuisine. The 'ism' was added to 'Hindu' only in the 19th century in the context of British colonialism and missionary activity.

The origins of the term 'hindu' are thus cultural, political and geographical. Now the term is widely accepted although any definition is subject to much debate.

In some ways it is true to say that Hinduism is a religion of recent origin yet its roots and formation go back thousands of years.

Outsiders often criticise Hindus as being polytheistic, but many adherents claim to be monotheists.

Scholars sometimes draw attention to the caste system as a defining feature, but many Hindus view such practices as merely a social phenomenon or an aberration of their original teachings.

Although it is not easy to define Hinduism, we can say that it is rooted in India, most Hindus revere a body of texts as sacred scripture known as the Veda, and most Hindus draw on a common system of values known as dharma.

About 80% of the Indian population regard themselves as Hindu.

Hindus believe that existence is a cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, governed by Karma. Hindus believe that the soul passes through a cycle of successive lives and its next incarnation is always dependent on how the previous life was lived.

8. Shiva Nataraja of the Chola Dynasty(Source: Met Museum Timeline)

If a single icon had to be chosen to represent the extraordinarily rich and complex cultural heritage of India, the Shiva Nataraja might well be the best one.

Sculptures of Shiva dancing survive from at least as early as the fifth century, but it was under the rule of the great Chola dynasty of southern India (ca. 860–1279) that the world-famous iconographic type evolved.

The setting of Shiva's dance is the golden hall of Chidambaram, at the center of the universe, in the presence of all the gods.

Through symbols and dance gestures, Shiva taught the illustrious gathering that he is Creator, Preserver, and Destroyer.

As he danced he held in his upper right hand the damaru, the hand drum from which issued the primordial vibrating sound of creation.

With his lower right hand he made the gesture of abhaya, removing fear, protecting, and preserving.

In his upper left hand he held agni, the consuming fire of dynamic destruction. With his right foot he trampled a dwarflike figure (apasmara purusha), the ignoble

personification of illusion who leads humankind astray. In his dance of ecstasy Shiva raised his left leg, and, in a gesture known as the gaja hasta, pointed to his lifted leg to provide refuge for the troubled soul.

He thus imparted the lesson that through belief in him, the soul can be transported from the bondage of illusion and ignorance to salvation and eternal serenity.

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Encircling Shiva is a flaming body halo (prabhamandala, or surrounding effulgence) that not only establishes the visual limits of this complex and dynamic composition but also symbolizes the boundaries of the cosmos.

9. Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, Khajuraho

How is this similar/different to the Buddhist stupa?Hinduism:

Hinduism expanded at the expense of Buddhism, overtaking around this period – 10th /11th century.

No unified system of belief encoded in declaration of faith but is rather an umbrella term.

Based on the Vedic traditions, Vedas are a large body of texts originating in ancient India c. 1500 BCE

900 million vs 360 million Buddhists. Hindus believe in One Supreme Reality (Brahman) manifested in many gods and

goddesses. Purpose it to gain enlightenment as release from rebirth, or at least to attain a better rebirth.

Like Buddhism, your path is reincarnation until gain enlightenment.

The beginnings of Hindu architecture and sculpture are much indebted to the monumental art of Buddhism.

Because of the active propagation by Ashoka and his successors, Buddhism was the first religion in India to exploit the possibilities of an official art realized in permanent materials.

Buddhist architecture continued to evolve up to the 5th and 6th c AD, and is, therefore, contemporary with the earliest Hindu monuments.

The two traditions overlap architecturally and sculpturally.

Buddhism declined in medieval India, and at Khajuraho the Chandella Kings constructed over 85 Hindu temples.- Various local kings vied with one another to erect glorious shrines to the Hindu Gods- A Hindu temple is the home of the gods on earth and the place where they make

themselves visible to humans- This is the largest and most ornate Hindu temple in the medieval temple group

found at Khajuraho in Madhya Pradesh, India. It is considered one of the best examples of temples preserved from the medieval period in India

The temple was built around 1050 AD on Hindu beliefs dating back to 1000 BC- The temple takes its name from kandara or cave and Mahadeva, another name for

Shiva. - Like many other temples in the Khajuraho complex, it has a linear series of access-

steps - Other features are columned halls with balconies, an entrance porch, and the inner

sanctum. - Decorating the sides of the temple are over 646 statues.- Only priests may enter the inner sanctuary to make offerings to gods- Temple rests on stone terrace that separates sacred space from mundane world- Temple symbolizes a constructed mountain with caves, comparable to actual cave

temples- Post and lintel construction – not like Sinan’s vaulted mosque interior

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- Larger temple dedicated to Shiva and smaller to his wife Parvati- Many of the side panels depict the Hindu god Shiva in the presence of consorts, and

other divinities. Like Buddhist art, the story of the deities is told in figural representations on the interior and the exterior, but here there are many different deities of equal stature, unlike the primary emphasis placed on Buddha.

WATCH: video on Temple: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q474V62zQ80 and interior atmosphere: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gfoSbAhnRE8&playnext=1&list=PLA0D17202366FE08A

10. Rajarajeshvara Temple to Shiva, Thanjavur

Wrap upHow is the divine signified in Buddhist and Hindu religious art and architecture? How do we know this is sacred art or these are sacred spaces?

- function of the architecture – it tells the story of the gods, or acts as a reliquary, planned like a mandala

- shape of the architecture – circumambulation- connection to the heavens – pillars, dome, axis mundi- idealized bodies of the deities (Yakshi)- Anaconism (early use of symbols for Buddha)

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