Arranging by Examples - Frans Absil · Arranging by Examples The Practical Guide to Jazz and Pop...

Arranging by Examples

The Practical Guide to

Jazz and Pop Orchestra Arranging

Third EditionINCOMPLETE DEMO VERSION

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Frans Absil

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Arranging by Examples: The Practical Guide to Jazz and Pop Orchestra Arranging,Third Edition, Frans Absilc©2005-2016 F.G.J. Absil, the Netherlands.

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ii INCOMPLETE DEMO VERSION - PERSONAL USE ONLY

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Contents

List of Figures vii

List of Tables xi

Preface xiii

I Preparations 1

1 Introduction 3

1.1 What you will find in this book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.1.1 Arranging Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.1.2 The approach: examples discussed in detail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.1.3 Notation in the book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.1.4 Assembling the arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.2 What you will not find in this book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.2.1 No MIDI files available . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.3 Ready to get hands dirty? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2 Instrumentation 9

2.1 The range of musical instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2.2 Instrument groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2.3 Orchestra sections and balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2.3.1 Rhythm section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2.3.2 Saxophones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2.3.3 Woodwinds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2.3.4 Brass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2.3.5 Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

2.3.6 Percussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

2.3.7 Unfamiliar acoustic instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

2.3.8 Electronic instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

2.4 The score . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2.4.1 Vertical staff order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

2.4.2 Various forms of the score . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

2.4.3 Optimize the score for performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

2.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

iii

CONTENTS

II Techniques 37

3 Sectional harmony in four parts 39

3.1 Basic rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

3.2 Lead with chordal tones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

3.2.1 The danger of repeated notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

3.2.2 Prevent repeated notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423.3 Harmonizing non-chordal tones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

3.3.1 Diminished and secondary dominant chords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

3.3.2 Rhythmic aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

3.3.3 Leading tone chords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

3.3.4 Substitute chords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

3.3.5 Exact parallel chords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

3.3.6 Connecting minor 7th chords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

3.3.7 Subdominant chords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

3.4 Extensions to four-part sectional harmony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583.4.1 Sequence of similar structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

3.4.2 Sequences of diatonic parallel structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

3.4.3 The ‘drop 2’ voicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

3.4.4 Repeated notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

3.4.5 Extended and altered dominant chords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

4 Sectional harmony in five parts 75

4.1 Extended four-part sectional harmony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

4.2 Sectional harmony in 4ths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

5 Ensemble techniques 87

5.1 Fundamental aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

5.2 Four-part ensemble technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

5.2.1 Full big band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905.2.2 Reduced big band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

5.2.3 Intermediate size band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

5.2.4 Combining trombones and saxophones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

5.3 Brass voicing for extended chords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

5.3.1 Dominant seventh bitonal voicings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

5.4 Percussive voicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

5.4.1 Examples of percussive brass voicings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

5.4.2 Examples of ensemble voicings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065.5 Tutti voicings for concert band and studio orchestra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

6 Special techniques 113

6.1 Bell chords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

6.2 Harmonization with symmetrically distributed roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

6.3 Intermediate leading tone harmonization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

6.4 Chromatic stepwise motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

6.5 Diatonic and exact parallel chord motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

6.6 Variable density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

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CONTENTS

6.7 Pedal point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

6.8 Classical music techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

7 Woodwind voicing 135

7.1 Voicing multiple instrument groups in a woodwind section . . . . . . . . . . 135

7.2 Homogeneous and heterogeneous woodwind combinations . . . . . . . . . . 138

7.3 Woodwind voicing examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

8 String section voicing 145

8.1 The size of the string section in an orchestra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

8.2 Unisono strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

8.3 Sustained harmonic backgrounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

8.4 Create motion in the string parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

8.5 Exact parallel voicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

8.6 Special playing techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

8.6.1 Pizzicato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

8.6.2 Tremolo bowing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

8.6.3 Divisi playing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

8.6.4 Bowing near the bridge and on the fingerboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

8.6.5 Multiple stops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

8.7 Small string groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

9 Melody 169

9.1 Motion in melodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

9.1.1 Types of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

9.1.2 Melody direction axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

9.1.3 Melodic curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

9.2 Types of melodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

9.3 Examples of melody types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

III Assembling the Piece 179

10 Musical forms in jazz and pop music 181

10.1 The building blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

10.1.1 The 32-measure AABA song form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

10.1.2 The blues form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

10.1.3 The verse-chorus form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

10.1.4 Folk and world music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

10.1.5 Additional formal elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

10.2 The full piece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

10.2.1 Longer forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

10.3 Musical style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

10.4 Move on to arranging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

INCOMPLETE DEMO VERSION - PERSONAL USE ONLY v

CONTENTS

11 The arrangement 193

11.1 Creating a tension curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19311.2 Using the toolbox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

11.2.1 Combine elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19711.2.2 Crossing borders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20511.2.3 Start and stop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20911.2.4 Contrasting bridge and transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

11.3 Special choruses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22011.4 Notate the details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

12 On a final note 225

Bibliography 227

Index 231

vi INCOMPLETE DEMO VERSION - PERSONAL USE ONLY

List of Figures

2.1 Range of musical instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2.2 The instrument groups in an ensemble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112.3 Various familiar instrumental ensembles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2.4 Jazz big band tutti voicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.5 Jazz big band special chorus for saxophones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.6 Woodwind voicing and internal dissonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182.7 Woodwind voicings in concert band arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2.8 The string section in classical music style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2.9 The string section in contemporary style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2.10 The frequency spectrum of (electronic) sounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302.11 Filtering of (electronic) sounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2.12 The amplitude envelope of (electronic) sounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

2.13 Vertical staff order in the full score . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322.14 Full score staff order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3.1 Examples of chord structures in four-part sectional harmony . . . . . . . . . 41

3.2 Chordal tones in lead, straightforward procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

3.3 Chordal tones in lead, application of secondary dominant chord structure. . 433.4 Non-chordal tones in lead, application of secondary dominant chord structure. 45

3.5 Non-chordal tones in lead, syncopated rhythm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

3.6 Harmonization of non-chordal tones in the lead using leading tone chords. . 48

3.7 Cross relation between lower and upper voice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483.8 The definition of a substitute chord. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

3.9 Alternative harmonization of non-chordal tones in the lead using substitutechords. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

3.10 Harmonization of non-chordal tones using substitute chords. . . . . . . . . . 503.11 Harmonization of non-chordal tones in the lead using exact parallel chords. 51

3.12 Harmonization of non-chordal tones using exact parallel chords. . . . . . . . 52

3.13 Lead voice with diatonic 6− 7 stepwise motion (case 1). . . . . . . . . . . . . 533.14 Lead voice with diatonic 6− 7 stepwise motion (case 2). . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

3.15 Lead voice with 6− 7 stepwise motion on 3rd degree of major scale. . . . . . 54

3.16 Harmonization of non-chordal tones using subdominant chords. . . . . . . . 56

3.17 Similar chord structures on diatonic parallel degrees. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583.18 Diagram of the ‘drop 2’ procedure in four-part sectional harmony. . . . . . . 60

3.19 Close voicing and ‘drop 2’ voicing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

3.20 Changing from close voicing to ‘drop 2’ voicing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

vii

LIST OF FIGURES

3.21 Open voicing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

3.22 Repeated notes in the lead voice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

3.23 Repeated notes at the end of a phrase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

3.24 Harmonization of non-chordal tones using altered dominant chords. . . . . 68

3.25 Harmonization of non-chordal tones using altered dominant chords. . . . . 70

3.26 Harmonization of non-chordal tones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

3.27 Harmonization of non-chordal tones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

4.1 Sectional harmony in five parts, lead doubled an octave below. . . . . . . . . 76

4.2 Sectional harmony in five parts, mixed voicing, ‘drop 2’. . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

4.3 Sectional harmony in five parts, open voicing, ‘drop 2 and 4’. . . . . . . . . . 78

4.4 Sectional harmony in five parts, alternating voicing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

4.5 Sectional harmony in five parts, chords in 4ths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

4.6 Sectional harmony in five parts, chords in 4ths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

4.7 Sectional harmony in five parts, chords in 4ths, close voicing . . . . . . . . . 82

4.8 Sectional harmony in five parts, chords in 4ths, leading tone in lead voice. . 83

4.9 Sectional harmony in five parts, mixed chord structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

4.10 Sectional harmony in five parts, maximizing the harmonization in 4ths. . . . 84

5.1 Example of ensemble voicing diagram for big band. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

5.2 Starting the ensemble voicing: sectional harmony in four parts. . . . . . . . . 89

5.3 Sectional harmony applied to full big band. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

5.4 Voicing diagram full big band. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

5.5 Sectional harmony applied to reduced big band. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

5.6 Voicing diagram reduced big band. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

5.7 Sectional harmony applied to an intermediate size band. . . . . . . . . . . . 95

5.8 Voicing diagram reduced big band. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

5.9 Sectional harmony applied to trombones and saxophones. . . . . . . . . . . 96

5.10 Voicing diagram trombones and saxophones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

5.11 Brass section voicings. (a): internal balance, (b): various chord types . . . . . 98

5.12 Dominant 7th chord S7 bitonal voicings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

5.13 Percussive voicing for brass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

5.14 Percussive voicing for brass using bitonal triads in the trumpets. . . . . . . . 103

5.15 Percussive voicing for brass using bitonal triads in the trumpets. . . . . . . . 103

5.16 Rhythmic background for brass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

5.17 Percussive voicing for big band tutti (case 1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107


5.19 Saxophone voicing in big band tutti. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108



5.22 Bitonal ensemble voicing for intermediate size big band. . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

6.1 Bell chords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

6.2 Harmonization with symmetrically distributed roots: minor third . . . . . . 116

6.3 Harmonization with symmetrically distributed roots: major third . . . . . . 117

6.4 Harmonization with symmetrically distributed roots: chords in 4ths at thediminished fifth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

viii INCOMPLETE DEMO VERSION - PERSONAL USE ONLY

LIST OF FIGURES

6.5 Harmonization with symmetrically distributed roots: tritone-related domi-nant chords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

6.6 Intermediate leading tone harmonization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1206.7 Chromatic stepwise motion: middle voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1236.8 Chromatic stepwise motion: bass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1256.9 Exact parallel motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1256.10 Parallel 3-part chords in ballad for concert band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1266.11 Variable density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1286.12 Classical music technique: chorale setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1326.13 Classical music technique: counterpoint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

7.1 Woodwind voicing and blending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1367.2 Woodwind voicings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1397.3 Woodwind voicing for concert band and studio orchestra . . . . . . . . . . . 1427.4 Tutti climax voicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

8.1 Balancing the string section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1468.2 Unisono violin lead melody . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1478.3 Unisono string voicing in studio orchestra arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . 1488.4 High strings playing unisono . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1488.5 Sustained harmonic background for 6-part string section . . . . . . . . . . . 1528.6 Motion in string section writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1548.7 Exact parallel chords in 5ths for strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1578.8 String section voicing diagram for parallel chords in 5ths . . . . . . . . . . . 1588.9 String section playing pizzicato and tremolo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1598.10 String section playing divisi and unisono. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1608.11 String quartet background in funk rock production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1658.12 Cello quartet in Latin bossa nova production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

9.1 Unisono violin lead melody . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1709.2 Unisono violin lead melody . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1729.3 Sentence and period melody structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1749.4 Introduction melody in classical style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1759.5 Unisono violin lead melody . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1769.6 Electric guitar solo melody . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1789.7 Melody with late climax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

10.1 The four-element, 32-measure AABA song form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18210.2 The three-element, 12-measure blues chorus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18210.3 The verse-chorus pair form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18410.4 The full song form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

11.1 Tension curves for a piece of music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19411.2 Parameters that influence harmonic tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19511.3 The techniques toolbox in diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19611.4 Combining techniques at different note duration timescales . . . . . . . . . . 19811.5 Instrumental background in vocal chorus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19911.6 Rhythm and saxophone background in an ad lib solo chorus . . . . . . . . . 200

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LIST OF FIGURES

11.7 Tutti special chorus for big band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20211.8 Juxtaposing multiple techniques in ad lib solo chorus . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20411.9 Changing techniques in bridge section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20611.10 Changing techniques in main theme chorus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20711.11 Overlapping techniques at section edge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20811.12 Riff introduction to latin piece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21111.13 Voicing diagram for five-part parallel big band tutti setting . . . . . . . . . . 21211.14 Juxtaposition of riff and build-up introduction to rock piece . . . . . . . . . . 21311.15 Build-up introduction to ballad for concert band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21411.16 All-out coda to swing piece for concert band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21611.17 Tutti voicing diagram for all-out coda for concert band . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21611.18 All-out coda to ballad for concert band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21711.19 Modulating bridge in ballad for concert band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21911.20 Double time section in ballad for concert band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

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List of Tables

1.1 List of frequently used symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61.2 Chord progressions and root cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

3.1 Basic chord structures S in four part sectional voicing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403.2 Basic rules for four-part sectional harmony. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413.3 Extensions and alterations of the dominant chord. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

5.1 Checklist of outer voices between the sections in a jazz big band . . . . . . . 895.2 Alternatives bitonal voicings for given lead tone and basic harmony . . . . . 103

7.1 Homogeneous woodwind voicings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1397.2 Heterogeneous woodwind voicings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

8.1 Size of the string section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

xi

LIST OF TABLES

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Preface

This is the third edition of the book Arranging by Examples: The Practical Guide to Jazz and PopOrchestra Arranging. This expanded edition is intended for beginning arrangers, providingthem with a toolset of techniques and guiding the reader through a collection of examplesfor different ensembles.

A book about arranging

Why write a book about jazz and popular music arranging techniques? Well, this is intendedas a practical guide to arranging in the typical musical idiom and style played by the jazzbig band, concert band (also known as symphonic wind band) or popular music radio and studioorchestra. This document is the result of studying band and orchestra scores, writing arrange-ments and of teaching experience. Although a number of books on this subject exist (see thereference list in the bibliography), students keep asking for many examples and exercisesas part of an arranging course. These exercises must gradually become more complex andintroduce the student with alternative techniques of arranging in the jazz and popular musicstyle. Also, I know that students appreciate the detailed discussion of the examples, explain-ing the instrumentation, voicing, voice leading and technical aspects of the performance.

Therefore, this manual consists of a considerable collection of condensed and full scoreexamples, that have been grouped into categories and presented in separate chapters. Withineach chapter the sections will introduce new aspects and in general discuss more compli-cated examples. The chapters cover orchestration, section and tutti voicing, musical formsand elements of an arrangement.

The Third Edition of Arranging by Examples has been significantly expanded. The doc-ument structure has changed and now the book is in three parts. Part I, Preparations, givesbackground information on arranging, instrumentation and the orchestral score. Part II,Techniques, is the main body of this book, containing the chapters from the previous editionand presenting the toolbox with arranging techniques. Here you will find the methods forwriting sectional harmony in four and five parts, dealing with non-diatonic notes, writing en-semble settings and a set of special techniques. In Part III, Assembling the Piece, musical forms injazz and pop music will be discussed and you will learn the essentials of how to apply yourknowledge and skills to create a complete orchestral arrangement of a musical composition.

On the author’s website there is a document library with interactive webpages and ad-ditional articles about composing and arranging. The author also has created a YouTubechannel with a playlist of composition and arranging techniques; these are explained anddemonstrated in brief video episodes.

c©2005-2016 F.G.J. Absil, http://www.fransabsil.nl

Preface

Document update history

There have been earlier editions of this book, that began as a sort of manual with voicingtechniques only. In a second edition, various special arranging techniques were added tothe volume. I am most grateful to Markus Pohlen who carefully read the book and pointedout a number of errors and unclear issues in the chapters on sectional harmony. ComposerRoula Baaklini meticulously reviewed the complete Third Edition, identified more errorsand provided numerous suggestions for improving the book. Here is an overview of thehistory of the document.

January 2005: First complete version, published on internet. Chapters on writing sectionalharmony and tutti voicings.

October 2008: Restyled version. Layout updated.

December 2012: Expanded version (98 pages). Chapter on special techniques added.

August 2013: Minor edits and error corrections. Introduction of full and free demo version.

February 2014: Third, expanded edition (237 pages) with new instrumentation and assem-bly parts. Layout modified and many more diagrams added. Errors corrected. Novem-ber 2013: Chapter on 4-part sectional harmony corrected and edited.

March 2016: Updated third edition (243 pages) with errors corrected. Introduction of stan-dard pitch notation. Notation explained and confusing statements clarified. Somescore examples enlarged.

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Part I

Preparations“Mo’mortar”

1

Chapter 1

Introduction

This book is about arranging for larger ensembles instrument groups in jazz and popular ⇐=music; big bands, jazz ensembles, concert bands, studio and radio orchestras, pop groupswith added instrument sections. It is meant as a textbook for studying the field; it should bemost helpful to the beginning arranger, that wants to master the subject.

1.1 What you will find in this book

The book is divided into three parts; this structured approach should help the reader tounderstand the level of discussion and focus on specific aspects. Currently, you are readingPart I, which serves as an introduction to the arranging book.

1.1.1 Arranging Techniques

This practical guide will concentrate in Part II on a number of voicing techniques, such as ⇐=sectional harmony (see Chapter 3 and 4), percussive voicing for a full ensemble (see Chapter 5)and a set of special techniques in Chapter 6. The detailed discussion of these techniques ismeant to help the student master the basics of jazz arranging for big band and other popularmusic ensembles. There are also guidelines for writing for woodwinds (see Chapter 7) andstring sections (Chapter 8); these include specific voicings used and stylistic aspects.

Following the instructions in the text and studying the examples will not lead to a per-sonal style or an advanced voicing of a musical phrase; the material presented herein isstandard practice with a guaranteed result that will sound acceptable and be playable byliving musicians (as opposed to computers). The toolset from the chapter with special tech-niques can be used to deviate somewhat from the typical jazz big band idiom and createvariation in an arrangement: see Chapter 6 for a catalogue of these alternative approaches.


CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1.2 The approach: examples discussed in detail

The approach in this book is the presentation of many examples that are discussed in greatdetail. Condensed and full score fragments (see Section 2.4.2) in the figures are elucidated inthe text, in order to familiarize the reader with specific aspects and techniques.1

The technique examples are presented in a common, standardized format.

• First there is a definition of the problem. See the example title or the first paragraph oftext. Why are we presenting the example? What is the problem that has to be solved?

• In many examples the lead voice and the basic harmony are given. These are shown infigures (a system of staves) that accompany the example. Usually each voice is printedon a separate staff. The basic harmony is written in shorthand on the lowest staff,labeled H , with either a basic bass line or with slash (rhythm) notation.

• The details of the harmonization (this holds in particular for the chapters on sectionalharmony) are shown below the lead voice. This voice also contains marked numbers(e.g., [*1]) that refer to items discussed in the text.

• Each example is discussed in detail in the text, with a particular focus on voicing as-pects; voicing diagrams will elucidate the detailed vertical arrangement of the instru-ments. Other aspects are voice leading, playing register and instrumentation. In someexamples a number of alternative solutions to the problem is presented.

• In the later chapters orchestration aspects and the juxtaposition of techniques from thetoolbox will be discussed. Also there will be examples with specific formal aspects,such as climaxes, different types of introductions, transitions and codas.

The text between the examples is the general introduction to the various techniques.Fundamental aspects and general rules (tricks, recipes, standard procedures) are discussedhere. Diagrams serve to summarize and structure the information.

1.1.3 Notation in the book

This book tries to adhere to consistent notation. The layout should help to find your waythrough the chapters.

Colour is used to identify beginning and ending of examples, and indicate special oradditional aspects in the diagrams. Coloured references to book chapters, sections, figuresand tables are in fact internal hyperlinks for easy navigation; when reading this book on acomputer, just click on the link and go the referenced element.

Important terminology is printed slanted. and may be marked by an arrow in the margin.=⇒The book also provides an extensive index for easy reference that contains most of the termi-nology; references in the index point to either the definition or the application of the items,specific techniques, song titles, ensemble types etc. There is also cross-referencing betweenexamples.

Important information is bundled in tables and diagrams, when appropriate. At the be-ginning of the book there is a list of tables and figures, also for easy reference.2

1For many of the examples in this book, full score and audio excerpts can be found on the author’s website;go and visit the menu items Arrangements, Compositions and Audio.

2The hyperlinks in the electronic version enable easy navigation through the document.

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1.2. WHAT YOU WILL NOT FIND IN THIS BOOK

The book uses scientific pitch notation, i.e., the notename (with accidental) and octavenumber tuplet. For example, the pitch C4 (with text font for the notename and subscript forthe octave number) is Middle c pitch on the piano keyboard with frequency C4 = 261.63Hz.3 This pitch corresponds to C4 = c1 in the Helmholtz pitch notation system. Scientificpitch notation is also known as standard pitch notation. It also corresponds to MIDI (MusicalInstrument Digital Interface) pitch C3 = note number 60, which may lead to confusion.

The notation for chordal functions and chord structures is based on the Schillinger Systemof Musical Composition [44]. Also chord progressions interpreted in terms of root cycles are aSchillinger concept. This may be unfamiliar to the reader of textbooks on classical harmonyor other books on arranging. The most frequently used symbols are listed in Table 1.1 and1.2; these are written in a slanted font (using mathematical notation).

1.1.4 Assembling the arrangement

In Part III the full arrangement or composition of a piece will be discussed. Whereas thetechniques in Part II focussed on details within a phrase of between two and sixteen mea-sures, here we will have a look at other elements that are needed to compose or assemble acomplete piece. Jazz and popular music are based on a limited set of frequently used forms.The standardized forms listed in Chapter 10 cover roughly 90% of the repertoire.

Things that need to be taken into account when creating a balanced and meaningful (i.e.,coherent, balanced, logical, and maybe beautiful) complete piece are presented in Chap-ter 11; these include tension curves, introductions, codas and transitions, special chorusesand notation details.

1.2 What you will not find in this book

This book is not about instrumentation; it neither covers the theory of harmony. A greatmany excellent books on those subjects are in print or online on the internet and should bestudied by the student arranger in parallel to this manual.4

For alternative discussions of voicing aspects, see [9, 11, 16, 40, 42, 44]. The bibliogra-phy at the end provides a list of books on jazz arranging; see [9, 16, 30, 34, 40, 43, 50]. Forinstrumentation and orchestration in general, consult the reference books[1, 4, 31, 23]. Chap-ter 2 will provide only a brief overview of instrumentation aspects. For jazz composition ormusical style see [54, 37, 48, 49, 52]. This is a reading list that has been useful to me.

1.2.1 No MIDI files available

With this book there is no accompanying website with MIDI files or audio examples. Don’tgo and look for it. It is a deliberate decision from the teacher’s point of view. With todayscomputer technology it would have been fairly easy to build an online library. However,

3See the keyboard pitch label and frequency scale in Fig. 2.1, Section 2.1.4Obviously, the internet nowadays is a mer a boire. Use it for absorbing great material. The problem lies

in finding what’s valuable and useful. For instrumentation, instrument registers and mechanics. multimediatools on the internet are fantastic; pictures, text and audio samples will demonstrate everything you need. Trythe Vienna Symphonic Library website at http://vsl.co.at; they are an orchestral sample library vendingcompany, but also provide overviews of what instruments can do and sound like. But there are numerous othersources to be consulted, such as http://www.music.indiana.edu/department/composition/isfee/.

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Table 1.1: A list of frequently used (unfamiliar) symbols in this arranging book.

Symbol Meaning Comment

Chordal functions (integer number)

1 root In the C triad, pitch c = 1 (is the root)3 third In the Cm chord, pitch e♭ = 3 (the minor third)5 fifth In the B♭ chord pitch f = 5, the (perfect) fifth,

or the altered fifth a♭ = ♭5 in D♭57 or a♯ = ♯5 in D♯5

7

6 sixth In the C6 chord, pitch a is the added 6th7 seventh will occur as major 7th ∆7, e.g., b = ∆7 in C∆7,

minor 7th ♭7 , e.g., e♭ = ♭7 in Fm7, or asdiminished 7th ♭♭7, e.g., a♭ = ♭♭7 in B◦7

9 ninth occurs both as major 9, e.g., a = 9 in G97 dominant chord

or as altered note a♭ = ♭9 in G♭97 or a♯ = ♯9 = b♭ = ♭10

in G♯97 = G♭10

7 (note the enharmonic equivalence)

11 eleventh In Fm9/117 , pitch b♭ = 11,

in C♯11∆7 pitch f♯ = ♯11 (altered note)

13 thirteenth In G137 pitch e = 13; this function may be

altered as ♭13 (e.g., e♭ in G♭137 )

Chord structures (symbol S)

S(5) triad chord consisting of root, third and fifth, e.g.,S(5) = C major triad contains {c = 1, e = 3, g = 5}

S(7) seventh chord chord structure contains, root, third, fifth and seventh,e.g., S(7) = D7 contains the pitches{d = 1, f ♯ = 3, a = 5, c = ♭7}

S(9) ninth chord extended chord, e.g., S(9) = Fm97 with pitches

{f = 1, a♭ = ♭3, c = 5, e♭ = ♭7, g = 9}.

S♭97 altered 7th chord dominant 7th chord with added lowered ninth, e.g.,

S♭97 = A♭9

7 with pitches{a = 1, c♯ = 3, e = 5, g = ♭7, b♭ = ♭9

S(11) eleventh chord e.g., S(11) = Em9/117 containing pitches

{e = 1, g = ♭3, b = 5, d = ♭7, f ♯ = 9, a = 11}S(13) thirteenth chord e.g., S(13) = B13

7 with pitches{b = 1, d♯ = 3, f ♯ = 5, a = ♭7, c♯ = 9, g♯ = 13}

〈S1|S2〉 bitonal voicing E.g., 〈E♭|C7〉 a triad on top of a dominant structureS(Np) N -part structure A triad is S(3p) a complete 7th chord is S(4p), etc.

Instrumental part (symbol P)

Pi ith part i is an integer number {1, 2, 3, . . .} counting fromthe top, e.g., P1 is the lead part


1.3. READY TO GET HANDS DIRTY?

Table 1.2: Chord progressions and root cycles (symbol R).

Symbol Meaning Comment

Positive root cycles - Primary chord progressions

R3 root descending a diatonic third E.g., C6 −Am7, with the root(chordal function 1) moving c− a,i.e., two scalar degrees down

R5 root descending a diatonic fifth E.g., the closing dominant - toniccadence G7 − C

R7 root descending a diatonic seventh E.g., the deceptive cadence G7 −A♭in minor; note that this is equivalent toan ascending step (scalar degree up)

Negative root cycles - Secondary chord progressions

R−3 root ascending a diatonic third E.g., C∆7 − Em7, with root moving c− eR−5 root ascending a diatonic fifth E.g., the plagal cadence F∆7 −C6

R−7 root ascending a diatonic seventh E.g., the deceptive cadence G7 − Fm7

in minor; note that this is equivalent to adescending step (scalar degree down)

providing additional material will distract you and be an escape from serious homeworkthat has to be done anyway in order to absorb the techniques and become a skilled arranger.

Instead, my advice is: enter the examples in a music notation or MIDI sequencer pro-gram. For each example that should take no more than a couple of minutes. Put each partin a different staff or on a different instrument track, for easy chord inversion, octave trans-position, or change of voicing type. Do not waste time on finding the perfect sound sample;make sure you can identify the individual parts, and that will do.

1.3 Ready to get hands dirty?

I hope that this practical guide provides a most useful tool for the student of jazz arrangingor the musically interested reader. Much effort has gone into preparing the examples andthe manuscript.

Remember that a personal style usually is achieved by first mastering the basic skills,the standard set of techniques and then gradually ignore them and replace them with yourpersonal marks. Good luck with developing your own style and with all your creative po-tential!

Now let’s get our hands dirty with bricks and mortar for building the house.


Chapter 2

Instrumentation

This chapter presents a limited overview of musical instrument groups and orchestrationaspects. It contains examples for typical jazz and popular music ensembles, such as thebig band, the concert band and the studio orchestra. For a far more detailed discussionof instrumentation and orchestration, the reader is once again referred to textbooks such as[4, 8, 31, 23].1 At the end of this chapter, there are some things to keep in mind, when writinga musical score.

2.1 The range of musical instruments

An overview of the practical and extended sounding range of musical instruments is shownin Fig. 2.1. Also shown is a keyboard with pitch names and frequency scale.2 The instru-ments are grouped into families: keyboard, definite pitch percussion, strings, brass, saxo- ⇐=phones, woodwinds, and they are in order of ascending pitch range. Both the normal, prac-tical and the extended range are indicated; obviously this all depends on the player skillsand the quality of the instrument.

2.2 Instrument groups

This section is included in the full version of the book.Order the E-book from the webstore at:


1Apart from studying these instrumentation and orchestration handbooks, it makes sense to buy and studybooks on the technique of specific instruments, that the arranger is not familiar with. My own collection includestechnique and etude books for violin, cello, harp, timpani, French horn, bass guitar, drums and percussion. Thesereferences will be listed in the appropriate sections.

2This figure is available as a separate, single page colour diagram on the website. Look in the DocumentArchive for the PDF file.



CHAPTER 2. INSTRUMENTATION

C0 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8

freq [Hz] 16.35 32.70 65.41 130.81 261.63 523.25 1046.50 2093.00 4186.00

organ

piano

celesta

harpsichord

accordion

harp

bass guitar

guitar

mandolin

timpani

tubular bells

marimba

vibraphone

xylophone

glockenspiel

contrabass

cello

viola

violin

tuba

Bb bass

Eb bass

bass trombone

trombone

Bb baritone/euphonium

horn in F

flugelhorn

Bb trumpet

piccolo trumpet

baritone saxophone

tenor saxophone

alto saxophone

soprano saxophone

contrabassoon

bassoon

contrabass clarinet

bass clarinet

Bb clarinet

Eb clarinet

english horn

oboe

bass flute

alto flute

flute

piccolo

Figure 2.1: Range of musical instruments (concert pitch). Rectangles indicate practical(black) and extended range (blue) for various familiar instrument groups.


2.2. INSTRUMENT GROUPS

The figure is included in the full version

Figure 2.2: The instrument groups in an ensemble


Figure 2.3: Various familiar instrumental ensembles



[This page is intentionally left blank in the demo version of this book.]


2.3. ORCHESTRA SECTIONS AND BALANCE

2.3 Orchestra sections and balance

The fundamental roles, peculiarities and the aspect of orchestral balance are discussed be-low for the different sections from the classical symphony orchestra (woodwinds, brass andstrings) and the modern jazz and pop orchestra additions (rhythm and saxophones). Let’sstart with the latter and see how the arranger can best use the musical resources in the or-chestra.

2.3.1 Rhythm section

The rhythm section is the core of every modern jazz and pop music ensemble. Some chambermusic groups and small ensembles, such as the string quartet or the brass quintet, will dowithout, but that is an exception. Bass and drums are the essential instruments to create thegroove in any popular and jazz music style. ⇐=

For the separate rhythm section instruments keep the following essentials in mind:

Bass. The bass instrument can be an acoustic bass (double bass), electric bass, bass guitar,or keyboard (synthesizer bass). Some styles require a specific sound; the jazz balladwill be best served with an acoustic bass, whereas a funk rock piece demands a bassguitar (e.g., for slapping). Do not rely on the tuba in the symphony or wind orchestraas the only bass instrument. The arranger will specify the type of bass instrument,when appropriate.

Drums. The drummer is the propulsion system in the ensemble and will ‘drive the bus’ (afamiliar expression). He provides the beat and groove, which are essential for estab-lishing the musical style. He will maintain and control a steady tempo, prepare tuttiaccents and breaks, and fills in gaps.3 The arranger should never write too much detailin the drum part: indicate the general style (e.g., medium swing, rock in 16th, bossanova, Latin), the type of mallets (sticks, brushes, hard/soft mallets), and the importantaccents in other parts. Most of the time there will be slash notation, with rhythmic ac-cents above the staff (with instrumentation, e.g., brass or tutti). The drummer plays upto four instruments in parallel with independent hands and feet. Support the musicianwith easy part reading and he will help the arranger with the best possible renderingof the piece.

Piano or keyboard. The fundamental role of the keyboard player is to provide harmonicsupport, i.e., comping (accompaniment). Write slash notation with chord symbols in hispart, the chord changes. Carefully indicate chord extensions, in order to prevent conflictswith orchestral parts (e.g., major 9th in trumpet clash with minor ninth played bypiano). The arranger may specify the type of accompaniment; e.g., easy comping, lightfills, funky groove in 16ths, similar to the style indications for the drummer. Normallythe piano player will adapt his style to the setting in the other orchestral sections.

A secondary role for piano and keyboard is the doubling of bass parts (riffs and pedalpoints) and melodic lines in the ensemble. Then the part will contain normal musicnotation: e.g., melodic lines, arpeggio patterns and accented written-out chords. The

3An experienced orchestra conductor will aim for a good coordination with the drummer in the rhythmsection. The latter is a more significant audible time beater for the other players than the baton. The role of theconductor as tempo indicator is essential in free-tempo sections, such as introductions, coda’s and transitions.



piano is great for doubling high woodwinds (it may replace definite pitch percussionsuch as glockenspiel). In the professional orchestra the keyboard player is versatileas both the virtuoso soloist and the harmonic servant, a perfect sight-reader and theassistant to the conductor (always checking the voicings in the orchestra and helpingto correct errors in the score).

Guitar. This musician will add to the groove by playing rhythmic (syncopated) chords. Thisimplies balancing the contribution by piano and guitar. Write chord changes and ex-tensions. Be aware that finger stretching and barre playing limits the chord voicing onthe guitar. The player will know best and pick a guitar voicing that contains the es-sential chordal functions.4 The arranger may notate substitute chords, e.g., write Em7

instead of C9∆7. In busy parts with rapid chord changes, a check on the consequences

for the guitar player will be useful.5

Specify either acoustic or electric guitar. In case of the latter, indicate the type of soundand effect, e.g., clean, heavily distorted, slap delay, long reverb. Indicate the currentrole: rhythm (play chords, riffs, licks) vs. solo guitar. The electric solo guitar may easilyoverpower the other instruments by opening the amplifier. Shutting down is a must tore-establish a balance with acoustic instruments (indicate End of solo in the part, and adynamics marking).

In rock and pop music the arranger must be aware of the consequences of guitar tun-ing. The open guitar strings are tuned in (bottom-up concert pitch) E2-A2-D3-G3-B3-E4,favouring keys with sharps such as G,D,A or E.6 These enable playing power chordswith open strings. In contrast, saxophones and brass instruments prefer keys withflats. In order to feature such a guitar solo, the arranger may have to modulate to afavourable key.

Also see the remarks about the rhythm section in a percussive voicing in Section 5.4 inPart II. A set of useful reference books about drums, guitar and bass guitar includes [6, 10,12, 21, 26, 55, 56].

2.3.2 Saxophones

Example 2.1

Jazz big band tutti voicing.

This example is included in the full version of the book.

Example 2.2

Jazz big band special chorus for saxophone section.


4The notion of chordal functions will return many times in this book. See Section 1.1.3 for the meaning andnotation of chordal functions.

5Books and computer apps with guitar chord tables are of great help, but show finger positions for individualchords. I use string tuning and fret diagrams on paper and game tokens to see what a sequence of chords meansfor the guitarist. This often implies a revision of the part.

6Pitch names are labeled according to standard pitch notation, see Section 1.1.3.




Figure 2.4: Jazz big band tutti voicing


Figure 2.5: Jazz big band special chorus for saxophones






2.3.3 Woodwinds

The woodwind section consists of either single or multiple players from an instrument sub-group (flute, oboe, clarinet or bassoon). The latter case is referred to as double, triple orquadruple woodwinds. Triple or quadruple winds also imply that other family membersare doubled or part of the group; i.e., piccolo with flutes, English horn with oboes, bass clar-inet with clarinets and contrabassoon with bassoons. So for triple woodwind, the standard inthe symphony orchestra, we have: Fl 1 - Fl 2 - Fl 3/Pi - Ob 1 - Ob 2 - EHn - Cl 1 - Cl 2 - Cl3/BCl - Bsn 1 - Bsn 2 - CBsn (note that the third player is doubling). The studio orchestrawill probably contain single or double woodwinds, except for large scale productions.

When deciding on a particular woodwind voicing, take into account:

Instrument register. As the voicing for a heterogeneous woodwind section (i.e., with differentinstrument subgroups) gets wider, using a crossing or enclosure voicing approach (seeSection 7.1 for a classification of woodwind voicing types), two instruments from thesame subgroup may sound in a different register. This change in timbre significantlydecreases the blending quality of the section.7 A good example is a subgroup of twoflutes, one playing in the low register, between C4 and A4, the other between E5 andC6; these will have a different loudness and sound, losing timbre coherence.

Intervals within a group. A voicing may lead to a sequence of either consonant or disso-nant intervals in an instrumental groups. For example, take a chord sequence of 2ndinversion 7th chords, e.g., G7/D−Am7/E−B♭7/F , where two flutes play the outer, twooboes the inner parts, as shown in Fig. 2.6. The result is a series of parallel consonant6ths in the flutes, while the oboes play parallel major seconds. The alternative, shownon the right, is juxtaposition voicing, with the flutes taking the two upper pitches, andthe oboes the bottom notes; both are now playing in consonant parallel thirds. Re-ordering the voicing is a mechanism of controlling the degree of dissonance within thesubgroups; this is an important aspect of woodwind voicing.

Specific aspects of and techniques for voicing a woodwind section is discussed in greaterdetail in Chapter 7, where we also will see voicing diagrams. Let’s demonstrate a typicalwoodwind section in a concert band piece, see Example 2.3.

Example 2.3

Tutti woodwind section voicing in concert band arrangement.

Shown in Fig. 2.7 are the introduction and part of a special chorus of an arrange-ment or ‘Let it Snow’ (H. Arlen) for concert band.

• Both fragments are tutti settings of a classical Viennese waltz (the piece laterturns into a jazz waltz). The saxophones are not shown; they play elementsfrom both the woodwind and brass sections.

• In the introduction there is a dominant pedal point on a Gm7/C − C♭9/137

chord change (the key is F major). The woodwind play the higher chordalfunctions in parallel consonances or triads; see the 9 and 11 of the Gm7 in

7Dutch arranger and (film music) composer Bob Zimmerman in an interview strongly opposed against cross-ing, dovetailing and enclosing voicings. He is advocating the overlaying technique, with maximum likelihood ofinstruments playing in the same register and best blending potential.



2nd inversion S43 Enclosed Juxtaposed

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(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.6: Woodwind voicing and internal dissonance. (a): series of 7th chords in 2ndinversion position S4

3 , (b): Poor internal balance in the heterogeneous woodwind section dueto the enclosed voicing, yielding wide intervals between the flutes (timbral differences) andparallel dissonant second intervals between the oboes. (c): better balance with juxtaposedvoicing; both subgroups now play parallel consonant thirds.

beat 1 of m. 2, and the ♭9, 3 and 13, yielding the bitonal chord structureon beat 1 in m. 5. For more on bitonal extended chord voicings, see Sec-tion 5.3.1.8

• The opening run is unisono for flutes, oboes and clarinets in parallel thirds,with higher octave doubling in the piccolo. In m. 2 we switch to a three-partsetting with instrumentation (Pi + Fl 1 + Ob 1 + Cl 1) - (Fl 2 + Cl 2) - (Ob 2+ Cl 3). The unisono French horns double the lead part at the octave below.Both flutes and oboes play parallel consonant intervals.

• In the introduction m. 5–8 the arpeggio triads are in interlocking voicing: Fl1 - Ob 1 - Fl 2 - Ob 2, turning to Fl 1 - Ob 1 - (Fl 2 + Ob 2) on beat 3 of m. 7.

• The second fragment, see the second system m. 1–10, is a tutti climax,with lead melody in fortissimo bassoons (middle register), flugelhorn (notshown) and supported by the trumpets over a tonic pedal in the new key ofG major. Note how the lead trumpet part supports the main melody (dou-bling or playing consonant parallels).

• The flutes and oboes play the upward scalar runs in parallel thirds, withpiccolo 8va doubling, while the clarinets play the downward runs. Thiseffect depicts a snow storm with ‘wind gusts’. The high woodwinds arecombined in m. 8 at the end of the first phrase.

Special playing techniques include flutter tonguing, alternative fingerings, and harmon-ics.

8See the introduction of chordal function notation in Section 1.1.3.



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2.3.4 Brass

Example 2.4

Jazz big band tutti brass voicing.


Example 2.5

Jazz big band tutti setting with brass accents.


Example 2.6

Balancing the French horns in the brass section or in a tutti voicing.







2.3.5 Strings

The size of the string section is highly relevant for the balance with the other instrumentgroups. The most important fact is that in popular music concerts and recording sessions thetotal number of strings is significantly less than in the symphony orchestra: typical figuresare 7-25 string players in popular music vs. 20-60 strings in the classical music domain. Injazz and pop music there may be even smaller units, such as the string quartet.

But also the internal balance within the strings is of importance. There exists a rule-of-thumb, when balancing a string subgroup with the next-higher subgroup:

The 2:3 string balance rule. For unisono string playing more string players are needed inthe neighbouring higher subgroup. The recommended ratio is 2:3. E.g., two celli=⇒should be balanced with three violas, four violas with six violins, etc.

In Chapter 8 the internal balancing issue will be illustrated with a diagram (see Fig. 8.1)and discussed in Section 8.1. Combining strings and woodwinds at the same dynamic level,use 5–7 strings to balance one woodwind instrument. Violin playing technique with manydetailed examples from the classical music repertoire can be found in [14, 15, 51] and celloplaying in [27].

Open strings are tuned in: E1-A1-D2-G2 for contrabass (in fourths), C2-G2-D3-A3 for cello(in fifths), C3-G3-D4-A4 for viola and G3-D4-A4-E5 for violin (see the range and octave label-ing in Fig. 2.1). Although these tunings may suggest preferred keys with sharps (G−D−Amajor), as was the case for the guitar, the problem is almost absent. String players generallyavoid open strings, since they cannot influence the tone quality by playing vibrato. Instead,position playing gives better intonation and tone colouring potential. Open strings becomerelevant when playing double and multiple stops. For triple and quadruple stops a combina-tion with open strings is essential, see Section 8.6.5.

A shortlist of popular music string orchestration considerations is:

Put weight at the top. Decrease the number of parts for the upper string subgroups andhave these play unisono.

Lower octave doubling in the high register. Unisono lines in the high violin, say above c3,need support from doubling at the lower octave, by either other violins or violas,

For maximum melodic impact use unisono. Unisono playing in octaves by violins, violasand celli will provide the best condition that the string melody is heard in an orchestraltutti (the other option obviously is doubling in other instrument groups). Example 8.3in Section 8.2 demonstrates this technique.

Never divide the violas. These middle range strings play a single part only; no divisi play-ing (see Section 8.6.3). An occasional double stop is allowed, but keep the number ofplayers at the maximum.

The celli are great for divisi playing. With two or more players, one can have this sub-group play divisi. A beautiful effect is having a cello quartet each play an individualline (see Example 8.11 in Section 8.7).

Do not double the contrabass part at the higher octave. This type of 8va doubling betweendouble basses and celli is a regular practice in the classical music symphonic repertoire,



where celli and basses can frequently be found on the same staff in the score (have alook at Romantic period symphonic scores, or see Example 2.7). This will not workfor the limited numbers of string players in popular music (total numbers are less thanhalf of their symphony orchestra counterparts).

No need for mutes. This is a subtle effect in the orchestral repertoire, when playing acous-tically. With electronic recording and stage amplification, the effect of string mutes, asopposed to softer playing, will hardly be noticeable.

Special playing techniques. Effective use can be made of pizzicato playing (i.e., pluckedstrings), tremoli, playing sul tasto (on the fingerboard) or sul ponticello (near the bridge),natural and artificial (fingered at higher positions) harmonics. Double and triple stopscan be used, but with limited effect for the smaller section in an orchestra.9 Chapter 8,in particular Section 8.6, will list and demonstrate a number of these techniques.

Let’s have a look at two examples that demonstrate the classical (see Example 2.7) vs. themodern style of writing for strings (see Example 2.8).

Example 2.7

Voicing the string section in classical music style.

Fig. 2.8 shows the opening 16 measures of a Western movie style cue, ’ShotgunSoliloquy’, featuring the solo trumpet with orchestral background. The key is Cminor.

• The introduction (m. 1–4) is for solo strings in the middle register. Violinsand violas play sustained notes. Celli and contrabasses (bottom staff) play awalking bass Baroque music style pizzicato in parallel octaves. This requiresa large size string section in order to achieve internal balance.

• In the first statement of the main theme (m. 5–8) the solo trumpet is sup-ported by the strings. The strings open up (highest pitch C5 in VI 1 in m. 6),and there is more motion on the sustained trumpet notes (m. 6 and 7).

• During the second statement (m. 9–12) horns in F contribute to the back-ground, while the louder strings now reach the highest pitch of G5 in m. 10.The tension is rising, using higher chordal functions; the violins play the 9thand 11th (9 = e♭ and ♯11 = g) on the D♭ major chord in m. 10. The cello andcontrabass have stopped the doubling in octaves, since the former now areneeded for harmonic support.

• The B section, m. 13–16 is a modulating transition to the new key of D minor.Clarinets double the lower string parts, while a flute doubles the lead violinpart at the higher octave. The setting is in counterpoint style (listed as aspecial technique in Section 6.8).

9Check a number of string quartet and orchestral scores and study the use of string multiple stops. Doingthat, I scribbled fingering diagram drawings in the score, to realize what was requested from the string players.In particular, multiple stop sequences in the string music by Maurice Ravel and Bela Bartok were a valuablelearning experience.



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Figure 2.9: The string section playing in contemporary style. Shown is the tenor saxophonead lib solo chorus of ’Mediocrity Mambo’ (F.G.J. Absil) for studio orchestra.



Example 2.8

Voicing the string section in contemporary style.

Fig. 2.9 shows a fragment from a Latin mambo, ’Mediocrity Mambo’, for studioorchestra with an ad lib solo for tenor saxophone.

• The rhythm section plays a montuno pattern, with the characteristic arpeg-gio patterns in 8th notes for piano. The final measure is a percussion break.

• The background is played on the repeat only, and is for woodwinds (piccolo,flute and oboe), xylophone and strings.

• The strings (contrabass tacet) play close voicing extended chords in parallelmotion in m. 1–8. The celli play divisi a 2.

• The strings open up and will sound more prominently in m. 9–12. Nowthere is a more open voicing, with double stops in the celli (easy to playparallel 6ths). The final measures, 13–15, contain an accented rhythm (thiscould be performed as a series of down bows), working towards a fortissimoclimax in opening contrary motion; this is where the basses join in.

More examples in both styles can be found in Chapter 8 on string section writing.From the style council there is some good advice: try to stay away from writing sustained

notes harmonic backgrounds for strings, known as football notes. This is too much associatedwith the easy listening style of the 1960s. Instead, write interesting string parts, with lotsof motion, counterpoint in the inner parts. Section 8.4 shows how that can be achieved.The approach to string section writing by Vince Mendoza is highly praised by orchestramusicians.10 For inspiration listen to classical music string orchestra pieces such as AlbanBerg’s Lyrische Suite (1926), Bela Bartok’s Divertimento for String Orchestra Sz. 133 (1933), orAlberto Ginastera’s Concerto for Strings Op. 33 (1965).

Some popular and jazz music string sections have specialized in advanced contemporaryplaying techniques; for example, the 25-piece Metropole Orchestra string section, wheresyncopated swing, funk and Latin montuno patterns have become second nature throughdecades of experience in these styles.11

In contemporary popular and world music, small size string groups are added more andmore frequently, both in the studio and on the concert stage. Young musicians with either aclassical music or a pop music background have no problem getting together and creating across-over musical idiom, full of rich and advanced string playing. The use of a small stringgroup is demonstrated in Section 8.7.

2.3.6 Percussion

In orchestral jazz and pop music there is frequent use of percussion instruments. This groupis divided into two subclasses. The first is the percussion with definite pitch: examples are

10American composer, arranger and conductor Vince Mendoza is a multiple Grammy award winner with aunique contemporary style. He has been arranging major projects for many jazz and popular music artists.

11The Metropole Orkest is a professional studio orchestra in the Netherlands, producing jazz, popular, film andworld music for concerts, recordings, radio, television and film. See their website at http://www.mo.nl.



the harp, timpani. celesta, harpsichord, tubular bells and the mallet instruments glocken-spiel, vibraphone, xylophone and marimba. The subclass of percussion with indefinite pitchcontains such instruments as the triangle, tambourine, bar chimes, woodblocks, suspendedcymbal, shaker, tam-tam, and Latin percussion claves, bongos, congas, timbales, cowbells,guiro, and maracas.

In the jazz, pop and studio orchestra there is one player for piano and all other (electronic)keyboard instruments. Whereas the symphony orchestra has a separate timpani player, inthe studio orchestra these and all other percussion instruments are played by the one or twopercussionists. These are most versatile musicians, that play the full range of percussionand mallet instruments. Harp and percussion need electronic amplification in order to beaudible in the full orchestra.

Percussion instrument usage and playing techniques are discussed in specific textbooks.Orchestral and Latin percussion technique and details can be found in [17, 18, 33, 39, 7].Playing the harp is discussed in [19].

2.3.7 Unfamiliar acoustic instruments






2.3.8 Electronic instruments

Of course, since the introduction of electronic instruments and computers in the second halfof the 20th century, the range of timbres and the sound processing possibilities have grownexponentially. Synthesizers, samplers, the MIDI protocol, analog and digital sound process-ing equipment have entered the recording studio and the concert stage. The Digital AudioWorkstation (DAW), a computer with dedicated sequencer and audio processing software, ⇐=is found in both musician bedrooms and in the best recording studios.12 Reliability anduser-friendly interfaces have enabled their live use.

When writing for electronic instruments, all the techniques from this book may be used:harmonic sustained chords in open and close voicing, ensemble techniques, percussive writ-ing, even some sectional harmony writing (see Part II). However, keep in mind the followingaspects:

Indicate general timbre attributes. Since there exist countless numbers and huge varietiesof electronically generated sounds, the arranger is not expected to specify the exacttimbre, the sound parameters or instrument settings. However, write general soundattributes into the part, such as: mellow pad, syn lead, brassy, ethereal high strings,techno syn bass, distorted, mallet sound. Or indicate a General MIDI (GM) standardpatch number (i.e., a program number 1–128 from the standardized soundbank).13

Be aware of the frequencies. The instrument range chart in Fig. 2.1 also has a frequencyaxis with values between 16 Hz and 4.2 kHz (the audio range is 20 Hz - 20 kHz). Thismight come in handy when planning for electronic instruments. Like their acousticequivalents, the pitch is determined by the fundamental frequency and the timbre bythe complex frequency spectrum of (in)harmonics, as sketched in Fig. 2.10. Tonal com- ⇐=ponents and narrow- or sideband noise will contribute to the overall timbre.

Electronically generated sounds use filtering. Filter types are: the widely used Low-Pass Filter (LPF), its complement the High-Pass filter, bandpass and reject, and theshelving filter. See the diagram of filter types and parameters in Fig. 2.11. Cut-offfrequency fco and resonance factor Q will affect the overall sound. If you as an arrangerhave a specific sound in mind, then you might give a rough frequency indication, suchas: boost 100-200 Hz, LPF@2 kHz, reduce 200-500 Hz by 3 dB, create brilliance at 2-5kHz.

Know the amplitude envelope. Another element of electronic sounds is the amplitude en-velope, the sound amplitude (loudness) as a function of time. The four-parameterAttack-Decay-Sustain-Release (ADSR) envelope, sketched in Fig. 2.12 is widely used.Be aware of the difference between sustained (left) and decaying sounds (centre andright).14 The duration of the attack is another determining factor in sound design.

12The current DAW market leaders are Avid ProTools, Apple Logic Pro, Steinberg Cubase and Motu DigitalPerformer.

13Software instruments enable browsing the vast sound libraries (holding thousands of sounds) by selectinga set of pre-defined attributes; have a look at this set to learn the vocabulary.

14Classical music composers did make use of the sustain and decay characteristics of acoustic instruments.Igor Strawinsky combined both sounds on unisono pitches; even with instruments from the same group; e.g.pizzicato or sforzato and sustained strings doubling the same part.



✲

✻

f

P fundamental (pitch)

harmonics (overtones)

(in)harmonicscomplex spectrum

Figure 2.10: The frequency spectrum of (electronic) sounds. Vertical lines indicate the fun-damental pitch, the higher harmonics (overtones) and the complex (in)harmonic spectrum.

✲

✻

f

PLPF

fco

✲✛1

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✲

✻

f

PBPF

flo fhi

✲

✻

f

PHPF

fco

(a): Low-Pass Filter (b): Bandpass Filter (c): High-Pass Filter

Figure 2.11: Filtering of (electronic) sounds. Three familiar filter types are shown. Cut-offfrequency fco and resonance factor Q determine the filter slope.

Modulation as another degree of freedom. Apart from the amplitude, many other soundparameters may be varied over time. This is called modulation. Modulation may af-fect pitch, filtering, envelope parameters, vibrato, delay effects, etc., and will yieldcomplex-sounding but more realistic, ‘humanized’ electronic sounds. It can be implicit(pre-programmed) in the sound design or varied realtime by using MIDI controllers,such as the pitch bend or modulation wheel. A special case of modulation is keyboard track-ing; sound parameters in the time or frequency domain will vary with the key number(MIDI range: 0–127, with key number MIDI C3 = 60 =C4, the musical pitch).

Leave it to the specialist. From this brief description of electronic instrument aspects, it isclear that we are entering a specialised field of sound design with dazzling numbersof options. This is beyond what may be expected of the orchestral arranger. Usuallythe details of the electronic sound are left to the musician, who should be the greaterexpert. Mark the part(s) in the score with the relevant general specifications in orderto help the performer selecting the best option, within the context of the orchestra.

2.4 The score

The score contains all the parts to be played by the musicians. We will consider the verticallayout ordering of staves, the different forms of a score and important considerations during


2.4. THE SCORE

✲

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t

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tA tD✲

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Figure 2.12: The amplitude envelope of (electronic) sounds. Shown are the generic ADSR en-velope (sustained sounds, such as woodwinds, brass and strings) and two typical decayingenvelopes for keyboard (piano) and percussive sounds.

the process of writing and using the score. Music notation details can be found in [38].

2.4.1 Vertical staff order

The vertical ordering of staves in the full score is different for classical vs. jazz and pop or-chestras. The most frequently used score layouts are shown in diagram in Fig. 2.13 for the ⇐=symphony orchestra (left), the studio orchestra (centre left) and the jazz big band (right).

In Fig. 2.13 the symphony orchestra is shown for large, quadruple woodwinds and elab-orate percussion section. In the studio orchestra the saxophones are placed between wood-winds and brass; clarinets are omitted from the woodwinds, since they are doubling instru-ments for the saxophone group. The brass section now has four trumpets and four trom-bones (trombone 4 is the bass trombone, frequently doubling on bass tuba). The rhythmsection is between the brass and the other percussion. The big band layout is standardizedas shown on the right. The positioning of solo vocals and choir (Soprano - Alto - Tenor - Bass)depends on the style. In classical music they are shown in the score above the strings, whilein jazz and pop scores they are either at the top (option 1) or the bottom of the score (option2). When electronic instruments are involved, group these with the (pitched) percussion.

In Fig. 2.14 there is the full score staff layout, as generated by the template scores in theFinale music notation software. The symphony orchestra is for triple woodwind section(3-3-3-3), and a (4-3-3-1) brass section. Note the numbering of multiple parts on a singlestaff. This may lead to reading problems for the player; frequent use of extended chords andcluster voicings in jazz and popular music yield close intervals of the second in neighbouringparts. It is better for the arranger to put players 1-3 an 2-4 on a single staff, as we will getwider intervals and easier reading.15

The concert band score is different for different countries (US vs. Europe and even withinEurope there are national differences in concert band instrumentation). Note that a rhythmsection is not included in these orchestral templates; usually the jazz and pop music arrangercreates his own templates with rhythm group.

15If your score paper size allows a separate staff for each instrument, do so. It will prevent potential troublewhen generating the parts for the musicians. It might even be wise, to create the score with separate staves firstand then compile a conductor version, where multiple parts are merged on a single staff.



SYMPHONYORCHESTRA

Woodwinds

Brass

Percussion

Strings

Pic

Fl 1-2-(3)

Ob1-2-(3)

EHn

Cl 1-2-(3)

BCl

Bsn 1-2-(3)

CBsn

FHn 1-2

-(3-4)

Tpt 1-2

-(3)

Tbn 1-2

-(3)

Tu

Harp 1

-(2)

Otherpitched

Timp

Indef.

pitch

Vi 1

Vi 2

Va

Vc

DB

STUDIOORCHESTRA

Woodwinds

Saxophones

Brass

Rhythm

Percussion

Strings

Pic

Fl 1-2

Ob1-2

Bsn

AS 1-2

TS 1-2

BS

FHn 1-2

-(3-4)

Tpt 1-3

-2-4

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-2-4

Tu

Gtr

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DBass

Drums

Harp

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Other

Vi 1

Vi 2

Va

Vc

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VOCALS

Classical

Jazz/Pop 1

Jazz/Pop 2

Solo

S-A

T-B

Solo

S-A

T-B

Solo

S-A

T-B

JAZZBIG BAND

Saxophones

Brass

Rhythm

AS 1

AS 2

TS 1

TS 2

BS

Tpt 1

Tpt 2

Tpt 3

Tpt 4

Tbn 1

Tbn 2

Tbn 3

Tbn 4

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Pno

DBass

Drums

Figure 2.13: Vertical staff order in the full score.


2.4. THE SCORE

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(a): big band (b): symphony orchestra (c): concert band

Figure 2.14: Full score staff order.



2.4.2 Various forms of the score

An orchestral score may have different forms:

Transposed full score. This is the score as read by the musicians. Composer, arranger andconductor take care of appropriate transpositions. The transposed full score layout fora piece in the key of C major is shown in Fig. 2.14; there are transposing instrumentsin F,B♭ and E♭.

Concert pitch full score. The concert pitch score will show the parts as they sound. It is eas-ier for the conductor, when studying, preparing for and rehearsing music with com-plex harmonies (e.g., atonal music). However, the conductor then has to be skilled attransposing when communicating with the musicians during rehearsals.16 Music no-tation programs, such as Finale and Sibelius provide representation in either form witha menu command. All examples in this book are in concert pitch key.

Condensed score. In the condensed score the information is reduced to between two (pianoreduction) and five staves, with instrumentation markings added. Many examples inthis book are presented as a condensed score.

2.4.3 Optimize the score for performance



16Early 20th century Russian music publishers printed full scores in concert pitch key. See Prokofiev andStrawinsky scores.



2.4. THE SCORE




2.5 Conclusion

Here we conclude the introductory part of the book, called Preparations. Its goal is to cre-ate awareness of a number of aspects that have to do with arranging, instrumentation andcompleting a score for performance. As said before, the mechanics of musical instrumentsand classical music orchestration can be studied in greater detail in other textbooks and onthe internet. This part of the book provides an overview, in order to prepare you for Part II.The second part will demonstrate in detail a set of techniques, appropriate for jazz and popmusic arranging for larger ensembles. Examples will guide you along the way and shouldtrigger the development of arranger skills.

A limited number of examples was discussed in this part. However they nicely coveredthe standard ensembles that play jazz and pop music these days: the jazz big band, theconcert band and the studio orchestra.


Part II

Techniques“Brix4u”

37

Chapter 3

Sectional harmony in four parts

Sectional harmony in four parts is one of the basic techniques in the field of arranging. Itmay be characterized as a mixture of traditional functional harmony with (impressionist)modal harmony. It is the bread and butter of jazz big band writing; as soon as jazz orches-tras emerged in the 1930s swing music, there was sectional writing. This carried over intothe bebop era of the 1950s. The technique remained a standard in the ballroom dancing andeasy listening orchestral recordings of the 1950s and 1960s; it is immediately recognized andtypical for this musical idiom.

It occurs most frequently in the saxophone section, but also in the brass. Even the solopiano may play lines in sectional harmony. The problem is that of harmonizing a given leadvoice over a given basic harmony for a total of four voices; we have to find the three lower ⇐=voices. The lead voice may consist of chordal tones, non-chordal tones and non-diatonictones. We will study the technique (alternatively described as the bag of tricks) that enablesus to harmonize the lead voice, especially for the latter two categories (non-chordal and non-diatonic tones in the lead) and make sure the end result makes sense in harmonic terms andis playable from a musician’s point of view.

Sectional harmony for more than four parts and some forms of ensemble technique oftenonly come down to a doubling of voices from a given basic four part harmonization. Thischapter will discuss and demonstrate the technique of harmonizing a given lead in fourparts.

For further reading, see [9], pp. 29–35; [43], Ch. 10; [44], p. 451. The first two are aboutjazz arranging with chapters dedicated to sectional harmony, the latter book covers morediverse styles.

3.1 Basic rules

In writing four part sectional harmony there is a basic set of rules that we will follow:


CHAPTER 3. SECTIONAL HARMONY IN FOUR PARTS

Table 3.1: Basic chord structures S in four part sectional voicing.

Structure Description

S6 the major triad with added 6th(note: the 6 does not indicate the inversion of the triad,but the 6 ajoutee, the added 6th)

Sm6 the minor triad with added major 6thSm+7 the minor triad with added major 7thSm7 the minor 7th chordS7 the dominant 7th chordS∅7 the half-diminished 7th chordS◦7 the (fully) diminished 7th chord

1. Use a top-down approach. Start with the given lead voice and find the three lower voices.As an arranger we will usually compose the lead voice first and then harmonize thatleading part. In our exercises the lead voice will be given. Do not modify the lead voiceunless you find its harmonization impossible.

2. Use four part harmony. Most chord structures in jazz and popular music have four partsor more. Table 3.1 summarizes the types of four part chord structures that will be usedin the four part sectional technique (remember that the symbol S indicates a chordstructure, see Section 1.1.3). Figure 3.1 gives an example of each of these types. Forthe moment we will forget about extensions (higher numbers than the 7th) of the basicchord structures. We will come back to that later.

3. Use close voicing. The basic four part technique uses close voicing only when the rangeof all voices has to stay within the interval of an octave; the outer voices will in that caseform the interval of either the 6th (imperfect consonant) or the 7th (mild dissonant).We will also discuss the so-called drop 2 technique, which, strictly speaking is not closevoicing, but is easily obtained from a close voicing harmonization.

4. All parts use parallel motion. This means that the lower three voices exactly follow themotion of the leading voice. This is contrary to classical music theory of harmonywhere ‘good’ voice leading obliges us to use preparation and resolution of dissonanttones (the 7ths, for example). When writing sectional harmony this is of no concern.

5. Prevent repeated notes in any part. You will find the four part sectional technique usu-ally in medium to up-tempo pieces. Noteworthy examples are the ‘Four Brothers’(Woody Herman big band) and the ‘Supersax plays Bird’ (using a five-member saxo-phone section) recordings. From a musician’s point of view it is better to avoid re-peated notes in any part (unless they are in the lead voice); this makes playing easier.Harmonization therefore must be such, that no repeated notes will occur.

The list of basic rules is summarized in Table 3.2. Now we will discuss a number ofexercises and examples that will gradually introduce and discuss problems of increasingcomplexity. We will illustrate the various techniques for writing four-part sectional harmony.


3.2. LEAD WITH CHORDAL TONES

& c wwwwC6

˙˙b ˙Cm6 Cm

+7

wwwwbbCm7

wwwwbC7

wwwwbbbCø

7

wwwwbbCo7

Figure 3.1: Example of the chord structures used in four part-sectional harmony (Root C ,root positions, close voicing).

Table 3.2: Basic rules for four-part sectional harmony.

Basic rules

• Work in a top-down order• Use four part harmony• Start with close voicing• All parts move in parallel• Prevent repeated notes in any part

3.2 Harmonizing a lead consisting of chordal tones only

We will start with the situation where the given lead consists of chordal tones only (see thebasic harmony on the lower staff of the example and check).

3.2.1 The danger of repeated notes

Figure 3.2 shows what happens when the basic rules from the previous section are appliedin a straightforward manner. This approach is demonstrated in Example 3.1.

Example 3.1

Chordal tones in the lead voice, straightforward procedure.

The lead voice P1 consists of chordal tones only, the four-part voicing is straight-forward. The basic harmony is C−Dm7−G7−C corresponding to the root cyclepattern R7 + 2R5 (positive cycles only).1

• The tonic triad C in m. 1 is harmonized using the added 6th chord type.Note that following the lead we pass through the various inversions of thebasic chord.

• On several occasions we may see the interval of a major 2nd between theupper two voices. This is no problem unless we are in a high range, for aspecific instrumentation. Try to avoid minor 2nds between the upper voices,since this dissonant is too harsh.

1See the root cycle notation, introduced in Section 1.1.3.



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&

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c

c

c

c

c

P1

P2

P3

P4

H

1

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3˙ Ó

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Figure 3.2: Chordal tones in lead, straightforward procedure.

• The example shows two cases of repeated notes: m. 2, 3rd beat in P2 and P3at [*1] and m. 3, 1st beat in P3 at [*2]. These have to be eliminated!

3.2.2 Prevent repeated notes using secondary dominant structures

Example 3.2

Chordal tones in the lead voice, application of secondary dominant chord

structure.






3.2. LEAD WITH CHORDAL TONES


Figure 3.3: Chordal tones in lead, application of secondary dominant chord structure.




3.3 Harmonizing non-chordal tones

The example from the previous section will now be modified slightly in such a way that thelead contains non-chordal tones. Note, however, that the lead part still is completely diatonic,=⇒i.e., there are only notes from the C major scale, which is the scale that is implied by theI − IIm7 − V7 − I cadence in the given harmony. The marked notes are the non-chordaltones that have to be harmonized with a different chord structure.

3.3.1 Use of diminished chords and secondary dominant structures

The only solution we have seen so far to the problem of harmonizing non-chordal tones is theuse of secondary dominant structures. That is the approach demonstrated in Example 3.3.The structure of the secondary dominant chord will yield a diminished 7th chord.

Example 3.3

Non-chordal tones in the lead voice, application of secondary dominant chord

structure.

The lead voice P1 contains non-chordal tones (see Figure 3.4), the basic harmonyis C −Dm7 −G7 − C .

• At [*1], occurring twice in m. 1, there are the non-chordal tones b and d.In fact these are the ∆7 and the 9th of the extended C6 chord respectively;we will consider them now as non-chordal since they do not belong to theS7 structure. These notes may be harmonized using the diminished chordB◦7, which has a secondary dominant function relative to C . Note that wemay find two non-chordal tones in sequence, where the resolution towardsa chordal tone occurs after the second non-chordal tone.

• At [*2] in m. 2 of the score example, the non-chordal tones g and e are har-monized using the C♯◦7 chord, which as a secondary dominant functionrelative to the Dm7 chord.

• At [*3], on beat 3 in m. 2, we choose an alternative solution. The a is thenon-chordal tone in the G7 (since, again, we consider four part chord struc-tures as the starting point), that might have been harmonized using the F♯◦7chord.

There is a difference with the previous two cases, however: whereas theother non-chordal tones move stepwise towards a chordal tone (here is thelist, check for yourself: [m. 1]: b ր c, b ր d ց c, [m. 2] g ց f, e ր f ), nowwe find a leap (m. 2, beat 4) a ր d.

Using a diminished chord here has a much weaker effect than in the case ofstepwise motion. Therefore, we now choose to extend the Dm7 chord untothe 3rd beat of that measure. This leads to a suspended Gsus4

7 chord, or,equivalently, a Dm7/G, which sounds as a richer dominant structure thanthe plain G7. Note that on beat 4 the lead is harmonized using B◦7, since wework towards the C chord in the next measure.

This is equivalent to the G−97 structure and although we were not to consider

extended chord structures beyond four parts, here we have one! This is no


3.3. HARMONIZING NON-CHORDAL TONES

&

&

&?

?

c

c

c

c

c

P1

P2

P3

P4

H

1[*1]

œ œ œ œ[*1]

œ œ œ œBo7 B

o7

œ# œ œ œ œ#œ œ œn

œ œ œ œ œœb œ œ

œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ

œ œ œ œC6

2[*2]

œ œ[*2]

œ œ[*3]

œ œ œC#o

7 C#o

7

œ œ œ# œ œ œ œ#

œb œ œb œ œn œb œœb œ œ œ œ œ œ

œ œ œ œDm7 Dm7/G G7

b9

3 ˙ Ó

˙ Ó

˙ Ó˙ Ó

˙ ÓC6

Figure 3.4: Non-chordal tones in lead, application of secondary dominant chord structure.

problem, it simply sounds better (has a stronger dominant effect, since thereis an extra leading tone a♭, see the next section) than the plain dominant 7thS7 structure.

3.3.2 Rhythmic aspects: the use of syncopations

Example 3.4

Non-chordal tones in the lead voice, syncopated rhythm.








Figure 3.5: Non-chordal tones in lead, syncopated rhythm.




3.3.3 Use of leading tone chords

The next example has the opening chords of the jazz standard ‘How High the Moon’ (or itsderivative ‘Ornithology’). It is familiar chord sequence that leads to a tonic R−7 root cycle(from C to B♭ through modification of the first tonic chord).2

The lead part now contains both non-chordal and non-diatonic tones. Measures 1 to 3 are ⇐=in the key of C major where d♯ and f♯ are no members of the diatonic scale. These tonescannot be harmonized using the secondary dominant structure, since neither of them is partof the diminished 7th B◦7 chord.

Therefore we shall apply a new technique, which is called the leading tone chord. This ⇐=means that we apply exact parallel motion locally, i.e., between two consecutive chords. Allvoices in the first chord move by the same distance towards the second chord, which, as youmay remember, is our aiming chord.

The distance of motion is either a minor or a major 2nd up or down. This is indicated asi ր and i ց or as 2i ր and 2i ց, where i is the semitone step of chromatic minor second(the smallest unit in the chromatic 12 tone system). The effect of the leading tone chord isstronger since it is using minor 2nds, compared to the occurrence of major second steps inother approaches. The leading tone chord is used more frequently moving upward thandownward. Let us now discuss Example 3.5, which is shown in Figure 3.6.

Example 3.5

Harmonization of non-chordal tones in the lead using leading tone chords.

The lead voice P1 contains non-chordal and non-diatonic tones, the basic har-mony is G7 − C − Cm7 − F7 −B♭.

• At [*1] we harmonize the upbeat tone into the C chord of m. 2. We find inthe upbeat measure the sequence G7 −F♯◦7 −B◦7 −C . The two diminishedchords form a chain of secondary dominants.

• M. 2 and m. 4 [*2] use the standard secondary dominant technique for theharmonization of the non-chordal tones.

• In m. 3 [*3] we apply the leading tone chord technique. The aiming chordtwice is th C6 chord, which is enharmonically equivalent to the Am7 chord.Exact parallel motion (upward minor 2nd step) therefore yields the G♯m7

structure as the preceding chord.

• In m. 5 beat 3 [*4] we encounter another aspect that requires consideration.We have the sequence e♭−g in the lead (the 7th and the 9th of the F7 chord).Now suppose we harmonize the first note with the F−9

7 structure (again,this would be a small diversion from our basic rules) or its equivalent A◦7,as shown in Figure 3.7. If we harmonize the second note with a pure F 9

7 ,or its equivalent A∅7 then we find a cross-relation between the lower andupper part: there is a minor 9th between the f♯ and the g that will soundharsh.3 Try to prevent this and use a now familiar trick: use the F sus4

7 or

2For the interpretation of chord progression in terms of root cycles, see Section 1.1.3.3In classical music the cross-relation indicates the incompatible combination of altered notes in different parts

in a counterpoint setting. This may happen in minor keys where the lowered subtonic ♭7 must be resolvedin a downward melodic sequence ♭7 − ♭6 − 5 (in Cm this implies b♭ − a♭ − g), before the raised subtonic ♮7



&

&

&

&

?

c

c

c

c

c

P1

P2

P3

P4

H

1 ‰œ[*1]

œ œF#o

7Bo7

‰œ œ# œ#

‰œ œb œ‰œ œ œœ œ

G7

2

3

œ[*2]

œ œ œ[*2]

œ œ œ ŒBo7 B

o7 Bo7

3

œ œ œ œn œ œ# œ Œ3

œ œb œ œn œ œ œ Œ3

œ œ œ œ œ œ œ Œ

œ œ œ œC

3

[*3]

œ# œ Œ[*3]

œ# œ œ œG#m7 Am7 G

#m7 Am7 F

#o7 Bo7

œ œ Œ œ# œ œ# œ#

œ# œn Œ œ œ œb œ

œ# œŒœ# œ œ œ

œ œ œ œ

4

3

œ œn œ œb œb œ œ œ œBo7 B

o7 Eo7

3

œb œn œb œn œ œn œb œ œn3

œn œb œ œb œb œ œ œn œb3

œb œn œ œ œn œ œ œb œœ œb œ œ

Cm7

5 œ œ œn[*4]

œb œ œ œEo7 Cm7/F F7

b9

œ œ œb œ œ œ# œ

œ œb œ œb œ œb œb

œ œb œ œ œ œ œbœ œ œ œF7

6 œb œ Œ

œ œ Œ

œ œ Œ

œn œ Œ˙b Ó

Bb

Figure 3.6: Harmonization of non-chordal tones in the lead using leading tone chords.

& œœœœb# œœœœF7b9

Figure 3.7: Cross relation between lower and upper voice.

its equivalent Cm7/F on beat 3 of that measure. Save the real dominantstructure A◦7 until the last beat and the rest will be a downward chromaticstepwise resolution (between parts) ♮9− ♭9−1 (g in P1, f♯−g♭−f in P2-P3).

3.3.4 Use of substitute chords

Example 3.6

Harmonization of non-chordal tones in the lead using substitute chords.


resolves into the tonic, usually as the ascending stepwise motion ♮6− ♮7− 1 (a♮− b♮− c in Cm). We are dealingwith a combination of the melodic minor descending and ascending scale. If the descending sequence has notbeen completed in one part before the ascending pattern occurs in another part, this is called a cross-relation. Theequivalent in jazz sectional harmony setting is the combination of two altered chord functions in close proximity.In the example here it is the f♯ = g♭, the lowered 9th in the lowest part, which usually resolves by chromaticdownward step into the tonic, in combination with the g = ♮9 in the lead. This implies an irregular upwardresolution and yields a harsh minor 9th dissonant interval between the outer parts.




Figure 3.8: The definition of a substitute chord.

Example 3.7

Harmonization of non-chordal tones in the lead using substitute chords.



Figure 3.9: Alternative harmonization of non-chordal tones in the lead using substitutechords.







Figure 3.10: Harmonization of non-chordal tones using substitute chords.




&

&

&

&?

bbb

bbb

bbb

bbb

bbb

c

c

c

c

c

P1

P2

P3

P4

H

1Ó Œ œ œ

Ó Œ œ œ

Ó Œ œ œ

Ó Œ œ œ∑

2 Œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

Œ œ œn œ œ œb œ

Œ œ œ œ œ œ œ


’ ’ ’ ’

Bo7 B

o7

Cm7

[*1] [*1]3Œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

Œ œ œ# œ œn œb œ


Œ œ œ œ œ œ œn

’ ’ ’ ’

Eb7 Ab7

Dø7

[*2] [*3]4Œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

Œ œ œb œ œ œ œn

Œ œ œ œ œn œn œb

Œ œn œ œ œ œb œ

’ ’ ’ ’

Ab7 F#o7B

o7

G7

[*1][*3]5œ Œ Ó

œb Œ Ó

œ Œ Ó

œ Œ Ó

Û Œ ÓCm

Figure 3.11: Harmonization of non-chordal tones in the lead using exact parallel chords.

3.3.5 Use of exact parallel chords

The next example has a lead voice in C minor and consists of diatonic tones only. In minorwe have the half-diminished chord on the 2nd degree of the scale.

We shall demonstrate two solutions to the harmonization problem for non-chordal tonesfrom this 2nd degree chord. The first solution is based on the use of a substitute chord. Thesecond solution will use exact parallel chords, which is the new technique introduced here. ⇐=See Example 3.8 for the discussion of an application of this technique.

Example 3.8

Harmonization of non-chordal tones in the lead using exact parallel chords.

The lead voice P1 contains non-chordal tones (see Figure 3.11), the basic harmonyis G7−Cm7−D∅7−G7−C7, corresponding to the root cycle pattern R5+R7+2R5,a series of four positive root cycles.

• At [*1] we harmonize the non-chordal tones with the standard techniqueof a single secondary dominant, B◦7 − Cm7 in m. 2, or a sequence of twosecondary dominants F♯◦7 −B◦7 − Cm7 in m. 4-5.

• At [*2] the non-chordal tone in the half-diminished chord e♭ is harmonized

using the E♭7, or equivalently the A♭5/♭97 . This solution does not sound

ideal, since we are using an intermediary dominant to an unstable half-diminished chord D∅7 (which has no tonic function).

• At [*3] we meet the chromatically descending exact parallel chord solutionA♭7−G7. In m. 3 it is approached through a leap; in m. 4 it is a neighbouringstep i ր −i ց.

• Notice that this example contains various syncopations (m. 2, beat 4 andm. 3, beat 4). The final 8th note of these syncopated groups is harmonizedusing the chord on the next downbeat. This is the same approach that wehave used on tied-over notes.



&

&

&

&?

bbb

bbb

bbb

bbb

bbb

P1

P2

P3

P4

H

1 Œ œ œ œ œ œ œ


Œ œ œn œn œb œ œ

Œ œ œ# œ œn œ œn

’ ’ ’ ’

Do7

Dø7

[*1]2 Œ œ œ œ œ œ œ


Œ œn œ œ œb œ œ

Œ œ œb œ œ œ œn

’ ’ ’ ’

Bø7C

ø7

Dø7

[*2]

Figure 3.12: Harmonization of non-chordal tones using exact parallel chords.

Example 3.9 discusses two alternative solutions for harmonizing the non-chordal notesin m. 3 from Example 3.8 with exact parallel chords. These solutions are shown in Figure3.12.

Example 3.9

Harmonization of non-chordal tones in the lead using exact parallel chords.

Lead voice P1 contains non-chordal tones, the basic harmony is D∅7.

• At [*1] in Fig. reffig:ex4p14 we harmonize the non-chordal tones d and fusing the substitute chord B♭♭97 , which is not exactly equivalent with the D◦7

chord (because of its lowered 9th). However, it is equal to the G♭97 chord,

since the four upper functions of both chords form the same diminishedchord B◦7. What we in fact do here is to pull ahead the dominant chord ofm. 4 (this has been discussed in previous examples.

This could possibly lead to a clash with the rhythm section in case they playthe half-diminished structure (the clash between b and c) and probably it isbetter to correct the chord symbol for the rhythm section in that measure.

• At [*2] we apply three consecutive exact parallel chords (B∅7 − C∅7 − D∅7)working backwards from the aiming chord on the chordal tone d. Althoughwe now find quite a few non-diatonic tones in this sequence they are noproblem, especially at higher tempos.



3.3.6 Connecting minor 7th chords

Example 3.10

Harmonization of a lead voice with diatonic 6 − 7 stepwise motion: problemsusing secondary dominant or leading tone chord.



Figure 3.13: Lead voice with diatonic 6− 7 stepwise motion (case 1).

Example 3.11

Harmonization of a lead voice with diatonic 6−7 stepwise motion: connectingminor 7th chords.


Example 3.12

Harmonization of a lead voice with diatonic 7−8 or 3−4 stepwise motion over

minor 7th chord on 3rd degree or 6th degree respectively.








Figure 3.14: Lead voice with diatonic 6− 7 stepwise motion (case 2).


Figure 3.15: Lead voice with 6− 7 stepwise motion on 3rd degree of major scale.



3.3.7 Use of subdominant chords

Example 3.13

Harmonization of non-chordal tones using subdominant chords.



Figure 3.16: Harmonization of non-chordal tones using subdominant chords.






3.4 Extensions to the technique of writing four-part sectional har-

mony

3.4.1 Sequences of similar structures on parallel diatonic degrees

In this section we will discuss various other aspects of writing four-part sectional harmony.First we will deal with the technique of using diatonic parallel structures. Then we will dis-cuss the ‘drop 2’-voicing in four-part sectional harmony. Also we will discuss the occurrenceof repeated notes and the use of altered dominant structures.

3.4.2 Sequences of diatonic parallel structures

Example 3.14

Similar chord structures on diatonic parallel degrees.



Figure 3.17: Similar chord structures on diatonic parallel degrees.





3.4. EXTENSIONS TO FOUR-PART SECTIONAL HARMONY




P1:

P2:

P3:

P4:

p1

p2

p3

p4

p1

p3

p4

p2’

p1

p3

p4

p2’8ba❄

✲

✲

✲

✲

Figure 3.18: Diagram of the ‘drop 2’ procedure in four-part sectional harmony.

3.4.3 The ‘drop 2’ voicing

So far we have strictly adhered to the rule of close voicing in writing sectional harmony.However, there is another standard form of four-part sectional harmony, that can easily bederived form the close voicing. It is called the drop 2 voicing and it is obtained by transposing=⇒the 2nd voice from the top, i.e., P2 to the octave below. The process for achieving a ‘drop 2’half-open voicing is shown in diagram in Figure 3.18.

This type of more open voicing is useful when either the lower instrumental part, or thesecond part from the top is playing in a (too) high register. This might be the case for ina 4-piece saxophone section with baritone playing the lower part. Another typical case iswhere we have mixed instrumentation, such as in a quartet of trumpet, alto sax, tenor saxand trombone. The ‘drop 2’ voicing allows the instruments to play in a more natural timbrein the middle range.

Example 3.15 demonstrates the ‘drop2’ procedure, when applied to a sectional harmonyfragment (compare the two voicings in Figure 3.19).

Example 3.15

Close voicing and ‘drop 2’ voicing.

Assign the parts for given four-part sectional harmony: use close voicing and‘drop 2’ voicing. The basic harmony is Bm7 − E7 −A.

• Figure 3.19.a shows the solution with close voicing. The non-chordal tonesin m. 1 [*1] are harmonized using the secondary dominant A♯◦7, the ap-poggiatura f♯ in m. 2 [*2] is harmonized using the same principle (in thiscase with a D♯◦7 chord). Beat 3 of m. 2 [*3] uses the Bm7/E structure thatwe have discussed before and the penultimate note b♯ [*4], a non-diatonic

note, is harmonized using an altered dominant chord structure E♯5/♭97 . This

note might also have been harmonized using a leading tone chord structureE♯m7.

• Notice the rhythmic aspects of the example: syncopated and tied-over notesare harmonized using the chord structure on the next regular beat. Alsonote the 16th notes in the lead in m. 2; little embellishments like these donot necessarily have to be harmonized, especially at higher tempos.



&&&&?

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###

###

###

###

ccccc

P1

P2

P3

P4

H

1 Ó[*1]

œ[*1]

œ# œ œ

Ó œ# œn œn œA#o

7 A#o

7

Ó œn œ œ œÓ œ œ œ œ’ ’ ’ ’

Bm7

2

[*2]

œ œn ‰[*3]œ œ œ œ [*4]

œ# œ

œb œ ‰ œ œ œ œD#o

7 Bm7

œn œ ‰ œ œ œn œ#

œ œ ‰ œ œ œ œ’ ’ ’ ’

E7

3 ∑∑∑∑

’ ’ ’ ’A

(a)

&

&&?

?

###

###

###

###

###

ccc

cc

P1

P2

P3

P4

H

1 Ó œ œ# œ œ

Ó œn œ œ œÓ œ œ œ œÓ œ# œn œn œ

’ ’ ’ ’Bm7

2

œ œn ‰ œ œ œ œ œ# œ

œn œ ‰ œ œ œn œ#

œ œ ‰ œ œ œ œœb œ ‰ œ œ œ œ

’ ’ ’ ’E7

3 ∑∑∑

∑

’ ’ ’ ’A

(b)

Figure 3.19: Close voicing and ‘drop 2’ voicing.



• Figure 3.19.b demonstrates the ‘drop 2’-voicing. We have transposed P2 oneoctave down. The total range is now more than one octave and the result isa mixed, more open voicing. Still the intervals between the outer voices areconsonant 3rds most of the time, interspersed with occasional 2nds (9ths, tobe correct).

Now, for the first time we have to consider instrumentation aspects. Since the range ofthe section gets wider as we use the ‘drop 2’ technique we might encounter instrumentationproblems. The bottom voice may get into a too low register, either for the instrument to playcomfortably, or from an acoustic point of view.4

In the latter case the implied fundamental of the applied chord structure is too low, asa result of the low register position of the chordal function 3 (the 5th harmonic, the funda-mental pitch lies two octaves and a major third lower) or the function 7 (the 7th harmonic).In those cases we might have to change the voicing along the melodic line.

The preferred location for a change of the voicing is at a diminished chord, since, due toits internal symmetry (the diminished chord being constructed from minor 3rds) it suffersleast from such a change and is least noticeable. We illustrate this with Example 3.16 andFig. 3.20.

Example 3.16

Changing from close voicing to ‘drop 2’ voicing.

Assign the parts for given four-part sectional harmony: use a mixed voicing anddetermine the appropriate point for transition. The basic harmony is F♯m7−B7−G♯m7 −C♯7 − F♯m.

• Let us first harmonize the non-chordal tones. At [*1] we use a secondarydominant E♯◦7 to harmonize the b. At [*2] we use an extended secondarydominant F♯97 = A♯∅7 to harmonize the g♯. At [*3] we use an altered sec-

ondary dominant D♯♭5/♭97 = A7 to harmonize the c♯. At [*4] we use a sec-

ondary subdominant A6 = F♯m7 to harmonize the a. An alternative so-

lution is either the altered secondary dominant D♯♭5/♭97 or the leading tone

chord Am7.

Comparing the three alternatives we may say that the currently used A6

is the most diatonic solution, the Am7 would have been the least diatonicalternative. At [*5] we use a secondary subdominant G♯◦7 = C♯♭97 = A♯

♭9/♭137

to harmonize the g♯. Using a plain G♯m7 would have lead to an augmented2nd step in P3. At [*6] we use an extended secondary dominant B♯◦7 = G♯♭97to harmonize the f♯.

• The example starts with ‘drop 2’ voicing. This changes to close voicing atthe second 8th note of beat 1 in m. 1 (at the E♯◦7). Then, at the upward leap,

4Try and prevent the third of a chord (corresponding to the frequency 5f0, where f0 is the fundamental) togo below C3 = 130.8 = 5f0 Hz and the 7th (i.e., 7f0) below E♭3 = 155.6 Hz. The first implies a chord root(fundamental f0) at A♭0 = 25.9 Hz, the second a fundamental of f0 = 21.8 Hz. See the keyboard, pitch andfrequency numbers in Fig. 2.1.



&&&??

####################

ccccc

P1

P2

P3

P4

H

1œ[*1]

œ œ[*2]

œ œ œ[*3]

œ œ

œ œ œ œ œ œ œn œ

œ œn œ œ œ œ# œ œœ œn œ œ# œn œ œ# œ

’ ’ ’ ’F#m7 B7

2œ[*4]

œ[*5]

œ[*6]

œ œn œ œ#œ œ œn œ œ œ# œ

œ œ œn œn œ œn œ#œ œ œ œn œ œ œ

’ ’ ’ ’G#m7 C

#7

3

œ Œ Ó

œ Œ Ó

œ Œ Óœ Œ Ó

’ ’ ’ ’F#m

Figure 3.20: Changing from close voicing to ‘drop 2’ voicing.

we change back to ‘drop 2’ and again to close voicing on beat 2 in m. 2 atthe G♯◦7.

The example ends with another change on the last two notes; the reasonfor doing this is to prevent the lower voices from having a 5th leap, sincethis might lead to instrumentation problems. Changing the voicing at thesediminished chords does not lead to repeated notes in any of the parts.

Theoretically, there is an even wider voicing possible for four parts. By transposing alsothe original fourth part P4 from the close position voicing to the lower octave and rearrang-ing the parts we obtain an open voicing. The result of applying the open voicing approach to ⇐=the problem in Example 3.17 is shown in Figure 3.21.

Example 3.17

Open voicing.

Assign the parts for given four-part sectional harmony: use wide, open voicing.The basic harmony is Bm7 − E7 −A.

• The harmonization of the example in Fig. 3.21 is the same as the originalclose voicing in Fig. 3.19.a.

• Both P2 and P4 from the close voicing have been transposed to the loweroctave. We now obtain a total range of almost two octaves. Note how theintervals between the outer voices still are not too dissonant (mainly 6thsand mild dissonances of the minor 7th).

• However, note the low thirds in m. 1, i.e., the d = 3 in the Bm7 chord, andm. 2, the g♯ = 3 in the E7 chord. Although they sound briefly in a medium



&&???

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###

###

###

###

ccccc

P1

P2

P3

P4

H

1 Ó œ œ# œ œ

Ó œn œ œ œÓ œ# œn œn œ

Ó œ œ œ œ

’ ’ ’ ’Bm7

2

œ œn ‰ œ œ œ œ œ# œ

œn œ ‰ œ œ œn œ#œb œ ‰ œ œ œ œ

œ œ ‰ œ œ œ œ

’ ’ ’ ’E7

3 ∑∑∑∑

’ ’ ’ ’A

Figure 3.21: Open voicing.

or up-tempo, the total impression will be muddled, with the lower partsseemingly disconnected from the lead.

This voicing is almost never used. The open voicing is not suited for a homogeneousbrass section; trumpets usually stay within the range of an octave, and although this voic-ing is within the compass of the trombone section, the open voicing is reserved for casesof smooth stepwise motion (classical music harmony), not for sectional harmony. For thesaxophone section the open voicing often reaches the limits of compass.

Besides, the open voicing limits the fluency of the phrase. This voicing may be used inmoderate to medium tempo, for high or middle strings or with a mixed instrumentation, i.e.with instruments from different families such as winds and brass combined.

3.4.4 The inevitable repeated notes

Example 3.18

Repeated notes in the lead voice.


Example 3.19

Repeated notes at the end of a phrase.





Figure 3.22: Repeated notes in the lead voice.


Figure 3.23: Repeated notes at the end of a phrase.



Table 3.3: Extensions and alterations of the dominant chord.

Chordal function Description

−9 = ♭9 lowered 9th9 natural 9th+9 = ♯9 = −10 = ♭10 raised 9th or lowered 10th−5 = ♭5 = +11 = ♯11 lowered 5th or raised 11th+5 = ♯5 = −13 = ♭13 raised 5th or lowered 13th13 natural 13th

&&&??

bb

bb

bb

bb

bb

cccc

c

P1

P2

P3

P4

H

1 ‰[*1]

œ œ œ[*2]

œ œ[*3]

œ[*4]

œ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

Bo7

‰ œ œ œ œn œ œ œ‰ œb œ œ œ œ œ œ

’ ’ ’ ’Cm7

2 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œn œb œ œ

Bo7 Eo7

œ œ œ œb œb œ œn œbœn œ œ œ œ œb œb œ

’ ’ ’ ’

3 Œ œ œ[*5]

œ œ[*6]

œb œŒ œn œb œ œ œn œb

Eo7 Cm7

Œ œb œ œ œ œ œŒ œ œn œ œn œ œ

’ ’ ’ ’F7

4œ ‰[*5]

œ œ œ œ[*7]

œb œŒ ‰ œ œn œb œn œb œ

Bo7 Eo7

Œ ‰ œ œb œ œb œ œŒ ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ

’ ’ ’ ’

5 ∑∑∑∑

’ ’ ’ ’Bb

Figure 3.24: Harmonization of non-chordal tones using altered dominant chords.

3.4.5 Use of extended and altered dominant chords

Next we will discuss two examples showing a variety of techniques for the harmonizationof non-chordal tones. The main aspects here will be the use of extended and altered dominantchord structures.=⇒

We already have encountered an altered dominant chord in the section on subdominantstructures and ‘drop 2’ voicing: the use of the S♭9

7 , the dominant chord with lowered 9thwhere the upper four chordal functions are combined to create the diminished chord.5

From now on we will allow all regular extensions and alterations of the dominant chordstructures as shown in Table 3.3. From this set we may pick any combination of four pitches.Howver, this combination must include the 3rd and the 7th, which are the essential chordalfunctions determining the dominant chord structure. We will need to apply altered or ex-tended dominant chords mainly in cases where a non-diatonic, non-chordal tone has to beharmonized.

This is shown in Example 3.20 and Fig. 3.24.

5The notation and meaning of chordal functions were introduced in Section 1.1.3.



Example 3.20

Harmonization of non-chordal tones using altered dominant chords.

The lead voice P1 in Fig. 3.24 contains non-chordal and non-diatonic tones, thebasic harmony is Cm7 − F7 −B♭.

• From the beginning to beat 3 in m. 2 the harmonization is with diatonicparallel structures, unless this is impossible. The first chordal tone is the e♭in m. 1 at [*1]; this determines the voicing of the previous chords. Strictlyspeaking this should lead to the following three chords at the start of thephrase: Dm7 − B♭∆7 − Cm7, all in 2nd inversion. However, the first 8thnote has been harmonized using another inversion of the B♭∆7 chord (just amatter of taste).

At [*2] we have to use a secondary dominant B◦7 since there is no diatonicway to connect the two inversions of the Cm7 chord. At [*3] we recognizethe 7 − 8 diatonic stepwise motion, which corresponds to the local 6 − 7step with a 2nd degree chord as basic harmony. We therefore have to useCm7 − Dm7 (see Section 3.3.6 on connecting minor 7th chords). From theg in m. 1 onwards we recognize the diatonic parallel succession of chordsuntil beat 2 in m. 2 [*4]: we have Cm7 −Dm7 −E♭∆7 − F∆7 −Gm7 −E♭∆7,all in 3rd inversion. This is a series of positive root cylces: 4R7 + R3. Themajor 7th chord F∆7 is the result of the elimination of the tritone intervalthat would have occurred with a purely diatonic solution (see the sectionon similar structures in diatonic parallel degrees, Section 3.4.1). The finalchord E♭∆7 can also be considered a substitute chord for the Cm9

7 (using thefour upper pitches).

• The rest of m. 2 is treated in a regular way using secondary dominants B◦7−Cm7 and E◦7 − F7 at [*4].

• In m. 3 and m. 4, beat 3, [*5] we use the suspended chord Cm7/F . Thesecond 8th note in m. 3 b♭ uses the substitute chord E♭∆7.

• In m. 3, beat 4, [*6] the lead voice has the altered, non-diatonic note a♭ which

we harmonize using the C♭9/♭137 chord (an altered dominant chord).

• We end the example with a sequence of secondary dominant chords E◦7 −A◦7−B♭; the second chord is used to harmonize a non-diatonic, non-chordaltone g♭ and the B♭ is replaced by the substitute chord Dm7 = B♭9∆7.

The same example will now be shown with an alternative harmonization, see Figure 3.25and Example 3.21.

Example 3.21

Harmonization of non-chordal tones using altered dominant chords.

Lead voice P1 contains non-chordal and non-diatonic tones, the basic harmonyis Cm7 − F7 −B♭.



&

&

&?

?

bb

bb

bb

bb

bb

c

c

c

c

c

P1

P2

P3

P4

H

1 ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

‰ œ œn œ œ œ œ œ

‰ œn œb œb œn œ œ œ‰ œb œ œ œ# œ œ œ

’ ’ ’ ’

Bo7

Cm7

[*1] 6 - 72œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

œ œn œ œ œ œb œ œ

œ œb œ œb œ œ œn œbœn œ œ œn œ œb œb œ

’ ’ ’ ’

Bo7

[*1]3Œ œ œ œ œ œb œ

Œ œ œ œ œ œn œbŒ œ œn œb œ œb œnŒ œ œb œ œn œb œn

’ ’ ’ ’

Cm7Bo7 G7 C7 F7

F7

[*2] [*3]4Œ ‰ œ œ œ œ œb œŒ ‰ œ œn œb œn œb œŒ ‰ œ œb œ œ œb œŒ ‰ œ œ œ œn œb œ

’ ’ ’ ’

Em7Ebm7Dm7

[*4]5 ∑

∑

∑

∑

’ ’ ’ ’Bb

Figure 3.25: Harmonization of non-chordal tones using altered dominant chords.

• Measure 1 and m. 2 in Fig. 3.25 have now been harmonized using the sec-ondary dominant B◦7, when appropriate [*1]. On beat 4 in m. 1 there isanother case of 6–7 (a − b♭) stepwise motion on a minor 7th chord Sm7,harmonized with Dm7 − Cm7.

• The basic harmony in m. 3 is F7. The first beats [*2] are harmonized withthe suspended chord Cm7/F , carried over from m. 2.

• The last three 8th notes in m. 3 [*3] are harmonized with a sequence of al-

tered and extended dominant chords G♭10/♭137 − C

♭9/♭137 − F 13

7 .

• The last three notes in m. 4 show chromatic downward stepwise motion[*4] and can therefore be harmonized using exact parallel chords (or, equiv-alently, leading tone chords in sequence): Em7 − E♭m7 − Dm7. This de-scending chromatic solution is acceptable, but the approach sounds betterin a situation with ascending stepwise motion in the lead.

In the next example we will use a combination of techniques. Example 3.22, shown inFigure 3.26, contains non-diatonic tones in the lead part.

Example 3.22

Harmonization of non-chordal tones (case 1).

The lead voice P1 contains non-chordal and non-diatonic tones, the basic har-mony is B♭m7 − E♭7 −A♭7.

• Measure 1 in Fig. 3.26 starts with two non-chordal tones g and e♮ (also non-diatonic) [*1]. Notes 1 and 3 (g and f ) yield a local 7 − 6 diatonic stepwisemotion on the 2nd degree in A♭ major; the standard solution is the connec-tion of two minor 7th chords on 3rd and 2nd degree (see Section 3.3.6).

The e♮ can be harmonized using a leading tone chord. The combined resultis Cm7−Am7−B♭m7 (corresponding to positive root cycle pattern R3+R7).



&&

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bbbb

bbbb

bbbb

bbbb

bbbb

cccc

c

P1

P2

P3

P4

H

1

[*1]

œ œn œ[*2]

œ œ œn œ œ

œ œ œ œ œn œb œb œCm7 Am7 Db±7 A

o7

œ œn œ œ œb œ œ œbœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

’ ’ ’ ’Bbm7

2

[*3]

œ œ[*4]

œb œn[*5]

œ œ œ œbœ œn œn œb œn œb œ œ

Bb7 Bb7 Bb7

œb œ œn œb œn œb œ œœn œb œ œ œ œ œn œ

’ ’ ’ ’Eb7

3

œ[*6]

œ œ œ Ó

œ œ œ œ Ó

œ œ œb œÓ

œ œb œ œ Ó

’ ’ ’ ’Ab7

Figure 3.26: Harmonization of non-chordal tones.

• The following note a♭ [*2] is chordal, but is harmonized with the substitutechord D♭∆7 = B♭m9

7.

• The non-chordal notes on beat 3 in m. 1 are harmonized with a secondarydominant A◦7.

• The non-chordal tone c in m. 2 [*3] is harmonized with an extended, altered

secondary dominant B♭9/♭137 . On the chordal tone b♭ we use an extended

dominant chord E♭97, equivalent to the substitute chord G∅7.

• The next non-chordal tone g♭ [*4] is non-diatonic. It is harmonized with

an altered secondary dominant B♭♭9/♭137 . The same dominant, although in

different forms, is also used on beat 3 and 4 of the same measure.

• Now we reach a flaw in the exercise. Harmonizing the non-chordal f in m. 3[*5] with the secondary dominant B♭97 leads to repeated notes in the lowervoices.6 We will later correct that error.

• The three chordal notes in the last measures [*6] have been harmonized withan extended dominant A♭97.

In Example 3.23 and Figure 3.27 we look at a number of alternative solutions to thisproblem, that will also correct the repeated notes flaw.

Example 3.23

Harmonization of non-chordal tones (case 2).

Lead voice P1 contains non-chordal and non-diatonic tones, the basic harmonyis B♭m7 − E♭7 −A♭7.

6When there are multiple repeated notes in neighbouring parts, we may swap notes between the parts. Thetemporary voice-crossing is acceptable, and hardly noticeable in a phrase with homogeneous instrumentation.



(a)

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bbbb

bbbb

bbbb

bbbb

cccc

c

P1

P2

P3

P4

H

1 œ œn œ œ œ œn œ œ

œ œ œ œ œn œb œb œœ œn œ œ œb œ œ œb


’ ’ ’ ’Bbm7

2 œ œ œb œn œ[*3]

œ œ[*1,4]

œbœ œn œn œb œ œ œ œ

Bb7 Eb7 Bb7 Fm7

œb œ œn œb œ œn œn œœn œb œ œ œn œb œ œ

’ ’ ’ ’Eb7

3

œ œ[*2]

œ œ Ó

œn œb œ œÓ

Eb7 Eb7

œ œb œ œ Óœ œ œ œ Ó

’ ’ ’ ’Ab7

(b)

&&?

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bbbb

bbbb

bbbb

bbbb

bbbb

cc

ccc

P1

P2

P3

P4

H




’ ’ ’ ’Bbm7

2 œ œ œb œn[*1]

œ œ œ œbœ œn œn œb œn œb œ œ

Bb7 Eb7 Bb7 Eb7

œb œ œn œb œn œb œ œnœn œb œ œ œb œ œn œb

’ ’ ’ ’Eb7

3

œ œ œ œ Ó

œ œ œ œ Óœb œ œ œ Ó

œ œb œ œ Ó

’ ’ ’ ’Ab7

(c)

&&???

bbbb

bbbb

bbbb

bbbb

bbbb

cc

ccc

P1

P2

P3

P4

H




’ ’ ’ ’Bbm7

2 œ œ œb œn œ œ œ œbœ œn œn œb œn œb œ œ

Bb7 Eb7 Fm7

œb œ œn œb œn œb œ œœn œb œ œ œb œ œ œ

’ ’ ’ ’Eb7

3

œ œ œ œ Ó

œ œ œ œ ÓEb7

œn œb œb œ Óœ œb œ œ Ó

’ ’ ’ ’Ab7

(d)

&&???

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bbbb

bbbb

bbbb

bbbb

cc

ccc

P1

P2

P3

P4

H




’ ’ ’ ’Bbm7

2 œ œ œb œn œ œ œ œbœ œn œn œb œn œb œn œ

Bb7 Eb7 F#o

7

œb œ œn œb œn œb œ# œnœn œb œ œ œb œ œ œ#

’ ’ ’ ’Eb7

3

œ œ œ œ Ó

œ œ œ œ ÓEb7

œn œb œb œ Óœ œb œ œ Ó

’ ’ ’ ’Ab7

Figure 3.27: Harmonization of non-chordal tones.



• The alternative in Figure 3.27.a uses a ‘drop 2’ voicing in the last two mea-sures. The harmonization has not changed, except for the last four beats ofthe example. We will discuss these in detail.

• The repeated notes on beat 4, m. 2, have been eliminated using the progres-sion Fm7 − E♭7 −A♭7 [*1]. Notice that the penultimate note c [*2] has beenharmonized using the secondary dominant E♭97.

• This example still has other flaws. First, by using the wider ‘drop 2’ voicing,the 7ths a♭ and d♭ of the B♭7 and E♭7 respectively [*3] lie in an extremelylow range. This yields unacceptably low acoustic roots for these chords.

• The progression B♭7 − Fm7 on m. 2, beat 4 [*4] is poor: it lacks functionalharmonic sense (it is a negative root cycle progression R−5) and therefore isweak.

• The alternative in Figure 3.27.b changes to ‘drop 2’ voicing just before thelast measure. This eliminates the low a♭ of the B♭7 chord, although the d♭is still in the low octave. The change of voicing does not take place on adiminished chord.

• The final measure has been harmonized using the extended form of the basic

harmony A♭9/137 . Although somewhat improved, this solution still does not

sound great.

• The alternative in Figure 3.27.c has beat 4, m. 2 harmonized using the sec-ondary subdominant structure Fm7, the 2nd degree relative to the basicharmony E♭7 (see Section 3.3.7).

• The final measure uses a secondary dominant structure E♭9/♭137 on the non-

chordal tone f . So we end up with a VIm7 − V7 − I = Fm7 − E♭♭137 − A♭97cadence in A♭ major, a combination of a negative and positive root cycleprogression R−7 +R5.

• The example uses close voicing; there is no range problem for the lowervoices.

• The final alternative in Figure 3.27.d has beat 4, m. 2 harmonized with adifferent form of secondary dominant structure E♭◦7 = F ♭9

7 = A♭♭97 .


Chapter 4

Sectional harmony in five parts

Writing sectional harmony in five parts is a skill that is often required in contemporary bigband arranging, where the saxophone section consists of five players. Since this sectionis the most frequently used in the big band and capable of incomparable fluency we finda lot of excellent writing for five saxophones and numerous saxophone special choruses (seeSection 11.3) have been written for the five working horses in the band.

Basically, there are two categories of five-part sectional writing, where one is little morethan a doubling of the lead voice of the basic four-part sectional harmony.

However, the second technique is considerably different and makes great use of clustersthat are generated by writing the chords in 4th voicings. We will discuss both techniques inthis chapter and look at examples.

There is less treatment of 5-part sectional voicing techniques in the arranging textbooks(see [9], Ch. 8, [30], p. 25, [42], p. 35). For ‘classical’ five-part saxophone section voicings,have a look at the Thad Jones charts for big band from the 1970s; try his composition ‘Tiptoe’from the album Consummation.1

4.1 The extended four-part sectional harmony

Writing extended four-part sectional harmony takes no more effort than writing for the four-part ⇐=section. We use exactly the same techniques for the harmonization of chordal, non-chordaland non-diatonic tones in the leading voice, that we have already mastered in that chapter.

There is only one voice to be doubled and this is the lead voice. The result is that themelody is heard exactly one octave below the original and this gives it extra support. It is astandard technique of which you will encounter numerous examples in big band scores. Itis used in the already mentioned ‘Supersax plays Bird’ recordings.

Let us now discuss an example using this technique (see Figure 4.1 and Example 4.1).

1When my saxophone teacher introduced me to the music of the Thad Jones - Mel Lewis big band and showed


CHAPTER 4. SECTIONAL HARMONY IN FIVE PARTS

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bbb

bbb

bbb

bbb

bbb

c

c

c

c

c

c

P1

P2

P3

P4

P5

H

1 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ


œ œn œb œ œ œ œb œœ œb œ œn œb œ œ œn


œ œ œ œFm7 Bb7

2 œ œ œ œ œn œ œ

œ œ œn œ œ œ œb

œ œ œb œb œ œ œnœ œ œ œ œ œn œ

œ œ œ œ œn œ œ

œ œ œn œGm7 C7

3

˙ Ó

˙ Ó

˙ Ó˙ Ó

˙ Ó

˙ ÓFm7

Figure 4.1: Sectional harmony in five parts, lead doubled an octave below.

Example 4.1

Sectional harmony in five parts, lead doubled an octave below.

The lead voice P1 contains non-chordal and non-diatonic tones. The basic har-mony is Fm7 −B♭7 −Gm7 − C7 − Fm7, corresponding to the root cycle patternR5 +R3 + 2R5.

• This example has been discussed extensively in the Chapter 3 on four-partsectional harmony (there it was written a minor 2nd higher). So see thatchapter for the reasoning behind the harmonization.

• The lead part P1 has been doubled one octave below as P5. There is closevoicing throughout the phrase.

Obviously, the use of five voices enables us to develop several alternative voicings. Now,we will show a number of these options. We start with Example 4.2 and Figure 4.2.

Example 4.2

Sectional harmony in five parts, mixed voicing, ‘drop 2’.

The lead voice P1 contains non-chordal and non-diatonic tones; assign the partsusing mixed voicing. The basic harmony is Fm7 −B♭7 −Gm7 − C7 − Fm7.

me some scores, in particular ‘Tiptoe’, that was a life-changing experience.


4.1. EXTENDED FOUR-PART SECTIONAL HARMONY

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bbb

bbb

bbb

bbb

bbb

c

c

c

c

c

c

P1

P2

P3

P4

P5

H


œ œn œb œ œ œ œb œ

œ œb œ œn œb œ œ œnœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ


œ œ œ œFm7 Bb7


œ œ œb œb œ œ œn

œ œ œ œ œ œn œœ œ œ œ œn œ œ


œ œ œn œGm7 C7

3

˙ Ó

˙ Ó

˙ Ó

˙ Ó

˙ Ó

˙ ÓFm7

Figure 4.2: Sectional harmony in five parts, mixed voicing, ‘drop 2’.

• Here is the ‘drop 2’ voicing as applied to a five-part section. The lead is nowsupported by an inner voice P4.

• The bottom voice has the same intervallic relationship with the lead as inthe four-part section.

• It is fairly regularly used unless the bottom voice gets into a too low range(see below for the solution of that problem).

We will now discuss two alternative voicings for the same problem (see Example 4.3 and4.4).

Example 4.3

Sectional harmony in five parts, open voicing, ‘drop 2 and 4’.

The lead voice P1 contains non-chordal and non-diatonic tones; assign the partsusing open voicing (see Figure 4.3).

• An even wider voicing is obtained using the ‘drop 2 and 4’ technique.Strictly speaking (in classical music sense) this is not a fully open voicing.The part that now doubles the lead is P3.

• The bottom voice P5 has the same intervallic relationship to the lead as in thecase of four-part sectional harmony, although it now is now at one octavebelow the four part version.



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bbb

bbb

bbb

bbb

bbb

c

c

c

c

c

c

P1

P2

P3

P4

P5

H


œ œn œb œ œ œ œb œœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ


œ œb œ œn œb œ œ œn

œ œ œ œFm7 Bb7


œ œ œb œb œ œ œnœ œ œ œ œn œ œ


œ œ œ œ œ œn œœ œ œn œ

Gm7 C7

3

˙ Ó

˙ Ó

˙ Ó

˙ Ó

˙ Ó

˙ ÓFm7

Figure 4.3: Sectional harmony in five parts, open voicing, ‘drop 2 and 4’.

• This technique is not commonly used. There is a risk of loss of fluency athigher tempos.

Example 4.4

Sectional harmony in five parts, alternating voicing.

The lead voice P1 contains non-chordal and non-diatonic tones; assign the partsusing mixed voicing and determine the appropriate points for transition (see Fig-ure 4.4).

• Here is an example of mixed or alternating voicing. Close voicing has beenused at the low points of the lead melody at [*]. The rest of the example uses‘drop 2’ voicing. Pay attention to the points where the voicing is changed;This happens at either diminished chords or at wide leaps.

• The change from open to close voicing from the first to the second note isnot very effective.


4.2. SECTIONAL HARMONY IN 4THS

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bbb

bbb

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c

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c

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P2

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P5

H

1 œ[*]

œ[*]

œ[*]

œ[*]

œ œ œ œ

œ œ œ œ œ œ œb œ

œ œn œb œ œ œ œ œœ œb œ œn œb œn œ œ


œ œ œ œFm7 Bb7

2 œ œ[*]

œ[*]

œ[*]

œn œ[*]

œ

œ œ œn œ œ œn œb

œ œ œb œb œ œn œnœ œ œ œ œ œ œ

œ œ œ œ œn œ œ

œ œ œn œGm7 C7

3

˙ Ó

˙ Ó

˙ Ó˙ Ó

˙ Ó

˙ ÓFm7

Figure 4.4: Sectional harmony in five parts, alternating voicing.

4.2 Sectional harmony in fourths

Another technique for writing five-part sectional harmony uses harmonic structures in fourths.It is most frequently used when writing for a five member saxophone section in big bandmusic or for the woodwind section in a studio orchestra or symphonic orchestra.

Two types of harmonic structures can be voiced as a chord in perfect fourths: ⇐=

1. Major chords with additions. The major chord with added 6th and 9th: the S69 chord.2

2. Extended minor chords. The minor ninth chord with added 11th (or, equivalently, added

4th): the Sm9/117 .

These chord structures, based on the interval of the perfect 4th, can be found on the 3rdand 6th step of the diatonic major scale; the chord structure on the 3rd step corresponds tothe S6

9 (major chord with added 6th and 9th), the chord structure on the 6th step corresponds

to the Sm9/117 (minor 9th chord with added 11th). The four consecutive perfect 4ths are the

maximum number in the diatonic major scale (check this by trying to add another perfect4th to either side of the two structures).

The voicing for both chord structures for all inversions is shown in Figure 4.5. The C69

chord with the root in the lead (leftmost structure: numbers indicate the various members inthe structure) yields four intervals of the perfect 4th. The other inversions will contain one

2See the symbol notation for chords in Section 1.1.3.



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C69

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(a)

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9

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(b)

Figure 4.5: Sectional harmony in five parts, chords in 4ths. (a): left: the major chord withadded 6th and 9th, top right: the alternative voicing with ∆7 replacing the root. (b): theminor 7th and 9th chord with added 11th.

interval of the major 3rd. The minor 9th chords yields a perfect chord in 4ths when the 3rdis in the lead (see the fifth voicing on the bottom system in the figure).

This basic voicing in 4ths can be slightly modified, yielding an alternative voicing, as is=⇒indicated by the [∗] in the figure:

• In the major chord with added 6th and 9th, the S69 , the root may be replaced by the major

7th, the ∆7. This yields another perfect chord in 4ths (see the fourth voicing in the topright system) an is particularly useful for when the root is in the higher register (the∆7 in the lower voice may lead to a too low acoustic root of the chord). In short, forthe major chord we have the replacement rule: ∆7 = 1;

• In the minor ninth chord with added 11th, Sm9/117 , the 9 may replace the root of the

structure, as demonstrated in the fourth voicing in the bottom system. In short, for theminor chord we have the replacement rule: 9 = 1;

Let us now turn to Examples 4.5 to 4.7, that demonstrate five-part sectional harmony infourths.

Example 4.5

Sectional harmony in five parts, chords in 4ths.

Write five-part sectional harmony using chords in 4ths for a given diatonic thelead voice P1 (see Figure 4.6).

• The lead voice contains a number of stepwise 9 ց 1 motions, see the multi-ple occurrences at [*1] in Fig. 4.6.a. The basic harmony is Gm7: this implies



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’ ’ ’ ’

3œ Œ Ó

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’ ’ ’ ’(b)

Figure 4.6: Sectional harmony in five parts, chords in 4ths. (a): harmonization of the 9 ց 1stepwise motion in the lead using the diatonic parallel Am7 chord. (b): More closed voicingis used to prevent too low lower parts, leading to repeated notes in middle voices.



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1 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ




’ ’ ’ ’Gm7

2





’ ’ ’ ’

3œ Œ Ó

œ Œ Ó

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’ ’ ’ ’Figure 4.7: Sectional harmony in five parts, chords in 4ths, close (cluster) voicing.

the replacement rule 9 = 1 and therefore will yield repeated notes in thelower parts if both lead pitches are harmonized using the same chord. Inorder to prevent these, the diatonic parallel minor chord Am7 (on the 3rdstep of the F major scale) is used at these instances, yielding also a modalflavour to the phrase.

• At [*2] the lead voice has the 6 or 13 of the basic harmony (a non-chordaltone in the voicing in 4ths): in that case also the diatonic parallel Am7 chordis used to harmonize the lead. The following lead pitch can be harmonizedwith either Gm7 or Am7.

• At [*3] the wide voicing using structures in 4ths may get into a too lowregister for the lower parts. In that case a narrower voicing may be used, asshown in Fig. 4.6.b. This however leads to repeated notes in part P3, see the[∗] in m. 1-2. Note that the g in the lead in m. 2 now is harmonized with thebasic chord Gm7.

• The repeated notes can be prevented by choosing the appropriate point forswitching from open to more closed voicing. In this example the entirephrase will have to be rewritten in closed voicing, as shown in Fig. 4.7, lead-ing to a dense cluster voicing in the three inner voices.



Example 4.6

Sectional harmony in five parts, chords in 4ths, leading tone in lead voice.



Figure 4.8: Sectional harmony in five parts, chords in 4ths, leading tone in lead voice.

Example 4.7

Sectional harmony in five parts, basic harmony contains mixed chord struc-

tures.



Figure 4.9: Sectional harmony in five parts, mixed chord structures.




Figure 4.10: Sectional harmony in five parts, maximizing the harmonization in 4ths.





Chapter 5

Ensemble techniques

In this chapter we will discuss several techniques of ensemble writing, i.e., for a group con-sisting of mixed instrumentation and of variable size. Obviously we will work with thestandard big band instrumentation of five saxophones, four trumpets, four trombones plusrhythm section, but we will also have a look at smaller ensembles. We will assume here thatthe lead voice is the highest part in the ensemble.

There is considerable treatment of these techniques in the textbooks (see [9], Part 5; [30],p. 131 ff.; [42], Ch. 14-16). First the main aspects of ensemble writing will be discussed. Thenthe various techniques will be illustrated using examples.

This chapter focuses on ensemble techniques and voicings for the jazz big band. How-ever, occasionally there will be a reference to examples with concert band or studio orchestrainstrumentation and voicing.

5.1 Fundamental aspects

This section will discuss a number of fundamental aspects of ensemble writing. These haveto be considered irrespective of the specific technique we will apply to the ensemble.

As we did before, our examples will start from a given basic harmony and, sometimes, agiven lead voice. When writing for the ensemble take into account the following aspects:

• Determine the range of the ensemble phrase. Before writing any actual parts generatea clear idea of the range of the lead voice in your phrase. The phrase may have a lengthof between, say, 2 and 32 measures (a ‘tutti special chorus’, see Section 11.3 for a list ofspecial chorus types). This range is affected by the instrumentation, in particular thecompass of your lead voice. But it also affects the voicing in the upper range section.this will be the trumpets in case of a big band, but it might also involve a string orwoodwind section.


CHAPTER 5. ENSEMBLE TECHNIQUES

AS 1

AS 2

TS 1

TS 2

BS

Tpt 1

Tpt 2

Tpt 3

Tpt 4

Tbn 1

Tbn 2

Tbn 3

Tbn 4

Figure 5.1: Example of ensemble voicing diagram for the jazz big band. The vertical as-signment of voices is shown for saxophones (left), trumpets (centre) and trombones (right).Doubling of parts is indicated by blue dashed rectangles.

• Determine the voicing of the leading section. This will usually follow from the rangeof the lead voice. In general, this is the moment to decide on using cluster, close oropen voicing. You might consider applying the strata technique approach, such asdemonstrated for strings in Section 8.3, Example 8.5 for the leading section and forthree parallel strata in Example 8.7.

• Determine the relative range of the lower sections. The next step is to decide aboutthe range and the voicing of the other sections in the ensemble. We will indicate theseranges by the voicing diagram as illustrated in Figure 5.1. In this example we see the=⇒three sections of the big band; each column represents the voicing of a section from lowto high. The trombones (abbreviated as Tbn) use a wider voicing than the trumpets(abbreviated as Tpt) that are in close voicing. We see an overlap between the threesections, indicated by the blue dashed rectangles.

• Write the voices for the most dominant section first. In the big band the brass willusually dominate over the saxophones. Therefore we start with the brass voicing andthen continue with the saxophone voicing.

• Check the outer voices. Finally, we have to inspect the intervallic relations of the outervoices of each section. Table 5.1 contains a checklist for the big band. Obviously, thisdepends on the actual instrumentation. You will never find Tbn 1 above Tpt 1 (unisonois possible though) and usually the top saxophone voice AS 1 is one ore more voicesbelow Tpt 1.

Now, we will discuss the various techniques and show the examples.

5.2 Ensemble technique derived from four-part sectional harmony

This technique of ensemble writing is derived from the four-part sectional harmony ap-proaches that we have studied extensively in Chapter 3. The problem we now have to solveis the proper distribution of the four basic voices over a larger ensemble with multiple in-strument groups. You will have to decide on the correct doublings, create a clear lead voiceand choose the type of voicing for each section.


5.2. FOUR-PART ENSEMBLE TECHNIQUE

Table 5.1: Checklist of outer voices between the sections in a jazz big band. For these pairsof voices check the intervals (consonance vs. dissonance).

Combinations of outer voices in full big band

Tpt 1 vs. Tbn 1 lead voices in high and low brass sectionsTpt 1 vs. AS 1 lead voices in high brass and saxophone sectionTpt 1 vs. Tbn 4 top and lowest voice in brass sectionTpt 1 vs. BS top voice in brass section vs. lowest voice in saxophone section

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Figure 5.2: Starting the ensemble voicing: sectional harmony in four parts.



In situations where a section consists of less than four voices you will have to combine itwith another section and make sure that the combination of both has the full four part chordsat all times. The first step in the procedure, however, is to compose the four-part sectionalharmony for a given lead voice. Figure 5.2 is discussed in Example 5.1.

Example 5.1

Sectional harmony in four parts.

The lead voice P1 contains non-chordal and non-diatonic tones, the basic key isG minor.

• The non-chordal tones in the lead voice in m. 1 and m. 2 [*1] have been har-monized using two secondary dominant chords, F♯◦7 and B◦7, respectively.

• The non-chordal tone f in m. 2 [*2] has been harmonized with an extendedsecondary dominant chord E♭97.

• In m. 3 [*3] there is 6 − 7 stepwise motion on the 2nd degree of the scale(the key is D♭ major). The c in the lead therefore is harmonized with the 3rddegree Fm7 chord.

• The b♭ in m. 3 [*4] is harmonized with the secondary dominant G◦7 to pre-vent repeated notes towards the aiming chord A♭7.

• Beat 4 of m. 3 [*5] shows a chain of secondary dominants towards the aimingchord, here A♭◦7 − E♭7 −Dm7.

• In m. 4 [*6] the c is harmonized with a secondary dominant F♯◦7. The aimingchord is G7.

• The rest of that measure plus the following uses secondary dominants toharmonize the non-chordal tones a, d, f and d [*7].

• In the final measure the chordal tone c [*8] is harmonized with the subdom-inant structure A◦7 = E♭◦7. This is equivalent to a forward extension of theD7, a technique that we have seen before.

• The non-chordal tone b♭ in m. 6 [*9] is harmonized with the secondary dom-inant C♯◦7.

• The last three notes use a sequence of two dominant chords towards theaiming chord, i.e., E♭7 −D7 −Gm7.

After completing the four-part sectional setting in the first step of the process, we willcontinue with the assignment of voices to the instrumental parts. In the following subsec-tions we will demonstrate the assignment process for three instrument groups, from a fullbig band to an intermediate size and small jazz ensemble.

5.2.1 Instrumentation for full big band

Figure 5.3 shows the instrumentation of the fragment from the previous example for the fullthirteen member big band (five saxophones, four trumpets and four trombones). We discussthe details of the voice assignment for that instrumentation in Example 5.2.



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Figure 5.3: Sectional harmony applied to full big band.



AS 1

AS 2

TS 1

TS 2

BS

Tpt 1

Tpt 2

Tpt 3

Tpt 4

Tbn 1

Tbn 2

Tbn 3

Tbn 4

Figure 5.4: Voicing diagram full big band.

Example 5.2

Sectional harmony in four parts; full big band.

Assign the parts to the eight brass and five saxophones for a given four-partsectional harmony.

• The trumpets play full chords in close voicing. Tpt 1 is in its middle register.This example is a good range for this sectional technique.

• There is an overlap between the trumpet and the trombone section; we haveTbn 1=Tpt 3, Tbn 2=Tpt 4. They will support the lower trumpet voices, es-pecially when these are in the lower register. the intervallic relationship be-tween the brass outer voices is good (mainly consonant 3rds, interchangedwith mild dissonant 2nds). Copying the trombones one octave below thetrumpets would have lead to a too low register for Tbn 4 and would havelead to performance problems.

• The trombones also are in close voicing. Full brass are kept within not toowide a range for maximum fluency. Tbn 1 is in the high register in m. 2 andm. 3; this will require professional playing skills.

• Saxophones play in close voicing. There is overlap with the brass: we haveAS 1=Tpt 2 and BS=Tbn 4. Again we see good intervallic relationships be-tween Tpt 1 and the outer saxophone voices; there are occasional 2nds be-tween Tpt 1 and AS 1. These are no problem, especially not in medium toup tempos.

• Figure 5.4 shows the voicing diagram. The overlap is clear; part doubling isindicated by blue dashed rectangles.

5.2.2 Instrumentation for reduced big band

Example 5.3

Sectional harmony in four parts; reduced big band.





Figure 5.5: Sectional harmony applied to reduced big band.


Figure 5.6: Voicing diagram reduced big band.






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Figure 5.7: Sectional harmony applied to an intermediate size band.

5.2.3 Instrumentation for intermediate size band

Figure 5.7 shows the instrumentation of the sectional harmony fragment for an intermediatesize band (4 Sax + 2 Tpt + 2 Tbn), discussed in Example 5.4.

Example 5.4

Sectional harmony in four parts; intermediate size big band.

Assign the parts to the 4 brass and 4 saxophones for given four-part sectionalharmony.

• The brass play ‘drop 2’ voicing. Both sections together have the full four-part sectional harmony. Within the sections there are many 4ths and 5thsbetween parts; this carries the risk of sounding harsh if the tone colour forboth sections differs greatly. The risk would have been reduced and thefluency increased by simply playing in close voicing.

• The saxophone section plays a mixed voicing, open at the top and close forthe lower voices. It was designed to fill the gaps that were left by the brasssection (see the voicing diagram in Figure 5.8) with TS 2 and BS below thetrombones. This leads to an internally unbalanced voicing and gets the TSinto a pretty low region. Applying ‘drop 2’ voicing here while keeping theAS at its current position would still cover the gaps in the brass voicing andimprove the voicing within the section.

• As the voicing diagram shows, there is no doubling of any part.



AS 1

AS 2

TS 1

BS

Tpt 1

Tpt 2

Tbn 1

Tbn 2

Figure 5.8: Voicing diagram reduced big band.

5.2.4 Combining trombones and saxophones

Example 5.5

Sectional harmony in four parts; trombones and saxophones.



Figure 5.9: Sectional harmony applied to trombones and saxophones.







Figure 5.10: Voicing diagram trombones and saxophones.




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wG7b9

[*1] [*3]wwwwbbb

wwwwbb

wG7al t

(b)

Figure 5.11: Brass section voicings. (a): internal balance, (b): various chord types

5.3 Brass voicing for extended chords

The previous section discussed a number of examples, that were based on a given four-partsectional harmony voicing. From here on we will extend the number of parts, but beforedoing so, we will briefly touch on the aspects of brass voicing, i.e., the vertical distributionof chordal functions over the trumpet and trombone section in a big band, using extendedchords (i.e., with higher chordal functions such as ♭9, ♯11, 13, etc.).1 Example 5.6 elaborateson this subject.

Example 5.6

Voicings for brass section.

Assign parts to four trumpets and four trombones using extended chords. Fig-ure 5.11 shows a number of voicing examples that we will now discuss.

• Figure 5.11.a demonstrates the voicing of the dominant 7th chord structures,S7, here F7 and D♭9

7 . Although the voicing in the first measures has an octavedoubling between Tpt 1 and Tbn 1 (good), the balance within each sectionis poor: the trumpets are widely spread and (most important) the trombone

1This aspect returns in Chapter 8, Section 8.3 where string voicings for extended chords are illustrated inExample 8.5.


5.3. BRASS VOICING FOR EXTENDED CHORDS

section does not provide a good harmonic basis, since the essential 7th func-tion and root are missing. The voicing in measure 2 is a clear improvement.The trombones now play the following chordal functions: 1, 3, 7 and 9, thetrumpets play a Dm chord, adding the 13 to the F7 chord. Also note thedoubling of the Tpt 1 part in the lower octave: from concert F5 upward thisis an essential support for the lead trumpet voice.

• Measures 3 and 4 from the same example demonstrate another aspect. Theoverall orchestral balance benefits from an internal balance in each section.In this example that is demonstrated by assigning a full diminished seventhchord (3rd measure, S◦7 to both Tpts and Tbns; the combined effect is an oc-tatonic scale) or full triad (4th measure, D in trumpets and A◦ to trombones)to each individual section.

• Figure 5.11.b shows various extended chord structures (i.e., with more up-per chordal functions). A common element of all these voicings is that thetrombones provide the essential chordal functions, i.e., the 3 for the ma-jor/minor chords and 3 plus 7 for all other chord types. At [*1] we noticethe lower octave doubling of the high lead trumpet. At [*2] the voicing ofTbn 3 and Tbn 4 will yield a significantly lower acoustic root: they are play-ing the 3rd and 4th harmonic of the root C1. At [*3] we find full triads in thetrumpets. The trombones may play an inverted chord, as is shown at [*4].A cluster voicing is demonstrated at [*5].

• When voicing a dominant chord structure S7, try to prevent assigning theperfect chordal function 5 to the trombones. Instead, use a lowered (♯11 =♭5) or raised 5th (♯5 = ♭13) in the upper voices, as is demonstrated at [*6].

5.3.1 Dominant seventh bitonal voicings

When voicing an extended dominant 7th chord the balance of the voicing is increased by as-signing a full major or minor triad to the trumpets.

In total there are 12 possibilities, of which eight are based on the octatonic scale and fourare derived from an extended series of 3rds: these are shown in Figure 5.12. The basicchord is C7 and the characteristic, essential chordal functions 1, 3 and ♭7 are assigned tothree trombones. The trumpet section creates a bitonal voicing by using: ⇐=

• either the octatonic scale, leading to major or minor triads on the roots C −E♭−F♯−A(the symmetric C◦7-chord);

• or extended chords in 3rds, leading to the major triad D (or its equivalent A♭) or theminor triad Gm (and its equivalent D♭m).

Use the transposed versions of this diagram to find bitonal brass voicing possibilities forgiven lead; see the examples in Section 5.4.



&

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?Rhythm

BrassTPTS

TBNS

wwwwC

wwwb

wC 7

wwwwbC m

wwwb

wC 7

wwwwbbEb

wwwb

wC7

wwwwbbbbEbm

wwwb

wC 7

wwww####F#

wwwb

wC7

wwww###F#m

wwwb

wC7

wwww#A

wwwb

wC 7

wwwwAm

wwwb

wC 7

(a)

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?

?Rhythm

BrassTPTS

TBNS

wwww#D

wwwb

wC7

wwwwbbbAb

wwwb

wC7

wwwwbGm

wwwb

wC 7

wwwwbbbbDbm

wwwb

wC7

(b)

Figure 5.12: Dominant 7th chord S7 bitonal voicings. (a): structures based on the octatonicscale, (b): structures based on extended chords in 3rds.


5.4. PERCUSSIVE VOICING

5.4 Percussive voicing

The percussive voicing is frequently used to create a massive tutti big band sound at louderdynamics (fortissimo). Its characteristics are:

• Extended voicings (5- and 6-part chord structures are frequent), assigned to brass(trumpets and trombones) or the full ensemble (brass plus saxophones).

• Short phrases with irregular rhythms, many syncopations and interspersed with rests.Perfectly synchronized playing of articulations (such as > or ∧) and respecting thedynamics (e.g., a sudden juxtaposition of mp and fff ) is essential and yields an im-pressive effect.2

• Functional support by the rhythm section: the guitar and bass player will frequentlyfollow the rhythmic patterns in the horns (giving up the strumming guitar and walkingbass patterns almost completely), the drummer will prepare and support the articula-tions (loud cymbal crashes and toms), while the piano player will either support thehorns (copying the voicings in both hands) or plug in a few high notes during the restsin the horns.

• Careful voice leading in the horns is now released: repeated notes are now permissible.Augmented and diminished steps or leaps may occur in the middle voices.

5.4.1 Examples of percussive brass voicings

Now we will present a number of examples of percussive voicings for brass section, i.e.,four trumpets and four trombones. In Examples 5.7 to 5.9 the lead voice is given, the basicharmony is indicated in the rhythm part.

Example 5.7

Percussive voicing for brass: blues chorus scheme.

Determine the eight-part brass voicing for given lead voice and basic harmony.

• The chord progression is based on an extended blues scheme, such as usedin the jazz standard ‘Blues for Alice’, see Figure 5.13. The overall dynamicsare mf .

• At [*1] the opening chord F (tonic chord) is voiced using the various ex-tended chordal functions 6 = 13, ∆7 and 9.

• At [*2] there is an extended Sm9/117 chord with the chordal function 11 in

the lead. This chord type is used three times in the example.

• The lead at [*3] is in a fairly low playing register, leading to an impracticalconcert b♮ = B3, which requires careful intonation (all three valves pressed).Therefore it is better to leave out the 4th part in the trumpets and double thelead trumpet.

2For a masterclass demonstration of percussive voicing, listen to the Count Basie, Sammy Nestico and ThadJones tutti choruses, and study the score.



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b

b

bRhythm

Brass

TPTS

TBNS

[*1] [*2]

˙˙˙ Jœœœœ œœœœ

jœœœœb˙

Jœœœœ œœœœ J

œœœœnF±9

F69 F±

Em11

œ œ œ œ œF

[*3]

‰ ....œœœœnn ‰ ....œœœœbbbb

‰ ....œœœœn ‰ ....œœœœbb

A13b9

‰ .œ ‰ .œE m7 A 7

....œœœœnn Jœœœœbb ....œœœœ J

œœœœn

....œœœœnJœœœœbn ....

œœœœ Jœœœœbb

Dm11 G7b 5b13

Cm11

œ œ œ œ œb œDm7 G7

[*4]

Œ ‰ jœœœœnbb ˙

Œ ‰Jœœœœb˙˙

F13b9

Œ ‰ jœ œ œCm7 F7

[*5]

˙˙˙n ....œœœœbbjœœœœnnn

˙ ....œœœœbb

Jœœœœnn

Bb69 B

bm11 Am11

œ œ œb œ œBb

Bbm7 A m7

Figure 5.13: Percussive voicing for brass.

• At[*4] we see an illustration of the avoidance of the perfect 5th chordal func-tion 5 in the trombone section, and replacing it with the d = 6 = 13.

• At [*5] there is a leading tone exact parallel chord, as is obvious from thedescending stepwise voice leading ց in all but the lead voice.

Example 5.8

Percussive voicing for brass: bitonal triads in the trumpets.


• At [*1] in Figure 5.14 the voicing of the S7 structure yields a minor secondbetween Tbn 1, playing the major 3, and Tbn 2, playing the altered ♯9 = ♭10.This voicing is frequently used by the legendary Thad Jones.

• The D♭7 chord at [*2] is an intermediary, alternating step chord. The trom-bone voicing stresses the exact parallel movement.

• The trumpet section voicing uses full triads only, and uses chords in the keyof E♭ only (one exception).

• The example is one realization form a set of possibilities. The full set ofsolutions to this voicing problem for brass is given in Table 5.2.

Example 5.9

Percussive voicing for brass: use extended chords only.


• Figure 5.15 demonstrates a consistent block chord harmonization of the S7

structure: the triads in the trumpets are based on extended chords. At [*1]we recognize the bitonal voicing demonstrated in m. 1 from Fig. 5.12.b, hereas 〈C|B♭7〉. At [*2] we use the voicing 〈F |A7〉, equivalent to the voicingshown in m. 2 from the same figure.



&

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?Rhythm

Brass

TPTS

TBNS

[*1] [*2]

[*3]

Jœœœœbbœœœœb Jœœœœ œœœœ

œœœœbEb

Ebm

Jœœœœnbb œœœœbbn J

œœœœnbb œœœœ

œœœœb#

Db7 C 7

jœ œb jœ œ œC 7 A7

˙b ....œœœœbbnb Jœœœœ

Fm Eb

˙˙b#nn ....

œœœœnn Jœœœœbn

œn œ# œ œ œD 7 G7 C7

∑

∑

∑Figure 5.14: Percussive voicing for brass using bitonal triads in the trumpets.

Table 5.2: Alternatives for bitonal voicing. The lead tone and basic dominant harmony aregiven. Possible triad voicings for trumpets are shown, that yield a bitonal voicing. E.g., thefirst combination has three options 〈C(m)|C7〉 , 〈E♭|C7〉 or 〈Gm|C7〉 for the lead tone g.

Lead tone: g b♭ b♭ c b♭ gHarmony: C7 D♭7 A7 D7 G7 C7

Triad in trumpets: C(m) Gm E♭(m) F (m) B♭(m) E♭(three alternative E♭ B♭(m) F♯ A♭ E♭ Gmsolutions) Gm E♭ B♭m Am Gm C(m)

&

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?Rhythm

Brass

TPTS

TBNS

[*1] [*1][*2]Jœœœœ œœœœ J

œœœœ œœœœ œœœœ

Jœœœœœœœœbb Jœœœœbnœœœœœœœœb

jœ œb jœ œ œbC

69 Bb13#11

A7alt Eb13#11

[*1] [*1] [*1]

[*3]œœœœ œœœœ Jœœœœbb œœœœb J

œœœœnnœœœœnnœœœœbb

Jœœœœ#bœœœœnnn J

œœœœnnn

œ œb jœb œ jœDm11 Eb13#11

Ab13#11

G13#11

C69

wwwwwwww

œ œ œn œFigure 5.15: Percussive voicing for brass using bitonal triads in the trumpets.



• Like in the previous example the bass trombone Tbn 4 plays chord rootsthroughout. This gives a solid base to the percussive voicing and is fre-quently used.

• Although voice leading aspects can be somewhat released in this technique,a detail should be mentioned at regarding the lead voice. At [*3] we couldhave used the following chord sequence for the harmonization: A♭7 −D7 −G7 − C , i.e., a series of positive root cycles 3R5. However, the tone a in thelead over the A♭7 chord has the function ♭9, whose normal resolution wouldhave been a stepwise downward motion. In this example the lead insteadhas an upward stepwise motion a ր b♭ and forces us to look for a moreappropriate harmonization.

The previous example can be used to illustrate a procedure for the technique of percus-sive voicing, consisting of the following steps:

1. Start with the trombones. Assign the chord root tones to Tbn 4 (i.e., the bass trombone).

2. For dominant S7 chord structures assign the essential chordal functions 3 and ♭7 totwo other trombones. For other chord types assign the chordal function 3 (the minoror major third) to one of the trombones.

3. Assign the trumpet parts for all chord types. You may use triads throughout for thedominant S7 structures.

4. Return to the trombones and complete percussive voicing for the remaining parts, i.e.,one trombone part for dominant S7 chords, two trombones for other chord types. Care-fully choose doubling pitches.

Example 5.10 deals with a rhythmic background: the rhythmic accents and the basic har-mony are pre-defined and a voicing for a six-part brass section is to be determined. We willdiscuss four alternatives, using different approaches.

Example 5.10

Rhythmic background for brass.

Determine the 6 part brass voicing for given rhythmic accents and basic harmony.

• Solution 1 in Figure 5.16.a demonstrates a voicing in the mid-low registerusing the following approach:

1. strive towards a diatonic voicing in the key of C major; this will deter-mine the selection of the chord extensions;

2. if this fails for the dominant S7, then use the S♭97 structure.

• Note in the example that the voicing in the trumpet section stays within theinterval of a 6th (a 5th is typical), yielding a cluster or triad voicing.

• The interval between Tpt 1 and Tpt 2 is a 3rd or 4th, the dissonant intervalof a 2nd is avoided. This interval does occur between Tpt 2 and Tpt 3.



Mid-low:

&

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?Rhythm

Brass

TPTS

TBNS

‰ jœœœ Œ Ó

‰ Jœœœ Œ Ó

œ œ œ œC±

Œ œœœ œœœ^ Ó

Œ œœœ œœœb^Ó

œ œ œb œBb7

Œ œœœ#>jœœœ ...œœœb>

Œ œœœbb>Jœœœ ...œœœnb >

œ œ œb œA7 Bb7

...œœœ#>jœœœn> œœœ œœœb œœœ#

^

...œœœ#b > Jœœœb> œœœ œœœb œœœn# ^Bb7

œ œ œb œA7

∑

∑

œ œ œn œD 7

...œœœnjœœœ^ Ó...œœœnn Jœœœn^ Ó

œ œ œ œDm7 G7

‰ jœœœ Œ ‰jœœœb Œ

‰ Jœœœ Œ ‰ J

œœœb Œ

œ œ œ œbC A7

‰ œœœ œœœ œœœn> ˙

‰ œœœ œœœ# œœœnn> ˙

D7

œ œb œ œD m7 G7

(a)Mid-low:

&

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?Rhythm

Brass

TPTS

TBNS

‰ jœœœ# Œ Ó

‰ Jœœœ Œ Ó

œ œ œ œC±

[*2]

Œ œœœ# œœœ^ Ó

Œ œœœ œœœb ^ Ó

œ œ œb œBb7

[*2]

[*3]Œ œœœ### >jœœœ ...œœœn>

Œ œœœbb>Jœœœ ...œœœnb >

œ œ œb œA 7 B b7

...œœœ#>jœœœbn > œœœ œœœ

œœœn^

...œœœ#b > Jœœœb> œœœ œœœbb œœœnn# ^Bb7

œ œ œb œA7

∑

∑

œ œ œn œD 7

[*1]

...œœœ jœœœ#^ Ó...œœœnn Jœœœn^ Ó

œ œ œ œD m7 G7

[*1]

‰ jœœœ# Œ ‰jœœœbbn Œ

‰ Jœœœ Œ ‰ Jœœœ#b Œ

œ œ œ œbC A 7

[*2]

‰ œœœn œœœ#b# œœœn# >˙

‰ œœœn œœœb# œœœnn > ˙˙˙D7

œ œb œ œD m7 G7

(b)Mid-high:

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?Rhythm

Brass

TPTS

TBNS

‰ Jœœœ Œ Ó

‰ Jœœœ Œ Ó

œ œ œ œC±

Œ œœœ œœœ Ó


œ œ œb œBb7

Œ œœœ> Jœœœ ...œœœ>

Œœœœn#>Jœœœ ...œœœb >

œ œ œb œA7 Bb7

...œœœbb > Jœœœn> œœœ œœœ œœœn# ^

...œœœ#> Jœœœb > œœœ œœœ œœœn# ^Bb7

œ œ œb œA7

∑

∑

œ œ œn œD 7

...œœœn Jœœœbb ^ Ó...œœœnn Jœœœb ^ Ó

œ œ œ œD m7 G7

‰ Jœœœn Œ ‰ J

œœœbb Œ

‰ Jœœœn Œ ‰ J

œœœ# Œ

œ œ œ œbC A7

‰ œœœ œœœbbb œœœnn > ˙

‰ œœœnœœœb# œœœn> ˙

D 7

œ œb œ œD m7 G7

(c)High:

&

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?Rhythm

Brass

TPTS

TBNS

‰ jœœœ Œ Ó

‰ Jœœœ Œ Ó

œ œ œn œC±

Œ œœœ œœœb^ Ó


œ œ œb œBb7

Œ œœœ#>jœœœ ...œœœb>

Œ œœœb>Jœœœ ...œœœnb >

œ œ œb œA7 Bb7

...œœœ#>jœœœb>œœœ œœœ œœœ#n

^

...œœœ#> Jœœœb> œœœ œœœb œœœnn# ^Bb7

œ œ œb œA7

∑

∑

œ œ œn œD 7

...œœœn jœœœ^ Ó...œœœnn Jœœœ^ Ó

œ œ œ œD m7 G 7

‰ jœœœ Œ ‰jœœœ# Œ

‰ Jœœœ Œ ‰ Jœœœ# Œ

œ œ œ œbC A7

‰ œœœ œœœn# œœœn>˙

‰ œœœn œœœ# œœœn > ˙˙D 7

œ œb œ œD m7 G7

(d)

Figure 5.16: Rhythmic background for brass. (a): mid-low register, diatonic extensions, (b):mid-low register, all extensions, (c): mid-high register, triads in the trumpets, (d): low regis-ter, basic S7 chords only.



• As usual, the trombones carry the essential functions (3 and 7) of the chordstructure. Dissonant intervals of the 2nd are avoided between either pair oftrombones.

• Two secondary dominant chords have been used, i.e., B♭7 in m. 4 and D7 inm. 8.

• Solution 2 in Figure 5.16.b demonstrates a voicing in the mid-low registerusing the following approach:

1. all chord extensions are allowed (release diatonic flavour requirement);

2. trumpets use cluster type voicing.

• We have again respected the interval rules for the trumpets and assignedessential chordal functions to the trombones.

• Now at [*1] there is the interval of the 2nd between two trombones, at [*2]there is a sequence of two consecutive 2nds.

• Check the interval relation between Tpt 1 and Tbn 1.

• In m. 3 and m. 4, starting at [*3], there is opening contrary motion be-tween (ascending) trumpets and (descending) trombones. This calls for acrescendo and has the effect of leading up to climax.

• Solution 3 in Figure 5.16.c demonstrates a voicing in the mid-high registerusing the following approach:

1. all chord extensions are allowed;

2. the trumpets are voiced in triads;

3. Tbn 1 supports Tpt 1 in the high register by doubling the lead at thelower octave.

• Note that again we find the interval of the 2nd between pairs of trombones(see m. 2, 3, 6 and 8);

• Solutions 2 and 3 sound more contemporary than solution 1; this is the effectof the non-diatonic and more dissonant chord extensions.

• Solution 4 in Figure 5.16.d demonstrates a voicing in the low register usingthe following approach:

– Use the basic seventh chord S7 only.

• This example will sound most conventional and traditional. It is in deliber-ate contrast with the previous solutions.

5.4.2 Examples of ensemble voicings

Example 5.11

Percussive voicing for full big band (case 1).





Figure 5.17: Percussive voicing for big band tutti (case 1).

Example 5.12





Example 5.13

Saxophone voicing in big band tutti.





Figure 5.19: Saxophone voicing in big band tutti.

Example 5.14





Example 5.15







Example 5.16

Ensemble voicing for intermediate size big band.



Figure 5.22: Bitonal ensemble voicing for intermediate size big band.





5.5. TUTTI VOICINGS FOR CONCERT BAND AND STUDIO ORCHESTRA

5.5 Tutti voicings for concert band and studio orchestra

While this chapter concentrates on writing for jazz big band, the book contains a numberof examples with tutti voicings for either concert band or studio orchestra. The detaileddiscussion of the section voicings can be found in the relevant chapters.

For completeness, here is a list of those examples:

Concert band tutti voicings: see Example 2.3 and Fig. 2.7 from ‘Let it Snow’, Example 7.2and Fig. 6.5 from ‘Bone in the Barrio’, Example 6.9 and Fig. 6.7 from ‘The Summer Knows’,Example 11.4 and Fig. 11.8 from ‘Autumn Leaves’, and Example 11.10 and Fig. 11.14from ‘Roof Garden’.

Studio orchestra tutti voicings: see Example 8.3 and Fig. 8.3 from ‘I’ll Remember April’, Ex-ample 7.2 and Fig. 7.4 from ’Shotgun Soliloquy’, and Example 8.4 and Fig. 8.4 from’Mediocrity Mambo’.


Chapter 6

Special techniques

This chapter presents a number of special arranging techniques. These will put the sectionaland ensemble writing techniques from the previous chapters into perspective, and at thesame time demonstrate various interesting alternatives to the former techniques. In a sensethis chapter is a catalogue of alternative arranging techniques, that can be applied in orderto deviate occasionally from the fairly standard big band jazz music idiom.

The examples in this chapter are taken from actual compositions and arrangements forsymphonic wind band (concert band) with added rhythm section.1 The main difference withthe jazz big band ensemble is the separate woodwind section and the addition of soft brassinstruments (horns and tubas) to the brass section.

The techniques will be presented in random order. Their application does follow astrictly structured approach, as was the case in most of the exercises in the previous chap-ters. Since multiple techniques are used in the examples in this chapter, there will be muchcross-referencing to the figures below.

6.1 Bell chords

In sectional harmony and in the ensemble techniques all note attacks occur simultaneouslyfor all instruments. In a bell chord the notes from the chord structure are played one after ⇐=the other. Usually this happens in one direction, either from the lowest to the highest pitch(ascending bell chord) or, less frequently, from the top to the lowest note (descending bellchord).2

1Full score excerpts and audio demo tracks for the examples from this chapter are available on the Websitewith URL http://www.fransabsil.nl.

2A well-known example in jazz music is the ascending bell chord at the beginning of the track The Meaning ofthe Blues, arranged by Gil Evans for the Miles Davis album Miles Ahead. A descending bell chord is found on


CHAPTER 6. SPECIAL TECHNIQUES

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bbbb

bbbb

bbbb

bbbb

c

c

c

c

L.

Rh.

H.

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∑

∑

∑

Ballad q=72

F

Flg

œn œ œ œ .œ jœ

Œ .˙‰ .œ ˙w

.œ ‰œ œ

Fm

P

P

F

Tbns

œ œ œ œ .œ jœ

Œ .˙‰ .œ ˙wn

.œn ‰œn œFm/E

œ œ œ œ .œ jœ

Œ .˙‰ .œ ˙wb

.œb ‰3œ œ œ

Fm7/Eb

œ œ œ ˙ Œ

Œ .˙‰ .œ ˙wn

.œn ‰ .œn JœDø7

∑

∑

∑

œb Œ œ ‰ JœBbm7

Figure 6.1: Three-part bell chords on the Fm tonic minor chord. There is also chromaticallydescending motion in the bass. From: ‘The Summer Knows’ (M. Legrand, arr. F.G.J. Absil) forconcert band.

The time interval between attacks usually is constant, but the attacks might as well soundat different time intervals. The application of his technique is fairly common; most fre-quently it is used in breaks at the end of a musical phrase, or in an introduction. Its ap-plication to a harmonic background is demonstrated in Example 6.1.

Example 6.1

Ascending three-part bell chord for a given tonic minor chord.

Figure 6.1 shows a phrase from ‘The Summer Knows’, in an arrangement for con-cert band.

• The fragment starts with three-part bell chords for trombones on the tonicminor Fm chord with chromatically descending bass (see below, Sec-tion 6.4).

• This is an upward (ascending) bell chord with note entries at a constant timeinterval; this attack pattern creates an 8th note rhythm groove.

• Note how the lead melody, trombone section and the bass part deliberatelyhave juxtaposed attacks (minimum coincident attacks), in order to maintainthe rhythmical pulse.

Another bell chord for muted brass and saxophones in a concert band ballad arrange-ment is shown in m. 5 from ‘My One and Only Love’. For the discussion see Example 11.16and Fig. 11.20.

the same album, at the end of I Don’t Wanna Be Kissed. For the source of both these 12-tone bell chords, listen tothe 2nd movement of the Alban Berg Violin Concerto.


6.2. HARMONIZATION WITH SYMMETRICALLY DISTRIBUTED ROOTS

6.2 Harmonization with symmetrically distributed roots

Root progressions in the chapters on sectional harmony and ensemble writing were based onfunctional harmony. This implies that the roots moved along the degrees of diatonic scales¿The progressions most frequently contain lepas of a diatonic fifth of third downward.3 Thisyields familiar chord changes such as the I−IIm7−V7−I or Im−IV m−V ♭9

7 −Im cadencesin major and minor, respectively. This is also the basis for the root cycle labeling, introducedin Section 1.1.3 and used in previous chapters. The familiar cadences in major and minorcorrespond to the root cycle progressions R7 + 2R5 and R5 + R7 + R5, respectively. Bothcontain positive cycles only; they are strong, primary chord progressions.

However, there is an alternative system for root progressions, based on symmetrically dis-tributed roots. Integer division of the twelve chromatic steps in the octave yields possible ⇐=symmetries at root movement R2i (major second), R3i (minor third), R4i (major third), andR6i (augmented fourth, diminished fifth).4 The direction of the root movement may be eitherdownward or upward. In the Schillinger System of Musical Composition [44] the use of sym-metrically distributed roots is presented as a separate technique for harmonic progression,as an alternative to diatonic progressions.

The chord structure may remain constant (e.g., series of parallel dominant seventh chordsS7) or may be change during the root movement. When using this type of root progression,smooth voice leading by the smallest possible steps or leaps is essential. The use of symmet-rically distributed roots at various intervals is demonstrated in Examples 6.2 to 6.5.

Example 6.2

Symmetric roots at the interval of a minor third R3i for a given melody.

Figure 6.2 shows how the original and the modified harmonization of the maintheme from ‘One Note Samba’ in an arrangement for concert band.

• The condensed score in the top figure shows the original harmonizationwith chromatically descending 7th chords in m. 1–4. This chord progressionis replaced with a sequence based on descending symmetric roots at theinterval of R3i, i.e., the minor third, as shown in the bottom figure. Theresult is the chord sequence Em7 −D♭97 −B♭97 −G♭13

7 , with changing chordstructure.

• The same technique is applied in m. 5–8, where the diatonic root movementsequence of descending 5ths, i.e., 3R5 : Gm7−C7−F −B♭7, is replaced with

3R3i : Gm7 − E97 −D♭9∆7 −B♭♯117 , again with changing chord structure.

• The simple ‘one note’ melody in this example enables the alternative har-monization with symmetrically distributed roots. In general, it will requirea bit of trial-and-error in order to allow such an approach.

3Check the basic harmonic progressions in the examples from the previous chapters.4We can still use the root cycle notation, but now we must replace diatonic cycles by root progressions with

a certain number of semitones Ni, where i indicates the semitone interval. E.g., the minor third interval isthree semitones, N = 3, and therefore the root progression R3i refers to roots leaping a minor third downward.Equivalently, R

−3i implies a root moving a minor third upward.



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Example 6.3

Symmetrically distributed bass part at the interval of a major third R4i for a

given melody.

Figure 6.3 shows the instrumental coda of a folk song, ‘The Farmer’s Song’, aboutthe hard labour on the land throughout the ages.

• This is a composition for choir and concert band, part of a theatre produc-tion. A dissonant musical texture supports the lyrics.

• The lead voice repeats the last vocal melodic phrase in m. 1–4, and is dou-bled with three-part diatonic parallel chords for flutes. The middle voicesin clarinets fill out the basic harmonies.

• There is a traditional cadential closing in G minor for brass in m. 5–6.

• In m. 3–4 the bass part plays symmetrically distributed roots at the majorthird R4i (i.e., e − c − a♭ and their tritone-related counterparts b♭ − f♯ − d).This yields passing shrill dissonances with the other parts (note the E♭/Eand the E♭/F♯ chords in particular), strongly expressing the mood of thisfarmer’s song.

The use of chord changes based on symmetrically distributed roots may typically befound in introductions and codas. The previous example is a demonstration of that appli-cation. The use in the middle of a phrase was shown in Example 6.2. Since this requiressolving a puzzle (trial-and-error), it is less frequently used.

However, now we will consider two applications in the middle of a phrase and on a verylocal scale.



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Figure 6.4: Harmonization with symmetrically distributed roots: chords in 4ths at the aug-mented fourth/diminished fifth (R6i). Chromatic parallel motion in the lower saxophones.From: ‘The Farmer’s Song’.

Example 6.4

Using chords in fourths with symmetrically distributed roots at the interval of

the diminished fifth R6i.

Figure 6.4 shows another fragment from ‘The Farmer’s Song’.

• Throughout the song the harmonies gradually progress from a medievalto a contemporary idiom. The example shows the application of chords infourths in the saxophones; two altos, one tenor and a baritone saxophoneplay meandering syncopated 8th note patterns.

• The application of symmetrically distributed roots at the diminished fifth,R6i, takes place in the three upper saxophone parts (altos and tenor). Thefirst chord in m. 1 consists of the pitches c − f − b♭; together with the bassg this yields a Gm11

7 chord. The root sequence for these chords in 4ths is(c− g♭− c− f♯− d)m. 1− (e♭− d− f♯− d)m. 2− (f♯− c)m. 3− (e− b♭)m. 4− d.This progression contains a number of these tritone-related pairs.

• The baritone saxophone part does not fit into this scheme. It is coupled tothe tenor saxophone part (parallel at the minor seventh, see Section 6.5),adding even more dissonance to this phrase.

Example 6.5

Application of tritone-related dominant chords to a given lead texture.

The example in Figure 6.5 is a transitional phrase in the montuno section of a Latinmambo for solo trombone and symphonic wind band, ‘Bone in the Barrio’.



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• The woodwinds play scalar runs in parallel thirds. The lower part in theupper staff (unisono French horns in m. 2–5 and later unisono trumpets inm. 6-9) quotes snippets from the main theme; note the ascending tendencyof these motives.

• The saxophone section (two altos, two tenors) plays the hamromies andchange every two measures from playing 4-part sectional harmony (as dis-cussed in Chapter 3) to 2-part Latin montuno riff patterns (see the a2) andthen back to sectional harmony. The 4-part sectional harmony (m. 2–3 andm. 6-7) consists of an ascending-descending lead voice with intermediatechords in the lower saxophone. In m. 2–3 the fundamental chord is A♭69, theintermediate chords contain pitches from the leading tone dominant chordG♭9

7 and Galt7 .

• The symmetrically distributed roots and the tritone-related dominantchords, R6i, are found in m. 4–5 and m. 8–9. Here the B♭7 chord is temporar-ily replaced with the E♭5

7 chord (beats 1 and 2 in m. 5) and the G♭97 dominant

chord with the D♭♭57 chord in m. 9, respectively. This yields a brief harmonictwist, due to the contrast with the diatonic scales in the woodwinds.

Another case of tritone-related symmetrically distributed roots is shown in the introduc-tion to the concert band arrangement of the ballad ‘My One and Only Love’ in a later chapter.



This fragment is discussed in Example 11.11 and Fig. 11.15.

6.3 Intermediate leading tone harmonization

Example 6.6

Application of intermediate leading tone harmonization to a given melody.



Figure 6.6: Intermediate leading tone harmonization





6.3. INTERMEDIATE LEADING TONE HARMONIZATION




6.4 Chromatic stepwise motion

In chromatic stepwise motion the motion of a particular voice in a harmonic setting is in ascend-=⇒ing or descending semitone steps. The familiar example is the chromatic motion in the bass,but the same technique can be applied to any middle or upper voice; these are demonstratedin Examples 6.7 to 6.11.

Example 6.7

Chromatically descending bass line starting from the root chord through the

seventh.

• Figure 6.1 with the phrase from ‘The Summer Knows’ for concert band dis-cussed earlier, shows the ‘classical’ chromatically descending bass. Thechord root F remains constant as the bass voice moves through the chordalfunctions 1−∆7−7− (6) (root–major seventh–minor seventh–added sixth).

• In the example this yields the chord sequence Fm− Fm+7/E − Fm7/E♭−Fm6/D. The last chord is enharmonically equivalent to D∅7. The descend-ing bass continues its semitone descent towards B♭m/D♭.

The example above with the chromatically descending 1−∆7− 7− (6) pattern is knownas the passing 7th. In the Schillinger System of Musical Composition [44] there is a generaliza-tion of this technique, including ascending patterns and melodies based on the passing 7thtechnique.5

Example 6.8

Double chromatically descending bass line for a given lead melody.

We will have another look at Figure 6.6, from ‘The Summer Knows’.

• This fragment in[

3

4

]

meter also features a chromatically bass line, but now

in two parallel lines, consisting of chord roots.

• Here is the sequence of quarter note bass pitches, with the upper chromaticline in brackets: c♯−(f♯)−c−(f)−b−(e)−b♭−(e♭)−a−(d). This combinescontinuous motion with a strong feeling of cadential rootedness, through asequence of IIm− V7 chord changes.

Example 6.9

Combined chromatic stepwise motion in multiple layers and instrument

groups.

In Figure 6.7 from ‘The Summer Knows’ for concert band there is an intricate com-bination of chromatically ascending motion in the middle voice and a descendingbass.

5On the Website with URL http://www.fransabsil.nl there is a link to the YouTube channel. There youwill find a playlist with composition techniques, including an episode on the passing 7th generalized.


6.4. CHROMATIC STEPWISE MOTION

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• The trombones play to chromatically ascending (semitone upward) phrases:e− f − f♯− g and e♭− e♮− f − g♭ in half notes.

• The bass plays chromatically descending pedal points. With the middlevoice of the bass part in brackets this yields: a− (e)− a− (e♭)− a♭− (e♭)−a♭− (d)− g − (d), with both lines slightly out of phase.

• The overall impression of this phrase is one of descending motion in theouter voices (woodwinds, trumpets, bass), which is counteracted by thecontrary motion in ascending direction in the middle voices (French horns, ⇐=trombones and saxophones).



Example 6.10

Combined chromatically moving middle voices.

• In Figure 6.4, the fragment from ‘The Farmer’s Song’ that we saw before, thelower saxophones (TS and BS) are moving both in chromatically ascendingand descending steps. These meandering voices in legato semitones createadditional tension to this already fairly dissonant phrase (see Section 6.2 forother aspects of this harmonization).

• The interval between the two saxophones is constant: a minor 7th, with theupper voice (tenor saxophone) as part of chords in 4ths (three-part chordsin 4ths for two altos and tenor saxophone).

Example 6.11

Chromatically ascending bass line for given lead voice.

The score in Figure 6.8 shows how the chromatically ascending bass contributesto the building up of tension (see Section 11.1) towards the climax in the bridgeof this concert band arrangement of ‘Roof Garden’.

• The bass guitar plays 16th note rock patterns on the ascending semitonesequences d♭− d− e♭− e♮− f − g♭− g♮ and g♭ − g♮ − a♭− a♮− b♭− b♮− c.

• Since the bass notes are all roots of dominant 7th chord structures, there isalso considerable chromatic stepwise motion in the middle voices (clarinetsand saxophones).

• The ascending tendency is balanced with the descending leaps in the leadmotif in trombones and French horns.

Another chromatically ascending bass line is shown in the modulating transition fromthe concert band ballad ‘My One and Only Love’, shown in Example 11.15 and Fig, 11.19, andin the coda from the same piece, see Example 11.14 and Fig. 11.18 (in the later chapter onbuilding the complete arrangement).

6.5 Diatonic and exact parallel chord motion

Example 6.12

Application of exact parallel chords in a transitional phrase.



6.5. DIATONIC AND EXACT PARALLEL CHORD MOTION

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Figure 6.8: Chromatic stepwise motion in the bass. The lead trumpet(s) play a pedal point.From: ‘Roof Garden’ (A. Jarreau, arr. F.G.J. Absil) in arrangement for concert band.


Figure 6.9: Exact parallel motion



Example 6.13

Application of parallel chord motion to a given melody.


Example 6.14

Application of parallel chord motion to a given melody.


Example 6.15

Parallel 3-part chords in 4ths.



Figure 6.10: Parallel 3-part chords in ballad for concert band





6.5. DIATONIC AND EXACT PARALLEL CHORD MOTION




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Figure 6.11: Variable density in the introduction to an up-tempo swing jazz standard for solotrombone and symphonic wind band. Woodwind voicing is changing from 2-part to 4-partvoicing. From: ‘Autumn Leaves’ (J. Cosma, arr. F.G.J. Absil).

6.6 Variable density

When the number of voices in a phrase is no longer constant we are using variable density. A=⇒constant number of voices is characteristic for almost all sectional harmony writing; that’swhy it is called 4- or 5-part sectional harmony.

Varying the number of voices in a phrase is an additional tool for dissonance and tensioncontrol. The extreme case of variable density is when an instrumental section is opening upfrom or closing into a unisono phrase. Variable density is shown in Example 6.16.

Example 6.16

Applying variable density as a background to a solo lead melody.

The example in Figure 6.11 is the introduction to an up-tempo jazz standard forsolo trombone and band, a concert band arrangement of ‘Autumn Leaves’.

• The woodwinds, here piccolo, flute, oboe, bassoon and the clarinet group,are playing triplet runs.

• The only other element in this section is an offbeat rhythm for pedal hihat(not shown in the score), supporting the groove and hinting at the swingcharacter of the rest of this arrangement.

• Each woodwind phrase starts with two voices at the interval of a third.Then, through opening contrary motion, an open triad in 4-part voicingis reached. Along the way the density is increasing as the multipart set-ting becomes noticeable; starting with doubling in the woodwinds helpsthe synchronization in the performance.

• Note that the woodwinds are playing an incomplete D♯97 chord in m. 5. It is

the trombone playing the lead voice that provides the missing 7th as a longnote in the previous measure.


6.7. PEDAL POINT

The aspect of tension control will return in Chapter 11; check the use of variable densityin the examples, discussed in that chapter. Creating variation within or between phrases andsections is often achieved through applying different orchestral density.

6.7 Pedal point

Example 6.17

Various applications of pedal points to either a given melody or harmony.






6.8. CLASSICAL MUSIC TECHNIQUES

6.8 Classical music techniques

In jazz arrangements there is also a place for applying techniques originating from the clas-sical music domain. The pedal point in Section 6.7 and the bell chords in Section 6.1 areexamples of such techniques.

Here we mention two additional options. A chorale harmonization provides a harmonic ⇐=background, that is characterized by smooth voice leading, long-held chords, and a combi-nation of triads and seventh chords. When possible, voice leading is stepwise. Rules for thevoicing of chord inversions are respected, and extended chords (ninth and higher chordalfunctions) are sparse. Additional harmonic interest is achieved using suspensions. Whenusing a chorale setting, the rhythm section is either tacet (silent) or bass and harmony instru-ments (keyboard) must respect the voice leading in the other instruments. For an overviewof classical theory of harmony, see [47] or [35].

Another option is using counterpoint. This could be a simple form of motif imitation in ⇐=multiple voices, but might also be a multipart fugue. The main characteristic of counter-point is the melodic independence of the individual voices. The harmonic progressions arethe result of the combination of voices; chord structures can be classical (triads and seventhchords) or from the jazz idiom (extended chords). During counterpoint phrases, it is mostlikely for the rhythm section to remain silent (tacet). The double bass might play unisono (orat the lower octave) with the lowest voice in the counterpoint setting. An excellent introduc-tion to tonal counterpoint, with lots of examples and exercises is [46].

The use of counterpoint is demonstrated in Examples 6.18 and 6.19.

Example 6.18

Apply a chorale setting to a given melody.

The melody in Figure 6.12 from the concert band arrangement of ‘Autumn Leaves’,is the closing phrase from the opening chorus of this jazz standard.

• The fragment is harmonized with a four-part chorale setting for clarinets.This orchestral colour hints at a soft, intimate and delicate organ sound.

• The harmonic structures are all seventh chords S7, with one exception: theNeapolitan 6th chord, A♭/C , in m. 5.

• Note the stepwise voice leading in all parts. Occasionally there is a leap (seem. 4), but here the classical music voice leading rule ‘a leap is followed by step-wise motion in the opposite direction’ is respected (see Chapter 9 for melodicaspects).

• Note how the suspensions in the clarinet parts in m. 3, 5 and 6 contribute tothe classical music idiom.

• The pizzicato double bass is doubling the lowest part of the chorale settingat an octave below. The rhythmic subdivisions in the bass support the up-tempo swing rhythm; note the walking bass and 8th note swing pattern.

The same type of sonority is used in the double time 4-part counterpoint setting in thefragment from the ballad ‘My One and Only Love’, discussed in Example 11.16 and shown inFig. 11.20.



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Example 6.19

Write a Baroque style fugue on a given motif.

• Figure 6.13, also from ‘Autumn Leaves’, shows a three-part fugue in G mi-nor for wind quintet, which is the introduction to an up-tempo swing jazzstandard. The fugue subject is a motif from the jazz standard melody (seethe first four notes for flute, g − a− b♭− e♭).

• The order of the three fugue subject entries is, as is the rule in traditionalBaroque music: tonic-dominant-tonic key.

• A special feature in this fugue is the sequence of entries in the stretto (theparts entering at shorter time intervals than during the fugue exposition);the four starting notes for French horn, clarinet, English horn and flute onceagain form the main motif g − a− b♭− e♭.

• The chromatic descending bass voice (bassoon) is repeated at an octave be-low, while the flute reaches the highest pitch in opening contrary motion.This contributes to a local climax.

Another example in counterpoint style, for strings and woodwinds, was shown in Sec-tion 2.3.5 in Example 2.7 from ‘Shotgun Soliloquy’, and in Chapter 8 in Example 8.1 from‘Venetian Violins’.


6.8. CLASSICAL MUSIC TECHNIQUES

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Figure 6.13: Classical music technique: counterpoint (three-part fugue and imitation) forwind quintet, as an introduction to a jazz standard. From: ‘Autumn Leaves’ (J. Cosma, arr.F.G.J. Absil).


Chapter 7

Woodwind voicing

This chapter discusses voicing techniques for a woodwind section and the combination ofhomogeneous and heterogeneous or mixed woodwind instruments. Voicing diagrams andexamples will elucidate the specifics.

7.1 Voicing multiple instrument groups in a woodwind section

The multi-player woodwind section likely will contain different subgroups: flutes, oboes,clarinets and bassoons. Voicing a chord for woodwinds implies the distribution of chordpitches to individual instruments in the section. This yields a number of options for balanc-ing and blending the instrument groups.

The diagram in Figure 7.1 demonstrates alternative voicings of a given four- or six-partchord structure, S(4p) or S(6p).1 The voicing is achieved by assigning the pitches from thechord structure to a single part from either a double or a triple woodwind section with twoor three instrument subgroups. For one specific voicing approach not all chord pitches willbe assigned; see the cases for S(3p) and S(5p) in the top and middle row, or the S(4p) columnin the bottom row.

The four types of voicing are, using the labeling from [41, 2]: ⇐=

Juxtaposition. Vertical juxtaposition is also called overlaying. There is no overlap betweenany of the instrument groups. The approach is a top-down distribution over the sub-groups, e.g., Fl - Fl - Ob - Ob (4 parts), as shown in Fig 7.1.a.

Overlapping. Some of the pitches are played by instruments from two groups; the numberof different pitches in the chord structure is smaller than the number of instruments.An example is: Fl - (Fl + Ob) - Ob, 4 instruments and 3 pitches, shown in Fig 7.1.b. Theoverlapping approach with doubling has a pragmatic approach in concert bands; since

1See the notation symbols in Section 1.1.3.


CHAPTER 7. WOODWIND VOICING

Double woodwinds, 2 groups

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Figure 7.1: Woodwind voicing and blending. Non-exhaustive set of diagrams for doubleand triple woodwinds, demonstrating juxtaposition (overlaying), overlapping, interlocking(dovetailing), enclosing and mixed voicing.


7.1. VOICING MULTIPLE INSTRUMENT GROUPS IN A WOODWIND SECTION

mostly the players are amateurs, there is the chance that either a part is beyond thereplaying skills, or they are missing from a rehearsal or concert. This safety measureguarantees that important lines are being heard in case of an incomplete orchestra.

Interlocked. This is also called crossed voicing. Now, some of the groups are overlappingand intertwined. When there is a regular alternation of instruments from differentgroups, such as Fl - Ob - Fl - Ob (4-parts) or Fl - Ob - Cl - Fl - Ob - Cl (6 parts, not shownin the diagrams) this is called dovetailing, as illustrated in Fig 7.1.c.

Enclosed. One instrumental group is now enclosing another group, e.g., Cl - Ob - Ob - Cl,as shown in Fig 7.1.d. This yields a wide interval for the subgroup playing the outerparts.

The intervals within each subgroup are smallest for juxtaposition and overlapping voic-ing, widening for interlocking and enclosing voicing. This may have consequences for theblending and balancing, as the two instruments from the same subgroup are moving intodifferently sounding registers. Note, that the diagrams in the middle and bottom row ofFig 7.1 are non-exhaustive; there may also be mixed forms of voicing. However, they stillillustrate the opening voicing within a subgroup (either flutes, oboes or clarinets) movingfrom left to right, i.e., from juxtaposition towards enclosing voicing.

See Example 7.1 for the music notation of these woodwind voicing approaches.

Example 7.1

Woodwind voicing of chord structure.

The voicing principles from Fig. 7.1 are shown in music notation in Fig. 7.2. Theseapproaches are applied to a first and second inversion major triad with pitchdoubling, i.e., S6(4p), S

64 (4p) or S6(6p), S

64 (6p).

• The voicings at the top are for two pairs of woodwinds (two flutes andtwo oboes). Notes from a first inversion triad S6 (G/B and C/E) are dis-tributed over these instruments. From left to right we see overlaying (i.e.,no overlap), overlapping, interlocking (dovetailing), enclosed and a trans-posed version of the interlocking voicing. Both instrument groups play intheir middle register.

– Measure 1 and 3 both yield consonant intervals within the subgroups:thirds and sixths, respectively. The best blending with homogeneoussound is achieved in m. 1.

– The overlapping voicing in m. 2 uses three pitches only, and the oboesnow play a perfect consonant fourth.

– The enclosed voicing in m. 4 will disturb the blending, since now Flute 2plays in its softer lower octave; the sound is significantly different fromFlute 1.

– This effect worsens as we move to m. 5, where both flutes are in thesofter low to middle register, while Oboe 2 is in a particular, outspokenregister; the oboes will now dominate over the sound of the flutes.

• In the middle figure there are triple flutes and clarinets.



– On the left, m. 1, there is vertically juxtaposed voicing, m. 2 shows over-lapping between Flute 3 and Clarinet 1 for a 5-pitch chord structureS(5p), m. 4 demonstrates dovetailing, while in m. 5 the flutes enclosethe clarinets.

– Measure 3 shows a mixed voicing. Overlaying keeps both groupswithin the same octave; the flute triad is doubled at the lower octavefor clarinets. Measure 4 and 5 bring Flute 3 in the low range, where itwill be dominated by Clarinet 1 and 2, now in their mid-high range.

• The lower figure shows how the same chord is distributed over threegroups: pairs of flutes, oboes and clarinets.

– Once again, we start in m. 1 with overlaying voicing. In the overlappingsituation there are only four different pitches.

– Measure 3 is a mix of crossing (flutes and oboes) and overlaying (clar-inets in the low register). Note the intervals within each group, beingeither perfect or imperfect consonances (for a 7th or extended chordthe distribution of the dissonant intervals would also require consider-ation).

– The example on the right, m. 5, has octave doublings within each group,but with each instrument in a particular octave with a specific sound;this will not yield a good blending and may sound like six differentinstruments are having a balancing problem.

Of course, for multiple woodwinds there will regularly be mixed forms of voicing, asthe diagrams in Fig. 7.1 demonstrate. The orchestration textbook by Rimsky-Korsakow [41]discusses this aspect in great detail for all the orchestral instrument families.

Also remember that the arranger has the choice between constant and variable voicing. Acertain vertical ordering of instruments may change at any time, if that helps the overallwoodwind sound. So feel free to move from juxtaposition to overlapping or interlockingand back. This may be required when a certain instrument is moving into a differentlysounding register or outside its playing range. Look for wide leaps with a pitch directionturning point in the lead melody or the end of a short phrase (breathing points or a rest)as the appropriate point of changing the woodwind voicing. We will see a number of thesecases in the examples.

7.2 Homogeneous and heterogeneous woodwind combinations





7.2. HOMOGENEOUS AND HETEROGENEOUS WOODWIND COMBINATIONS

Juxtaposition Overlap Crossing Enclosing Crossing

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Table 7.1: Homogeneous woodwind voicings

The table is included in the full version



Table 7.2: Heterogeneous woodwind voicings

The table is included in the full version



7.3. WOODWIND VOICING EXAMPLES

7.3 Woodwind voicing examples

In Chapter 6 on special techniques there are many examples with woodwind section voicing.Let’s have a closer look at a number of woodwind voicings from the examples in this book.

Example 7.2

Woodwind voicings for concert band and studio orchestra.

The voicing diagrams for this set of examples are shown in Fig. 7.3.

• The use of woodwinds the concert band arrangement of ‘Let it Snow’ wasdiscussed in Example 2.3 (see Fig. 2.7). We will have a more detailed look atboth fragments.

– In the opening measure the first 16th note run is for two bassoons inparallel 3rds, taken over at the higher octave by a heterogeneous groupof piccolo (8va), two flutes, oboes and clarinets; these pairs are doublingparts in the mid-high register.

– The voicing changes in m. 2 to parallel diatonic triads in inverted po-sition (mixed voicing). Finally, in m. 5 there are arpeggiated triads forinterlocking flutes and oboes.

– In the tutti chorus, the second fragment in the example, with 16th noteascending and descending runs, there is another case of flutes andoboes, doubling in parallel 3rds with the piccolo 8va, or clarinets in par-allel thirds. Keep in mind that in the concert band the clarinet sectionconsists of between 10 and 20 players.

• The second example is a transition fragment from ‘Bone in the Barrio’, inExample 6.5 and Fig. 6.5. The pairs of flutes and oboes are playing parallel6ths and 3rds, respectively. There is overlapping voicing in the high regis-ter. The E♭-clarinet doubles the lead part unisono, the piccolo at the higheroctave 8va.

• The counterpoint fugue introduction to ‘Autumn Leaves’ in Example 6.19and Fig. 6.13, features the classical music wind quintet In this fragment theEnglish horn replaces the oboe, since this fragment is in the low-middleregister. There is the standard vertical order of the wind quintet parts withclarinet and French horn swapping position in m. 14.

• The studio orchestra tutti climax from ’Shotgun Soliloquy’, is shown in con-densed score in Fig. 7.4. This four-measure fragment has a doubled leadmelody over a bolero rhythm background with staccato notes. The tuttivoicing for beat 2 in m. 3, the Gm7 chord, is shown in Fig. 7.4.h. The wood-winds are in mixed voicing, i.e., piccolo and flutes juxtaposed, flutes andoboes overlapping, oboes and bassoons juxtaposed (the clarinet doubles thelead melody). In the brass section, trumpets and trombones are juxtaposed(for this specific chord) or overlapping, and crossing with the French horns.



Introduction and tutti waltz chorus from ‘Let it Snow’

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Montuno section transition ‘Bone in the Barrio’, fugue introduction ‘Autumn Leaves’

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Tutti climax section from ‘Shotgun Soliloquy’

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(h): tutti climax m. 3, beat 2: Gm7 chord.

Figure 7.3: Woodwind (and tutti) voicing for concert band and studio orchestra. Par: paral-lel, var: various inversions. The small digits in the diagrams indicate the chordal function.The measure numbers refer to the numbers in the figures.


7.3. WOODWIND VOICING EXAMPLES

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Figure 7.4: Tutti climax voicing in ’Shotgun Soliloquy’ (F.G.J. Absil).


Chapter 8

String section voicing

This chapter presents voicing approaches for the string section. Several specific string sectionaspects and playing techniques will be discussed.

8.1 The size of the string section in an orchestra

The size of the string section is different for the symphony orchestra, the string orchestraand the studio orchestra. Table 8.1 presents the numbers of players as given in a number oftextbooks for either symphony, chamber or studio orchestra [1, 2, 4, 31, 23, 50].

In Section 2.3.5 the internal balancing of the string section and the 2:3 ratio rule wasmentioned. We will now look a bit further into this issue.

Figure 8.1 shows typical string player numbers for popular and jazz music recording ses-sions, for the classical music chamber orchestra (strings only) and for the symphony orches-tra. In a typical popular music recording session, there is no contrabass in the string section(the bass function is provided by the rhythm section bass player). The size of a strings onlychamber orchestra corresponds to the numbers in a typical large radio or studio orchestra.Obviously, actual numbers may differ from those given here; very popular nowadays is theuse of a string quartet in popular music recording.

The blue lines in the figure indicate the 2:3 ratio balancing rule, centered around the vio-las as anchoring point, As can be seen, all string sections lack sufficient upper range playersfor a natural acoustic balance. The solutions are either careful orchestration techniques, suchas having all violins playing unisono, doubling the violins with violas at the octave below.Or, alternatively having the celli play divisi, such as the div. a 2, i.e., split the group into twoparts, in fact halving the number of players per part. The alternative is electronic amplifica-tion of the strings. Table 8.1 gives an overview of typical size ranges of the string section inan orchestra.1

1The arranging book by Don Sebesky [50] has a chapter with score examples, that illustrate the potential and


CHAPTER 8. STRING SECTION VOICING

Table 8.1: Typical size of the string section in various ensemble types. Data compiled from[1, 2, 4, 31, 23, 50]. Vi 1: 1st violins, Vi 2: 2nd violins, Va: violas, Vc: cellos, CB: contrabass.

Author Vi 1 Vi 2 Va Vc CB Instrumentation

Adey 16 14 12 10 8 Symphony orchestraAdler 16-18 14-16 10-12 10-12 8-10 Symphony orchestraBlatter 12-18 10-17 8-14 6-12 5-10 Symphony orchestra

5-6 4 3 3 3 Chamber orchestraDel Mar 16 14 12 10 8 Symphony orchestraKennan 10-16 8-14 6-12 6-12 5-10 Symphony orchestra

4-8 3-6 2-4 2-3 1-3 Chamber orchestraSebesky 12 4 4 Maximum for most recordings

8 2 2 Regular recording string group

8

10

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Violin 2

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5

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Regular recording session (5-3-2-2)

Large recording session (7-5-4-4)

Chamber / large studio orchestra (8-7-5-4-3)

Symphony orchestra (16-14-12-10-8)

✉

✉

✉

✉

✉

✉

✉

✉

Figure 8.1: Balancing the string section. Typical number of players shown for four ensem-bles. Blue curves: the 2:3 rule for balancing unisono playing, anchored at the violas.


8.2. UNISONO STRINGS

Another element in the blending of the string sound is the fact that due to left handvibrato and imperfect pitch playing, the result is pitch modulation between string players.This pitch modulation introduces widening of the spectral bandwidth around the intendedpitch (see Section 2.3.8). This aspect effect is somewhat critical in the lower strings, wherethe number of players is limited. Take the case of two contrabass players; there will be onlyone pair, thus one combination that leads to modulation; most likely the individual playerscan still be identified. However, adding a third player yields three pairs and therefore amuch richer set of intermodulations with a far more blended sound.2 Of course, beyondthree players the combinations will lead to a large set, and the modulation effect growsexponentially. That is a typical characteristic of the symphony orchestra string sound.

8.2 Unisono strings

Example 8.1

Unisono violin lead melody.



Figure 8.2: Unisono violin lead melody

Example 8.2

Unisono high string voicing in a studio orchestra tutti climax.


limitations of the smaller, typical string groups in jazz and popular music. It is a great book, the quality of thestrings chapter has no equivalent in other arranging books. So make sure you read it.

2In an interview Vince Mendoza mentioned, that he requires a minimum of three double bass players in thestring section, when doing a project with his regular Metropole Orchestra or other orchestras: “Always use oddnumbers in the lower strings”.



Example 8.3

Unisono string voicing in a studio orchestra arrangement.



Figure 8.3: Unisono string voicing in studio orchestra arrangement

Example 8.4

High strings playing unisono.



Figure 8.4: High strings playing unisono


8.2. UNISONO STRINGS





8.3. SUSTAINED HARMONIC BACKGROUNDS

8.3 Sustained harmonic backgrounds

In jazz and popular music the most frequently used role for the string section is to providea harmonic background, consisting of sustained notes, with typical whole and half note du-rations. The voicing is half-open (close voicing in the middle parts and opening up towardsthe outer voices), and there is mostly stepwise motion voice leading in the parts.

This technique is based on classical music harmonization principles; the strings adhereto these principles more than the saxophones and brass. Therefore the traditional voicingconsiderations must be respected:

• Extended chord structures beyond the 7th chord S7 must be in root position (with thechord root in the bass). Inversions are not allowed for S9, S11 or S13.3 However, ifthere is a rhythm section playing, the root will be in the double bass or bass guitar andis frequently omitted from the string section background. Typically assign the chordalfunctions 3 and 7 to the celli as the lowest string parts.

• The higher chordal functions 7, 9, 11 and 13 must appear in the higher parts, respect-ing the acoustic harmonic series (see the upper harmonics of a fundamental pitch inFig. 2.10).

• Doubling should concentrate on the lower chordal functions 1, 5 and 3 (root, 5th and3rd) and must also respect the harmonic series. So there will be more doubling of the5th than doubled 3. Be most cautious about doubling the chord 7th, and use doubled9 sparingly. This doubling rule holds for solo playing by the string section.

Note, that the altered extensions ♯11 = ♭5 and ♭13 = ♯5 are in fact replacing the chordalfunction 5; this will affect the voicing in the sense that these altered 5ths may be found inlower string parts. The rules above apply when all the chordal functions are present; so both

5 and 11 as is the case in an extended minor chord Sm9/117 , or both the 5 and 13 as is the case

in an extended dominant chord S137 .

Based on these principles Example 8.5 demonstrates three alternatives for a four-measureharmonic progression for the string section alone. It is a terribly contrived 6-part stringsection setting, that will possibly fail, when applied to a real orchestral arrangement.

Example 8.5

Sustained harmonic background for six-part string section.

See Fig. 8.5 for three alternative string section voicings of the same fragment.The numbers above the notes indicate the chordal function. The celli are playingdivisi.

• Traditional voice leading exercises use 4-part settings. A 6-part exerciseleads to conflicts when respecting the voice leading rules. Treatment of dis-sonant chordal functions (preparation and downward stepwise resolution),preventing voice crossing, no doubling of the function 3 (third) with thechord in first inversion, no parallel 5ths or 8ths. This compliance is veryhard to achieve with six parts. So the example contains errors: hidden 5ths

3See the notation for chord structures and chordal functions introduced in Section 1.1.3.



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8.4. CREATE MOTION IN THE STRING PARTS

and 8ves do exist. A working and useful alternative is to write a 4-part set-ting and then double two parts, but that would have prevented a demon-stration of multiple doublings.

• The top voicing is hampered by chord inversions: 2nd and 3rd inversionS43 − S2 in m. 2 and 1st inversion S6

5 in m. 3. Here, the potential for usingextended chords is limited. Higher chordal functions are assigned to violinsand violas. All chordal functions 9 resolve by downward stepwise motion.On beat 4 in m. 2 this yields a doubling of the 3 in Vi 2 and Vc 2, howeverin closing contrary motion. There are downward moving parallel 9ths inm. 3–4 between Vi 2 and Vc 2.

• The middle voicing, m. 5–8, has more chords in root position. But now adeliberate unbalance in the chordal functions has been created. In m. 6 thefirst inversions S6

5 receive higher functions (9, ♭5, ♭13, respectively). Manyhigher chordal functions are in the lower parts; compare m. 1 and m. 5 forthe top and middle setting. However, in the latter the voicing 6−9−5−∆7−3yields a chord in 4ths, which is not bad after all. It is m. 6–7, where theunbalance is audible; note the doubled 3 on beat 2 and 4 in m. 6 (in contrarymotion, though), the series of 7ths in the lead voice Vi 1 in m. 6, and thedoubled 7 on beat 1 in m. 7. Reversing the 5 and 13 in m. 8 between Vi 1 andVc does not change the type of mild dissonance (major 9th vs. minor 7th)and is a matter of taste.

• The bottom setting, m. 9–12, is based on an entirely different approach: theSchillinger technique for writing in three strata (layers) is applied [44]. Thestrata (represented by the symbol Σ) and their functions are: lower layer Σ1,1-part CB with functions 1 and 3, middle Σ2, 2-part Vc 1 - Vc 2 with functions1 and 5, and upper Σ3, 3-part Va - Vi 2 - Vi 1 with chordal functions 3, 5, 7, . . ..Neither doubling nor higher chordal functions occur in first inversion 7thchords S6

5 . The middle stratum, sticking to root and 5th of the chord, yieldsthe celli moving both in leaps and stepwise motion. All function 9s resolveby downward stepwise motion, as do most 7s. The final measure, m. 12,is an exception to this three-strata approach; note the 7 and the suspended4 − 3 in the celli. This third setting is audibly different from the other twovoicings and sounds more stable and classical. This voicing can only be usedfor a strings solo setting; do not use this when a string section is playing abackground to a rhythm section.

8.4 Create motion in the string parts

Example 8.6

Create motion in string section setting.





Figure 8.6: Motion in string section writing





8.4. CREATE MOTION IN THE STRING PARTS




8.5 Exact parallel voicing

Example 8.7 shows exact parallel motion in the slow introduction of an arrangement forstudio orchestra. See Section 6.5 for a description of this technique. The string section playsparallel chords in 5ths, the definite pitch percussion (celesta and glockenspiel) play paralleltriads.

Example 8.7

Exact parallel chords in 5ths for strings.

Fig. 8.7 show the first eight measures from the slow introduction to a studio or-chestra arrangement of ‘I’ll Remember April’. The voicing is with parallel chordsin perfect consonant 5ths.

• This section of the introduction is written for tremolo bowing divisi strings,=⇒playing sul ponticello (near the bridge), celesta and glockenspiel, and trum-pets with harmon mutes.

• The lead voice in the violins is based on the first phrase from the originalsong melody, a well-known jazz standard.

• The strings (7-6-5-4-2) are divided into two layers or strata: the upper layerare the violins, divided into three parts, and in the lower layer there areviolas and divisi celli. The contrabass is doubling the celli at the lower oc-tave. This requires sufficient numbers of string players (medium to largesize studio orchestra).

• Two instrumentation possibilities with different voicing diagrams for thisthree parallel strata example are shown in Fig. 8.8; the left voicing diagramputs weight at the bottom with the doubled root and the violas in the lowerstratum, the alternative voicing on the right has more weight at the top anda different sonority.

• Both layers are playing a kind of counterpoint; there is contrary motion be-tween the layers. The two strata use different note duration values, whilethe overall tension of the chords is controlled. The opening chord is F 6

9 ,

ending the phrase on Am9/117 in m. 3, the second phrase is slightly more

dissonant, starting on A♭♯11∆7 in m. 5, ending on Cm9/117 in m. 7.

• Over the sustained string chords in m. 3–4 and 7–8 there is also exact parallelmotion in the celesta and glockenspiel. In this case the parallelism is basedon triads in 1st inversion position S6(E♭ − F −G −A♭ −B♭) in m. 3–4 andS6(D♭− E♭− F −G♭−A♭) in m. 7–8.

• The muted trumpets support the closing harmonies in m. 4 and 8, with tim-pani glissandi completing the Bela Bartok textural idiom used for this intro-duction.

• When the introduction to the Latin piece sets in, there is another case ofexact parallel chords: the high strings play exact parallel triads, see the riffintroduction in Example 11.8.


8.5. EXACT PARALLEL VOICING

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String section: 7-6-5-4-2

Σ1(3p) + Σ2(3p) + Σ3(1p)

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7 Vi

6 Vi

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2 Vc

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(a): Bottom-heavy (b): Top-heavy

Figure 8.8: String section voicing diagram for parallel chords in 5ths. Introduction with threestrata 3Σ (top-down numbering) for a 6-part chord S(6p). Shown is the voicing of beat 1 inm. 1, the F 9

∆7 chord. Two alternative voicings put more weight in the lower (left) or highstrings (right). From: ‘I’ll Remember April’ (G. de Paul, arr. F.G.J. Absil)

The example also contains sul ponticello, playing near the bridge, one of the special play-ing techniques listed in the next section.

8.6 Special playing techniques

In Section 2.3.5 a number of special string playing techniques were listed. Here we willdiscuss them a bit further and demonstrate applications.

8.6.1 Pizzicato

Example 8.8

String section playing pizzicato and tremolo.






8.6. SPECIAL PLAYING TECHNIQUES


Figure 8.9: String section playing pizzicato and tremolo




8.6.2 Tremolo bowing

The use of vary rapid alternating up- and down-bowing using only part of the bow, i.e.,tremolo is a familiar effect for creating suspense and tension. Example 8.8 and Fig. 8.9 show astring section playing a tremolo bowed cluster chord. Another case of string section tremolobowing is the slow introduction with chords in parallel 5ths in Example 8.7 from ‘I’ll Remem-ber April’.

8.6.3 Divisi playing

Example 8.9

String section playing playing divisi and unisono.



Figure 8.10: String section playing divisi and unisono.






8.6.4 Bowing near the bridge and on the fingerboard

Usually the bow is used midway between the end of the fingerboard and the bridge. How-ever, the player may alter the frequency spectrum (see Section 2.3.8 and Fig. 2.10) of the stringsound by deliberately playing on the fingerboard (more near the middle of the strings), i.e.,sul tasto, or very close to the bridge, i.e., sul ponticello. The former bowing technique createsa gentler, mellower string sound, by exciting more of the lower harmonics, the latter willtrigger more of the higher (in)harmonics and yield an eerie, shriller sound. The combinationof tremolo and sul ponticello is a frequent flyer for a thrilling sound in horror movies.

Special bowing techniques, such as sul ponticello and sul tasto were illustrated in the slowintroduction with parallel chords in 5ths in Example 8.7 from ‘I’ll Remember April’.

8.6.5 Multiple stops






8.7 Small string groups

In smaller scale productions, the number of string players will be reduced, even to a quartet(two violins, viola, and cello), trio (violin, viola, cello) or duo (two violins, or two celli). Inthe classical music repertoire there are numerous examples for studying writing for stringquartet, since Joseph Haydn started the form and Ludwig van Beethoven set the standard.Great examples of 20th century string writing are the Maurice Ravel Quartet in F major (1903)and the six string quartets by Bela Bartok.

When the small string section is carefully balanced with the rest of the group or ensemble,their use can be of great beauty, both in an acoustic setting or combined with electronicinstruments. Somehow the strings always seem to blend in any ensemble sound.

The use of a small string group is shown in the following two examples (see Example 8.10and 8.11). They are both from sequencer music productions with lots of synthesizers, per-cussion and electronic sound effects. These string parts were played with samples; howeverthey were written using an acoustic voicing and orchestration approach. The first example isfor string quartet, the second for cello quartet, a rather unique but very useful combination.

Example 8.10

String quartet background in funk rock production.

In Fig. 8.11 a string quartet provides a sustained harmonic background to a 16thnote funky rock rhythm, ’Funky Duck’.

• The score shows the string quartet parts and a simple sketch of the funkyrhythm section; the bass synthesizer part is written out and the harmoniesare indicated.

• The chamber music string group enters in the second chorus with a sus-tained four-measure harmonic background over a busy rhythm, here shownin m. 1–4.

• There is some motion in the parts; note the descending appoggiaturas 9− 8and 6− 5 in m. 1–2 in Vi 2 (e ց d) and Va (b ց a), the appoggiatura 9− 1 inthe Vc in m. 4 (a ց g). The d♭ in the Va in m. 4 is a dissonant neighbouringnote on the weak part of the measure.

• Note the ascending lead violin part, as the bass is moving into the lowerregister (m. 4). The result is opening contrary motion.

• In the middle section of the piece we hear this background with doubledElectric Piano chords (with tempo-synchronized echoes), but without thebass.

• The strings then continue their sustained harmony in the B-section, hereshown as m. 5–8, over an alternating Am7 − F∆7 harmonic pattern.

• There is slightly more harmonic tension in the strings, as the numbers ofdescending appoggiaturas is increasing.

• Note the (chromatically) stepwise descending Vc part in m. 5–8 (the 1 − ♯7passing 7th pattern over the Am7 chord continues into the appoggiatura9− 1 over the F 9

∆7 chord), and the dissonant b− a 2nd interval between Vi 1and Vi 2 in m. 8 (the b = ♯11 of the F major chord).


8.7. SMALL STRING GROUPS

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Figure 8.11: String quartet background in funk rock production. This relaxed, sustainedbackground contains a number of appoggiatures. Shown are the A section (m. 1–4) and Bsection background (m. 5–8). From: ’Funky Duck’ (F.G.J. Absil)



Example 8.11

Cello quartet background in Latin bossa nova production.

In Fig. 8.12 a cello quartet provides a sustained harmonic background and deliv-ers a punch in the middle section of ‘Bossa Groove’.

• This is an unusual instrumentation; however, the divisi cello quartet has aunique timbre that blends easily with other instruments, such as solo wood-winds or a saxophone section.

• First this quartet plays a sustained harmonic background in the mid-highregister over a Latin rhythm section in this lively bossa (see m. 1–9).

• The special effect is the return of the same material in the middle section ofthe piece, shown as see m. 10–17 in the example. Now the cello quartet isfeatured as a solo group with electronic percussion and sound effects in thebackground (no rhythm section).

• The setting is different now and full of motion; ascending patterns of8th notes, staccato playing, accented notes and the occasional pizzicato(plucked) note in the lower parts. For the aspect of motion in string parts,see Section 8.4.

• The upper celli Vc 1 and Vc 2 are now moving into the very high register(see m. 16–17). The normal playing range is an octave plus 5th above theopen string. Here the cello will play thumb positions on the A string.

• This eight-measure pattern is repeated a number of times, as the sound un-dergoes electronic filter modulation with increasing distortion.


8.7. SMALL STRING GROUPS

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Chapter 9

Melody

Writing a beautiful melody is not a technique, it is a gift. Some composers have a naturaltalent for pouring out great melodies, for others it is a lifelong struggle.1

Arranging a song from the standard repertoire means that you will work with a givenmelody. Your melody writing talents will be challenged when composing countermelodies,introductions, codas, bridges, and special choruses. These formal elements are discussed inmore detail in Chapter 10 and 11.

Analysing a given source melody in terms of the properties dealt with in this chapterwill help you to identify its characteristic features. That in turn may determine the generalmood of the arrangement, the local technique for a specific section, or hep to find snippetsof the melody that can be used as motifs in other formal elements.

This chapter presents guidelines for analysing or writing melodies. These are based onempirical rules, that can be found in textbooks on classical composition and counterpointsuch as [20, 24, 44, 45, 46]. Some of the guidelines apply only to diatonic scales, but notnecessarily with seven steps. Other are equally valid in the 12-tone chromatic system.

9.1 Motion in melodies

Melodies in jazz and popular music imply a sequence of pitches with different durationsfrom a diatonic scale along a timeline, as shown in diagram in Fig. 9.1 which has time talong the horizontal and pitch p along the vertical axis. The black circles along the p-axisindicate the pitch collection, i.e., the local diatonic scale.

1Whereas Johannes Brahms was a rich source of excellent melodies (e.g., check the opening melody in thethird movement Poco Allegretto in his Symphony No. 3 in F Major, Op. 90) Ludwig van Beethoven apparently hadto make an effort. Unless one respects its position in the long Symphony No. 9 the closing ‘Ode an die Freude’, nowthe European Union national anthem, sounds rather, well, lacking joy IMHO. However, it’s great for hooligansinging, drunk mass gatherings and out-of-tune official ceremonies.


CHAPTER 9. MELODY

9.1.1 Types of motion







9.1. MOTION IN MELODIES



CHAPTER 9. MELODY

9.1.2 Melody direction axes

A good melody has direction. Along the melody there are sections with either an upwardor downward directional axis. In the former case the local melody motion is dominated byascending steps or leaps, in the latter case these are descending.

The secondary axis refers to a situation where two melody directional axes are at work=⇒simultaneously. Both axes can be either parallel, i.e., moving in the same direction, or in con-trary direction, as shown in the diagrams in Fig. 9.1.b and c. Note that the slope, the gradientof both axes may be different. Thus, parallel axes might yield a converging pattern with acrossing point; the usage here is different from the strictly parallel definition in mathematics.

The secondary axis is relevant for both solo melodies and multipart settings. For the useof secondary axes in solo melodies have a look at the Baroque music solo sonatas and partitasby Johann Sebastian Bach for violin and cello. There the secondary axes are suggestingmultipart harmonic progressions for solo instruments.

In a multiple part setting the application of two directional axes creates opening or closingcontrary motion, as illustrated in Fig. 9.1.c. Opening contrary motion, with the lead voiceascending while the bass voice is descending, is used as a means to create tension and as apreparation of an instrumental climax. This is illustrated in a number of examples from thisbook.2

9.1.3 Melodic curve





2Look for the term contrary motion in the index of the book, and you will have the references to the relevantexamples.



9.1. MOTION IN MELODIES



CHAPTER 9. MELODY

a a’ b

Sentence

a b a’ b’

Period

(a) (b)

Figure 9.3: Classical music melody structure. (a) sentence, (b) period.

9.2 Types of melodies

There are two basic types of melodic structures in classical music (see Fig. 9.3):

The sentence. The sentence consists of three phrases aa’b, with a and b motivic melody frag-ments. The a motif is repeated once, before the contrasting b motif sets in. The typicaleight-measure sentence is subdivided into 2 + 2 + 4 measures. When the first a is onthe tonic chord, the second a’ is modified to sound over a dominant chord. The b motifhas the function of commenting on the repeated statement of the a motif.

The period. The period has a binary subdivision with symmetry: the four phrases are aba’b’,where, like in the sentence melody, the b is a contrasting phrase, and the accent in-dicates some form of variation. Here, the a and b motif also have a somewhat call-and-response flavour. A regular, symmetric eight-measure period has a 2 + 2 + 2 + 2subdivision.

Interpreting jazz standards and pop songs in terms of these traditional structures willhelp to identify and separate the constituting elements and phrases.

9.3 Examples of melody types

We will look at a limited number of melodic fragments from the examples in the book ingreat detail and describe these in terms of melodic properties. The first, Example 9.1, is atextbook melody with appropriate characteristics. The other two show irregular melodies,one with an early high point (see Example 9.2), and one leading to a climax at the end (seeExample 9.3).

Example 9.1

Classical lead melody.

The introduction to the studio orchestra composition ‘Venetian Violins’ was dis-cussed in Example 8.1 (see Fig. 8.2). The instrumentation is for strings only, thevoicing technique is classical music 4-part counterpoint style. The graphical rep-resentation of this melody is shown in the pitch-time diagram in Fig 9.4.

• The eight-measure introduction has an ascending pitch tendency, as shownby the two upward diagonal directional axes. The highest point is on beat 4in measure 6 (the high pitch a), near 70% of the total length. This is close tothe Golden Ratio number of 62%.


9.3. EXAMPLES OF MELODY TYPES

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Figure 9.4: Introduction melody in classical style. Shown are the highest point (closed circle),the directional axes (thin blue diagonal lines), the phrase structure (a,b) and the leap-steppairs (ls). From: ‘Venetian Violins’ for studio orchestra (see Fig. 8.2).

• The motion is mostly stepwise with ascending steps dominating the firsthalf, and descending steps in the latter third. There are up to four consecu-tive steps in the same direction (see m. 2–3 and 4–5). The upward leaps arefollowed by downward steps, as indicated by ls symbols in the diagram.

• The melody has a regular aa′b = 2 + 2 + 4 bars sentence structure. The aphrase is repeated in a slightly varied rhythm (a’) on the mediant degree fof the d minor scale. The b phrase starts with another variation of the a”phrase.

• Rhythmically, there is slightly more activity in the second half of the frag-ment, as indicated by the number of 8th note attacks.

Example 9.2

Melody with unconventional structure.






CHAPTER 9. MELODY





9.3. EXAMPLES OF MELODY TYPES

Example 9.3

Guitar lead melody with late high point.

The introduction to the studio orchestra composition ‘Venetian Violins’ was dis-cussed in Example 8.1 (see Fig. 8.2) and Example 9.1. Now we will look at theelectric lead guitar melody, shown in Fig 9.6. It is played during the second Astatement with the fast high violin legato 16th-note patterns (not shown here).The melody is represented in the pitch-time diagram in Fig 9.7. The guitar soundis in the style of Hank Marvin and the Shadows. The key is D minor.

• This is a 16-measure phrase with the solo guitar rising (m. 1–4), descending(m. 5–8) and then in the second half ascending over almost two octaves tothe apex with a climax c− b♭ at the end (m. 15–16).

• The harmonic progression is Dm − B♭∆7 − (B♭◦7 = C♭97 ) − F ♯5

∆7 − Gm7 −E∅7−A♭9

7 . corresponding to root cycles pattern R3−R7−R5−R7+R3+R5,with positive cycles and primary root movement only.

• The long, sustained guitar notes are great for vibrato, bending and distor-tion effects. The rhythm and longer note duration values in the guitar partalso nicely contrast with the continuous high 16th note violin line.

• The phrase structure is abcdc’d’, with some similarity between the a and cmotif. All four motifs are characterized by an upward leap, followed by oneor more descending steps, marked as ls in the diagram. Note the 8th noteturns before the upward leaps in the c phrase.

• The rhythmic accents in the background from the opening statement are re-peated, but for a different instrumentation (the marimba replaces the harp,and mid register flutes and low clarinets double the pizzicato strings).


CHAPTER 9. MELODY

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Figure 9.7: Electric guitar solo melody with late climax. Shown are the highest point (closedcircle), the directional axes (thin blue diagonal lines), the phrase structure (a,b) and the leap-step pairs (ls). From: ‘Venetian Violins’ for studio orchestra.


Part III

Assembling the piece“Buildin’ da house”

179

Chapter 10

Musical forms in jazz and pop music

This chapter presents a number of standard forms in jazz and popular music. We will dis-cuss shorter and longer forms, the composition of a complete piece from a set of buildingblocks, and the aspect of musical style. This chapter is neither a study in musicology, noran encyclopedia lemma. Trying to be complete is an illusion; the materiel presented here ismeant as an awareness trigger for the arranger. You might be familiar with the subjects inthis chapter and skip most of it. However, it there does not ring a bell, then it is time to delvedeeper into these subjects, consult other sources and become knowledgeable in forms, stylesand characteristics by reading and listening. The content of this chapter must be part of theintellectual and music background of the arranger.

10.1 The building blocks

A finished piece of music consists of a number of units or building blocks. Through musicalevolution a set of standardized formal units has emerged in jazz and popular music. These ⇐=have a more or less fixed length in measures and a typical duration between twenty andthirty seconds (this obviously is tempo-dependent). The building blocks in their turn maycontain smaller scale elements, such as a section, a melodic phrase or sentence, a standard-ized chord progression. The three best-known jazz and popular music forms, discussedbelow, consist of four, three and two smaller scale elements [25, 3]. Longer forms do existbut are relatively rare in jazz and popular music; see Section 10.2.1.

10.1.1 The 32-measure AABA song form

The AABA song form implies a 32-measure chorus, subdivided into 4 eight-measure sections,as shown in Fig. 10.1. The form is derived from the classical music ternary song form ABA.It consists of an opening phrase with main melody in the first A section. Here you mightfind classical music melody forms such as the sentence or period; see Section 9.2. The second


CHAPTER 10. MUSICAL FORMS IN JAZZ AND POP MUSIC

A A’ B A”

32-measure AABA song form

opening statement(varied) repeat

contrasting bridgeclosing statement

m. 1–8 9–16 17–24 25–32

Figure 10.1: The four-element, 32-measure AABA song form.

eight measures are a repeat of A with some variation or an alternative ending. Then there isthe contrasting middle section B, also referred to as the melody bridge. The song form closeswith a final statement of the opening phrase, the third A section.

Numerous Tin Pan Alley, musical and movie songs are based on the 32-measure AABAsong. From this repertoire a collection of several hundreds of jazz standards has emerged,=⇒such as collected in The Real Book series. In special cases also the chord progression hasbecome fixed, such as in the Rhythm chorus, named after the AABA Gershwin song ‘I’ve GotRhythm’, paraphrased and re-used many times during the swing and the bebop era.

10.1.2 The blues form


Figure 10.2: The three-element, 12-measure blues chorus





10.1. THE BUILDING BLOCKS




V C

verse-chorus form

verse chorus

m. 1-8 9–16 17–32

Figure 10.3: The verse-chorus pair form. A 32-measure template is shown, but the actuallength may differ.

10.1.3 The verse-chorus form

The verse-chorus pair, shown in Fig. 10.3, is the template building block for contemporarypopular music songs, the pop song. There are traces of religious and folk origin; it has el-ements of the call-and-response style. Both the verse and the chorus usually have a regularstructure (see the dashed boxes in the figure). Most songs consist of melodic phrases witheven numbers of measures, typically multiples of four. The figure shows a 32-measure verse-chorus pair, but actual numbers may differ from this template.

10.1.4 Folk and world music





10.1. THE BUILDING BLOCKS




10.1.5 Additional formal elements

In order to create a complete piece of music with a typical duration between three andfive minutes, there will be other formal elements and sections than the elementary build-ing blocks. These additions will create either unity or variation. It is the responsibility of thearranger to control the degree of coherence within the piece of music. Whereas the building=⇒blocks are a given source for the arranger, the additional elements require creativity. This iswhere the arranger most likely will become a composer.

The challenge lies in creating new material, that has a certain relation with the sourcematerial. The arranger may use snippets or basic ideas from the building blocks. This maybe a melodic phrase or motif (even an interval, a characteristic leap in the melody), a signa-ture hook, a rhythm, a chord change. This helps in creating coherence within a piece. Thisapproach also has a pragmatic reason; don’t waste all your best ideas on just one song. Keepideas in store for other work.

The additional sections in a jazz and popular music piece are:

Introduction. In general, a composition does not start with the first chorus; there is an in-troduction, in brief the intro. Inviting dancers to the floor, fading in during radio play,these are typical functions of the intro. The introduction usually sets the mood andstyle (tempo, groove, musical idiom) of the following music, unless the arranger isgoing for a surprise attack.

Coda. One could stop at the last measure or the final building block, but that is no goodidea and will leave an unbalanced impression. The coda will consciously round-offthe piece. It might summarize the essentials, or create a final climax (a clear end). Thefade-out ending is useful for radio play.

Bridge. In the AABA song form we already referred to the B section as the bridge. On asomewhat larger scale we also may encounter a bridge section between the buildingblocks. Typical purposes of the bridge are: create temporary contrast and variation,modulate to a new key, or provide room for improvisation. In many jazz arrangementsit is omitted, in a pop song it is a must have. A synonym for the bridge, a special sectionin the middle of the piece, is the transition.

Development section. This section is common in longer forms in classical music. It is astandard component in the sonata form. The composer takes one or more characteris-tic elements from the exposition and re-processes these in all sorts of disguises, usingvariation, imitation, re-harmonization, modulation through a number of keys. Classi-cal music development techniques have remained in the toolbox of the contemporaryarranger. Yet, development of source material is rare in jazz and pop music. It leadsto irregular phrases and forms, requires memory and cognitive association from thelistener. This concentrated involvement is somewhat contrary to the setting for mostjazz and popular orchestra music. The jazz improvisation is the closest equivalent tothe classical music development. The arranger will almost never be in a situation towrite a development section.

In Section 11.2.3 various characteristic types of introductions and codas will be discussed.Section 11.2.4 discusses bridges and transitions. There we will see examples of these charac-teristic types.


10.2. THE FULL PIECE

chorus

special chorus

✉

✉

��

32m AABA song

12m Blues

Verse-Chorusintro

bridge

coda

Riff

Build-up

Contrast

Modulation

All-out

Morendo

Chase, Stop, Double time

Special, Ad lib solo

❄ ❄ ❄❄ ❄ ❄

intro 1st chorus 2nd chorus bridge 3rd chorus coda

The (multiple chorus) full song

Figure 10.4: The full song form with typical duration of 3-5 minutes, consisting of a numberof building blocks, juxtaposed with additional elements such as the introduction, bridge andcoda.

10.2 The full piece

The full piece consists of the previously discussed building blocks and additional formalelements. These have to be arranged in a sequence in order to create a meaningful completemusical piece. That process is illustrated in Fig 10.4, where the breakdown of a typical three-to-five minute piece is shown in diagram. The building blocks are the main units, herelabeled as choruses; they could be either an AABA song, blues chorus or pop song verse-chorus pairs. There will be a series of these, juxtaposed with an introduction, a bridge and acoda. Neither the number of choruses nor the presence of transitory elements is fixed. Someof the blue labels in the diagram, such as the special and ad lib chorus, will be elucidated inChapter 11.

The arranger may want to design and finalize the total form, before starting to writethe score. Depending on the event and production, the formal design is a necessary step,somewhat equivalent to a film music cue design process. It also will give an idea aboutwhich techniques will be applied where during the piece.

10.2.1 Longer forms





10.3. MUSICAL STYLE

10.3 Musical style

Jazz and popular music may be categorized into different styles or genres. The arranger willbe expected to know the different styles in pop and jazz, and grasp the essentials and specialcharacteristics in each genre.

A great help in this field are books for drummers, percussionists and bass players; thesemay be considered as catalogues of jazz, pop and world music styles. They contain numer-ous style examples with typical patterns; accompanying audio material is a fast learning toolfor discovering appropriate tempi, style characteristics and feel. It is a good idea to have astyle collection on the arranger’s bookshelf or in your internet browser bookmarks.1

So here’s a list of familiar styles, compiled from a set of ‘handbooks’ for drums, percus-sion, bass guitar and some other stuff in the library [6, 17, 21, 29, 32, 56]:

Swing. The essential element in this type of jazz music is the swing style performance ofgroups of 8th notes, usually indicated as: with triplet feel. In other words: groups of ⇐=two equal 8th notes will be performed as triplet 4th note - 8th note pairs (with 2:1duration ratio). However, this ratio is tempo-dependent. Slow (ballad) to moderateswing pieces will tend towards a dotted 8th - 16th note distribution (3:1 ratio), alsoknown as bounce, medium swing and shuffle rhythms adhere to the triplet distribution(2:1 ratio), while fast up-tempo swing pieces will tend towards an almost regular 8thnote distribution (say, around 1.5:1). The experienced drummer will know what ratioto choose. And there is a historical style transition from 4-beat to ‘2 in the bar’ swingstyle during the 1930s, affecting the kick drum and double bass part.

Pop, Rock and Blues. This wide field of popular music is a collective term for many subgen-

res. Common denominator characteristics are a regular[

4

4

]

meter and a groove in either ⇐=

8th or 16th notes. Always mark the type of groove in the score, and make sure it is alsoin the drum part. Here we find styles such as: boogie, country & western (Nashville,bluegrass, cajun), gospel, heavy metal, rhythm & blues, rock (disco, funk, fusion, hardrock, jazz rock, punk), rock & roll (twist), soul (Memphis, Motown, Philadelphia). Notall of these styles will work well in an orchestral idiom; some is great in combinationwith smaller ensembles (brass and sax horn section, string group).

Latin-American. Classifying the vast domain of Latin-American music could be done ona geographical basis. Characteristic are the syncopated and accented even 8th noterepetitive patterns for the different dance and ceremonial styles. Know when and howto apply the fundamental clave (2-3 and 3-2), tumbao and cascara rhythms. Learn the ⇐=montuno patterns for the various salsa styles: bolero, cha-cha-cha, danzon, guaguanco,

guajira, guaracha, mambo, songo. Discover the Afro-Cuban styles, in[

6

8

]

meter, such as

the bembe and nanigo. Think of Caribbean rhythms: calypso, cumbia, merengue, ska,soka and Jamaican reggae. From the South-American continent, know Brazilian styles:bossa nova, samba and the dances from the northern region, Columbian music, etc.

1While studying these drum and bass style books, why not enter subsets of these patterns as MIDI files onthe computer? You will combine a detailed study of these patterns with building a library of patterns, to beimported into your music notation software. This might become a timesaver at some point, when you are tryingto meet an impossible deadline.



Ballroom dance music. These could be classified according to meter. Yielding, in[

4

4

]

meter:

boogie-woogie, charleston, jive, march, polka, foxtrot, paso doble, quickstep, rumba,

and tango. In[

3

4

]

meter there are: waltz, and tarantella. The same dance forms, ap-

plied to jazz standards and part of the pop song repertoire returned in easy listeningorchestral recordings in the 1960s. This genre is not the ideal testing ground for ar-ranger experiments. Create your own sound, if you must; that’s what Mantovani, HerbAlpert and James Last have been doing. Just don’t smoke screen the dance rhythms;these have been canonized since the Habsburg Empire, approximately.

Folk and world. Just to make things more complex: here’s another ‘world’ of its own, withinnumerable national and regional variants and styles. Just to mention a few: Afro-Pop (kwasa-kwasa, soukous, zouk), Argentinian tango nuevo, Balkan fanfare, Irishjigs and reels, Mexican mariachi, Spanish flamenco. On a supranational and largerscale there are: Arabic music with its characteristic maqam improvisation and the waznrhythmical patterns. Indian raga with the different tone system and rhythmic patternclassifications. When the arranger is faced with these styles, it will be for very specificproject with hopefully sufficient preparation time and support to get acquainted withthe style. Otherwise it is better left to a person with a specialized background in thegenre. Here are some books to consider as an introduction to world music from variouscontinents: [5, 22, 28, 36, 53].

However, if the case arises, the arranger will likely be faced with unfamiliar musicalinstruments (see Section 2.3.7), scales and rhythms. Do realize that the use of certainnon-Western scales in world music implies that some arranging techniques may nolonger be applied.2

Modern pop music. Under this label we will find: acid, drum ’n bass, electronic dance mu-sic (EDM), hip-hop, house, rap, trance, dubstep and DJ’s. Upon first inspection, thisfield might seem irrelevant to the contemporary arranger and orchestrator. However,in initiatives where classical music organizations want to attract a younger audience,it is not unlikely that live concert events, including DJ’s and rappers might be orga-nized. These projects are a real challenge to the arranger; close coordination with theelectronic music producer is essential in order to maintain a proper balance with theacoustic instruments. Usually, forget about subtleties in strings and woodwinds. Makesure the lead melodies and the beat are somehow heard.

10.4 Move on to arranging

With the total musical form determined, the arranger may begin his ‘real’ work. The tempo,duration and timescales are known now, as are the general mood of the song or for each ofthe pieces in a multiple number production. Probably the musical style has been identifiedby now.

2The arranging techniques in Part II and III are in general based on the 7-step diatonic scale (the modes) andthe equal-tempered 12-pitch chromatic scale. Sectional harmony and extended tutti chords will sound different(to say the least) in other tuning systems. Techniques such as the use of pedal point, bell chords, variable density,diatonic parallel chords and some symmetrically distributed roots may still be (limited) applicable.


10.4. MOVE ON TO ARRANGING

It is time to start arranging the piece, controlling the overall tension and balance, and thedetailed application of arranging techniques and instrumental colouring to each subsection.3

Overall considerations and detailed aspects and approaches to a finished piece are presentedin the next chapter, where more examples will be shown.

3Make sure you know the restrictions and production boundary conditions before you start writing the firstscore. Remember the shortlists and tips in Section 2.4.


Chapter 11

The arrangement

This chapter deals with the arranging and completion of a finished piece of music, a com-plete arrangement. Various arranging aspects will be discussed, such as building a tensioncurve, applying and combining techniques from the toolbox in Part II. The chapter concludeswith a list of relevant music notation categories in score and parts.

11.1 Creating a tension curve

In Section 10.2 we constructed a full piece of music from a set of building blocks: choruses,introduction, bridge and coda. The arranger can now start to work on a detailed level anddetermine the application of specific techniques to sections from the piece, i.e., a local ap-proach.

However, the design of the arrangement also implies control of a number of musical as-pects on a global scale. These can be summarized in a tension curve, that includes aspects ⇐=such as melodic curves (high and low points), harmonic consonance and dissonance, dy-namics (soft-loud), orchestration (instrumentation, register, special playing techniques andeffects) and part density (between unisono and tutti). The total duration of the arrangementfollows from the tempo.

A typical tension curve for a full song is shown as a blue diagram in Fig. 11.1. Note howthere is an overall tension increase over the duration of the piece. The formal elements of thetemplate song are shown in black; there are multiple choruses (AABA song, blues or verse-chorus pairs), an introduction, bridge and coda. The dashed boxes in the second chorus arethere to remind us of the fact, that a chorus contains subsections, such as musical phrasesand sentences (the template shows a three-part subdivision of the chorus, as would be thecase for the blues).

The figure shows a number of alternative tension profiles. An increase in tension canbe in steps along a staircase pattern, such as during the crossing from the first to the secondchorus, or gradual, as is shown during the bridge (this also holds for a tension decrease,


CHAPTER 11. THE ARRANGEMENT

✟✟✟✟✟✑

✑✑✏✏✏✏✏✏

✟✟✟✟✟✟

✟✟✟✟✟

❍❍❍❍❍

intro 1st chorus 2nd chorus bridge 3rd chorus coda

riff

build-up

tutti ff

step increase

variable increase

build to ... climax ff all-out

die-out

Typical tension curve

Figure 11.1: Typical tension curves for a piece of music. The multiple chorus musical form isshown in black, the tension curve in blue. Alternatives are shown for various sections of thearrangement (see discussion in the text).

obviously). The stepwise increase can be achieved by moving from a unisono lead melodyto five-part sectional harmony or a repeat of the melody in the higher octave, but now withbrass accents in the background. The gradual tension rise can be achieved dynamically bya crescendo, getting louder from mf to ff , or by opening contrary motion in a tutti blockchord voicing.

The piece typically has multiple climaxes. Shown is a global climax in the third chorus,=⇒and a number of local climaxes in the alternative tension curves for introduction, secondchorus and coda. In general, the global climax is expected between 60% and 70% of the totalduration. Here the Golden Ratio, that we encountered in the guidelines for a good melodyin Section 9.1.3, may hold once again. This yields an expected climax at 0.618 ≈ 62% of thetotal length.

Variable tension in the second chorus can be achieved for example by closing every vocalmelodic sentence with a rhythmic break for brass section with drum accents. Or, alterna-tively, by moving from a string sustained harmonic background during the first section tobackground 16th note upward woodwind arpeggios in the second section, and a big bandtutti voicing in the third section. At the start of the bridge there is typically a sudden de-crease, a drop in tension; this is not the only solution, but it makes the design of the overallclimax easier (think in terms of relative tension differences). The typical alternative tensioncurves for introduction and coda will be discussed in Section 11.2.3.

Harmonic tension can be controlled by a number of parameters; an overview of these is=⇒shown in Fig. 11.2. Five categories of parameters are listed in the figure. The label tensionrefers to the highest chordal function: for a triad it is the 5th (the triad consists of root, thirdand 5th, i.e., S5 = [1, 3, 5]), for a 7th chord it is the function 7. Extended chords start withfunction 9 and may include the functions 11 and 13 and their alterations. Varying the chordstructure during a phrase will affect the local tension curve.

An obvious parameter is the chord type: major, minor, dominant 7th, etc. Sometimes thechord type is fixed, such as in a closing V-I dominant-tonic cadence S7 − S(m)5 in a majoror minor key. However, when taking into account the possible application of substitute


11.2. USING THE TOOLBOX

Position

Tension

Voicing

Instrumentation

Type

Triad S5

7th chord S7

Extensions S9, S11, S13

Alterations ♭5, ♯5, ♭9, ♯9,

♭10, ♯11, ♭13

Major S, S6, S∆7, S9∆7, . . .

Minor Sm,Sm7, Sm97, . . .

Dominant S7, S9, . . .

Half-diminished S∅7

Diminished S◦, S◦7

Doubling

Homogeneous section

Heterogeneous / mixed

Blending and balance

Root position S5, S7, S9, . . .

First inversion S6, S65

Second inversion S64 , S

43

Third inversion S2

Cluster

Closed

Mixed

- ‘drop 2 (and 4)’

In 4ths

Open

r

r r

r r

r

r

Chords / harmonic structures

Figure 11.2: Parameters that influence harmonic tension. These are grouped into five cate-gories (shown in black).

chords (see Section 3.3.4, where this option is discussed for sectional harmony), there ismore freedom to move from major 3rd to minor 3rd type chords.

Chord position, i.e., the use of inversions, is another variable in harmonic tension. Movingfrom root position to higher inversions will decrease harmonic stability and increase tension.As a guideline, be careful with series of inverted chords, and use extended chords only inroot position.

Chord voicing and instrumentation also contribute to the harmonic tension, but for these itis hard to generalize. Very close (cluster) and open voicings increase the tension, some play-ing techniques also yield tension (strings tremolo, brass with straight mute, French hornswith bells up in the air). There are a great many options and combinations in these categories.As an arranger develop the awareness and develop deliberate usage to the harmonic tensionparameters.

11.2 Using the toolbox







Figure 11.3: The techniques toolbox in diagram




11.2.1 Combine elements

We may use a somewhat structured approach when selecting techniques from the toolbox,and adhere to a set of rules:1

1. Use a sparse set from the toolbox. Be efficient and don’t waste all the techniques onevery piece of music. Limiting yourself to a subset of techniques will create unity andcoherence within a single piece and leave more variation between multiple pieces.2

2. Select a main element from Fig. 11.3 for each individual (sub)section. In any case always ⇐=be aware of the dominant element in a musical setting; there is one, for sure.

3. Combine up to three elements in parallel. Note that in jazz and pop music the rhythm ⇐=group and vocals also count as an element. Going beyond three elements must be adeliberate choice; three elements in parallel should do.3

4. Decide on when to change the set of elements. This has to make sense musically; thetransition to a new section seems a logical spot to do so. But it might also be on amore local scale, at the end of a musical phrase. Also, the realtime, tempo-dependent,experience is relevant. Change regularly, before the sound of the technique becomesboring. Keep the listener interested; an attention span of around 30 seconds may serveas a practical guideline for changing the arranging technique.

Fig. 11.3 mentions unisono playing at both the section and ensemble (tutti) level. Thatspecial technique has been mentioned as an extreme case of variable density in Section 6.6.To make an impressive thematic statement, play it unisono; that effect works perfectly whenjuxtaposed with multi-part chord structures.4

Some technique combinations make no sense; this obviously holds for trying to combinefour-part with five-part sectional harmony. Another incompatible combination is imitativecounterpoint with sectional harmony.

Consider the combination of techniques with different note attack timescales, i.e., with dif- ⇐=ferent rhythmical characteristics and durations. This aspect is illustrated in diagram inFig. 11.4. For example, use the first technique with a typical duration of whole notes inparallel with a second technique with average duration of 8th notes. Combinations withequal durations sound blurred and are not easy to discern for the listener. Also try to placethe shorter note attacks from one technique during longer note durations in another tech-nique. A useful combination with different timescales in Fig. 11.4.b might be: T1 sustained

1Some readers may prefer the cooking analogy, where for preparing the dish selecting ingredients, mixingand spicing are the equivalent. Note that these rules are in fact guidelines, that need not be respected strictly.The rules represent empirical data and are common practice.

2It is a well-known beginner’s error for an arranger to use the full set in the first score. I fell into that trap: myfirst jazz big band score had dots and beams all over the place, on every page, showing-off all possible techniquesto the detriment of the total piece. Try and refrain from this temptation.

3In contemporary music productions, especially in the popular music sector, multiple sound layers are mostcommon. Probably inspired by the ‘wall-of-sound’ concept and enabled by modern multitrack recording andsequencing technology this is easy to do; the balance is then created at the mixing stage. However, in the acousticand the concert performance domain a balanced sound is harder to achieve; that’s how the three parallel elementapproach emerged in the 1930s through 1950s, I guess.

4For a virtuoso case of jazz big band tutti unisono playing, listen to Bill Holman’s arrangement of ‘JustFriends’.



❛ ❛ ❛ ❛ ❛

❛ ❛ ❛ ❛ ❛ ❛

❛ ❛ ❛ ❛ ❛ ❛ ❛

T1

T2

T3

❛ ❛ ❛

❛ ❛ ❛ ❛ ❛

❛ ❛ ❛ ❛ ❛ ❛ ❛ ❛ ❛ ❛ ❛ ❛ ❛

T1

T2

T3

(a): Prevent equal timescales (b): Use different timescales

Figure 11.4: Combining techniques (T1 to T3) at different note duration timescales. Preventthe combination on the left with many coinciding attacks with equal note durations. Thetimescale and note attack separation on the right is much clearer. (Circles indicate noteattacks, lines represent note durations.)

harmonic background, T2 the rhythm section bass part, and T3 the lead melody. Or, alter-natively, T1 a sustained pedal point, T2 a unison melody and T3 accented extended blockchords.5

We will now illustrate the application of the techniques toolbox with a number of exam-ples, starting from simple, basic element combinations to the more intricate multiple elementfragments; see Example 11.1 to 11.6. The first three examples are arrangements for big band.

Example 11.1

Instrumental background in vocal chorus.

Fig. 11.5 shows a vocal chorus from ‘Like a Lover’ (D. Caymmi) in a mediumtempo Latin arrangement for big band.

• The parallel elements in the first chorus (m. 6–19) are: (1) the solo vocal, asthe main element; (2) the rhythm section. In the second chorus (m. 20–33) anew element is added: (3) the unisono instrumental countermelody. Finally,in m. 28–30 the third element becomes the trombone section. Note that thevocal line typically has a timescale of 8th notes; when the singer is combinedwith trombones, the latter play typical durations of either 4th or half notes(on the sustained chords).

• Two instrumental combinations are used: alto saxophone and flugelhornplay a motif from the main theme (m. 18–20, 32–33), tenor saxophone andtrombone play a unisono countermelody. Note how the rhythmic activity(short vs. long notes) is swapping between vocals and countermelody.

Example 11.2

Rhythm and saxophone background in an ad lib solo chorus.

Fig. 11.6 shows an ad lib solo chorus from ‘How High the Moon’ (W.M. Lewis) inan up-tempo swing arrangement for big band.

• The parallel elements are: (1) the ad lib solo, as the main element; (2) therhythm section; (3) the saxophone section background.

5In the examples in this book with multiple techniques in parallel, try to identify the timescales for each.



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Figure 11.6: Rhythm and saxophone background in an ad lib solo chorus. From: ‘How Highthe Moon’ (W.M. Lewis, arr. F.G.J. Absil) for big band.

• The saxophones (AS 1 - AS 2 - TS 1 - TS 2) are playing four-part accents(m. 1), juxtaposed with unisono lines (m. 2–8), and sectional harmony withdiatonic and exact parallel chords (m. 11–12). The typical note durationis juxtaposition of 8th note groups with dotted half note (see m. 2–4); thistimescale differs from the 4th note walking bass accompaniment in therhythm section.

Example 11.3

Tutti special chorus for big band.

Fig. 11.7 shows another fragment from ‘How High the Moon’ ; a tutti special chorus



that follows directly after the previous example (note the measure numbering).

• The elements in m. 17–27 are: (1) the ensemble block chords in brass andsaxes, as the main element; (2) the rhythm section.

• The brass and saxes are juxtaposing extended chord voicing with unisonomotifs (see m. 21 and 25).

• In m. 28 there is a change: a five-part saxophone voicing becomes the mainelement, while the rhythm section continues as the secondary element.

• The piano player might add a few fills in the gaps between the tutti phrases.The drummer will prepare the tutti accents.

The other examples in this section are from two arrangements and a composition forconcert band, see Example 11.4 to 11.6.

Example 11.4

Juxtaposing multiple techniques in ad lib solo chorus.

Figure 11.8 shows a fragment from ‘Autumn Leaves’ (J. Cosma) in an arrangementin up-tempo swing style for concert band.

• The fragment is at the end of an ad lib solo for trombone; the written-outtemplate is shown in m. 1–16. The trombone plays in the high register.

• The arrangement here is building up towards a climax, that concludes thesolo and prepares for a special chorus, The local climax is in m. 12–13.

• Let’s see how multiple elements from the toolbox are combined in this ex-ample. In m. 2–11 we have: (1) the solo trombone as the main element; (2)the rhythm section accompaniment with the walking bass; (3) the unisonosaxophone countermelody in triplet and swing 8th note groups; (4) the brassaccents; (5) the unisono French horn line. This is a very busy fragment;yet the layers operate mostly on different note duration levels. In m. 12–13there is a change of elements: (1) the solo trombone; (2) the rhythm section;(3) brass and saxophone ensemble voicing, dynamic level fortissimo. In thespecial chorus, m. 18–23, the elements are: (1) brass and piccolo multi-partvoicing.

• The saxophones play a unisono line (2 AS + 2 TS) in the middle-high reg-ister in m. 1–6. The four French horns also play a unisono line, a stepwisedescending countersubject in the mid-low register, in contrast to the ascend-ing saxophones. Note that the attacks in saxophones and horns follow eachother. They are deliberately non-synchronized, in order not to interfere.

• The brass (4 trumpets and 3 trombones) add another layer with accents ina mixed 5- and 6-part voicing, using extended chords. Note how the brassaccents fill in the sustained notes in the saxophones in m. 2–4. In m. 8–9there is opening contrary motion.



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• In m. 11 the saxophones prepare the climax, changing to close voicing four-part harmony. Then the entire big band section (5 Sax, 4Tpts and 3 Tbns)plays a crescendo climax with extended chords.

• A low dominant pedal point d in m. 14–15 for baritone sax, unisono trom-bones and soft brass (baritones and tuba), concludes this chorus.

• Then a new technique sets in: m. 17 is the opening of a special chorus forthe complete brass (4 Tpts, 4 FHns, 3 Tbns, Bar and Tu; the first six mea-sures are shown). There is no support from the rhythm group. The voic-ing changes continuously between unisono and 6-part, between close andhalf-open (mixed). The brass loudness equivalence rule is adhered to (seeSection 2.3.4): when the French horns play the lead melody part 8ba, theyplay unisono.

• The piccolo provides a ‘bite’ to this instrumentation, playing the lead partan octave higher.

• The initial motif in this special chorus is based on the first four notes fromthe original song theme (O = g−a− b♭−e♭). It is used in melodic inversion,see m. 17–18 (I = e♭− d− c− g), m. 20–21 (I ′ = b♭− a− g− d) and m. 21–23(I ′′ = d − c − b♭ − f ). The motif appears in the original form in m. 19–20(O′ = f − g − a− d). Gradually this motif changes as the chorus progresses(not shown here).

Example 11.5

Changing techniques in a longer fragment.

We will see how the techniques and elements change in a somewhat longer frag-ment from a concert band arrangement of ‘Just the Way You Are’ (B. Joel), shownin Fig. 11.9 and 11.10. We will label and number the elements as we discuss themeasures from this fragment. The rhythm section is playing a Latin 8th groove.

• The transition to the bridge B section, m. 1–2, opens with unisono Frenchhorns in an 8th note rhythm (1) over a harmonic background for two cupmuted trumpets and two cup muted trombones (2).

• Next, in m. 3–10 the main element is the unisono melody in the saxophones(1), i.e., 2 AS + 2 TS, with a somewhat accented harmonic background byFrench horns and doubling clarinets (2). A brief cup mute trumpet phrase(3) fills in the sustained melody note in m. 6–7.

• A tutti phrase for brass, saxophones and woodwinds (1) builds with acrescendo towards a climax in m. 12–14. The drums (2) will prepare andunderpin the short and long accents. Note the woodwind arpeggiated tri-ads in m. 14.

• In m. 15–17 the melody is played by AS 1, Tpt 1 and Fl 8va (1), with a har-monic background by the three trombones (2).



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• The bridge section concludes in m. 17–18 with big band accents (1) and morethree-part woodwind arpeggios (2).

• The main melody is played in m. 19–25 by the lead trombone (1), with acountermelody in unisono flute and clarinet (2) and a five-part sectionalharmony background in the saxophones (3). The countermelody is in a dif-ferent octave from the main melody. Separation between saxophones, trom-bone and woodwind countermelody is achieved by juxtaposing the noteattacks (see the coordinated accents and syncopations in each of the threeelements) and using different note durations. The saxophones play synco-pated half note units, the melody is in quarter and 8th notes, while the highcountermelody uses 8th and 16th note patterns.

Example 11.6

Combining multiple techniques Latin montuno section.

We will look from a different point of view at Example 6.5 and Figure 6.5 with amontuno section from ‘Bone in the Barrio’ for concert band.

• The are multiple parallel elements: (1) woodwinds, playing in the mid-high register in parallel 3rds, (2) saxophones, playing arpeggiated four-partchords and montuno patterns, (3) the rhythm section, (4) French horns andtrumpets playing a ascending syncopated motif in m. 2–3 and m. 6–9, re-spectively.

• This is another busy fragment, with elements 1 and 2 fighting for the priorityrole of main element. For a good performance the conductor has to balancethe concert band sections. There could be a shift in focus every measure;from woodwinds in m. 2 (highest point) to saxophones in m. 3 (crescendoto high point), horns in m. 4 (idem), and repeating this focus shift for m. 6–9(with the trumpets replacing the horns).

11.2.2 Crossing borders

Example 11.7

Overlapping technique at section borders.







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Figure 11.11: Overlapping techniques at section edge




11.2.3 Start and stop

In Chapter 10 on musical forms in jazz and popular music, we saw in Section 10.1.5, thatlonger pieces are likely to start with a separate introduction, abbreviated as intro, and con-clude with a coda, as was shown in the total form diagram in Fig. 11.1. These two elementshave a preparatory and a summarizing function, respectively, and they appear in typicalforms with specific tension patterns, that will be elucidated below.

The introduction

The introduction occurs in two common forms, with different tension patterns, as shown inblue in Fig. 11.1:

The riff or vamp intro. The riff introduction, also known as the vamp, implies a short pat- ⇐=tern, usually between one and four measures long, that is repeated a number of times.The riff element is a melodic or rhythmic phrase, usually over a simple chord change,The repeating pattern may undergo slight changes, but its basic goal is to create arhythmic groove.Thus, the tension level remains constant, as shown in the figure. ⇐=

Riff and vamp patterns may also occur in other sections of the score; another favouritespot is as a background to an ad lib solo improvisation. The Nelson Riddle arrange-ments for Frank Sinatra and Ella Fitzgerald contain numerous riff-type introductions.6

The riff is equivalent to the hook in a pop song.

The riff/vamp type of intro will often continue during the first phrase of the mainmelody. The chord changes will usually require slight modification or stopping of theriff. This pattern may then return as an overlapping technique between the first andsecond sentence, or later in the arrangement is a unifying element.

The build-up intro. The main characteristic of this type of intro is the increase in tensionand dynamics (usually a crescendo to fortissimo ff ). It more or less launches the mainmelody or theme. When used in the middle of a piece at the end of a section, it mayprepare the featuring of a soloist, or a special chorus. We saw an example of the lat-ter application in Example 2.2, where the jazz big band brass section ’launched’ thesaxophone section special chorus.

We will now present some examples and focus on the type of introduction. Two of theseare based on the riff principle; see Example 11.8 and 11.9 for studio orchestra and big band,respectively. The third example, for concert band, is a juxtaposition of a riff introduction,followed by the build-up type; see Example 11.10. A pure build-up introduction type in aballad is shown in Example 11.11, another concert band arrangement.

Example 11.8

Riff introduction to Latin piece.

Figure 11.12 shows the introduction from ‘I’ll Remember April’ (G. de Paul) inan arrangement in Latin-Swing style for studio orchestra. This fragment is thecontinuation of the slow introduction, that we already saw in Example 8.7.

6As an example, listen to the Nelson Riddle arrangement of Cole Porter’s ‘I’ve Got You Under My Skin’ forFrank Sinatra on the album Songs for Swingin’ Lovers. The Songbook albums for Ella Fitzgerald also containnumerous examples of the riff/vamp type of introduction and accompaniment.



• Now the Latin rhythm sets in with a two-measure riff for double bass,drums and percussion. It is a montuno pattern, with a pedal point on tonicand dominant (c and g) of the main key C major. The pattern is repeatedfour times, before the main theme sets in on m. 9.

• In m. 5, the high strings enter, with all violins divisi a tre (Vi 1 and Vi 2 di-vided into three equal subgroups), and Va one octave below the lead violins.They play a descending scale of exact parallel triads: D − C − B♭ − A♭ −G♭−F −E♭−D in first inversion position. This yields a bitonal chord struc-ture 〈D|C〉, that also sounds like an ambiguous dominant 7th chord in thirdinversion S2 = D7/C .

• The five-part parallel voicing technique continues as the jazz big band setsin, with soft saxophones, bucket mute trumpets and trombones in the mid-dle register. Lead trombone and guitar are doubling the lead trumpet atthe lower octave. The tonic chord enters on m. 12 as a major chord withadded 6th and 9th C6

9 . Before that the parallelism creates a Lydian modalimpression with the characteristic f♯ and the other sharps that are createdby ascending chromatic leading tone chords (see m. 9 and 12). In m. 13 theentire setting is transposed a major 2nd down.

• The voicing diagram for this five-part tutti setting is shown in Fig. 11.13.The saxophones and brass play in ‘drop 2’ voicing. As can be seen from thevoicing diagram, four instruments play the lead melody: Tpt 1 - (AS 2 + Tbn1 + Gtr). The lead alto, AS 1, is playing parallel consonant 6ths with the leadtrumpet.

Example 11.9

Riff introduction to vocal chorus.

We return to Fig. 11.5, showing the introduction to the vocal chorus from ‘Like aLover’, in a medium tempo Latin big band arrangement.

• The rhythm section plays a syncopated two-measure tonic-dominant vamppattern (see the bass line and C∆7−Gsus4

7 chord changes, m. 2–3) that carriesover into the vocal chorus. This riff pattern is picked-up at the end of thevocal melody line; see m. 16–17 and m. 30–31.

Example 11.10

Juxtaposition of riff and build-up introduction to rock piece.

Figure 11.14 shows the introduction from ‘Roof Garden’ (A. Jarreau) in an ar-rangement in 16th rock style for concert band.

• In this introduction, two techniques are juxtaposed. In m. 1–8 there is atwo-measure riff for rhythm section and saxophones (m. 1–2, 5–6) or French



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horns and trombones (m. 3–4, 7–8). In m. 11–12 the technique changes to acrescendo build-up intro, concluded with a solo drum break. The rock riffidiom returns in the opening statement of the main theme (not shown here).

• The two-measure riff is written as syncopated four-part sectional harmonyin parallel 4ths, first played by AS 1-2 and TS 1-2 (BS joins in on the tuttiin m. 9). The FHn part in m. 3–4 is doubled, in order to maintain a balancewith the three trombones.

• The trumpets play a riff motif, also with a perfect 4th voicing flavour, andthey are later doubled by woodwinds (flutes and oboes) in the higher oc-tave.

• In m. 9-10, there is an exact parallel ensemble voicing on an altered dom-inant 7th chord structure Salt

7 : A♭alt7 − Aalt7 − . . . − Db♭alt7 . The crescendo

ends on fortissimo ff with a fall-off and a sustained trill on g in the highwoodwinds.

Example 11.11

Build-up introduction to ballad for concert band.

The introduction to the ballad ‘My One and Only Love’ (Mellin & Wood) in anarrangement for concert band is shown in Figure 11.15.

• The introduction is based on a theme (m. 1–2) that is derived from a charac-teristic motif in the song melody: after an upbeat ascending pentatonic scaleg − a− c− d− e− b− g the five notes a− d− b− g − f (the original key isC major) are treated sequentially in the melody. This arrangement is in thekey of b♭ major; the main melody motif thus becomes M = g− c−a−f−e♭.Here, we see a slightly modified melodic inversion I(M) = a−f −g− c−d,plus the transposed version at the tritone I(M)6i = e♭− b− d♭− g♭− a♭.



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• The harmonic structures are, like the melodic motif, based on R6i (dimin-ished 5th, tritone) symmetrically distributed roots (see Section 6.2). Thetrombone chords Dm−Cm−A♭m−G♭m (m. 2–3) together with the bass partyield Dm7−Cm7/B♭−A♭m−G♭m7/F♭−G♭m/F . Note that the dominantchord in the key B♭ major in m. 5–6 is without the dominant 7th e♭.

• There is opening contrary motion between upper and lower parts. There isalso a crescendo effect. And finally the motif is presented in melodic dimi-nuition (starting in quarter notes, then 1/4 triplets, 8th notes, 16th notes,and finally 32th notes). These three effects contribute to the building up oftension towards a stretto climax; see the fortissimo ff in m. 5.

• In m. 5 the piccolo, flute and glockenspiel play a quote from the bridge ofthe song (a− g♯− f♯− a), a pentatonic ascending scale (f♯− g♯− b− c♯− d♯,quoting the A section upbeat melody). Doing so, they play a B13

7 chord, thathas a tritone relation with the G♭m/F chord structure in the lower brass.Note that the d♯ = e♭ is thus providing the minor 7th of the full dominantchord.

• A number of these features will return in the coda of the same arrangement,see Example 11.14, thereby creating a bridge form and textural unity.

The coda

Example 11.12

Morendo (dying-out) coda of a mambo for studio orchestra.


Example 11.13

All-out coda to swing piece for concert band.


Example 11.14

All-out coda to ballad for concert band.








Figure 11.16: All-out coda to swing piece for concert band


Figure 11.17: Tutti voicing diagram for all-out coda for concert band




Figure 11.18: All-out coda to ballad for concert band




11.2.4 Contrasting bridge and transition

The bridge as a formal element in a piece of music means two things, as was mentionedin Chapter 10. It either refers on the local scale to the contrasting B phrase in the AABAsong form (as shown in Fig. 10.1), or to a contrasting middle section in a longer piece, asillustrated in Fig. 11.1. Here we use the latter meaning.

The bridge is used to connect two basic building blocks from the piece (such as the AABAsong chorus or a verse-chorus pair). It does so by creating temporary relief and some form ofcontrast, by changing the dynamics (playing softer), or rhythmic groove, or instrumentation=⇒(thinned-out orchestration), etc. It creates renewed interest and acts as a transition.

Another application of the bridge is to modulate to a new key; Example 11.15 demon-=⇒strates this use.

Example 11.15

Modulating bridge in ballad for concert band.

Figure 11.19 shows a modulating bridge from ‘My One and Only Love’ (Mellin &Wood) in an arrangement for concert band.

• The transition starts in the key of B♭ major in m. 2 and ends on the dominantchord E9

7 in m. 5. Then there is the sudden move to the new key of C major,instead of the expected A major. These two roots lie on the same tonal axisa − c − e♭ − f♯, and this minor third key relationship provides a frequentmodulation target in classical music from the Romantic era.

• In this transition a number of features from earlier in the arrangement re-turn. First, there is the melody from the song’s B section, which is para-phrased here by the oboe and clarinet. The triplet 16th motif is familiarfrom the introduction to the song (see Example 11.11) and will return oncemore in the coda (see Example 11.14). The transition ends with the 32th notepentatonic ascending scale, that has been concluding the climax in the introand has been used as an overlapping motif between sections.

• The 16th note groove, another double time feel fragment (see Example 11.16and Section 11.3), is provided by upward leaps in the bassoon and lowerclarinets.

• The tension increase towards a climax is helped by the crescendo and thechromatically ascending bass line.

• The new chorus starts in m. 6 with a pure woodwind voicing. Note thechromatically descending clarinet parts, playing a re-harmonization of themain melody with a series of parallel diminished chords.

Another bridge was shown in Example 6.11 and Fig. 6.8 from the concert band arrange-ment of ‘Roof Garden’. There we discussed the chromatically ascending bass line and theincreasing tension towards a climax in the bridge. The approach to the bridge section issimilar for the two examples.

This concludes the discussion of the typical forms and tension curves of introduction,the coda and the bridge of the arrangement. These are additions to the elementary buildingblocks, the choruses. Let us now proceed with non-standard forms of the chorus itself.



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11.3 Special choruses

Example 11.16

Double time section in ballad for concert band.



Figure 11.20: Double time section in ballad for concert band





11.3. SPECIAL CHORUSES




11.4 Notate the details

All the arranger’s creativity and craftsmanship will find its way into the score. During thedesign and implementation phase, the building of the ‘house’, the arranger will likely havedeveloped detailed ideas about the interpretation, beyond the assigning of pitches to instru-ments and selecting arranging techniques from the toolbox.

Whenever possible these details should be entered into the musical score. They willprevent discussion during rehearsals, facilitate reading and interpretation by dedicated mu-sicians. It offer the best guarantee for a proper rendering of the arranger’s intentions. Alsothe conductor is given the best source information, when studying the score and developinghis own view. So, use the opportunity and make sure the score has everything in it, that youare certain of.

The layout and vertical staff order in the score were discussed in Section 2.4. Some prag-matic score preparation considerations, with arranger life insurance characteristics, weregiven in Section 2.4.3, but there are other score and part attributes, that require attention andcareful notation. Use the checklist:

Tempo indications. Give the basic tempo at the top of the score, above the time signature(the meter). Use words Slow, medium fast and BPM numbers (or a range, such as 120-132 BPM. Write the gradual and sudden tempo changes: speeding up (acc.), slowingdown (rit., rall.), new tempo, return to original tempo (primo tempo).

Musical style. Indicate the basic style and music genre: swing, rock, Latin, bossa, shuffle(see the non-exhaustive list in Section 10.3). For a groove indicate the time unit: 8th-note swing, rock in 16th. Use an adjective to specify the mood: Relaxed swing, Moderateshuffle, Nocturnal ballad.

Dynamic markings. Indicate the dynamics between soft and loud. Provide absolute levelspp − . . . − mf − . . . − ff (use typically between 5–9 levels) and the gradual changes(crescendo, decrescendo, etc). Take into account total orchestral balance: you may neednon-identical markings in different instrument groups.

Articulations. Accents must be added for coordinated section playing. Indicate short (e.g.,·,∧) and long (e.g., >,≥) (un)accented notes, or special effects such as rips, doits,shakes, fall-offs, etc. Put accents in the drum part, so the player can prepare themand support other players.

Phrasing. Use slurs to indicate phrasing. For woodwinds and saxophones these will be readas tonguing patterns (legato playing). The string section will read the slurs in the scoremore as phrasing marks; the actual bowing patterns (such detache vs. legato, up- vs.downbows) are best left to the string section leaders. When you are absolutely certainabout a sequence of upbows (∨) or downbows (⊓), mark them in the score. A series ofaccented forte downbows in the strings never misses target. Breathing as a phrasingtool can be indicated as ′, also for strings.

Expressive text. Describe the general or local mood: with passion, aggressive, espressivo,rubato, free, with humour, etc. Nowadays, the Italian words can be replaced with theEnglish equivalent. Use the language that best expresses your ideas.


11.4. NOTATE THE DETAILS

Part markings. Indicate essential part markings such as: the start and end of an ad lib solo;easy fills for piano or solo break for drums. Indicate doubling, so the musician willhave the instruments ready (woodwinds, saxophones, brass). Give a solo player acouple of measures rest at the end of a solo, or in order to enable him to pick up thedoubling instrument (imagine rapidly swapping a bass clarinet for a baritone saxo-phone).

Do your homework for the percussionists: with a given number of players, carefullyplan the percussion part assignment. These players need time to switch instruments,pick up mallets and may have to move around the stage quite a lot (with serious, non-negligible tripping over equipment danger).

Instrument playing techniques. Mark for the strings: mutes (on/off), string harmonics (◦),pizzicato, plucked (pizz.) vs. bowed (arco). For woodwinds and brass notate: fluttertonguing, brass mutes. In general, give the player enough time to put mutes on andremove them.

Your music notation software will have full lists of these markings in different categories.Use them! Don’t skip this phase, not even when you’re faced with a killing deadline. Everyhour spent on details will certainly pay-off. The musicians will be grateful for being con-sidered as dedicated performers and human beings. And you, the arranger, will preventmisinterpretation of your latest creative achievement.


Chapter 12

On a final note

We have come to the end of this book. A structured approach and a balanced mix betweentheoretical elaborations and practical examples should have helped us to raise our awarenessand develop the arranging skills for jazz or pop music ensembles and orchestras.

Part II is a kind of workshop where, through careful study and homework exercises, wewill have trained basic skills in various techniques and acquired a toolset. This guaranteesa minimum acceptable quality in writing phrases and sections of a band or orchestra ar-rangement. Part I opens with general considerations: what to keep in mind, before startingto write an orchestral score. Part III was meant to keep a helicopter view on the completearrangement; things to remember and apply while assembling an interesting piece of music.

The book was written from a teacher’s point of view, in an effort to help dedicated stu-dents with their professional and personal development.1 But also to give the interestedmusic lover more insight into the mechanics of writing and performing modern orchestraljazz and popular music.

More than 90% of current music consumption is popular music in the broadest sense, i.e.,including world, jazz and folk repertoire. Borderlines between musical genres have almostdisappeared; a fortunate development in my opinion. The combination of acoustic and elec-tronic instruments, and the use of computers and digital equipment have yielded interestingand beautiful music productions. Young musicians from both popular and classical musicbackground get together to create and perform. The demand for arranging skills is increas-ing; every singer these days is waiting for an opportunity to work with a full orchestra oran instrumental ensemble. Hopefully this book provides a good starting point and a usefultoolbox for the curious to-be arranger.

In older books there always is the advice: find real musicians and get the score per-formed. That’s how we learn and improve our writing skills. In those days the alternativewas the piano rendering of a score. Although the recommendation for involving real mu-sicians is still most valid, nowadays computer and sample libraries provide an affordable

1When you, the reader, find errors or missing elements in the book, please feel free to contact the author. Iwill welcome the feedback and try to update, improve and expand this document.


CHAPTER 12. ON A FINAL NOTE

laboratory for learning and experimenting. Myself, I saw the introduction of digital com-puters and sequencer software in music. The emerging and growing capabilities of musicnotation software are a true blessing for composers and arrangers. Also, I still enjoy andwelcome the rapid development in DAW’s, sample libraries and software plugins for thehome studio. Reading the criticism, the user problems and complaints on internet forums.I recognize the frustration, when things are not working according to expectations. But onthe other side; picture yourself just one decade ago, and realize where we stand now. Thereis so much fun to be had with contemporary music creation tools. So compose, arrange,write, perform, record and publish. Use real musicians and the home studio. Exercise smallphrases, experiment with voicing and instrumentation. Train the auditory memory, makenotes of what works particularly well. The book is there to help the student with the firststeps, and maybe as a reference or occasional refresher.

And as always, keep perspective. When you are stuck, watch a few Hubble telescope pic-tures, then check the Apollo 8 photographs of planet Earth, and you will be back with bothgravitational feet on human ground.2 Never doubt the value and beauty of music; its emo-tional effect on people is stronger than any other stimulus, beyond current understanding ofneurophysics, but fortunately . . . real and lasting.

Arranging music lies somewhere between art and craftsmanship. Learn the craft first,than develop the art. It’s a great means for expressing your personality; it can even berewarding. Good luck with all your creative endeavours!

2This famous photo, taken by an Apollo 8 astronaut on the first manned flight to the moon (not the landing),is called Earthrise and has the number AS8-14-2383. Check it out on the internet.


Bibliography

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[4] Alfred Blatter. Instrumentation and Orchestration. Wadsworth/Thomson Learning,Schirmer, Belmont, CA, second edition, 1997. ISBN 0-00-02-82-864570-70-7. xix + 508pp.

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[9] Gordon Delamont. Modern Arranging Technique. Modern Arranging and Composing.Kendor Music Inc., Delevan, NY, 1965. iv + 239 pp.

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[18] Saul Goodman. Modern Method for Tympani. Warner Bros. Publications Inc., Miami, FL,2000. ISBN 0-7579-9100-9. 132 pp.

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[23] Kent Kennan and Donald Grantham. The Technique of Orchestration. Prentice-Hall Inc,Upper Saddle River, NJ, fifth edition, 1997. ISBN 0-13-466327-6. xiv + 411 pp.

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[25] Barry Kernfeld. What to Listen for in Jazz. Yale University Press, New Haven and Lon-don, 1995. ISBN 0-300-05902-7. xvii + 247 pp.

[26] Jurgen Kumlehn. Die AMA Gitarrengrifftabelle. AMA GmbH Verlag, Bruhl, 1995. ISBN3-927190-06-3. 163 pp. (in German).

[27] F.A. Kummer. Violoncello-Schule. Edition Peters, Frankfurt, unknown. 131 pp. No. 3247(in German).

[28] Joseph H. Kwabena Nketia. Die Musik Afrikas. Number 59 in Taschenbucher zur Musik-wissenschaft. Florian Noetzel Verlag, Wilhelmshaven, 1991. ISBN 3-7959-0258-X. 339pp. (in German).

[29] Isabelle Leymarie. Cuban Fire: The Story of Salsa and Latin Jazz. Continuum, London,english edition, 2002. ISBN 0-8264-5586-7. 394 pp.

[30] Henry Mancini. Sounds & Scores: a Practical Guide to Professional Orchestration.Northridge Music Inc., USA, 1986. ISBN 0-89898-667-2. x + 243 pp.


BIBLIOGRAPHY

[31] Norman Del Mar. Anatomy of the Orchestra. Faber & Faber, London, 1983. ISBN 0-571-13185-9. 528 pp.

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[33] Jeremy Montagu. Timpany & Percussion. The Yale Musical Instrument Series. Yale Uni-versity Press, New Haven and London, 2002. ISBN 0-300-09500-7. xii + 268 pp.

[34] Sammy Nestico. The Complete Arranger. Kendor Music, Inc., Delevan, NY, 1993. x +340pp.

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[37] Ken Rattenbury. Duke Ellington: Jazz Composer. Yale University Press, New Haven andLondon, 1990. ISBN 0-300-05507-2. xii + 327 pp.

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[39] Ted Reed. Latin Rhythms for Drums and Timbales. Ted Reed, Clearwater, FLA, 1960. 27pp.

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Index

32-measure song, 181

AABA song form, 181, 186ABA song form, 181ad lib solo, 198, 201, 209ADSR envelope, 29Alpert, Herb, 190altered dominant chord, 68

appoggiatura, 60, 164Autumn Leaves, 111, 128, 131, 132, 141, 201

Bach, Johann Sebastian, 172ballad, 13, 189, 212ballroom dance music, 39, 189Baroque music, 23, 132, 172Bartok, Bela, 23, 26, 156, 164Basie, Count, 101bebop, 39, 182Beethoven, Ludwig van, 164, 169bell chord, 113

Berg, Alban, 26, 114big band, xiii, 3, 31, 39, 75, 79, 87, 90, 113, 198,

210bitonal chord, 18, 99, 102, 210bitonal voicing, 102blues, 101, 189Blues for Alice, 101Bone in the Barrio, 111, 118, 141, 205Bossa Groove, 166bounce, 189Brahms, Johannes, 169brass, 9, 20, 39, 113bridge, 124, 182, 186, 203, 218

build-up intro, 209build-up section, 212

call-and-response, 174, 184cello quartet, 164, 166chorale harmonization, 131

chord structure, 5, 6

chordal function, 5, 6, 14, 23, 68, 98, 99, 106,151, 194

chords in 4ths, 75, 79, 118, 124, 212chords in 5ths, 156chorus, 181

chromatic stepwise motion, 122, 164, 218classical harmony, see harmony, 131classical music, 22, 23, 29, 40, 131, 141, 145,

151, 164, 174, 181, 186, 218clave, 189climax, 18, 26, 106, 186, 194, 201, 203, 215, 218cluster voicing, 99coda, 117, 186, 215

comping, 13computer, 5, 225concert band, xiii, 3, 17, 31, 113, 115, 122, 124,

128, 131, 135, 141, 201, 203, 205, 210,212, 218

contrary motion, 26, 123, 128, 132, 153, 156,164, 172, 201, 215

counterpoint, 23, 26, 131, 131, 141, 156, 174cross-relation, 47

Davis, Miles, 113DAW, 29, 226development, 186

diatonic parallel structures, 69, 82diminished chord, 44, 218dominant chord

altered, 68

extended, 68

double time, 131, 218drop 2 voicing, see voicing, see voicing

easy listening music, 26, 39, 190electronic instrument, 29

electronic instrumentamplitude envelope, 29filtering, 29

231

INDEX

keyboard tracking, 30modulation, 30

ensemble technique, 39, 87, 201, 203, 210, 212ensemble technique

fundamental aspects, 87intervals between outer voices, 88

envelope, see electronic instrumentEvans, Gil, 113exact parallel chords, 47, 51, 102, 156, 200,

210, 212, 218extended chord, 26, 31, 44, 68, 98, 99, 102, 104,

131, 151, 194, 201, 203extended four-part sectional harmony, 75

filtering, see electronic instrumentFitzgerald, Ella, 209folk music, 184, 190form, 169, 181Four Brothers, 40frequency spectrum, 29, 162fugue, 131, 141functional harmony, see harmonyFunky Duck, 164

genre, 189Gershwin, George, 182Ginastera, Alberto, 26Golden Ratio, 174, 194groove, 13, 203, 209, 218

half-diminished chord, 51harmony

classical, 64functional, 39modal, 39, 210

Haydn, Joseph, 164Herman, Woody, 40Holman, Bill, 197homogeneous instrumentation, 195hook, 186, 209How High the Moon, 47, 198, 200

I Don’t Wanna Be Kissed, 114I’ll Remember April, 111, 156, 160, 162, 209I’ve Got Rhythm, 182I’ve Got You Under My Skin, 209imitation, 131, 186Impressionistic music, 39

improvisation, 186instrument groups, 9instrument range, 9

instrumentation, 5, 62, 64, 87, 195intro, see introductionintroduction, 117, 141, 156, 186, 209, 210, 212inversion, 131, 195

jazz music, 3, 9, 39, 87, 113, 182, 189jazz standard, 131, 182

Jones, Thad, 75, 101, 102Just Friends, 197Just the Way You Are, 203

keyboard, 9, 131

Last, James, 190Latin, 13, 118, 156, 166, 189, 209lead voice, 4, 87, 99leading tone chord, 47, 210Let it Snow, 17, 111, 141Like a Lover, 198, 210list of symbols, 5

Mantovani, Annunzio Paolo, 190Marvin, Hank, 177Mediocrity Mambo, 26, 111melody, 169

melodyperiod, 174, 181secondary axis, 172

sentence, 174, 175, 181Mendoza, Vince, 26, 147Metropole Orchestra, 26, 147MIDI, 5, 29, 29Miles Ahead, 113mixed instrumentation, 60, 87, 195mixed voicing, see voicingmodulation, 30, 186, 218montuno pattern, 26, 119, 189, 205, 210mute

string, 23My One and Only Love, 114, 119, 124, 131, 212,

218

Nestico, Sammy, 101

octatonic scale, 99


INDEX

One Note Samba, 115open voicing, see voicingOrnithology, 47

parallel motion, 40passing 7th, 122, 164pedal point, 13, 203, 210pentatonic scale, 215, 218percussion, 9, 26, 189percussive voicing, 3, 101pop music, 3, 9, 14, 22, 184, 186, 189

pop song, 184pop song

chorus, 184verse, 184

Ravel, Maurice, 23, 164repeated notes, 40, 82, 90, 101rhythm section, 4, 13, 52, 87, 101, 131Riddle, Nelson, 209riff, 13, 119, 209, 210, 212Rimsky-Korsakow, Nikolay, 138rock music, 13, 124, 164, 189, 210Romantic music, 23, 218Roof Garden, 111, 124, 210, 218root cycle, 5, 7, 47, 69, 115

salsa, 189sampler, 29saxophone, 9, 14, 39, 75Schillinger, Joseph, 115, 153scientific pitch notation, 5score, 30, 222score

concert pitch full, 34condensed, 34full, 31transposed full, 34

score layout, 31Sebesky, Don, 145secondary dominant chord, 90section, 181sectional harmony, 3, 39, 75, 88sectional harmony

aiming chord, 47basic rules, 39chordal tones, 41extended four-part, 75

five-part, 75, 201, 210four-part, 39, 88, 200, 203, 212instrumental aspects, 62instrumentation, 64lead voice, 39non-chordal tones, 44, 47non-diatonic tones, 47other aspects, 58repeated notes, 40, 41

sequencer, 7, 29Shotgun Soliloquy, 23, 111, 132, 141shuffle, 189Sinatra, Frank, 209sonata form, 186special chorus, 75, 87, 200, 203special playing techniques

strings, 23, 158woodwinds, 18

strata technique, 88, 153, 156Strawinsky, Igor, 29string orchestra, 26string quartet, 22, 145, 164strings, 9, 22, 87strings

divisi, 22, 26, 145, 151, 156, 160

double stops, 22, 23, 26harmonics, 23multiple stops, 22, 23, 162pizzicato, 158, 166small groups, 164special playing techniques, 158sul ponticello, 156, 162

sul tasto, 162

sustained harmonic background, 151

tremolo bowing, 156, 160

vibrato, 22studio orchestra, xiii, 3, 17, 26, 27, 31, 141,

156, 174, 177, 209style, 189substitute chord, 14, 51, 52, 195Supersax plays Bird, 40, 75sustained harmonic background, see stringsswing, 39, 182, 189, 198, 201, 209symmetrically distributed roots, 115, 215symphony orchestra, 13, 17, 22, 27, 31, 145syncopations, 51synthesizer, 29


INDEX

tension, 124, 128, 129, 160, 164, 193, 218ternary song form, 181The Farmer’s Song, 117, 118, 124The Meaning of the Blues, 113The Real Book, 182The Songbooks, 209The Summer Knows, 111, 114, 122Tiptoe, 75transition, 141, 186, 197, 203, 218tritone, 69, 117, 118, 212

unisono, 22, 128, 197, 200, 203

vamp, 209, 210variable density, 128, 197Venetian Violins, 132, 174, 177verse-chorus form, 184

voicing, 195voicing

bitonal, 99, 102brass, 98

change of, 62close, 26, 40, 60, 76, 78, 82, 88, 92, 203cluster, 31, 75, 82, 88, 99, 106, 195crossing, 137dovetailing, 137drop 2, 40, 60, 76, 210enclosed, 137exact parallel, see exact parallel chordsin 4ths, 75interlocked, 137juxtaposition, 135mixed, 76, 95open, 60, 63, 77, 82, 88, 195overlapping, 135overlaying, 135percussive, 101

unisono, see unisonovoicing diagram, 4, 17, 88, 92, 95, 135, 141,

156, 210voicing techniques, 3

walking bass, 101, 131, 200, 201wind quintet, 141woodwind voicing, 135

woodwind voicingheterogeneous, 17

woodwinds, 3, 9, 17, 79, 87, 113

world music, 184, 190

Zimmerman, Bob, 17


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