ARMORER’SHANDBOOK

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About the Author

The author of this publication is Charles F. Ruggiero Jr, a civilian employee ofthe Department of the Army. Chuck is employed by Headquarters, 10th MountainDivision (LI) & Fort Drum. He is assigned to the Directorate of Logistics,Maintenance Division, and serves as the Ordnance Equipment Specialistassigned to the Technical Services Branch of the Support Maintenance Activity.

Chuck serves as the course manager and primary instructor for the 10thMountain Division Unit Armorer Course. The UAC is an 80 hour formal coursethat encompasses all of the material presented in this publication, and whichgoes into much greater depth than this single reference volume can provide.

In addition to his instructional duties at the UAC, Chuck also provides trainingat the unit level. Among the subjects he teaches are machinegun operatingtheory, small arms maintenance, MOS 45B upgrade training, and pre-marksmanship instruction. A qualified range instructor, he is a DistinguishedHonor Graduate of the USAF Combat Arms Instructor Academy.

His military experience includes active duty service with the US Army. Agraduate of the US Army Infantry School, he served as an infantry soldier inVietnam during the period July 1968 to July 1969. His US Army service includesduty with the Army National Guard in MOS 45B (Small Arms Repair), and withthe US Army Reserve in MOS 12B3H (Combat Engineer Instructor).

Currently a member of the NY Air National Guard, he serves as an Air ForceSecurity Police Officer, specializing in weapons instruction.

His experience includes virtually everything related to firearms. He is aqualified instructor with rifles, shotguns, revolvers, pistols, sub-machineguns,grenade launchers, machineguns, rocket launchers, flame weapons, mortars,demolitions and pyrotechnics. He has worked at the Organizational, DirectSupport and General Support levels of maintenance as a weapons specialist. Healso served more than eight years as the weapons quality assurance inspectorat Fort Drum.

In addition to training thousands of students in his long career, and working ona myriad of different weapons and systems, he has used most of these types ofweapons in combat situations.

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Foreword

Congratulations! Whether you have been serving as a Unit Armorer, or havebeen recently appointed to such a position, you are a member of an importantgroup of weapons specialists.

Throughout history, man has engaged in armed conflict. Over recent centuries,the advancement of technology has resulted in more lethal and sophisticatedarms and ammunition. Today, these weapons are used by America’s military andlaw enforcement personnel to deter aggression and defend the public.

Armorers have always played a vital role in tactical operations. Whetherbuilding offensive weapons of war, designing and fitting body armor, or castinglead shot for muskets, their contribution to the outcome of battle is undeniable.As technology improved the implements of war, it was always necessary for thearmorers to keep up with the changes in order to maximize these contributions.

The requirement for trained and highly skilled armorers is as critical now, evenwith today’s modern weapons systems, as it ever was. The assumption thatmodern metallurgy and design technologies have lessened the need for smallarms maintenance specialists is false. In fact, the opposite is true.

Today’s armorer has a serious responsibility, providing quality assurancethrough inspections and periodic preventive maintenance checks. A trained andexperienced armorer can detect faults and make repairs, preventing failures offirearms in the field environment.

Military personnel and law enforcement officers have a tough, dangerous job.They need reliable weapons to protect lives, safeguard property, achieve theobjectives of tactical operations, and defend themselves. The reliability of theirweapons is the direct responsibility of the armorer.

In addition to performing firearms inspection and maintenance, armorers havemany other duties. Included among these are administrative, logistics andtraining support functions. This publication, which provides guidance primarily toUS Army armorers, details these other duties. Members of other militarybranches and police organizations may also find this publication useful.

No single publication could ever provide all the useful information relating tothe maintenance of firearms. The subject-matter area is so expansive, that Icould go into endless detail. Instead, I will attempt to present general principlesand their application to a broad range of common military and law enforcementweapons.

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In my many years of military and civil service, I often wondered why there wasnot a handbook like this one in circulation. Hopefully this publication will fill theneed for a single-volume reference, providing answers to the most commonquestions encountered in the weapons maintenance field.

In addition to maintenance training, I also have extensive experience as atactical instructor. This book is written from a different perspective than oneusually finds in a maintenance document. It will combine the maintenance andtactical aspects of firearms, by explaining not only how weapons are repaired,but also how they are used. As a result, there will be extensive information onballistics, ammunition, marksmanship and maintenance.

I have long been critical of single-issue training programs. Defense attorneysmust study the entirety of statutory and case law before graduating from lawschool. Likewise, cardiologists must complete their general medical studiesbefore they can become specialists. No one would ever consider consulting alawyer or doctor who only had a partial education, for obvious reasons.

It is only logical that armorers should be well versed in all aspects of firearmstheory and practice. Just as surely as no one would want to be operated on by apoorly trained doctor, no person who carries a duty firearm should ever have torely on a weapon maintained by an armorer with inadequate training.

This book includes review exercises and a “final examination," much like anycorrespondence course. This process provides immediate feedback to thereader, validating the study process. I must caution the reader, however, thatthis handbook should not be used as a substitute for formal training! Noone ever qualified for any career by reading a book or two. Formal, hands-on onstudy is essential to success.

This book will not re-invent the wheel. Much needed data can be found intechnical manuals and other publications. I will simply provide a reference listingto achieve that study. This is only proper, since data in manuals changesfrequently. If I were to reprint technical manual data here, this book would soonbecome obsolete.

No document like this could ever have been created without referencematerials or the input from other knowledgeable persons. At the end of this bookyou will find a comprehensive listing of relevant publications, reference materialsand recommended reading on the subject of firearms and armorers.

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This is the third revision of this publication. The format is different from the twopreceding volumes, which were basically “read-along” handbooks. Undoubtedly,this will be revised again. If you find a problem with this document or wish tomake a change or inclusion, please contact me. Here are my address and phonenumbers:

HQ, 10th Mountain Division (LI) & Fort DrumAFZS-DL-MT (ATTN: Mr. Ruggiero)DOL Maintenance Division, Technical Services BranchT-790 Eighth Street WestFort Drum, New York 13602

Telephone: Commercial - 315-772-9023FAX: 315-772-0015DSN: 341-9023DSN FAX: 341-0015Commercial FAX: 315-772-0015

E-mail: ruggieroc@drum-emh4.army.mil -or-guntutor@hotmail.com

Throughout this publication you may encounter opinion-based statements thatappear critical or negative about existing policies or programs. I’m truly sorry ifthese statements offend some bureaucrats, but I’m more concerned with whathappens to the soldier on the battlefield or the police officer on the street. I havespent a good number of years engaged in my profession, and I consider myopinions to be valid and professional, not personal. If I appear critical about aprogram, it’s probably because that program needs to change! Please don’t thinkthat my position is one of arrogance. Instead, it is that of a clear-thinking,analytical professional, who does not react emotionally to situations. As a result,I speak my mind without consideration of political correctness and bureaucraticattitudes. Sorry, but since the employment of firearms is always a life-or-deathstruggle for the combatants, I focus on reality...not politics! If this offends you,please don’t read this book!

Chuck Ruggiero July 1998

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Table of Contents:

1. About the Author 2. Foreword 5. Table of Contents 6. Chapter 1, Introduction to Arms Room Duty 8. Armorer Duties 12. Files Management 14. Publications Management 24. Supply Management 32. Maintenance Management 41. Physical Security 50. Range Operations Support 55. Tactical Training Operations Support 57. Combat Operations Support 63. Chapter 1 Examination 65. Chapter 2, Firearms Operating Characteristics 66. Cycle of Functions 72. Cooling 76. Operating System Design 80. Ammunition and Ballistics 82. Propellants and Projectiles 92. Cartridge Cases 95. Priming 97. Ballistic Terminology103. Chapter 2 Examination105. Chapter 3, Firearms Safety and Marksmanship107. Safety Awareness Concept110. Safety Rules120. Marksmanship121. Human Physiology and Anatomy129. Ballistics Factors and Marksmanship132. Chapter 3 Examination134. Chapter 4, Armorer Tools and Maintenance Tips136. Calipers137. Hammers138. Pliers139. Wrenches140. Files and Stones142. Special Tools and Gages148. Maintenance Tips156. Chapter 4 Examination159. Armorer’s Glossary196. Unit Arms Room Operations Checklist204. Arms Room Publication Reference207. Recommended Reading List209. Final Examination210. Answer Keys

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Chapter 1, Introduction to Arms Room Duty

An arms room, or vault, is a fixed facility used primarily for the purpose ofstoring weapons and associated equipment. Arms rooms should meet certaingeneral standards for physical security, storage capacity, operating ease andaccessibility. Although the general specifications for military arms rooms aredefined in manuals printed by the Department of Defense, those standardsprimarily address security, fire protection and construction techniques.

There are other considerations not addressed in those documents, the mostimportant of which is ergonomics, the interface between man and technology.As an arms room inspector, I have been in hundreds of arms rooms on militarybases and in police agencies throughout the country. I have seen well-designedrooms, and some which were totally impractical. However, all of them met thestandards for security, fire protection and construction techniques.

The properly designed arms room will have:

- racks specifically designed to hold each type of weapon on hand- sufficient rack space for the total number of weapons on hand- administrative space for a desk, file cabinets, computer, etc.- storage lockers for auxiliary equipment such as night vision devices- storage cabinets specially designed to hold ammunition- minimum 60 square feet of maintenance area for repairs- properly designed electrical service to accommodate power tools- lighting adequate for detailed inspection of metallic components- a dehumidifier capable of maintaining 30% to 45% humidity- a telephone and duress alarm system- parts bins sufficient to contain all authorized repair parts- non-skid cushioned rubber floor mats in maintenance areas- an electric fan or other positive ventilation means- an intercom to the front desk or orderly room- a minimum entrance width of 36 inches- a “day door” or “issue door” which denies entry while issuing weapons- an agency-approved alarm system- an emergency eyewash station- an operating sink with cold and hot water supply- a set of gunsmith tools and all special gages as required- a large bench vise, bench grinder and rotary multi-tool (Dremel Tool)- illuminated magnifying lamp with six inch lens- comfortable, cushioned desk chair

- a clearing barrel or clearing container- a steel workbench, 18 feet square, with a wooden top

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The previous listing is not a “wish list”. It is what should be designed into eacharms storage and issue facility nationwide. In addition to the statedrequirements, the arms room should also have a lobby or waiting area. Thisshould accommodate the number of personnel expected to stand at the doorduring issue or turn-in of weapons. If your soldiers or officers are standing in therain, so are their weapons!

Some arms rooms also double as evidence rooms. This is not the best policy,since the evidence technician or evidence officer usually needs total control overthe evidence area to protect the “chain of custody” for legal purposes. Limitingthe number of persons with access to the evidence storage area is always thebest policy. Keeping evidence in the arms room increases the number ofpersons in the evidence area, and should be avoided.

However, not every agency has the luxury of owning two secure, alarmed areasfor separation of arms and evidence. If the co-location of both is necessary,make sure you have key and lock control programs that prevent the possibility ofunauthorized persons gaining access to evidence. Likewise, found property andcivilian privately owned weapons (POW’s) should be maintained separately fromorganizational weapons and property, for accountability purposes.

In addition to the standard alarm requirements for weapons storage areas, theinterior entrances to arms rooms should be well illuminated and clearly visible.An entrance in a secluded, poorly lit part of the building is an invitation to astrong-arm theft. If possible or affordable, video surveillance should be provided,with a direct video feed to the agency’s alarm monitoring station or desksergeant. If a direct video feed is impractical, a still-frame video recordingsystem is strongly recommended. Video equipment should be positioned andinstalled so as to not be easily detected, accessed and disabled by potentialthieves.

I have seen arms rooms with entrances that were located on the outside ofbuildings. This is never wise, but if you are stuck with such a facility, measuresshould be taken to protect your operation from public view. Hedges, bushes,fences or shrubbery should be placed to block direct viewing by the public in anunsecured area. Traffic control aids such as speed bumps should be placed toprevent rapid escape by vehicle.

Also, a critical failing of most arms room design is found in the day door orissue door. This typically is a half-door or “Dutch door” with a counter-topsurface. It allows the arms room to be open for issue and turn-in, while keepingpeople outside. However, the typical lock inside the door is easily reached, andis a simple dead-bolt that turns without a key in the lock. Replace the lock with adouble-keyed dead-bolt to maximize security. This can prevent intrusion whileyour back is turned, which it will be as you are getting weapons out of the racks.

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Armorer Duties: The duties of a typical military armorer fall into two major areasof activity: garrison duty and field duty. Although there are functions common toboth types of duty, there are many differences. Take note that many of theconcepts and operating principles apply to military and civilian agencies.

Garrison duty describes those activities of the armorer when the unit is notengaged in field or tactical operations. It is composed of the activities thearmorer performs routinely. It also implies that the operation is conducted froman arms room. The arms room may or may not be equipped with an intrusiondetection system. Some arms rooms require 24-hour surveillance by military orlaw enforcement personnel.

Garrison duty includes five separate and distinct functions:

1. Files Management2. Publications Management3. Supply Management4. Maintenance Management5. Physical Security

Additionally, the armorer usually serves as an in-house source of informationand expertise in matters related to firearms training and maintenance. As such,the armorer frequently will be tasked to support classroom and range trainingsessions. Armorers usually also perform numerous other duties, and in the USArmy force structure, there is no dedicated position for the unit armorer.

The lack of a dedicated full-time position for the armorer means that the qualityof the work the armorer can perform is compromised to some degree. Considerthe following factors:

- soldiers usually have physical training formations in the morning, and after PT are given time to eat, shower and change into their uniform. As a result, they may report for work in the duty section about 0900 hours or even as late as 0930 hours.

- soldiers may be given a 90 minute lunch break, from 1130 hours to 1300 hours. This accommodates soldiers who do not eat in the dining facility, and who must go home or to a restaurant.

- the soldier’s duty day typically ends at 1700 hours.

- during a 5 day workweek, the armorer is really only present in the arms room 32.5 hours, but only if he or she is there on a full-time basis

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With an understanding of how few hours are actually spent in the performanceof mission-specific tasks, now consider these factors:

- in a 13 week period, there are 422.5 work hours using the above stated method of determining available hours.

- the armorer is responsible for performing all the Preventive Maintenance Checks and Services (PMCS) on all the equipment in the arms room. These tasks must be completed once every 13 weeks ( a calendar quarter).

- in a typical military arms room, there will be approximately 120 rifles, 18 light machineguns, a half dozen pistols, 6 medium machineguns, 160 bayonets, and about 1000 rifle magazines, in addition to any other auxiliary equipment such as night vision devices, GPS gear, etc.

- each quarterly PMCS takes approximately one hour per weapon, if the armorer is to complete the tasks according to the technical manual.

- just the inspection process (not including any repairs) will take over 200 work hours per calendar quarter.

- the 200 hours needed to conduct PMCS also does not include any of the time needed for supply management, files management, general housekeeping, publications management, issue and turn-in of weapons, or any other arms rooms duties.

It should be easy to understand why it is so difficult for armorers to keep upwith the workload in the arms room. This should be a full-time position in theArmy force structure, as in other branches of the armed forces. The Armyassigns the job, typically, to a supply specialist. But for this soldier, it is still onlya part of the duty day. The supply specialist has many other duties besides thearms room, and also can not afford all the hours needed to do the job well.

Compounding the problem is the fact that there is no training standard for unitarmorers. Even worse, where there are at least armorer courses offered, thereare no training or qualification standards for the instructors! I should know, as Iperform this duty on nearly a full-time basis. The only attempt to provide trainingfor armorers on an Army-wide basis is at the 92Y Supply Specialist course. Thiswould be acceptable if every unit had a 92Y Supply Specialist, but that’s not thecase, and 92Y training only teaches minimal skills.

Also, the commander has the latitude to appoint whomever he or she considersfit for the position. A unit armorer can be any soldier from any occupationalspecialty; i.e., infantry, signal, artillery, maintenance or food service.

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Garrison Commanders, Division Commanders and MACOM Commanders mayappoint an individual to teach an armorer’s course, and fund that effort locally.There is, however, no qualification standard for such a position. An armorerinstructor must be well versed in all areas concerning weapons maintenance andtraining. Among the subjects that this person must master, are the following:

- The Army Maintenance Management System (TAMMS)- The Modern Army Recordkeeping System (MARKS)- Operations Security (OPSEC)- Physical Security- Firearms Design and Operating Theory- Publications Management- Army Supply Procedures- Shop Safety- Use and Care of Hand Tools- Basic and Advanced Marksmanship Principles- Ammunition and Ballistics- Firearms Maintenance Techniques- Firearms Safety- Tactical Employment of Firearms- Inspection Techniques- Principles and Techniques of Instruction- Small Arms Pre-embarkation Standards- Destruction of Small Arms to Prevent Enemy Use- Transportation, Storage and Handling of Ammunition

This list is far from inclusive. The armorer instructor must not only be familiarwith the subjects presented, but experienced as well. He or she should haveserved in a combat arms MOS as an actual user of the equipment, to understandthe use of the equipment. A background in maintenance and inspection at thedirect support or higher level of maintenance should be mandatory. Formaltraining in the presentation of instructional materials should likewise bemandatory.

Unfortunately, there are no duty positions in the Army, which prepare anindividual for this mission. A good infantry NCO does not necessarily make agood maintenance instructor. The maintenance NCO might not know a thingabout OPSEC, Physical Security or marksmanship training.

The search for a good candidate to teach armorer’s courses can be exhaustiveand fruitless. Again, this is because like the armorer position, the job does notactually exist, so there are no job standards. When a suitable candidate isfound, there is no school that prepares the candidate to teach armorers.

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I am presenting this information for the purpose of enlightenment, not criticism.I prefer, since you ostensibly are about to enter the world of armorer duty, thatyou be given the facts. The fact is, in the Army there is no such position as UnitArmorer. It is an additional assigned duty. There is no such position as ArmorerInstructor. It also is an additional assigned duty.

What this means in reality is that you, the armorer, will be evaluated on thebasis of your performance within your MOS. You must perform all the dutiespreviously mentioned and still perform your MOS duties. The sad news is, youwill inherit two full-time jobs, because one is not properly recognized for the full-time work it requires.

I also urge you to understand that I am not being critical of armorer instructorsat other installations. If these people were not good at what they do, theirrespective commanders or supervisors would fire them. I am sure they are thebest persons locally available for the job. What I am openly critical of, is the factthat I have no knowledge of who these people are and what qualifications theyhave, even though I’m one of them.....and neither does the Army!

The bottom line is: there is no support structure for this duty like there is forany MOS. There is no standardized training, no advanced training, no centralsystem for the identification of school-trained armorers, no special skillsidentifier, no kind of recognition system, no patch, no badge, nomedal......nothing except hard work, above and beyond that expected of yourpeers.

If you can feel comfortable with all that, then let me personally welcome you tothe greatest challenge in the US Army, the unit arms room.

The armorer’s job is dynamic, difficult, and one of the most important areas ofresponsibility in the military. The use of military force to settle internationaldisputes is always filled with danger. The nature of battle is such that if one sidewins, the other must surely lose.

Any soldier who faces an enemy on a battlefield must have reliable equipmentand good training. If we do everything else correctly; if we train, feed, house,care for and support the soldier in everything he or she does, but we fail tomaintain that soldier’s weapon to the highest standard, we have compromisedthe military mission.

When the soldier meets that enemy, the cost of failure can be death.Preventing the failure of weapons on the battlefield is the direct responsibility ofthe armorer. Since the essence of battle melds into that one moment in time,when foe meets foe, there is no greater responsibility.

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Welcome to your new job.

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Okay, now that we understand how tough the armorer’s job can be, let’sdiscuss what you need to know to succeed. We’ll begin by examining those fiveareas of responsibility previously mentioned in the definition of garrison duty.

Files Management

The need for a standardized filing system should be readily apparent. Such asystem would enable a soldier working in one office to move to a new office andfind all needed documentation in the same familiar folders. This not just a matterof convenience, but of military necessity.

No one likes to think of himself or herself as being expendable. The Army doesnot like to think of you that way, either. But let’s be honest, we have to expectcasualties. That’s the nature of battle. If a soldier is lost as a result of an enemyaction, that soldier must be replaced. The new soldier needs to become familiarwith the work in progress as soon as possible. A standardized file system makesthe transition quick and efficient.

Even if we are not contending with a combat environment, we still always losesoldiers due to permanent change of station (PCS), end term of service (ETS),promotional reassignment, etc. A good file system allows us to deal with thechange while keeping disruption to a minimum.

In the arms room, the filing system is a vital part of the management process.The armorer has to handle a large volume of documentation. This material notonly provides an historic reference of what you have accomplished, but alsoprovides information to others on current operations and planned maintenanceactions.

There is a large quantity of technical data associated with weapons. This datacan be found in technical manuals, maintenance advisory letters, lubricationorders, safety of use messages, modification work orders, maintenancedirectives, technical bulletins, and general correspondence.

How these documents are maintained is important. They define the essence ofthe arms room operation. They include policy directives, regulations, and othersources of critical information. These documents have an impact on all levels ofactivity within an arms room. This is true whether you are a military armorer or amember of a civilian law enforcement agency. The same principles apply,because proper administrative management of the arms room is essential tosuccess.

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The method of using and maintaining files is found in Army Regulation 25-400-2, the Modern Army Recordkeeping System, or MARKS. This program is easy tounderstand and use, applies to all files of every type at any location, and isbased upon the numbering system used for Army Regulations and otherpublications.

The following information will help to explain the purpose of MARKS:

- Provides instructions for the systematic identification, maintenance, storage, retirement and destruction of Army information recorded on any medium (paper, microform, electronic, or any other).

- Ensures the Army has the information needed to complete the mission.

- Preserves records needed to protect the rights and interests of the Army, its members, and former members.

- Provides for the removal of less active records from office space to low-cost storage areas.

- Furnishes the only legal authority for destroying Army information.

MARKS applies to all unclassified records, including those identified as ForOfficial Use Only (FOUO). It also applies to classified materials identified asCONFIDENTIAL or SECRET. Records that are identified as TOP SECRET maybe set up under MARKS, or in any other manner that will make accountability orcontrol easier. Whatever method is used, the disposition instructions found inArmy Regulation 25-400-2 will be applied for TOP SECRET records.

Most US Army installations have a Directorate of Information Management, orDOIM. This agency is responsible for administering the files policies at the locallevel. Even if the installation or base you are assigned to is too small to have afunctioning DOIM, there is still an office responsible for files oversight.

Detailed information on MARKS can be obtained by reading the applicable DApublications, or in many cases by contacting your DOIM or servicing agency withfiles inspection authority.

At Fort Drum we are fortunate enough to have a files management specialistwho provides classroom instruction on MARKS. This individual, Mr. DougThomas, can be reached at 315-772-6647, or DSN 341-6647. Mr. Thomas is anassociate instructor at the Fort Drum Armorer Course, and an invaluable asset tothe Fort Drum community. Check with your local DOIM to determine if classesare available to you. I personally believe every soldier in the Army should attenda MARKS class. There is usually no cost for this training.

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Publications Management

MARKS prescribes the method for filing, controlling and disposing ofinformation. As such, it also determines the manner in which you will maintainpublications in your arms rooms. Reference publications must be properlyidentified as defined by MARKS, and labeled accordingly.

However, merely having the publications on hand, and in the correct binders, isonly part of your responsibility. Publications have to be inventoried periodically,and the content changes must be posted as needed, to ensure your publicationsare current and complete.

A separate publication, DA Pamphlet 310-13, prescribes the manner for postingcontent changes. The armorer is required to have technical publications onhand, as they are the source of authority for the application of maintenanceprocedures. Army Regulation 750-1, titled “Army Material Maintenance Policyand Retail Maintenance Operations”, establishes the need for the use oftechnical manuals at the unit level.

Before we can understand how this need is established, we need to look atArmy maintenance policy in general. AR 750-1, paragraph 3-8a, states that theArmy has four basic levels of maintenance. They are the Unit, Direct Support,General Support, and Depot levels of maintenance. Actually, unit maintenance isbroken down further into two categories; operator and organizationalmaintenance. So, in reality, we have five maintenance levels to contend with.

The levels of maintenance are also known as echelons. A number and codeletter identifies each echelon as follows:

1- Operator/Crew Maintenance Code C Crew Maint.2- Organizational Maintenance Code O Organizational3- Direct Support Maintenance Code F Field Maint.4- General Support Maintenance Code H Heavy Maint.5- Depot Maintenance Code D Depot Maint.

The code letters are used in technical manuals to identify specific maintenanceprocedures, and parts to be replaced, at each individual level or echelon. Theechelon numbers, 1 through 5, are used to identify series of publications. Thepublications address policies and procedures for the particular level ofmaintenance identified by the series number of the document. The followingexplanation of the publication numbering system will help you understand therelevance of this information

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Let’s take technical manuals as an example, because all weapons havetechnical manuals, and you will deal with them on a daily basis. We’ll use as anexample, the technical manuals for the Browning .50 caliber M2 machinegun:

TM9-1005-213-10TM9-1005-213-23TM9-1005-213-23P

Are the numbers confusing? They are for most people, because almost no oneis trained to understand the TM numbering system. Here’s what the abovenumbers mean:

The designation TM means that the publication is a technical manual. Allpublications have a designator, which tells us what type of document we aredealing with. The following are some of the more commonly encountereddesignators:

TM Technical ManualTB Technical BulletinLO Lubrication OrderSC Supply CatalogAR Army RegulationDA PAM Department of the Army PamphletGTA Graphic Training AidCTA Common Table of AllowancesTDA Tables of Distribution and AllowancesTOE Table of Organization and EquipmentMTOE Modification Table of Organization and Equipment

So, since our reference publication is a technical manual, it begins with thedesignator TM. The number 9 refers to the proponent agency, the organizationresponsible for the development of the included policies or doctrine. In the caseof the .50 caliber machinegun, the designator TM9 means that the proponentagency for this machinegun is:

The US Army Tank-Automotive/Armament Command, Armament andChemical Acquisition and Logistics Activity, Rock Island Arsenal, IL.

You can see it is much easier to use TM9 as the designator, rather than havingto print the full name of that agency every time a reference to it is made. Thereare different designators for different proponent agencies, such as “1” forAviation, “3” for Chemical, “5” for Engineer, “7” for Infantry, “9” for Ordnance, andso on.

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Okay, so far...so good. We understand TM9. The next item in our example ofthe .50 caliber machinegun is the number 1005. This second element is knownas the Federal Supply Class. Every item of type-classified and standardizedmateriel in the US Federal Supply System falls into an FSC category. Someexamples would be:

FSC 1000: Small Arms (general classification)FSC 1005: Small Arms to 30mm (specific items)FSC 1010: Small Arms above 30mm (again, specific items)FSC 1340: Anti-Tank WeaponsFSC 1370: PryotechnicsFSC 4240: Chemical-Biological masks and equipmentFSC 6920: Training Aids and Devices

There are literally thousands of FSC’s, covering many types of equipment.There are some in the 1000-series (1000 to 1099) for mortars, howitzers, self-propelled howitzers and so on. Let’s catch up to our .50 caliber machinegunexample so far:

TM9-1005 (it’s an Ordnance TM, for small arms up to 30mm)

The next element is the item identifier, which allows us to single out anindividual piece of equipment within the same FSC as another item. Forinstance, FSC 1005 includes all rifles, machineguns, shotguns, pistols,revolvers; in fact, any firearm less than 30mm in terms of bore diameter.

The item identifier is usually a 3-digit number, and in the case of the .50 calibermachinegun, the number is 213. This identifies it among other .50 calibermachineguns as the Browning .50 caliber M2 machinegun. This number issequential in nature. It means that of all the items in this FSC, the Browning M2is the 213th item in the FSC requiring a technical manual.

If we were to have 500 items in an FSC that required a TM, the last TM wouldbe number 500. If we added another, and it required a TM, it would be number501, etc. Not every item in an FSC requires a TM. For instance, there is a stocknumber for a paper clip, but no technical manual for it. So the item identifier ismerely an indicator of what items in an FSC require a TM, and what particularitem it happens to be. Our example so far tells us:

TM9-1005-213 (Ordnance TM, small arms to 30mm, 213th item)

Of course, the 213th item happens to be the Browning M2 machinegun. All ofthe TM’s relating to the Browning M2 machinegun will therefore begin with TM9-1005-213, regardless of what level of maintenance they cover.

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Next we come to the maintenance level indicator, which tells us several things.First, it describes which level(s) of maintenance the manual is written for. Do yourecall the levels of maintenance described earlier? Ignoring the codes for amoment, let’s identify each level of maintenance by its respective number, 1through 5:

1- Operator/Crew Maintenance2- Organizational Maintenance3- Direct Support Maintenance4- General Support Maintenance5- Depot Maintenance

The maintenance level indicator tells us which levels of maintenance activitythe manual addresses. It is a two-digit number. The first digit tells us the lowestmaintenance level included in the publication. The second number tells us thehighest maintenance level included. If the second number is a zero (“0”), thismeans that the publication is written for the level indicated by the first digit only.

10- Operator manual only20- Organizational manual only30- Direct Support manual only40- General Support manual only50- Depot manual only12- Operator and Organizational manual13- Operator, Organizational and Direct Support manual14- Operator, Organizational, Direct Support and General Support

manual15- Operator, Organizational, Direct Support, General Support and

Depot manual23- Organizational and Direct Support manual24- Organizational, Direct Support, and General Support manual25- Organizational, Direct Support, General Support and Depot

manual34- Direct Support and General Support manual35- Direct Support, General Support and Depot Manual45- General Support and Depot Manual

So the Browning .50 caliber M2 machinegun technical manual for theOrganizational and Direct support levels of maintenance would bring us to:

TM9-1005-213-23 (Ordnance TM, small arms to 30mm, 213th item (theBrowning .50 caliber M2 machinegun), Organizational and Direct SupportMaintenance Procedures)

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Now there are several items left to discuss. The first one is whether or not theletter “P”, for “parts” is included. If, at the end of the maintenance level indicator,we see the letter “P”, this indicates that parts diagrams and listings are included.If the letter “P” immediately follows the second digit, as in “23P”, it indicates thatthe manual contains only parts diagrams and listings.

Manuals that contain both maintenance instructions and parts data areindicated by the placement of an ampersand (&) between the second digit andthe letter “P”, as in “23&P”. Examples would be:

TM9-1005-213-23P Organizational and Direct Support RepairParts

and Special Tools Listing for the Browning M2.50 Caliber Machinegun

TM9-1005-213-23 Organizational and DS MaintenanceManual for the Browning M2 .50 CaliberMachinegun

TM9-1005-317-23&P Organizational and DS MaintenanceManual, Including Repair Parts and SpecialTools Listing, for the Pistol, 9mm, M9

Remember that if the letter “P” is absent, there is no parts listing. Just the letter“P” means that there is only a parts listing, and no maintenance instructions.Also, the inclusion of the ampersand (&) and the letter “P” means bothmaintenance instructions and parts listings are included.

There are some pieces of equipment so complex that multiple TM’s areneeded. This should be obvious from observing that some weapons have a TMdedicated to maintenance instructions and another to parts listings. However,there are TM’s with such large amounts of maintenance instructions that theyneed to be broken down into different volumes.

When this is necessary, the volume numbers are shown at the end of thedesignator, separated by a virgule. What’s a virgule? You probably know it bythe common slang term: slash. It looks like this - “/”. So a TM broken into threevolumes would have the symbols /1, /2, and /3 at the end of the TM designator.

You will become more familiar with the numbering system as you work with it.After a while, the numbers will seem less important. What is important is makingsure you have the current technical data on hand.

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At the time of this writing, the DOD is making the transition to ElectronicManuals. It’s about time! Private industry made the change many years ago, andthe savings this system affords should be obvious. On the surface, it appears asthough they save a lot of printing and distribution costs.

My experience with the current EM’s is that they are not efficient enough interms of printing out the documentation when it’s needed in the hands of asoldier. For instance, they print out blank pages, wasting paper. Operatormanuals, which are usually small enough to fit in a shirt pocket, are now 8.5 by11 inches in size. Also, the programs that manage the EM’s only permit printingon one side of the page, since computer printers don’t print to both sides of apage.

The end result is that an operator manual, any operator manual, uses 8 timesas much paper, since each page is four times the normal size, and only prints toone side. Is that efficient? Not by my estimation, but who am I to judge? After all,the distribution costs alone probably justify the use of the electronic medium. Ifyou are on-line, you can even download the TM’s. This eliminates the need for adistribution system totally.

The big benefit to electronic manuals is that the need for conducting traditional,time-consuming inventories will be reduced. Each CD-ROM will have the mostcurrent data. All you need to do is make sure you have the most current disc.

In addition to the current publications and all applicable changes, you mustalso subscribe to the TB43-0001-62-series, the TACOM Equipment ImprovementReport Digest. This publication includes late-breaking technical information andchanges resulting from product improvements.

Within the EIR Digest will be information on the current recommendations toimprove equipment such as your unit weapons. The suggestions are printedalong with investigation results, engineering reports, and actual changes to TMtechnical data. These changes might not appear in an actual change to a TM fora long time, so you need the EIR Digest to be absolutely current on the Army’smaintenance standards for your weapons and combat equipment.

Now that you know how to decode TM designators, the question arises; “Whatmust I have on hand in my arms room library?”

The following four pages will sum up all of the preceding information on thepublications needed in the arms room.

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Earlier in this section I stated that AR 750-1 required the use of technicalmanuals by unit personnel. In my classes, and in the course of my routineduties, Persons who want to know why they need so many TM’s on handfrequently challenge me. Let’s discuss this in detail.

Paragraph 2-28 of AR 750-1 (1 August 1994) provides the following mandates,excerpted and given verbatim as appears here:

2-28. Commanders at all levels will -

a. Emphasize the importance of maintenance and ensure that subordinates are held accountable for the conduct of maintenance operations. Maintenance is a command responsibility.

c. Emphasize the conduct and supervision of PMCS performed at the unit level. Material will be maintained at the maintenance standard specified in paragraph 3-1a.

(Author’s note: for reference and clarity, the first two sentences of para-graph 3-1a state: “The Army has one maintenance standard. The main-tenance standard is based on TM 10 and 20-series, PMCS”. PMCS, ofcourse, refers to Preventive Maintenance Checks and Services, whichare conducted by unit-level personnel.)

e. Establish, maintain and conduct training of operators and crews toproperly use and maintain equipment.

o. Ensure that all unit level PMCS as required by the -20 level TM’s toinclude all DS level services are scheduled and performed.

AR 750-1 makes it clear that all unit level PMCS will be conducted to onestandard: the one found in the equipment TM. This includes operator andorganizational level maintenance tasks.

Literal requirements for the use of the TM by the armorer are found inparagraph 3-9c, which states:

c. Unit mechanics will use the TM 10- and 20- series to identify and repairfaults. The TM 20-series PMCS tables are used to perform scheduledPMCS services that sustain and extend the combat capable time of theequipment.

Where does one find the requirement for a TM for each operator or item ofequipment?

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The need for operators using the TM 10-series is also found in AR 750-1,paragraphs 3-9a and 3-9b as shown here:

a. Unit maintenance is the first and most critical level of the Armymaintenance system. It is the foundation of the maintenance system andrequires continuous emphasis by all commanders. Commanders mustestablish a command climate that ensures that assigned equipment ismaintained to the maintenance standard defined in paragraph 3-1aabove. Commanders are responsible for providing resources, assigningresponsibility, and training their soldiers to achieve this standard.

b. The cornerstone of unit maintenance is the operator/crew performingPMCS from the applicable TM 10-series. The before and during PMCSchecks concentrate on ensuring equipment is fully mission capable(FMC). Faults detected during before operations checks that make theequipment not FMC or violate a safety directive must be corrected beforethe mission. Faults detected during the mission affecting FMC must becorrected during the mission. Faults detected before or during the missionnot affecting FMC may be corrected, if time permits, or recorded/reportedfor correction after the mission. After operations checks detect faultsresulting from the mission and ensure the identification and correction offaults to maintain the equipment to the maintenance standard.

So, a literal reading of these paragraphs tells us that the commander mustcreate a climate in which maintenance is performed to the PMCS standard. Theoperator must perform maintenance checks according to the TM 10-seriesPMCS tables. And, the checks are a continual process. The operator mustcontinue to make checks before, during and after the use of the equipment, andusing the operator level TM. In order to meet this requirement, the operator musthave the TM is his or her possession, because it must be used to conduct PMCSwhile the equipment is being operated!

Translation: you need one operator TM for each operator, because in the fieldenvironment (where the weapon is actually used), the operator needs to performthe during operation checks. So, if your arms room has 160 M16A2 rifles, youneed 160 M16A2 operator manuals, one per operator/rifle combination.

As for the TM 20-series manuals, you should only keep one on hand. Themanual is to be used only by the armorer, and should never be given to theoperators. Organizational maintenance can only be performed at the 2ndechelon level by trained, qualified and appointed personnel. This excludes theoperators from performing organizational PMCS. As a result, only oneorganizational manual is really needed.

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The exception to this would be in a unit where there is an assistant armorerwho desires his or her own copies of the TM’s, or in a consolidated arms roomwhere each armorer from each unit must have his or her own publications. Thisis because the units sharing an arms room in garrison will probably deploy todifferent locations, and each unit will need its own manuals.

Okay, you know how to decode TM designators, how to conduct inventories,how many copies you need on hand, and why you need the EIR digest in thearms room. Now we’ll cover the last, and most important items concerningpublications; how to keep them current. This applies to printed manuals only.

Several pages earlier, I mentioned DA Pamphlet 310-13. The title of thismanual is “Army Publications, Posting and Filing of Publications.“ This manualprescribes the manner in which changes to publications are posted. Posting achange means to actually go to the basic publication, and cross out, remove,and/or replace information on the pages therein.

There are two primary means of making changes to publications; they arecalled pen-and-ink changes, and page changes. Pen-and-ink changes involvethe looking up of the old information, crossing it out, and then writing in the newinformation. Obviously this is useful only where there are minor changes to bemade. Otherwise, the pages would be cluttered with scribble and becomeillegible after a while.

Page changes usually arrive in the form of a small booklet made of individualpages stapled together. The first pages will be instruction pages that tell youhow to post the changed information. They will typically tell you to remove pageX and replace it with page Z, and so on. All you need do is remove the staplesfrom the manual, remove the old pages, and put in the new ones.

Unfortunately, in my many years of inspection experience, the overwhelmingmajority of unit armorers do a dismal job of maintaining current manuals. Theyusually receive the changes and just put them in the binder, in front of the basicpublication, without posting the changes. Sorry, but if I inspect your arms roomand find the changes not properly posted, you get no credit for having them atall.

Reading the instructions on the first pages, as well as those in DA Pamphlet310-13, makes doing the job easy. It only takes a few minutes. After you changethe pages, put the word “posted”, the date you accomplished the change, andyour initials on the page change cover sheet. Then post that sheet in front of themanual to prove that the information has been placed within the TM. That’s allthere is to it.

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Also, you must use the manual when performing PMCS. Why? Just becausethe technical data may have changed since you last read the book. The armorerwho attempts to memorize the PMCS tables will be doomed, because the data inthe tables is subject to change so often.

In addition to the equipment TM, and all the changes thereto, and the EIRDigest, there is another significant source of relevant maintenance information.This is the PS Magazine, which is actually a Technical Bulletin, in the TB 43-PSseries.

Are you familiar with PS Magazine? It is a small, hip-pocket sized publicationwhich is in a sort of “cartoon” format. It stars MSG Half-Mast and a cast of otherfamiliar cartoon characters. Many soldiers don’t really take this publicationseriously, because of its design and image. The information contained within,however, is certainly valid form a technical point of view.

Since it is printed monthly, there is usually updated information in the sectionon small arms. On the top of page one is a disclaimer which states that the useof the information contained within an issue is optional with the user. Honestly, Ican not understand the disclaimer, since the content is approved by the relativeproponent agencies. Since it is an official publication, and the content isapproved by the appropriate agencies, it seems that this would therefore be asource of official data for the user community.

I am frequently challenged by persons who state, rightly so, that the use of theinformation appearing in this technical bulletin is optional. This results in myhaving to go to reference publications to find the actual source of authority for amaintenance procedure. Since I have had to do this “reverse referencing” manydozens of times, I can state with certainty that anything appearing in PSMagazine is definitely printed in the appropriate source documents.

Therefore, read the PS Magazine and apply the information it contains. Also beaware that each year they print a summary of all the articles appearing in thatyear’s issues. Make sure you keep copies of the annual article summary. It canmake finding information a lot easier when you need to research a particularpiece of information.

Finally, make sure your publications are maintained in sturdy, waterproofbinders. The reason for this is simple. When the unit goes to the field, so do themanuals. Publications that are torn, weathered, page-worn, or which havemissing pages should be replaced. Information in all your publications needs tobe legible and complete, in order to be useful.

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Supply Management

In many arms room inspections, I have found most areas to be in fullcompliance with the intent and letter of the applicable regulations, yet I still findproblems with the management of the arms room. One of the most glaringdeficiencies is in the area of supply management.

The Army supply system is not difficult to understand. It is a demand-supported system, meaning that you only get what you ask for. The stocking ofparts, tools, lubricants, cleaning materials and other needed items is based uponcustomer demand. If the system has no requirement for a green widget, therewill be no green widgets in stock. Order several hundred green widgets everymonth, and you’ll find the warehouse overflowing with green widgets in the verynear future.

This is the same method by which commercial retailers operate theirbusinesses. If the customer stops purchasing a certain item, the retailer drops itfrom the inventory, because no one wants it. Think about it: how many hula-hooprepair kits have you seen on store shelves recently?

I have to admit that some armorers constantly amaze me when it comes to thearea of supply management. I do not know how someone can take something sosimple, and make it so complicated! Usually, I find many arms rooms lacking inthe basic supplies they need to sustain training and contingency operations. Ihear these excuses all the time:

“The unit is out of funds....”

“The Self-Service Supply Center was out of stock....”

“I didn’t have time to re-order it....”

“We’re not authorized to have that stuff on hand....”

All of the foregoing excuses are without merit. Monetary appropriations arebased on unit size, mission, mobilization requirements, type of equipment used,number of vehicles operated, and other common factors. If you find that there isnever enough money to support the arms room operation, something else iswrong.

It is probable that not enough emphasis is being placed on arms room needswhen the unit budget is looked at. You can help to cure that problem by being avocal advocate, using the wisdom of the old adage, “the squeaky wheel gets thegrease.”

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The meaning of this is simple; you will not get something unless someoneknows you need it. Most times, I find the armorer has taken no steps to informmanagement of his or her needs. The end result is the excuse that the unit cannot afford it.

I honestly believe that you will not find a single Unit Commander, FirstSergeant or Supply Sergeant who thinks the arms room is unimportant. Thesepersonnel hold their positions because of their training, experience, provenabilities and personal commitment to excellence. None of them considers theweapons in your arms room unimportant. Each one of them knows that thoseweapons are the reason we have an Army in the first place.

If you find you are usually waiting at the end of the line for supplies orequipment, you need to communicate your problem up through your chain ofcommand. Often I see unit armorers complain about the lack of funds, whenevery other aspect of the unit supply operation seems to be well organized,efficient, and well funded. This tells me that the problem is not the supply systemor financial resources. More than likely, it’s the armorer’s fault.

Self-Service Supply Centers (SSSC’s) stock common tools, equipment andcleaning materials. The unit, using unit funds purchases these items. It is truethat you sometimes go to the SSSC site, and find that they are out of a particularitem you need. This does not mean that the item is unavailable. It means thatyou have to go back after a week or so has elapsed, to see if a shipment hasarrived. Also, talk to your SSSC manager about availability of an item you need.Again, you must let people know what you need if you expect to get it.

There is always time to procure what you need, if you anticipate youroperational requirements. Prior planning is essential to all successful militaryoperations, and that includes supply management as well. You should alwaysmaintain on hand the amount of supplies and equipment needed to sustain 30days’ operation under field conditions. Therefore, there should never be anexcuse for running out of something, as long as you anticipate your needs.

And, what about the excuse that you are not authorized to have something onhand? Well, this is an easy one to answer. The back of each technical manualhas a listing of materials and supplies authorized for the maintenance of theequipment covered by the TM. It is usually found in Appendix D, depending onthe format of the manual. If it appears in the manual, and is indicated for yourlevel of maintenance, you are authorized to have it on hand in the arms room.

With the current downsizing (at the time of this writing) taking place within theDepartment of Defense, things are changing. How the supply system will evolveis not presently known.

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Downsizing is a reality. The re-defining of global threats in the post-Soviet erais driving it. Changes will take place and the system as we know it now might beradically different in a few years. Currently, supply operations information iscodified within the 710-series of Army publications. The entire system is beingevaluated for change, so keep abreast of things, and always refer to the currentdoctrine to make sure you follow proper acquisition procedures.

Here at Fort Drum, we went through a re-organization of our local SSSC, andthey eventually re-established the system similar to the way it was set uporiginally. The “re-engineering” seemed to not be as effective as the proponentsof change stated it would be. Change for the sake of change is not alwaysbeneficial.

At the present time, many installations are under what is known as a“commercial activities study”, or CA study. This is a study the DOD conducts todetermine if it is least expensive to contract out a function, or keep it in-house.DOD leadership is currently calling for the elimination of tens of thousands ofDOD civilian jobs, and additional rounds of base closures in the years 2001 and2005.

All of this will have an impact on you, the military armorer. By necessity, theDOD needs to become more efficient, since the cost of military operationscontinues to climb. However this efficiency is attained, the system will have tochange to accommodate it.

The end result, which will be noticed at the user level (that’s you!), will probablybe in the support structures involved in the general logistics field. Logisticsdeals with three specific areas of activity; supply, transportation andmaintenance. You might obtain everything you need from a local contractvendor, such as Sears or J.C. Penney. The move to the use of the IMPAC creditcard for unit local purchases is an example of this trend.

It is also possible that contractors will establish their own warehousing andsupply operations right on military installations. If the operations are kept in-house, meaning DOD civilian employees will continue in their present status,you should expect more streamlined business methods to be employed. DODagencies will have to cut back the number of employees, and may employ onlytemporary, seasonal, on-call, or contingency-justified personnel. Hours ofoperation may be fewer, and support services may be less than what you areused to.

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I wish I could provide more guidance than this, but I have no extra-sensorypowers, and have no more ability to read the future than you do. Keep up withthe changes in policies and implementing regulations. One thing is certain: thechanges will alter the way you handle supply issues right now

As far as current Unit Supply Procedures are concerned, there exists excellentguidance on the subject. It appears in DA Pamphlet 710-2-1, the title of which is“Using Unit Supply System Manual Procedures.” This publication covers how torequest and receive supplies, how to account for items, repair parts procedures,inspection and inventory procedures, and much more.

For a greater understanding of the logic behind this publication, check AR 710-2. Both of these publications appear in the most recent SUPPLY UPDATE, andat this time the most recent issue is Supply Update 14.

DA Pam 710-1-1 explains the term PLL. This is an acronym that meansPrescribed Load List. The PLL is the quantity of repair parts kept on hand tosupport a unit’s daily organizational maintenance requirements. This is normallyfor a pre-determined number of days of supply. Every unit that is authorizedpersonnel, tools and equipment to perform maintenance, will usually keep a PLL.

Normally, you will never maintain your own PLL items in your arms room, fordifferent reasons. The physical security of gun parts, which are easily pilferedand sold at gun shows, is one such reason. For non-Army personnel, youragency policies will determine the availability and access of small arms parts.

What you must understand about a PLL is that it is demand supported. An itemwill be stocked and maintained in your PLL, only if there have been a sufficientnumber of historical demands for the item. The item must also be appropriate toyour level of maintenance, with an essentiality code of “C”.

Active duty Army units must submit three demands for an item within a 180-daycontrol period, in order to qualify for PLL stockage. Army Reserve and ArmyNational Guard units have a 360-day control period in which to submit thenecessary demands. This is, of course, based on policy at the time of thiswriting, which is subject to change in the future. Again, make sure you refer tothe current doctrine.

Regardless of the number of items you might require in a PLL, the unit can nothave a total of more than 300 items in its’ entire PLL. There are exceptions asexplained in DA Pam 710-2-1, Chapter 8, Section 1, but don’t count on beinggiven any policy waivers. There must be a demonstrated need for an item beforeit can be added to your PLL.

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This is why it is so important to use the supply system properly. When youhoard parts or swap them with a buddy, you subvert the system. Demands willnot be shown in the system according to your actual usage. Then when youreally need a part, it won’t be there, because you have not shown a consistentdemand over time for that particular item.

Remember that you are authorized by the equipment TM to maintain certainitems on hand in the arms room. These are not PLL items. PLL items are theparts you need to make repairs. The items you are authorized to have on handare found in Appendix D in the back section of most technical manuals.

Using the maintenance level codes discussed earlier (page 15), you may keepon hand any items with a maintenance level code of “C” or “O”. These are itemsused by the operator and armorer. Find the codes in column two of the table inAppendix D, commonly titled “Expendable/Durable supplies and Materials List.”

Remember also to maintain a 30-day supply, which is tailored to your unit’sfield requirements. Keep in mind that in the field your weapons will get dirtier, befired, etc. Do not base your requirements on a typical month’s usage in the armsroom, or you will fall short of what you actually need in the field.

In addition to the items found in this listing, you must also maintain the requiredBasic Issue Items (BII) or Additional Authorization List (AAL) items as found inthe back of the operator TM. These items include cleaning rods, magazines,slings, patches, tool cases, barrel bags and so on. Do not assume the operatorhas what he or she needs, even if you have issued it to that person. Things getlost, misplaced, stolen, broken or worn out. Make sure you have everything youwill need to sustain operations in the field.

Lastly, you must be mindful of the fact that there are items prohibited in thearms room. These items include homemade tools, unauthorized cleaning agents(brake cleaner, carburetor cleaner, 409, etc.), unauthorized cleaning materials(wire brushes, green pads, etc.), and commercial cleaning items not approved bythe Department of the Army.

Here’s the simple rule concerning these materials:

Don’t buy any, don’t store any, and don’t use any!

You are only authorized to use those items appearing in the technicalmanual or otherwise approved by the Army.

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The reasons are many and varied. First, if you use an unauthorized material orcleaning agent, you can do physical damage to the weapon. Many of today’sweapons have hi-tech finishes which do not tolerate chemicals like brakecleaner being repeatedly used on their surfaces. Regardless of what someonetells you, the use of these items is strictly forbidden.

Also, the fact that people have been doing it for years does not justify anything,either. The fact is, they’ve been violating Army policy for years! If you use one ofthe unauthorized cleaning agents or materials, and damage your weapon, theArmy might expect the unit to pay for the damage out of unit funds. This isespecially true if the use of unauthorized procedures is encouraged within theunit.

Second, these items are not authorized because they can have deadly,injurious, or carcinogenic (cancer causing) effects. Many of these chemicals aretoxic (read the label), flammable (read the label), explosive in confined spaces ifignited (read the label), carcinogenic (read the label), or classified as hazardousmaterials (read the label).

Are you getting the point about reading the label? I made some subtle hintsabout it in the preceding paragraph, for very good reasons. One of them is calledthe DOD Hazard Communication Program.

This policy, applying to all branches of the DOD, states that a Material SafetyData Sheet (MSDS) will be maintained in each work area where hazardouschemicals or materials are used. Has your squad leader provided you with theMSDS for that can of brake cleaner? Probably not, since the use of that item isprohibited in the arms room. Do you know the hazards associated with thischemical compound? Have you read the label warnings?

How about the fact that any flammable, toxic, dangerous or explosive materialmust be stored and handled in accordance with Army fire preventionregulations? The items must be maintained in certain types of facilities orspecially designed cabinets, and the areas in which they are stored must beplacarded and identified to firefighters and emergency personnel. Theinstallation’s Fire Inspectors must approve the storage.

What about the fact that there is no ventilation in any arms room, and all ofthese products require “adequate ventilation”? When is the last time you visitedan arms room with windows or an air purification system? When you spray thatstuff in your arms room, you re-cycle it through your lungs. You don’t need achemistry or biology degree to know that breathing cancer-causing solvents isnot a wise thing to do.

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Also, when you use these chemicals, residue is left on the surface of yourweapon. When you fire your weapon at the range and it heats up, the chemicalcooks off. Your nose is right over the weapon, and you inhale the vapor created.

Do you recall, from your chemical warfare classes, the methods by whichchemicals attack your body?

Absorption: Through the skin or mucous membranesIngestion: Through the mouth or nose, to the stomachInhalation: Through the mouth or nose, to the lungs

Of the three methods, inhalation is most dangerous, since with the other two weneed to actually touch the material or swallow it. With inhalation, all we need todo is breathe and it invades our body. Think about it; it’s sort of necessary tobreathe, so the likelihood of your inhaling a chemical in a contaminated area isvery high, especially if you are ignorant of the danger. Some compounds takeyears to do their damage, but the end results can be deadly.

A final point or two about supply: when broken down to its essential elements,the supply cycle is extremely simple to understand. Here is a simple explanationof the supply system at the user level:

1. You determine you need something2. You order it3. The order is shipped and you receive it4. You use the item5. As you need more, you re-order it

That’s all there is to it. But can you see where most people fail? Step 5 isusually ignored until the entire on-hand stock is exhausted. By simplyanticipating demands, you can prevent depletion of the items on hand.Conducting routine inventories can prevent shortfalls. The end result of such apolicy is the availability of needed items at all times.

Regardless of how simple this seems, many armorers fall short in this singleaspect of supply management: the ability to properly forecast requirements andmaintain adequate stockage of needed items.

In your arms room, you generally will work without direct supervision. This doesnot mean that you will not have a supervisor. But it does imply that the boss isnot always there, managing your daily activities. As such, it is important that youset up a management program that prevents you from overlooking an importanttask.

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One method the Army is using to deal with this problem is ULLS. The acronymstands for “Unit Level Logistics System”, and is a computer system using specialsoftware that tracks maintenance and supply actions. ULLS is the Army’s meansof moving into an information-based electronic data tracking system at the unitlevel.

ULLS is effective and efficient, but has limitations. For instance, an ULLSSpecialist enters data into the system. This person can only input the data thatyou provide. Therefore, if your data is incorrect, incomplete or inadequate, thesystem will not reflect the true scope of your operation.

Also, the ULLS system is not located in the arms room. This means you have tocollect all the data needed for the ULLS clerk, and submit that data for input intothe system. So, you still need to use paper-based forms anyway, to collect thedata. And, when the unit goes to the field, there may be times when the ULLSsystem is not available.

The ULLS system tracks organizational maintenance. Operator maintenance ofsmall arms will still have to be recorded on an inspection form, and maintainedby the armorer outside the ULLS system. Eventually, these issues will beaddressed, with the possibility of portable or laptop computers being issued tothe armorer at some time in the future.

But for the present, the system used by the armorer is manual in nature. Itinvolves the filling out of forms, the filing of documents in folders, and thesubmission of maintenance requisitions.

All of these activities will be your personal responsibility, and must beaccomplished without direct supervision. There is a system for trackingmaintenance actions on a scheduled basis, as we will learn in the next section.

When all else fails, ask your Supply Sergeant. I really sympathize with supplyNCO’s. They have a tough, demanding job that goes unappreciated by mostpeople. As an armorer, you need to have a strong working relationship with yourUnit Supply Sergeant. Often, he or she will be your first-line supervisor. In thiscase, a good rapport obviously benefits both parties.

Your Supply Sergeant earned that position by being proficient, and should beable to answer almost any supply question. Remember that the responsibility forkeeping the arms room properly supplied and functioning in the correct manneris yours, and yours alone. You can expect help from your superiors, but don’texpect that anyone else will do your job for you.

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Maintenance Management

The proper management of maintenance actions is essential to the successfuloperation of an arms room. Merely possessing the ability to perform repairs doesnot guarantee that the work gets done. A comprehensive maintenance plan willensure that required tasks are scheduled and completed. Using such a plan canprevent you from overlooking something critical. Considering the sheer volumeof work that must be done in the arms room, it is easy to forget a required task.

The information needed to establish a maintenance program for your armsroom is found in the Maintenance Management UPDATE. This publicationincludes AR 750-1, which establishes maintenance policy, and DA Pam 738-750, which implements those instructions. Make sure you are using the currentissue!

Maintenance actions are scheduled on DD Form 314, titled “PreventiveMaintenance Schedule and Record.” This form is merely a scheduling calendarthat provides for the entering of specific information concerning the equipmentfor which it is used.

The use of the DD 314 is required for any item that has periodic maintenancerequirements, established by its respective organizational maintenance manual.A separate DD 314 may be used for each item in your arms room, or you maycombine up to 20 identical items on one form.

However, the maintenance for all the items appearing on the DD 314 must bedone at the same time. Therefore you may find that scheduling the disassemblyand inspection of 20 machineguns on the same day is a bit challenging. Theintelligent armorer divides and balances the workload to prevent stress that cancontribute to errors.

The DD 314 is ordinarily used only to schedule organizational maintenancesuch as Preventive Maintenance Checks and Services, or PMCS. However, youshould also schedule events such as mandatory annual safety and serviceabilityinspections of your unit weapons. Also use this form to schedule the mandatory180 day verification inspections for all your night vision devices.

Concerning inspections, let’s get specific about what they are and how theyshould occur. There are many different types of inspections, each with a specificpurpose.

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Command Inspections are conducted to provide unit commanders with anassessment of the capabilities of the units or personnel under their command. Acommand inspection will often look at the entire operation of a militaryorganization. This includes OPSEC, training, morale and welfare, social actions,maintenance, supply, and other major organizational functions.

Usually teams composed of subject-matter experts from varied areas of interestconduct these inspections. They may require several days to complete, and mayalso involve a formal in-brief and out-brief, as well as written summaries offindings.

Annual Safety and Serviceability inspections are special inspections ofequipment to determine its suitability for military use. As the name implies, theyare conducted to determine whether an item meets required safety standardsand maintenance specifications. The mandatory annual small arms inspectionsshould be conducted according to TM standards, to include not only the use ofall gages authorized, but also a disassembly of the weapon. During thisdisassembly, the inspector should look for any obvious defects, enter findings onthe DA 2404, then reassemble and function check the weapon.

The armorer is the individual responsible for scheduling this annual inspection.The units providing your Direct Support or General Support maintenancefunctions do not normally maintain a schedule of units to inspect. It will have tobe your personal initiative that gets this critical inspection accomplished.

Technical Inspections are normally conducted to determine the suitability ofan item for turn-in or issue through the supply system. Supply condition codesare assigned, and a tag that indicates the supply status of the item is affixed toit. A technical inspection involves a complete maintenance evaluation of an item,to include all components thereof.

Quality Assurance Inspections may be part of the repair or rebuild process,or may be conducted on items within the supply system. They determine whetheritems have deteriorated or reached the end of their life cycle. Some items, suchas chemical compounds used in cleaning and repair, have a maximum life spanknown as shelf life. After a certain amount of time their age prevents them fromperforming properly. QA inspections may be sampling inspections, meaning thata representative quantity is inspected. If any defects are found, the entirequantity on hand will then normally be inspected. Sampling keeps the cost ofinspections down, and provides fairly reliable results.

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Surveillance Inspections are normally conducted by QASAS personnel. Theacronym stands for Quality Assurance Specialist for Ammunition Surveillance.QASAS inspectors work at ammunition supply points, depots and ammunitionplants, to guarantee that the munitions issued to soldiers are safe and combatready. Their function is highly technical and can be dangerous, and their trainingis extensive and challenging. If a QASAS inspector tells you to dosomething...do it!

Compliance Inspections are conducted to determine conformity to writtenpolicies or regulations. An example would be a Physical Security Inspection.Accredited personnel, usually assigned to the Provost Marshal Office conductthese. Other compliance inspections might include Safety Equipment Inspections(SEI’s), or roadside spot checks. These inspections determine whetherequipment in use or operating techniques comply with safety standards.

Maintenance Inspections are usually conducted in a shop environment. This isdue to the requirements for special tools and fixtures that are sometimes used.There are several different types of maintenance inspections:

Acceptance Inspections are conducted upon receipt of an item. They areconducted to determine whether an item is complete, clean and/or serviceable.Some acceptance inspections are done when a new item is received, others aredone when you are turning in an item with a maintenance request. In the case ofturning in a weapon for maintenance, the weapons must be cleaned prior to turn-in. This is necessary for certain gaging steps to be accomplished during thesubsequent initial inspection.

Initial inspections are bench inspections conducted to determine the totalcondition of an item submitted for repair or ECOD (Estimated Cost of Damage)evaluation. The item will be completely disassembled, visually inspected, gagedand tested according to strict technical requirements. Any faults found will beannotated, and either repaired or referred to the appropriate maintenance levelfor action.

In-process inspections, also called inline inspections are conducted as anitem is being repaired or overhauled. Very often a problem will be discoveredduring the repair or rebuild of a component, that could not be found during theinitial inspection. This may be due to the fact that some assemblies are notroutinely broken down for initial inspections, or may result from a problemoccurring during the repair cycle. The inspection worksheet is amended, andadditional parts needed are ordered and replaced.

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Final inspections are conducted on an item when it has been through themaintenance process. This ensures the quality of the work meets establishedArmy criteria. The final inspection process usually includes a full function checkof the item, and re-checking with all appropriate gages and test fixtures.Sometimes a weapon must also be test-fired during final inspection, to determineaccuracy and proper function.

PMCS inspections are conducted by unit personnel at the operator andorganizational levels. PMCS stands for Preventive Maintenance Checks andServices. As the name implies, the focus here is to prevent problems.

Accordingly, PMCS inspections are conducted routinely according to aschedule mandated by the equipment TM or unit SOP. PMCS is the foundationof the Army maintenance effort. More than 90% of all maintenance problems aredetectable and repairable at the organizational level. Proper PMCS inspectionswill prevent most problems from occurring in the field.

As a unit armorer you must be familiar with the nature and intent of inspections.In fact, you serve as your unit’s quality assurance inspector. As the armorer, youhave special responsibilities and training that make you best qualified to performthis function.

The armorer is appointed by the unit commander to serve as the unitorganizational maintenance specialist for the items contained within the armsroom. Only personnel trained and appointed to this duty position can performthis level of work.

Operators may not perform organizational maintenance functions. Theymay assist the armorer by disassembling, cleaning and layout of their weapons,but the organizational level PMCS may be conducted only by the unit armorer orassistant armorer.

This means the armorer must perform PMCS for every weapon and item ofequipment in the arms room, including unassigned equipment. First line leadersand supervisors such as squad leaders, section leaders and platoon sergeantshave the authority and responsibility to supervise the work of their subordinates,and to inspect that work. That should not be confused with the organizationalmaintenance inspection responsibilities of the armorer. They are separate anddistinct functions.

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The armorer represents the interests of the commander in the arms room. Thisis because the assets in that arms room are the ultimate responsibility of the unitcommander. As an appointee designated by the unit commander, the armorer isdirectly representing the commander. His or her conduct must be exemplary andprofessional in all aspects. The armorer must display tact in dealing with first lineleaders and supervisors whenever necessary.

Difficulties invariably result from the misconception that the armorer isinterfering with the authority of a troop leader. The armorer must make theindividual NCO or officer involved understand the requirements of the armorerposition.

It is not uncommon for a troop leader to feel that the armorer is challenging hisor her authority by re-inspecting a weapon before accepting it into the armsroom.

However, the armorer is required to check all weapons before takingpossession of them. This is for logical reasons, the most important of which isthe fact that the transfer of possession of a firearm is a custody transaction.When the armorer accepts a weapon and returns the issue card to the operator,there is an assumption of responsibility.

This assumption of responsibility means that while the weapon is in thepossession of the armorer, he or she is responsible for its care and condition.The same is true when the operator possesses the weapon. If the armorer failsto inspect a weapon when it is turned in to the arms room, it is possible that theweapon may have parts missing or maintenance deficiencies. In this case, thearmorer has just assumed responsibility for these problems.

If you fail to inspect a weapon and accept it with faults, and are then inspectedby a higher echelon, the problem is now your problem, not the operator’s. Theoperator can always claim ignorance of the problem and state that it happenedwhile the weapon was in your possession. As a result, an operator canintentionally turn in a weapon he knows to be defective, and deny theresponsibility for it...because it was in your possession. All because you failed toinspect it on acceptance.

It should be easy to understand then, why the armorer has inspection authorityand responsibility. It is a function of the proper stewardship I mentioned earlier.It should not be difficult to explain this to an individual who feels you are directlychallenging his or her authority when you re-inspect a weapon at the arms roomdoor.

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So, I hope this clarifies the subject of inspections; what they are, when they areconducted, and by whom. Let’s move on to a related topic, the use of the DAForm 2404, the “Equipment Inspection and Maintenance Worksheet."

The specific instructions on the use of the DA 2404 are found within DA Pam738-750, Chapter 3, paragraph 3-4. Again, there will be no re-invention here, buta caution to refer to the guidance in the governing directive.

I will, instead, provide certain highlights for your use of the form. To begin with,always use the DA 2404 whenever conducting any inspection, no matter howsimple or trivial it might seem. Remember that the written word lasts longer thanthe best memory. Very often you will be interrupted while working on a weapon.

Writing down your findings will make sure they are not overlooked. This willpermit others, like the assistant armorer, to continue or add to your efforts.

Always use the carbon paper and make a second copy. This way, if you turn ina DA 2404 with a maintenance request, you will be protected against the loss ofthe original by having a record of all your findings.

Always leave a blank line between entries, so that maintenance personnel willhave the space they need to make their entries on the form when your weaponsare repaired. Also, the blank line might be needed if a status symbol change ismade.

You must always keep the most recent DA 2404 used during PMCS on hand forinspection or quality control purposes. When a DA 2404 is returned with yourcopy of a maintenance request after repairs are completed, maintain that form inthe files with your copy of the maintenance request. This copy should beretained for 180 days according to DA Pam 738-750. Copies of paperworkrelated to annual inspections are retained until the next inspection.

Now that we have come to the subject of PMCS, let’s look at how it should beconducted. PMCS is always performed in accordance with the schedule requiredby the equipment TM. Most TM’s have a PMCS checklist that will tell you theinterval at which a certain PMCS function is to be performed at theorganizational or higher level of maintenance.

When performing a maintenance function or during PMCS, you must have theequipment TM opened to the page that provides the guidance for that function orcheck. This is a valid requirement, because technical data in manuals frequentlychanges.

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Memorizing the steps in a PMCS procedure is a fatal mistake, because if theprocedure changes, you will not be performing it to the specifications resultingfrom the change. Always use the current TM while working on any equipment inyour arms room.

With the TM in front of you, it is a simple matter to follow the checklist and doas it instructs. Note any deficiencies or shortcomings you find, on the DA 2404.Use the item number that appears in the first column on the PMCS checklist, asthe item number entry in the first column of the DA 2404. This tells the repairerwhere you found the problem on the PMCS checklist.

If you encounter a problem that meets the requirements listed in the columntitled “Not Fully Mission Capable If:," then that item is deadlined. This meansthat the item cannot be used until the deficiency is corrected.

If you do encounter such a problem, then circle the item number in the firstcolumn of the DA 2404, to let the repairer know that the TM mandates thedeadline.

Continue going down the PMCS checklist until you have inspected every listedcomponent, and annotate your findings on the DA 2404. You must repeat thissame PMCS procedure for each item in your arms that has a PMCSrequirement, using the schedule you established on your DD 314’s.

Yourself, or the assistant armorer must repair any maintenance faults foundwhich are correctable at your level. By the way, it is highly recommended thatthere be a trained assistant armorer in each arms room, to ensure operationalcontinuity. Order the parts needed from your PLL clerk, and make the repairsaccording to the organizational maintenance procedures listed in the equipmentTM. Make sure you follow the instructions exactly. You will get no extra points forcreativity!

Maintenance faults that cannot be repaired at your level must be transferred toa maintenance request. When this is accomplished they should be submitted toyour servicing DS maintenance unit for repair. Items with deadline deficienciesindicated by the status symbol “X” should be submitted immediately, as theseitems are non-mission capable, or NMC. Other shortcomings should besubmitted within a reasonable period of time, but certainly no more than threeworking days after discovery.

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The servicing DS maintenance unit may have to defer, or delay the repairs,based upon their operational workload, parts availability, or other factors. If so,there are steps they will take to schedule your repairs when they are able to doso. You will be notified when to return with the items needing repair.

According to DA Pam 738-750, items with deadline deficiencies may not bedeferred. This is because that equipment is incapable of performing the combatmission for which it was designed. When a weapon, especially a crew-servedweapon like a machinegun is deadlined, that is a serious event. The reason isobvious; it can affect the unit’s warfighting capability.

Let’s examine how you determine what is and is not repairable at your level ofmaintenance:

In each technical manual for the organizational level and above, is a chartcalled the Maintenance Allocation Chart. This chart authorizes and assigns toeach level of maintenance the responsibility to perform certain functions. Thesefunctions may be inspecting, testing, servicing, installing, removing, replacing oroverhauling an item or component.

The MAC assigns responsibility to each level of maintenance using the fivemaintenance level codes given earlier: C, O, F, H and D. It also allocates thetools and test equipment required, the amount of time the procedure shouldtake, and provides special remarks concerning individual procedures.

In addition to the general information provided for in the MAC, specificauthorization to install, replace, use or repair an item is given in the Source,Maintenance, and Recoverability code, or SMR. The SMR code is a five digitalphabetic code that tells you how to procure, use and dispose of an item. TheSMR code for each individual part of an end item is given in the parts listing andbreakout diagrams within equipment TM’s. Remember that the TM must have the“P” designator in its TM number, or the parts will not be listed in that publication.

Specific information on the SMR and its breakdown is usually found inAppendix C of most 20-series and higher level equipment TM’s. The basic codesused for the assignment of responsibility in the MAC are also used in the SMRcode. There are several additional codes you must learn, so study the manual.

Earlier in this text I made reference to the term ECOD, an acronym forEstimated Cost of Damage. The unit armorer, as the best trained individualwhere small arms are concerned, needs to know about the ECOD process.

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This is because the unit armorer, as the official custodian of the weapons formaintenance and physical security purposes, is most likely to detect damage tothe weapons and related equipment.

As the commander’s representative in the arms room, the armorer has aresponsibility to the commander, the Army, and the taxpayers to ensure that anydamage to equipment is found and reported. How does equipment becomedamaged? There are five basic causes of equipment damage:

1. Fair wear and tear (FWT)2. Acceptable training damage3. Battle damage4. Negligence5. Willful Misconduct (criminal intent)

If damage to a piece of equipment results from one of the first three reasonsstated above, we hold the soldier harmless. This is because that damage isusually due to factors beyond the control of that soldier. If the damage is due tothe negligent or criminal behavior of that soldier, that’s an entirely differentmatter.

In cases such as these, it may be possible to recover the cost of the damagefrom the soldier involved, and a Survey Officer may be appointed. The decisionrests with the unit commander, who “owns” the assets in the arms room, and whois ultimately responsible for them. The Survey Officer will conduct aninvestigation to determine the circumstances of the loss or damage, and willprobably request an Estimated Cost of Damage inspection.

If an ECOD is to be conducted, complete a maintenance request and specifythat the ECOD is being requested. Do not first make any unit level repairs, ormodify the condition of the item in any manner, until a determination of causehas been made by the appointed Survey Officer. If the cause is determined,handle it like any weapon being turned for maintenance. If not, turn the weaponin as-is, as the DS personnel may need to determine the cause for the SurveyOfficer’s report. Cleaning or modifying the weapon may hide the true cause ofthe damage.

In the event that a determination is made that criminal intent was involved,there are some basic rules you should know about the investigation that willresult. First, you will be a principal in the investigation, since you discoveredthe crime. You will be questioned as a matter of procedure. This is nothing to beconcerned about. Simply be honest and accurate in your statements, even if youfear that something you say might make you look bad in terms of how youperform your duties.

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Second, do not interrogate the soldier(s) involved. This does not mean thatwhen you first discover the damage that you should not ask what happened.When it becomes apparent to you that something criminal might have occurred,discontinue your questions and report your knowledge of the incident to yourcommander.

Lastly, keep all copies of your inspection findings and associated ECODpapers until your chain of command or the investigator has informed you thatthey may be discarded. It may be helpful for you to keep notes concerning yourstatements or facts revealed to you, but these should be considered confidentialand properly disposed of when no longer needed.

Remember that your role in this entire process is limited, and you have noauthority over the decisions or findings. By reporting your initial discovery andmaking your statement to the commander or case investigator, you have fulfilledyour official responsibility.

The detection of failure or damage to weapons is your responsibility as the unitarmorer. Do not rely upon the honesty of others, and make the false assumptionthat every soldier will honestly report damage to you. Many times, they won’t.This is one of the reasons why PMCS has to be conducted properly, by thebook. If you don’t look for problems, they won’t become apparent until theweapon is needed in training...or combat.

Conducting proper inspections is the foundation of good maintenancemanagement. You can not fix problems until you know they exist. Remember,you schedule maintenance according to the PMCS tables in the appropriateTM’s, at the frequency indicated. Usually these PMCS inspections will be donequarterly, but it depends on the weapon, it’s usage, the type of unit you are in,and local policy (which may require you to exceed the PMCS frequency as givenin the TM).

Physical Security

The regulation that deals with this subject is AR 190-11, Physical Security ofArms, Ammunition and Explosives. It is typically found in a copy of the PhysicalSecurity UPDATE. You should maintain a copy of this publication in your armsroom, since it mandates the practices you must observe on a daily basis.

The physical security of unit weapons is one of the most important aspects ofyour job as an armorer. You must maintain full accountability for thewhereabouts of your unit’s weapons, 24 hours per day. I strongly urge you to getAR 190-11, read it, learn it, and know it inside and out. Failing to maintainadequate physical security of your weapons can have severe legalconsequences.

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There are resources you can rely upon for information on physical security.One is the publications dealing with such matters, and the other is the PhysicalSecurity Branch of your local Provost Marshal Office. If you have any questionsconcerning physical security matters, you should contact one of the physicalsecurity specialists working in that office. Do not rely upon what your “buddy”knows. He may know less than you, and you can wind up in legal jeopardy.

I do not need to go into great detail to make you understand the importance ofthe security of your weapons. They are portable, easily concealed in somecases, and the tools of the trade for terrorists and violent criminals. As such,they must be controlled in a manner that prevents even the slightest chance ofthem falling into the wrong hands.

There are many elements to a good physical security program. One is the typeof facility in which the weapons are stored, and whether or not it has an alarmsystem. One is the controls placed on personnel issuing or receiving theweapons, and how they handle the weapons when they are in possession ofthem. Still another is the careful selection of the personnel who will haveunrestricted access to firearms and ammunition.

For this last reason, all personnel appointed to positions as unit armorers orassistant armorers must have a background check to determine suitability for theduty appointment. Your medical records will be checked to see if you have anyhistory that would indicate mental instability or substance abuse problems, toinclude excessive alcohol consumption.

Local law enforcement agencies will be asked to provide information about anyarrests or legal problems in your past. Negative domestic or financial informationmay be disqualifying. Other factors concerning you will be evaluated todetermine if you are eligible to serve in this position.

Your personal integrity, trustworthiness and judgment are critical. In your armsroom may be as much as a million dollars in equipment, or even more. All thosemachineguns, mortars, grenade launchers, pistols, rifles, NVG’s, and other highdollar items are in your personal care.

Once appointed, you become the person in the “hot seat” as far as physicalsecurity goes. This is because you have unrestricted unaccompanied access tothe arms room. You have the combination to the main door and the safe, accessto the rack and locker keys, and the ability to turn off the entry alarm system. Insuch an important position, you will be required to explain any discrepancies inthe methods of weapons issue and inventory.

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You will have to make frequent checks on the security of the assets stored inthe arms room. You will conduct serial number inventories and sign documentsattesting to the accountability of unit weapons. You will be responsible fortransporting the firearms to and from maintenance facilities. In short, you are thefunctional security manager for the arms room, even though an officer or NCOmay actually hold that title.

The security of the arms room not only deals with the assets stored therein, butalso applies to the information concerning your unit’s weapons. OperationsSecurity, or OPSEC, is also your responsibility. AR 530-1 provides theregulatory guidance for this program. You should become familiar with itsrequirements. Particularly important is the information in Appendix B of thisregulation, which describes OPSEC indicators. Learn them, and know them.They are extremely important, more than you might think.

Information about your unit’s weapons, such as quantity and type, maintenancestatus, and availability should not be discussed with anyone outside the Armywho does not have a specific need to know. The status of weapons training,qualifications, availability of ammunition, and other similar information shouldlikewise be restricted.

Why is this essential? Regardless of what you believe about the Cold Warbeing over, the threat posed in the past still exists. There are those in theinternational community who will always be envious of the United States, and wewill always have enemies. Enemies do not have to be foreign. We live in a timewhere the threat of domestic terrorism has become reality.

The domestic terrorist may come from any segment of society. Some havebeen religious extremists, anti-government, anti-technology, or environmental-activist extremists. These people can live in any community and range from high-school dropouts to college post-graduate students. Aside from domesticterrorists, there is the ever-present threat created by criminals. These personsrange from local drug users desperate for cash, to sophisticated crimeorganizations with international contacts and millions of dollars in assets.

The best way to deal with the problem of not knowing who might have a hiddenagenda is to keep the information to yourself. This solves the problem of datafalling into the hands of the wrong people. In the Second World War, theconcept was summed up in the slogan “Loose lips sink ships.” The logic stillapplies. If you allow the wrong persons to gain information about a plannedmovement of your unit’s weapons, the results could be disastrous. Good OPSECmeans protecting sensitive information from prying eyes and ears.

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Sensitive information may appear in places that seem unlikely. The front coverof some of the TM’s used in your arms room bear the following cautions:

“WARNING: This document contains technical data whose export isrestricted by the Arms Export Control Act (22, USC 2571 et seq.) or ExecutiveOrder 12470. Violations of these export laws are subject to severe criminalpenalties.”

“DESTRUCTION NOTICE: For unclassified, limited documents, destroyby any method that will prevent disclosure of contents or reconstruction of thedocument.”

These warnings are clear and unambiguous. The government means businesswhen they print statements like this. You can be criminally prosecuted forallowing the contents of such documents to fall into the hands of unauthorizedpersons. Where do these warnings appear. Well, the TM’s for the M203Grenade Launcher and the Mk19 Machinegun are two examples.

Yes, it may be true that you can go to a gun show, swap meet, thrift store orsimilar establishment, and purchase a copy of one of these books. It would bestupid to assume that persons outside the Army do not know the knowledgecontained in these books. But the fact that someone else committed a crime andgot away with it is not a valid defense if you are charged with an offense underthe law. You must protect the information in these manuals as indicated,including burning or shredding out-of-date or unwanted copies. Do not throwthem in the trash!

Also note that the destruction notice refers to unclassified material! Did youknow that there was a requirement to destroy some unclassified documents?You know it now!

To sum it all up, Physical Security deals with the lock-and-key issues, andOPSEC deals with the information aspects of your arms room security program.Both are important, and each requires the other to succeed. Never make thefalse assumption that you can trust someone because you know them. There arecountless crimes committed by friends and acquaintances every day.

The key to adequate security is your behavior. Be above reproach in yourbehavior, and it will be impossible to compromise you. Be professional in yourattitude towards security, and others will rise to meet your standards. Yourefforts may actually deter crime by denying an opportunity. Always be securityconscious!

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Until now we have covered the duties typically performed in a garrison setting.Although this is where the majority of time will be spent, the real mission beginswhen we go to the field. After all, this is the very essence of the military force...towage war.

Although there are many things unique to field duty, many of the requirementsand practices we covered in the garrison duty section will apply. For instance,just because you are in the field does not mean that the PMCS schedule isabandoned. All the elements; files management, publications management,supply management, maintenance management and physical security, still mustbe performed in the field environment.

The field offers new challenges and difficulties. You do not have the physicalfacilities that make your tasks easier. You will now be exposed to the externalenvironment. Rain, wind, snow, ice, mud, sand, and extremely high or lowtemperatures will tend to lessen your abilities and induce physical and mentalstress.

Apart from the lack of comfortable support facilities and the effects of theenvironment, there is something else waiting to ruin your day...the enemy.

Here the challenge takes on a new dimension. Your job is no longer a matter ofperforming the routine tasks to a technical standard. You must now doeverything under the most adverse conditions imaginable. Picture yourself doingyour work to the same standards of excellence if subjected to the following:

Blizzard conditions Sniper fire

Artillery barrages Chemical attack

Aerial bombardment Ground assault

Tactical blackout Torrential rains

Mortar attack Sabotage

Any (or many) of these conditions may exist on your battlefield. If you want areal perspective on this, ask any soldier or veteran with an appreciable degreeof combat experience the following question: how bad can it get? You might beshocked by the answer. Remember, anything that can go wrong, probably will gowrong.

Now let’s discuss field duties in greater detail.

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Field duty describes those activities when the unit is in the field or engaged intactical operations, including active combat with an armed enemy. If no one hasever explained the combat nature of the armorer’s job, remember that the jobhas everything to do with combat support. After all, that’s why we have theweapons in the first place.

The majority of soldiers are not infantry troops. It takes a lot of supportpersonnel to make the Army work effectively against an enemy. To understandthe role you might be called upon to play, we must understand some facts aboutforce structure. This will be in very general terms and not very detailed, but it isimportant for you to understand.

Each infantry battalion requires support to sustain operations in the field.Soldiers need food, water, medical attention, clean clothing, maintenance items,morale support and many other things to remain sharp and efficient in the field.The importance of logistical support can not be overstated. An Army without foodand bullets will win no wars.

The soldiers who support the combat arms troops (infantry, artillery, engineersand others), typically are assigned to units that may be medical units, financeunits, maintenance units or any other type of organization required by themission. The mission defines the force structure.

Normally, we want to keep strategic assets and key support organizations outof the direct path of the enemy. The result is usually to define a “rear area”where non-tactical troops and organizations can function normally. This reararea may be a mile or dozens of miles away. Sometimes, however, it isnecessary to deploy support elements to forward positions. For example, if theenemy is being routed and our troops advance, support elements may rollforward to provide adequate levels of assistance.

So, although the idea may be to keep strategic support elements out of harm’sway, the events will dictate the tactics employed by field commanders. The resultis that not all support troops can expect to sit comfortably in a rear area, waitingfor the maintenance work to come to their door (or more appropriately, their tentflap!)

In addition to the placement of support troops in proximity to the fighting, thereis also the fact that the enemy will bring the fight to your territory. As previouslystated, there is the ever-present risk of artillery, chemical or aerial attack nomatter where you might be located. However, let’s look at the enemy’s logic andpossible plan of action for ground attack.

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The enemy has some options in battle. He has to maximize his potential bymaking the most efficient use of manpower, ammunition and supplies. In lookingat the means the enemy may employ to defeat you, we’ll examine a hypotheticalsituation:

The enemy infantry brigade commander has an array of assets touse, including ground troops, aviation assets, artillery, chemical,air defense, intelligence and signal forces. This commander cancommit his forces to a head-on, full frontal attack against our owncombat arms troops, to defeat our warfighting capability. To do somay cause massive casualties for the enemy force and the loss ofvaluable equipment and resources. The loss of those personnel andother resources could spell disaster for that enemy.

As an option, the enemy may elect instead to go for the softer target:...our support systems. If the enemy can disrupt our communications,logistics and intelligence capabilities, this increases the odds of afavorable outcome for him. Without food, water, ammunition, fuel,commo and intel, the effectiveness of our operations may degrade withthe passage of time.

It may be more effective for the enemy to wage a campaign againstour resources instead of against our troops directly. This type ofcampaign, if successful, can have the net effect of incapacitating ourforces overall.

Understanding this is simple. Combat arms troops perform theirprimary functions in the field environment. They train in the fieldmore frequently than support troops, and their training is mostly incombat-related tasks. On the other hand, support troops performtheir daily tasks in a non-tactical environment. Keep in mind, theseare general statements and do not address specific types of unitsor personnel.

The enemy knows how hard the combat troops train, and just howsuicidal it might be to take them on directly. There is less risk inseeking out you, the support troop, and eliminating your contributionto the battlefield effort. Most support troops only qualify with a weapononce a year, and don’t spend as much time in the field as combat armssoldiers. The enemy believes the support force to be an easy target,and given the option, may bring the battle to you while avoiding ourinfantry and other “hard” targets.

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So, the bottom line of the preceding statements should be apparent to you. It isnot necessary for you to be in a front-line infantry unit to meet the enemy in acombat area. He may well come looking for you, especially if you are perceivedas a “soft” target.

There is a distinct reason for going through all this. The reason is: manysoldiers believe that it will “happen to the other guy.”

History illustrates how likely it is that a soldier can complete an entire 20-yeartour without facing an enemy. In fact, that is the average experience. Look at themembers of your own force structure. Whether you are a member of a Division,an enhanced Brigade, or training cadre organization, look at the shoulders of themembers of your unit. How many wear combat patches? How many actuallyfaced an enemy, gun barrel to gun barrel?

You will quickly realize that the percentage of soldiers with actual “trigger time”against an enemy is relatively small. This fact is responsible for the mindset thatsays “that stuff happens to other guys, I’m a supply specialist in a support unit,and I’ll never see the enemy face to face.”

Now, this mindset may be validated by the experience of millions of othersoldiers, sailors, marines and airmen, who have gone through their period ofservice without firing a single shot in combat. But this validation is no justificationfor failing to train for the possibility of meeting the enemy.

It’s sort of like auto insurance. As long as you pay your premiums and neverhave an accident, it seems like a waste of money. But what happens if you havea wreck and have no coverage? Now let me ask you a harder question: if youare a military professional (which you are), why gamble on being prepared todeal effectively with the enemy? After all, if you do meet the enemy, and have noskills, you increase the odds of the enemy prevailing over you. End result? Yourdefeat.

Preparing to meet the challenge presented by a potential enemy begins withthe proper attitude. You have heard the term “attitude adjustment”, and we allknow that sports coaches give “pep talks” to motivate their players. You musthave the winning attitude in combat. Your defeat of the enemy begins with yourpersonal sense of confidence in your abilities.

Where do you gain that confidence? Through training that develops the skillsneeded to perform those tasks required in combat. Who provides thattraining?.....

YOU do!

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Wait a minute! What did you just read? How can you provide the training youneed? Well, you have to do it, out of necessity, because no training plancurrently exists to prepare you for what you may experience in combat.

It comes back to my earlier talking points in this book. There is no dedicatedfull-time MOS for the armorer, and therefore no Soldier Training Plan, no MOSupgrade training plan related to armorer duty, or any other kind of training andevaluation process. Remember that the Army does not even have astandardized plan or concept for armorer training at the basic level. It shouldtherefore follow logic that advanced training does not exist.

So, from where does the concept for self-training spring? Well, it really comesfrom the collective experience of those who have performed the duty in the past.But that experience is not documented or annotated anywhere that I know of,and I have looked for such information for a long time.

Most of your effort will therefore have to rely upon two factors:

First, your understanding of what combat is like or may be like, theduties you may have to perform, and how you perceive yourselfaccomplishing those duties.

Second, the common sense, practical recommendations I will now makein the remainder of this chapter. Most of these are based on acombination of personal experience, my many years of work andteaching experience, and my personal interviewing of many persons whohave experience in the field.

I truly hope that you take this issue seriously. If for some reason you deploy toa combat area, these skills are essential. You do not want to develop them bytrial and error on the battlefield!

Your training begins right now with the development of the proper attitude. Ifyou honestly don’t think this is important, and if you honestly believe “it will neverhappen to me”, then I have two questions I’d like to ask:

a. Why are you in the military?b. Why are you even bothering to read this book?

Now, right now, is where you begin to adopt the winning attitude needed toprevail in battle. Machismo, cadence counting and bonding are not enough todefeat the enemy. You must want to win! You must possess the needed skills!

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Field duty encompasses three principle areas of responsibility:

1. Range Operations support2. Tactical training operations support3. Combat operations support

Range Operations Support

Fortunately, major conflicts involving military force structures on a global ormulti-national basis do not happen very often. As stated earlier, it is possible tospend an entire 20-year career in the military services without engaging inarmed conflict. Most of your live-fire experience with weapons will result fromrange training operations.

My primary point is this section is simple: the armorer should always go to therange whenever personnel assigned to the same unit conduct live-fire training.Whenever a weapon fails on the firing line, it interferes with the training mission.If there is no armorer present to repair the weapon, a soldier loses a valuabletraining opportunity because of equipment failure.

GTA (Graphic Training Aid) 7-1-30 should be completed by the Range OIC orother responsible officer or NCO, whenever the unit will occupy a range facility.This document is a checklist of all the equipment and personnel needed toconduct range training.

GTA 7-1-30 requires “checking the block” for the armorer, tools, spare weaponsand maintenance area at the range. If you are not going to the range wheneverthe unit conducts live-fire operations, something is seriously wrong. Your chainof command needs to know the importance of your presence at the range.

It is important that you develop skill in dealing with many different types ofmalfunctions. You must know their causes, and the remedies for them. It is truethat the equipment TM will contain troubleshooting procedures, but let’s do areality check on this subject. Can you see yourself digging around for a TM whenthe enemy is firing on you, as you attempt to repair a machinegun that has failedduring an enemy assault on your unit?

The skill must be developed before it is needed, and it must be reflexive innature. This means that you have the ability to do it with your eyes closed. Thatwill not happen if you do not go to the range and work on weapons as they fail. Itis also extremely important that you be there to assess the failure.

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When someone clears the weapon and brings it back to the arms room, youcan’t examine the unique circumstances that caused the failure. The ammunitionhas been turned in, the gun may have been disassembled and reassembled,and even just clearing the gun can eliminate important indicators of the failure.

Your lack of visual indicators of the failure may lead to a wrong diagnosis of thefailure. End product?......a weapon in the rack that may still not work properly.Why? .....you didn’t properly assess the situation, and you’re not at the rangenow, so you can’t test-fire the weapon in the arms room. A function check maynot reveal the problem, and so the defective weapon goes back in the rack.

All of this is easily avoided if you are at the range! You will be exposed to agreater variety of problems, develop better diagnostic skills, improve your abilityto work with the tools needed, and add to your experience level.

Why else do you need to be at the range? Equally important is the fact that youneed to actually fire each of the types of weapons in your arms room. You needto qualify with each one and become proficient as an operator. Sorry, but I havelooked for any kind of mandate for this in Army doctrine, and have found nothing.You will have to convince your command element of the necessity for thisconcept.

Here’s the logic:

If you own a car, you know how important the braking system is. If thebrakes fail, you literally can be killed. Would you ever consider takingyour car to a mechanic who has no driver’s license, has never drivena car, and does not know how the brakes work?

Of course not! Only a certifiable idiot would do that!

Okay, let’s complete the analogy....

You are an infantry soldier. If you go to combat and your weapon doesnot work, you literally can be killed. Would you ever consider takingyour weapon to an armorer who has no training, has never operateda weapon like yours, and does not know how it works?

Of course not! Only a certifiable idiot would do that!

Oops!! We have discovered a problem here! The sad, but brutally honest truthis: this describes the present reality in too many cases.

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In combat, the soldier is dependent upon his or her assigned weapon for tworeasons: mission completion and survival. It is not exaggeration to state that themechanical and functional status of a weapon can mean the difference betweenlife and death in combat.

The best way to lessen the chance of failure is to have an aggressivepreventive maintenance program. But wait a minute....such a programpresupposes that there is a maintenance capability involved. All the tools, booksand equipment in the world are worthless without the skills needed to employthem.

It is only logical that if you are to be the maintenance specialist for the weaponsat the organizational level, your skills should at least be equal to those of theoperator. How can you possibly attain that skill if you do not train with theweapons? You need to discuss this with your chain of command, so time andammunition can be allotted for your training.

Again, there is no program that supports this requirement. It will be yourpersonal initiative that makes this happen. Remember always that the quality ofyour work is dependent upon the quality of your training. Whether playing thepiano or fixing a machinegun, the level of your performance is tied directly toyour abilities, which result from......training!

By the way, let me re-iterate a statement made in the foreword to this book: donot use this book as a substitute for formal training! Doing so is foolish anddangerous. Get formal training! If you don’t have a resource, call me at one ofthe numbers listed in the foreword. I will travel worldwide in TDY status to anylocation that wants to host the training, including hostile areas. I frequently takemy training on the road to distant locations, and would be glad to help you andyour fellow soldiers. Of course, this only applies if I can survive the downsizingof DOD!

Once you have received proper instruction and gained experience, your skillswill improve! From that point on you have a responsibility to share certainelements of your knowledge with others, using the train-the-trainer approach.Many soldiers have developed no skill at clearing obstructions or applyingimmediate action in the event of a malfunction.

When you are at the range, and a malfunction occurs, use the event to conducton-the-spot training for the operator. Explain what went wrong, what you aredoing to solve the situation, and how the operator can take positive steps to dothe same thing in case your service is not available in an emergency. Maximizeyour opportunity to learn from experience every time your unit goes to the range!

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Before leaving this subject, let’s also discuss what should happen when aserious failure of a weapon takes place: with or without injury to the soldiersinvolved.

I would like to first make the point that I am not talking about your “run of themill” malfunction. We are not going to interrupt training and shut down the rangebecause someone’s rifle is not properly feeding ammunition. The following typesof situations would warrant immediate action as a serious event:

The catastrophic failure of a barrel, breech or action assembly, thatresults in damage to a firearm or tube weapon.

Any event that results in injury or death.

Any event that indicates ammunition defects.

Catastrophic failure implies a situation that can not be remedied by immediateaction due to the degree of damage experienced. In other words, if parts break,the barrel blows up, or the breech fractures in your weapon, that is acatastrophic event.

The injury or death that happens from heat stroke or falling into a foxhole islikewise different in nature and scope than that which occurs as a result of aweapon failing on the firing line. Certainly, each is a serious event and trainingimmediately should cease, but we are dealing with the weapon-related problemhere.

Events that indicate ammunition failure are important because a bad lot ofammunition can affect many other units and their personnel training at differentlocations. The ammo lot will be suspended pending inspection, to prevent othersfrom experiencing the same problem. If two or more weapons are experiencingthe same serious problems, suspect the ammunition.

You must know, understand and obey all applicable safety regulations whileconducting training at the range. Your range operations party personnel willattend a range safety briefing, and be issued a copy of the regulation. I will notgo into the content and scope of the regulations, but will instead describe theproper way to react to a serious event.

First, immediately cease-fire! Any military member or person present at a rangewho witnesses an unsafe act or accident can immediately call a cease-fire. Iffiring does not immediately cease, continue to call out the cease fire order until itdoes.

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Next, simultaneously treat the injured persons while your RTO contacts RangeControl. Advise Range Control of the need for medical assistance or MEDEVAC.The information required and the format for the transmission of information canbe found in the range safety regulation.

Move all non-essential personnel away from the firing line to a safe distance.For instance, if dealing with a catastrophic ammunition problem with the Mk19HE ammunition, make sure all non-essential personnel are moved a minimum of75 meters to the rear, and even further if possible.

Secure the area. The area and all equipment present have now become anaccident investigation site. DO NOT remove the affected weapon from the firingline. Leave it exactly where it is, in exactly the same condition it was in when themishap occurred. The exception would be only if failing to clear and relocate theweapon would cause further injury or damage.

Protect the scene. Do not allow others to walk about the accident site prior tothe arrival of military police, range control personnel or other officialsinvestigating the event. For instance, the ejection pattern of the weapon tells alot about the placement of the gun and aiming point of the muzzle. Walkingabout the site, kicking and scattering shell casings and links with the toes of yourboots may alter critical evidence unintentionally.

The weapon should be inspected by someone from the direct support shop,your TACOM-ACALA Logistics Assistance Representative, or a weapons orordnance specialist from your local Directorate of Logistics. This inspectionshould be conducted at the accident site. Range Control has a list of persons tocontact, so let them notify everyone possible who might be able to come out tothe range to inspect the weapon. If they are unsuccessful in making contact, andthey clear you to remove the weapon from the range, take it back to your armsroom. Do not clean the weapon, but turn it in for evaluation concerning thecause of the accident in “as is” condition.

Remember, the presence of dirt in the receiver, or the lack of lubrication, canbe a contributing factor. Cleaning the weapon eliminates critical evidence of thefailure. If you go to turn that weapon in to your small arms support shop, andsomeone insists the weapon be cleaned first, ask to see that person’s supervisorand explain the nature of the request for the inspection. Again, DO NOT cleanthe weapon!

Range Control will handle the needed contacts regarding ammunitionproblems. Do not remove expended rounds from the range unless cleared to doso, and if possible, you should recover some casings for examination by thedirect support troops. Remember, don’t tamper with the evidence!

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Tactical Training Operations Support

The tactical training environment provides the best opportunity to developcritical skills needed by the armorer. Of course, the armorer must also beperforming his or her primary MOS duties. But whenever time permits, takeadvantage of the field environment (and its pitfalls) to sharpen your skills.

Working out in the wilderness provides many benefits. You will get theopportunity to train in all kinds of weather extremes. You might not be verycomfortable disassembling a machinegun in frigid temperatures, but it is a real-world task you might have to perform in stressful circumstances. You will not becapable of performing a task like this with much ease and fluidity unless youhave practiced it. Remember, you can’t replicate the field conditions in your armsroom, so train in the field whenever possible.

Night training also imposes the difficulties of dealing with noise and lightdiscipline. At times it will be absolutely necessary to turn on a flashlight with ared lens, but you should learn how to do so with a minimum of risk andexposure. Even with your flashlight, it can be difficult to see worn or crackedareas on a part, so training to improve skills is necessary.

One way to improve your abilities is to develop tactile perception. In otherwords, you should become familiar with the feel of the parts, and how todetermine their orientation in the dark. To acquire this ability, use the technique Ihave named “the bag drill.”

Here’s how it works. Take several different weapons apart, i.e., one shotgun,one rifle, one pistol, etc. Do not take two of the same type of weapon apart, suchas two M16A2’s. Put all the parts in a laundry bag and gently shake it up. Whenyou can reach into the bag and blindly identify the part in your hand, and theposition of that part in your hand, you are on your way.

Graduate from that to the “blackout drill.” In this case, take a weapon apartcompletely, scatter the parts on a table, and then reassemble them in a totallydark room. Your arms room has no windows and is virtually seamless inconstruction, so close the door, turn out the lights and go to work. You can dothis any day of the week in your arms room.

Now, once you develop the tactile perception needed to accomplish this, do itunder the worst conditions you can encounter in the field: cold, snow, rain, windand high heat. Oh, let’s not forget to try it in MOPP level 4 as well! If you do notdevelop these skills, no one will do it for you.

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In the tactical training environment you can expect to see many more problemswith your unit weapons. This is due to the fact that unlike the range exercise,soldiers will be running and hitting the ground with their weapons. They may alsofire more blank rounds at the cyclic rate of fire during simulated attack anddefense scenarios.

Blank rounds will leave your weapons dirtier, and stoppages may be morefrequent. The usual cause of the increased failure rate is due to improperattachment of the blank firing adapter (BFA), or use of the wrong BFA. There aredifferent styles of BFA’s for the M16/AR15 family of rifles. Make sure you checkthe type required against the description and stock number in the operator TM.

Blanks must be handled with respect. At close ranges they can cause seriousinjury or death if mishandled. Do not allow soldiers to tamper with blank rounds.Changing the amount of powder in a blank round by opening the crimp andadding or removing powder can have very negative consequences. We’retalking about safety, as well as the proper operation on the weapon. Do nottamper with blanks.

In addition to blank rounds used for training, there are also SRTA (short-rangetraining ammunition) rounds, and the transition to plastic ammunition for trainingin limited range areas is becoming very popular. Plastic rounds can be lethal!The .50 caliber rounds are lethal out to 700 meters! Many “simunitions” usefrangible rounds, which are designed to disintegrate on contact. Don’t make themistake of thinking that these rounds are harmless!

Use your time in the tactical training environment to learn an overview of yourunit’s operating policies in the field. You should have an intricate knowledge ofhow fighting positions are built to accommodate certain weapons. You shouldknow how to maneuver through the area with relative ease.

Spend some time becoming familiar with physical security of arms, ammunitionand explosives in the field. Study the methods of chemical decontamination ofthe weapons and auxiliary equipment. Take apart some weapons in MOPP Levelfour, with gloves and mask properly worn.

Get used to the work/rest cycle. Understand that if contact with an enemy ismade, you may have to work under extremely difficult circumstances. Prepare forthat by pushing your personal limits beyond the comfort zone. Stay properly fed,rested and hydrated. Attend properly to personal hygiene. You never know whenthe enemy will ring your doorbell!

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All this will happen only if you are self-motivated and truly care about thequality of your work, and the survival of your fellow soldiers. Remember alwaysthat in unity there is strength. Become a part of the team, and do your job. Thatis the key to survival on the battlefield.

Combat Operations Support

Here’s where all your training and experience pay dividends. You, the unitarmorer, can contribute directly to the success or failure of your unit to close withand defeat enemy troops. Only a complete fool would deny the importance ofproperly functioning armament in a firefight.

Each individual soldier will rely upon his or her weapon to provide the firepowerneeded to defeat the enemy and stay alive. The consequences of failure areunacceptable to even consider. Our forces fight to win by achieving specificobjectives. If the weapons fail to operate, missions can fail, and soldiers will die.

The responsibility for the proper care and maintenance of these essential toolsof battle is a serious one. As I often say in my classes,

“This is not the Olympics. There is no medal for second place. You win,or you lose. When death is the cost of failure, no budget is big enoughto cover the price.”

The armorer is a resource in combat. Like all resources, the armorer is onlyuseful if he or she is equal to the task at hand. Your training, experience,courage and dedication can make all the difference in the world when needed. Ifno one has ever told you this before, let me explain it now:

In combat, the armorer’s mission is to ensure that all weapons arecapable of sustaining fire against the enemy, If a weapon fails, and the operatorcan not resolve the problem by immediate action, it is the armorer’s responsibilityto get to that operator’s firing position, and resolve the problem. To do sorequires great courage, and the willingness to expose yourself to risk in getting tothe soldier in need. If you fail to do so, or choose not to do so, your inability toperform your duty may result in the death of that soldier who can no longerdefend his position. The loss of that fighting position may have catastrophicconsequences, which might ultimately lead to the failure of the unit mission, ofdefeat of the unit.

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I have trained hundreds of personnel for arms room duty a various militaryinstallations. Most of the soldiers I have trained, including those who graduatedfrom the 92Y school, have told me that no one ever explained the nature of theircombat duties to them.

Keep in mind, these are not hunting weapons, not sporting weapons orcompetitive weapons. They are combat weapons, and like all combat gear mustbe maintained to the highest standards attainable. Yes, we use these weaponsfor training, but their purpose is combat. To keep these weapons operating atthe highest possible state of efficiency requires a team effort. This team includesthe trainer, the soldier, and the armorer.

The trainer develops marksmanship and maintenance skills in the individualsoldier. The soldier puts these skills to use by aiming true and keeping theweapon clean and serviceable to the operator maintenance standard. And thearmorer provides technical expertise, inspection, and on-site repair. This doesnot only apply to the garrison or training environment. It applies specifically tothe combat environment. The soldier is only as good as his equipment allows.

In combat, there are no “time outs”. The enemy will not wait until you fill out aform and evacuate a broken weapon to a repair facility. His mission is simple. Heintends to kill you. If your unit’s weapons fail because of poor maintenance, andyou cannot repair them, he may succeed!

In tactical environments, you will still have a forward support unit providingmost of the technical assistance and maintenance support you require. Theproblems arise when you are actually engaged in offensive or defensiveoperations, or when your forward support unit is engaged with the enemy. Atsuch times, the concept of how you will perform critical maintenance tasks needsto be flexible enough to adapt to the situation

I am not advocating or supporting a deviation from traditional maintenanceconcepts and requirements, but you must understand the need for flexibility. Thebattlefield is a fluid and dynamic environment. Much happens by chance, suchas being in the wrong place at the wrong time. You must be capable of reactingand adapting as needed. Therefore, the philosophy of “do what you have to”becomes the order of the day.

It may become necessary for you to perform an emergency maintenanceprocedure under combat conditions. This procedure may be restricted normallyto personnel performing duty at a higher maintenance echelon. But honestly, canyou see yourself just throwing your hands in the air because you are not allowedby the TM to touch a particular part? If you don’t do what you have to, there maybe consequences that are completely unacceptable. Be flexible.

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Obviously, the best kind of maintenance is preventive maintenance. Mostmaintenance problems are identifiable right at the unit level. You can eliminatethe need for emergency repairs to some extent, just by conducting more frequentand more intense inspections.

In a combat operations area, perform inspections as follows:

- As directed by the unit commander- As dictated by climate conditions- Prior to engaging in offensive operations- During recovery from offensive operations- Immediately following defensive operations

Regardless of how carefully you plan by inspecting everything thoroughly,parts, and therefore systems can and do fail. That is simply the nature of things.It’s the basis for Murphy’s Law, which states that anything that can go wrong, willgo wrong, and usually at the worst possible time. We can mitigate the effects ofchance through preparation. Remember the Boy Scout philosophy of beingprepared?

Your PLL will probably be increased if you go to combat. The most frequentlyused parts will be available to you. Make sure they are also accessible. If theyare buried under a ton of canvas and wood in the back of a truck, you won’t havethem when you need them should the enemy attack your unit.

Become familiar with those parts most likely to fail and have them immediatelyaccessible. Having them in a toolbox or parts container may seem okay whennothing is happening. During a firefight, however, that’s exactly the wrong placefor them to be. Can you see yourself lugging a big, bright red toolbox across thebattlefield?

My personal method is to use a canvas pouch such as a map case or canvasbag with a closure device like a snap or buckle, and a shoulder strap. Take thecommon parts and tools, and wrap them in a brown towel. The towel will preventrattling if you load the tools and parts correctly, and prevent them from falling outof the bag. It will follow you as you low-crawl from point to point, allowing bothhands to be free. You can therefore control your weapon and movement easierunder stressful conditions.

The common tools to carry are side-cutting parallel jaw pliers, wire twistingpliers, a spool of wire, a set of straight punches, a rubber mallet, ball peenhammer and several screwdrivers. A multi-tool also is very useful. Make sureyou have a red-lens flashlight also.

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You can also pre-position critical PLL items. If you have only one M2 .50Caliber machinegun, why not keep the parts with the weapon if at a defensiveposition? Any weapon in a fixed position like a DFP, bunker or tower is anexcellent candidate for PLL parts pre-placement.

If several weapons fail and you have no more parts to repair them with,consider cannibalization as a source of parts. Make a working weapon from theworking parts available. Be aware of the dangers of swapping bolt assembliesbetween weapons without being able to check the headspace. But it may bepreferable to take that risk rather than be overrun by the enemy because youhave no crew-served weapons operable on the battlefield.

What happens if a weapon malfunctions because a part has become dislodged,and the TM does not assign the reassembly to your level of maintenanceauthority? Do what you have to. This is why you must understand the weaponand all its parts, as well as the functioning of each part.

To make the greatest contribution to your unit and fellow soldiers duringcombat operations, you need to have a response plan. What does this mean?Very simply, you must analyze your situation and draft a mental course of actionto follow in case of emergencies.

Here are four of the elements of a typical response plan:

- Know the paths to the defensive fighting positions. Make sure that you walk the paths to the positions in daylight, so you can find your way without error in the dark. This will cut response time to the DFP in need, and prevent a broken ankle or a poked eyeball in the dark.

- Know the personnel in the positions, and make sure they know you by sight and voice. Remember, personnel turnover will occur on the battlefield due to PCS, ETS, MIA, KIA, injury, emergency leave and so on. Make sure every new soldier knows your approach to his or her position, and that they can identify you. Don’t rely only on the challenge and password. Fratricide happens. Try to prevent it.

- Share your knowledge of the weapon with the operator. Train the operators to perform immediate actions using the PLL parts that may have been placed at the DFP. This may prevent the need for you to expose yourself to enemy fire (a good thing!), and allow the crew-served weapon to get back in action faster (also good!).

- Anticipate failure, prepare for failure, and deal with failure. Get to know the weapons and anticipate what might go wrong.

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Finally, we must look to TM 750-244-7 for the instruction on how to perform thefinal, unthinkable duty of the armorer. This manual details the methods by whichyou will destroy your unit’s weapons to prevent them from falling into the handsof the enemy.

This decision is made by the Commander, or in his or her absence, competentcommand authority. It is only used under the most extreme of circumstances,and rarely done. But, like all other combat tasks, you must train for it, so get theTM and read it. Understand it, and be ready to put your knowledge intoimmediate action if ordered to do so.

The principal means of destruction are:

- Burning. You must generate temperatures high enough to warp, melt or distort the metal components. A campfire will not suffice. Use an accelerant like POL products. If available, a thermite or a thermate grenade will totally destroy a pile of weapons.

- Mechanical means. Bend, smash, break, cut, tear, shred, twist or puncture the weapon receiver to prevent its use. Use a hammer, sledge, axe, pike or other heavy tool to destroy the weapon. Or smash it against a tree, bend it between two thick branches, or drive over it with a heavy vehicle. Use heavy rock if you have to. Any method that works can be used.

- Explosives or gunfire. Many types of explosives can be used, such as grenades, claymores, det-cord, HE rounds, etc. You can also use direct gunfire such as with armorer-piercing rounds through the most critical assemblies. If you use explosives, make sure the weapons are placed on solid ground, or bedrock if available. Place the demo material on top of the weapons, not the other way around, or you will just launch the weapons in different directions. The weapons must be crushed between the force of the explosive and the ground.

- Scattering and burial of parts. Make sure you remove critical parts so the weapon will not function. DO NOT bury all the parts in one hole. If

the enemy finds the hole, he’ll put the weapons together and use them. Try to dump the parts in a deep body of running water if possible. If you dump them in a swamp, remember that standing water will show mud disturbances for a long time. Prevent discovery by stomping through the swamp water and muddying all of it up to conceal where the parts have been thrown. Burying parts in a cat-hole or field latrine is a good idea. Would you put your hand down there? Neither will the enemy.

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Remember that only the Commander or competent command authority canmake this decision. Acting on your own may have serious legal consequences!

Before we leave this chapter, I want to touch again on the subject of inspectionof small arms. In recent years, the DOD has moved away from the “zero defect”concept. This concept stated that anything less than perfection wasunacceptable as an output.

When it comes to military equipment, there are some basic items that mustwork reliably, the first time and every time they are needed. Examples are thesoldier’s chemical defense ensemble, a parachute and of course, the individualweapon. Think about it, if these items fail, the soldier will possibly not survive.

To ensure reliability of these items, inspections must be thorough and themaintenance performed must be to the highest attainable standard. Certainly, inany unit that is deployable to a combat area, all equipment should be maintainedthis way. But when you get down to basics, the entire contest is about theindividual soldier meeting the enemy on the battlefield. That weapon must work!Failure at that moment carries the highest penalty imaginable.

How do you maintain weapons to that maintenance level? Where does themotivation and drive to achieve perfection in firearms maintenance come from?Well, it largely comes from the attitude of the maintenance soldier. How can youdevelop such a high performance capability? By adopting a standard which onlypermits total success.

I urge you to use my standard, aptly titled “Chuck Ruggiero’s 200% Rule”, asthe benchmark for quality assurance in your arms room. The 200% Rule issimple:

100% Reliability, 100% of the time = 200% Readiness

Simple, concise, easy to remember, and absolutely correct. 100% reliabilitymust be the standard. 99% just does not make the grade when it comes toweapons maintenance. Picture this: In a division with 10,000 soldiers, 100soldiers will carry inoperable weapons into combat if 99% is the acceptablestandard. That 1% of 10,000 can equal the size of an entire unit. Which unit doyou want to send into battle with sub-standard weapons?

You must be nearly fanatical in your devotion to quality. Remember that no oneis going to stand over your shoulder to see if you are doing your best in the armsroom. No one, that is, except your own conscience. The lives of your fellowsoldiers may depend on the quality of your work. Never forget that, and you willsucceed.

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Chapter 1 Examination

1. Describe the five separate areas of Garrison Duty:

a. _____________________b. _____________________c. _____________________d. _____________________e. _____________________

2. What does the acronym “PLL” stand for?

Answer: _____________________

3. How often do you conduct a PMCS inspection?

Answer: _____________________

4. What are the 5 causes of equipment damage?

a. _____________________b. _____________________c. _____________________d. _____________________e. _____________________

5. Four elements of a typical combat response plan were outlined. Describethem:

a. _____________________b. _____________________c. _____________________d. _____________________

6. What are the codes for the 5 basic levels of maintenance?

Answer: ________________

7. What publication establishes MARKS policy?

Answer: ________________

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8. What publication details the physical security of arms, ammunition andexplosives?

Answer: ________________

9. The frequency of inspection for your unit weapons should be increased in acombat area according to certain criteria. What are the five reasons given in thischapter?

a. _____________________b. _____________________c. _____________________d. _____________________e. _____________________

10. Each parts listing includes a five-place alphabet code which tells you how toprocure an item, who can replace the item, whether it is to be repaired, and howto dispose of it. What is the correct name of this code?

ANSWER: ______________

Answers to this and all examinations can be found at the back of this book.

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Chapter 2: Firearms Operating Characteristics

This chapter will examine firearms and how they work. I will cover topics ofimportance, which will help you understand common terms, theories andsystems. This chapter will include information on operating systems, cooling,propellants and primers, ammunition and ballistics.

This chapter only provides a broad overview of the subject of firearms. Adetailed study would include subjects such as metallurgy, thermodynamics,human anatomy, chemistry, and physics. It would be ridiculous to assume that abasic handbook such as this could do more than make simple points to explaintheories and data. Accordingly, I caution you to refer to the reference listing atthe end of this handbook for specific sources of information.

I will preface this chapter with a few words of caution. The subject of firearms isexpansive and could go into endless detail. There are virtually thousands ofdifferent types of firearms in use all over the world today. These weapons aremade by hundreds of manufacturing companies, and thousands of individualgunsmiths and pistolsmiths.

Anyone who ever tries to tell you that they know all there is to know aboutfirearms is a dangerous lunatic. These people should immediately be subjectedto drug testing. In addition to the hard sciences referenced in the secondparagraph on this page, there are many other areas of art and expertise involvedin gunmaking, firearms training and the use of firearms in hostile situations.

These other areas of expertise include drafting, tool and die making, patterncutting, metalworking, non-destructive testing (magnetic particle inspection, dyepenetrant testing, radiology and fluoroscopy), engraving, applying chemicalfinishes, stock bedding, instructional principles and techniques, street survivaltraining, forensics (ballistic forensics, microscopy), advanced marksmanshiptheory, sniping, etc. Wow, the list could go on endlessly!

If you ever meet anyone who has a detailed understanding of all thesesciences, arts and other areas of expertise, please give that person my nameand address. I could always use a good mentor (they’re hard to find!).

I will describe the most useful information in general terms. This is a primer thatis designed to introduce you to concepts. Some of it may go beyond your dutiesas an armorer. But ask yourself a question: “How can I repair anything I do nottruly understand”? Many soldiers and police officers know very little about theirweapons, so let’s solve that problem here and now.

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The entire purpose of a firearm is to launch a projectile, with the specificobjective of hitting a target. The nature of this act may vary. A firearm may beused for competitive shooting, target practice, hunting, self defense, militarypurposes or criminal purposes. Regardless of the intended use, the product willalways be the same: the propelling of a projectile toward a specific target.

Firearms may vary in the means of accomplishing this objective. There aredifferent types of operating systems, using different technologies. There arehandguns, rifles, shotguns, revolvers, machineguns, derringers and other typesof projectile launching systems. Each of these has characteristics which areunique, although many of them share common features. Most, but not all, of theprinciples apply to different types of weapons. What features are commondepends on the type of operating system employed.

Cycle of Functions

All weapons have a cycle of functions. This cycle is the sequence of eventsthat takes place in a logical order, which supports the end objective of launchinga projectile from the muzzle of the weapon. Most firearms use the followingeight-step cycle:

1. Feeding2. Chambering3. Locking4. Firing5. Unlocking6. Extracting7. Ejecting8. Cocking

A more detailed explanation of each step in the cycle is as follows:

Feeding occurs when a round of ammunition is positioned in such a way that itcan be readily introduced into the chamber of a weapon. The method of feedingmay be the placing of a single round in a feedway, or it may require the feedingof ammunition into a magazine. A magazine is a feeding device that loads morethan one round, so that the weapon can rapidly be reloaded without having toopen the action assembly area.

The action assembly area is that area of the receiver or frame of the firearmwhich contains and uses moving parts to sustain the cycle of functions, causingthe weapon to load and discharge a round of ammunition. It may include a bolt,slide or similar component that aids in the feeding or ammunition.

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Ammunition may also be fed by means of a belt of ammunition. A belt is usuallyheld together by metallic links which disassemble from the rounds duringfeeding.

Chambering is that action which takes the round from the feeding position, andseats it within the chamber, or aligns the cartridge cylinder of the weapon.Chambering may be in-line or offset. In-line chambering is most common inrevolvers, where the cylinder rotates to place the round of ammunition in astraight line with the bore of the barrel. The rotation of the cylinder accomplisheschambering, feeding is accomplished manually when the operator places therounds into the cylinder.

Offset chambering usually involves an inclined chambering ramp. As the roundis pushed forward in the direction of the chamber, the projectile tip is deflected atan angle which allows it to easily enter into the chamber. This offset chamberingwill probably be a compound deflection, where the round first deflects from theramp and then from a surface in the top of the chamber, perfecting alignment asthe bolt or slide closes.

Most slide operated semi-automatic pistols will have a chambering ramp (calleda feeding ramp by some manufacturers, although that term is imprecise). Theramp sits at the top of the magazine well, directly below the chamber andaligned with the tip of the upmost round in the magazine. As the round isstripped from the magazine by the forward motion of the slide, it is deflectedupwards into the chamber area.

Chambering is completed when the shoulder of the cartridge (where the casetapers in a bottleneck cartridge, or the case mouth in a straight-walled cartridge)makes contact with the corresponding shoulder of the chamber. At this point theround can no longer travel forward, and chambering has occurred.

Locking takes place when an assembly such as a bolt or slide closes andlocks into position in preparation for firing. Not all operating systems utilize alocking chamber. Locking is usually required to protect the operator from theforce of discharge in high-powered systems, and to prevent problems such ascase deformations that would occur if the round were not forced to remain in thechamber during firing.

Locking may involve the rotation of a bolt assembly with attached locking lugsthat fit into corresponding recesses. It may also involve the use of a rolling ordropping “locking block”, a device which fits into a locking recess in a similarfashion.

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In all cases, locking protects the operator and weapon from damage, and keepsthe proper headspace relationship between the bolt and chamber, or slide andbarrel. I will get into the headspace issue later in this chapter.

In some systems, as in some turning bolt weapons, locking takes placesimultaneously with chambering. As the bolt moves forward to chamber theround, it is also rotating the locking lugs into the locked position. In other turningbolt systems, the round is essentially fully within the chamber by the time the boltbegins its rotation.

Firing is initiated when a firing pin, striker, or similar part engages the primer orother ignition source, causing a spark or flame that will ignite the main propellingcharge. It is completed when the propellant has been expended. Some systemsmay use electrical ignition systems, but these are not common on small arms,and are usually found in systems such as rocket launchers.

Firing may result from the release of energy stored in a compressed spring, ormay be the direct result of manual force applied to a moving part. At this point itbecomes necessary to explain the terms single action and double action,since they describe handgun-firing methods.

Single action refers to the fact that in a revolver or semi-automatic of that type,the act of pulling the trigger performs a single function: releasing the hammer orfiring pin. This implies therefore, that the shooter must first cock the firingmechanism to put the hammer or firing pin in the proper position for release. Inother words, the shooter performs two acts, cocking the weapon and pulling thetrigger. The weapon provides only a single action, releasing that cocked part.

Double action weapons provide both the cocking and release from a single pullof the trigger. As the trigger is pulled to the rear, the hammer or firing pin isforced back into the cocked position. When the trigger gets far enough to therear, that device is then released, allowing the weapon to fire. So the shooterperforms a single act, pulling the trigger, and the weapon performs a doubleaction, cocking and firing.

Single and double action firing are more easily explained if you consider theweapons that use these systems. For example, in the M1911 Colt semi-automatic pistol, the first shot must be fired in single action. The shooter mustmanually cock the hammer to the rear to prepare the weapon for firing. If theshooter pulls the trigger back on the first round, the hammer does not move tothe rear, and the weapon will not fire.

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In the case of the M9 9mm Beretta semi-automatic pistol, pulling the trigger tothe rear does cause the hammer to move backwards, allowing firing with a singlepull of the trigger. Both weapons, however, will fire all subsequent rounds with asingle trigger pull, as the slide cocks the hammer to the rear after each shot.

Unlocking is the opposite of the locking action, or the opening of the breech,chamber or cylinder to permit the removal of the spent cartridge case.

Extracting is the removal of the expended cartridge case from the chamber,usually by means of a device called an extractor. The extractor usually has aclaw device that fits into the groove at the bottom of the case, or in a rimmedcartridge, just above the rim of the case.

As the bolt or slide moves to the rear, the extractor pulls the case from thechamber. The extractor is therefore usually attached to the bolt or slide. Mostextractors are spring loaded so the extractor can snap into the groove or overthe rim during chambering. Some are themselves made out of metal with spring-like properties, and flex slightly as they snap into position during chambering.

Ejecting is the removal of the spent cartridge case from the weapon itself,either by forcefully expelling the case, or allowing it to fall due to the effect ofgravity. In the case of most bolt operated rifles, a spring-loaded device called theejector is built into the bolt. This is essentially a round pin that presses againstthe left side of the cartridge base. As the mouth of the expended case clears theejection port of the weapon, the spring expands under the pin, kicking the roundout to the right (in a right-handed rifle).

With most slide operated semi-automatic pistols, the ejector is a fixed metalpart attached to the top of the frame at the rear of the gun. It usually is fit into anejector rail cut into the slide. As the slide moves to the rear, extracting the shellcasing from the chamber, the base of the case contacts the stationary ejector.This contact causes the shell casing to kick out of the slide in the opposingdirection. Most commonly, the ejector is on the left side, and the case kicks outto the right.

Gravity ejection occurs in weapons such as the M203 grenade launcher andthe M2 .50 caliber machinegun. Gravity ejection usually is assisted, meaningthat some part, or the next shell, causes the expended case to be forceddownward. In the M203, the ejector is a spring-loaded pin that contacts the topof the cartridge at the base. It pushes the top of the case forward as the barrel isslid forward, opening the chamber. This causes the case to kick forward at thetop, causing the expended cartridge to tumble downwards to the ground.

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In the M2 machinegun, the next round feeding into the T-slot on the face of thebolt assembly displaces the recently fired case. This downward feeding of thenew round forces the expended casing down, accomplishing ejection.Remember that ejection has not taken place until the case is removedcompletely from the firearm.

In a revolver, ejection is accomplished by the manual effort of the shooter. Afterall rounds in the cylinder are expended, the cylinder is swung outwards. Theshooter then depresses the ejector rod to the rear. This forces the ejector, acarrier device seated in front of the rim of all the cartridges in the cylinder, to therear. All the cases in the chamber are then simultaneously ejected rearward,allowing the cylinder to be reloaded.

In addition to ejection of the cartridge case, we also have the matter of linkejection to contend with in a machinegun. Most link ejection is passive, meaningthat the link is incidentally expelled from the feed tray as ammunition is fed intothe weapon.

The feed tray assembly will usually have a link ejection port or chute, or just anopening where the links fall out of the weapon onto the ground. In aircraftapplications, it is essential to recover the spent links and brass by means of acatch bag or ejection chute assembly. This prevents brass and links from fallingfrom the aircraft and entering engine intakes or damaging the tail rotor assemblyof a helicopter

Cocking prepares the weapon for firing by compressing a firing pin spring,resetting a hammer, or storing energy in a compressed spring and moving partthat is usually held in place by a device called a sear.

Cocking may be part of the cycle of functions, or it may be a manually inducedprocess, as in the case of a single action handgun.

How a weapon is cocked is what determines whether a weapon is truly a semi-automatic firearm. The definition of “semi-automatic” has two elements. Thefirst is that it will fire only one round each time the trigger is pulled. However, anysingle shot weapon will also do this, and they are not semi-automatic.

The second element is that the weapon automatically reloads and re-cocksitself. Therefore it must be magazine or belt fed in order to sustain automaticreloading (reloading includes both feeding and chambering). A fully automaticmachinegun does not meet the requirements of the definition either, because itfires more than one round with a single trigger pull.

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Although the preceding steps in the cycle of functions are common to mostfirearms, not all systems employ all eight steps. Some weapons do not employ alocking system, so those steps are omitted from the cycle.

However, most weapons use all eight steps. Weapons that do not are theexception, not the norm. It is essential that gunsmiths and repair persons fullyunderstand the nature of each step in a weapon, if they intend to repair thatfirearm.

Before I leave the subject of functioning characteristics, there is one more thingI would like to address. This deals with the positioning of the bolt during thefiring process.

Some weapons, usually machineguns or fully automatic weapons, employ whatis known as firing from the open bolt position. A weapon using this system hasthe bolt cocked to the rear when the operator pulls the trigger rearward. Pullingthe trigger releases the bolt, which is usually held to the rear by a device calleda “sear”. When released, an expanding spring launches the bolt forward,allowing for feeding, chambering, locking and firing to occur as a result of thatsingle trigger pull.

Weapons that fire from the open bolt position have distinct advantages. Most ofthem have to do with cooling of the system. Here are some of the advantages:

1. The heated cartridge case is immediately extracted and expelled from the weapon as the bolt moves to the rear, removing the heat source.

2. The barrel is open at both ends when the bolt remains locked to the rear, allowing for faster cooling of the barrel due to air circulation.

3. The system does not place a round into the hot chamber except when actually firing. This reduces the potential for a cookoff. A cookoff is a round that spontaneously ignites due to residual heat in the chamber.

Most weapons fire from the closed bolt position. In these systems, the roundis already in the chamber and the system is locked and cocked when the triggeris pulled. The advantage of the closed bolt system is speed. Since the round isalready positioned and the system cocked, pulling the trigger immediately firesthe round.

This is unlike the open bolt system, where the bolt has to travel forward afterthe trigger is pulled. The net result is a slight decrease in the time required fromthe moment of trigger pull, until discharge.

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In a gunfight, speed is of the essence, since bullets travel at hundreds or eventhousands of miles per hour on the way to the target. The closed bolt systemfires as soon as the sear releases the hammer or firing pin. Even a fraction of asecond can be critical in a gunfight. Of course, if the hammer is already cockedin a handgun, the weapon will react faster. This is because the trigger does nothave to first bring the hammer back and then release it. The time value may bevery small, but that does take twice as long to accomplish if the hammer needsto go rearward first.

Unfortunately, in a really hot weapon, the closed bolt method places a round inthat hot chamber automatically (in a semi-automatic or automatic weapon). Thisdoes increase the potential for a cookoff round. Cookoffs are unintended events,and can take you by surprise, causing injury or even death if the muzzle is notpointed in a safe direction at the moment of discharge.

Cooling

The act of firing a round generates heat and pressure. The temperaturegenerated by the burning of propellant powders is in the magnitude of thousandsof degrees Fahrenheit. The reaction is only momentary because the powderincrements are small, and is therefore not sustained over time. Still, if we fire theweapon rapidly, heat will build up due to the thermodynamic nature of thechemical reaction that takes place within the cartridge case.

How this heat is absorbed by the weapon and dissipated or removed, is afunction of engineering and design. If the weapon is very lightweight, it may nothave sufficient mass to withstand thermal stress efficiently. It therefore becomesimperative that we either engineer cooling features into the weapon, or refrainfrom firing many shots in a short period of time. In a military or law enforcementweapon, the latter option is not logical.

As a result, engineers design certain surfaces for heat dissipation. Anotherfactor to consider would be the thermal potential of the metals used. Somemetals cool more rapidly than others, and may be adopted for that particularreason during the design process.

One design element might be the total surface area available for cooling effect.Similar to a heat sink, the surface can be designed to efficiently displace heat.A heat sink absorbs heat away from a component and then radiates it into theair. Heat sinks commonly have many fins, maximizing contact with the cooler airand the hot surface. This increases cooling potential. On a firearm, whatappears to be an unusually shaped surface with many levels or recesses mightactually be a heat sink by design.

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Let’s look at the three basic types of cooling features commonly found onfirearms:

1. Radiational cooling2. Conduction cooling3. Convection cooling

Radiational cooling simply allows for the dissipation of heat into thesurrounding cooler air. This is the least efficient means of cooling, but in somecases the only one available due to design limitations.

Simply put, the gun heats up and gradually cools, as the surrounding air heatsup due to radiant energy. Think of the radiator in your home that carries a warmfluid from your heating system. The radiator heats up, and as it heats up the airsurrounding it, the radiator actually loses thermal energy and cools down.

If we don’t sustain the reaction by continually pumping hot fluid into theradiator, the room will get cold as we lose the ability to generate radiant heatenergy. This cooling of the radiator due to the loss of a heat source is whathappens in a firearm as well. The chamber heats up as ammunition is fired. Theheat radiates into the surrounding air, cooling the gun. When we cease firing,there is no more heat source, and the gun eventually returns to normal (non-operating) temperature.

How the weapon is designed, and what metals are used, determines thecooling rate. Some weapons may cool down in a matter of minutes, others (likesome machineguns) may take more than an hour to cool.

Conduction cooling occurs when a heated object is in direct physical contactwith a cooler object. An example is an ice cube in a glass of water. As thewarmth from the water is transferred to the ice cube, melting the cube, the wateris actually being cooled down. The net effect is cold water as the ice absorbs theheat from the water.

Conduction cooling on a weapon usually results from high chamber operatingtemperatures being transferred into surrounding surfaces such as the barrel andreceiver of the weapon. The transfer from the chamber to the cooler metals hasthe net effect of cooling the chamber. Thermal energy is then carried away byother means, such as radiant cooling, from these newly heated surfaces.

Convection cooling requires the presence of a moving air current. Themoving air has greater potential to carry away heat. If you run a mile and standin still air, it takes a long time to cool down. If you stand in front of a fan, or in abreeze, you cool down faster because of the increased cooling potential.

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You might be asking yourself how convection cooling works on a firearm, sincethere are no fans to generate air currents. Actually, the handguards of manyweapons are designed to accomplish this. Many handguards have an inner heatshield, which reflects heat energy away from the handguard and back towardsthe barrel. The net effect is the super-heating of the air between the heat shieldand barrel.

The tops and bottoms of most handguard assemblies have cooling holes inthem, and the heated air rises from the top holes. This creates an updraft thatbrings the cooler air in from the bottom. This process establishes a convectioncycle as heated air is continually replaced by cooler air. You can see this occurif you have oil on the barrel of an M16 series rifle. As the barrel heats up and thecycle is established, smoke will jet up from the cooling holes as the oil cooks offon the surface of the barrel.

Cooling is an important consideration in the design and use of a firearm. If youdisregard the damage that heat can cause, it can be quite costly. No weaponshould ever be fired to the point that heat is created faster than it can dissipate.The obvious exception to this would be in combat or some other type of firefight.

During practice firing, hunting, competitive shooting or other recreationalshooting, it is foolish to overheat your weapon. When the weapon becomes toohot, there can be profound metallurgical consequences.

First of all, you increase the potential for a cookoff. As previously explained, acookoff is usually an unintended firing of the weapon. This can result in damageto the weapon or injury to the operator if the breech is being opened at themoment of discharge. It can even result in an accidental shooting of anotherperson (or you!).

Second, excessive heat can cause parts to expand, changing criticaltolerances. If these changes are more than operating clearances can normallywithstand, the end result will be parts wear or breakage. Most weapons aredesigned with tolerances that allow for a degree of expansion. Exceeding thiscauses serious problems.

Third, heating metallic parts above critical operating temperatures can anneal,or soften, them. The temper, or hardness of the metal, can be lost. All gun partsare made of metals with specific properties such as malleability, ductility, tensilestrength and relative hardness. Overheating changes the characteristics of somemetals and can seriously affect the way your weapon performs.

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Gun barrels in particular are designed to operate within a specific range oftemperatures. Additionally, each rifle barrel has a harmonic oscillatingfrequency, referred to by most gunsmiths as “barrel whip”. As the weapon fires,the metal vibrates, just like a tuning fork. If we change the properties of a tuningfork, we change the pitch it produces. The same thing happens with a gunbarrel. Change the characteristics of the barrel, and the barrel whip can change.One way to do this is by seriously overheating the barrel.

Gun barrels are supposed to get warm. They are not supposed to glow a brightred! Any sniper will tell you that they record both cold bore and warm barrel datain their logbooks. Understanding operating temperatures is essential in criticalshooting applications. Temperatures in excess of those normally tolerated by themetal results in damaged barrels and poor accuracy. Inaccuracy defeats theentire usefulness of the weapon.

Most heat damage can be avoided. Lightweight firearms should not be fired atthe full cyclic rate for a prolonged period of time. Even single shot bolt rifles cansustain some damage if the operator does not immediately extract and eject thespent shell casing. As long as that casing sits in the chamber, it’s transferringheat to the chamber walls. Cool weapons, like cool heads, prevail in combat.

There are other, more exotic cooling systems used on some weapons. TheBrowning .30 caliber machinegun series featured some weapons that used awater jacket, surrounding the barrel. The water was brought to a boil, and steamexited through a vent tube. The tube led into a condenser bucket, where thecooled steam turned back into water. The assistant gunner simply kept refillingthe water jacket with the reclaimed water.

Other systems, such as missile systems, used compressed gases, such asnitrogen, for cooling. There are even more bizarre cooling systems, but they donot apply to small arms. On your rifle or handgun, you are stuck with radiational,conduction and convection cooling.

Speaking of cooling, always pay attention to ambient temperatures and theeffects of direct sunlight. Leaving your weapon in direct sunlight obviouslycauses the metal to get hot. This will increase the speed at which the weaponheats up as it is fired. It also will require more cooling time if left in directsunlight.

Sunlight also affects your ammunition. Rounds should never be left in sunlight,as this causes problems with over-pressure when firing the round. Ammunitionshould always be kept in the shade until immediately before firing. On the firingline, cover your ammo with a towel, you hat, or keep it in the box until used.

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Operating system design

There are four basic types of operating systems used in firearms:

1. Manual operation2. Gas operation3. Recoil operation4. Blowback operation

Be certain, there are many variations and nuances of these systems, and thereare some unusual operating systems I will not cover here. As I have alreadystated, there are thousands of firearms, all of them different to some degree. Asa practical matter, they mostly conform to the basic operating principles of thesystems indicated above.

Manual operation is achieved using the muscle power of the operator. All ofthe steps in the cycle of functions are performed manually by the operator. Thisincludes opening the breech or cylinder and inserting a round, therebyaccomplishing feeding and chambering. Closing the breech or chamber willusually lock the system. On some weapons a separate lock-piece is employed,but on many systems locking happens as the action is closed.

Firing may require the manual setting of a cocking handle, hammer or similardevice. In this case, energy is first stored in a compressed spring, and thenreleased. This causes primer impact and detonation. Some systems release thehammer or firing pin immediately, as the trigger is drawn rearward.

In firearms using a hammer, there will often be a half stop notch. The weaponcan remain in the half-cocked position, or the fully-cocked position. Thisdepends on how far back the hammer is pulled. The half-cocked position is anintermediate safety, used to make sure an accidentally snagged hammer doesnot discharge the weapon. Examples of manually operated weapons are:

- Revolvers- Bolt action rifles- Shotguns

Another point about manually operated weapons should be made. The shooterdetermines the cyclic rate of fire. How quickly and efficiently the weaponoperates is the direct result of operator ability, since all steps are performedmanually. The operator should therefore be trained to increase manualproficiency and speed.

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Gas operation uses the gas pressure created by the burning propellant toprovide the power for operating the system. There are two basic types of gasoperation, direct and indirect.

In direct gas operation, the gas created by the burning propellant willphysically interact with the components of the action assembly within thereceiver. Using the AR15 or M16 series of rifles as an example will explain thismethod. In this system, a quantity of pressurized gas escapes from behind thebullet as it travels past the front sight frame. Within the front sight frame is a gasport that connects a vent hole in the barrel with the gas tube. When the bulletpasses the vent hole, and before it leaves the muzzle, gas pressure is ventedinto the gas tube.

The gas travels rearward through the gas tube, and into the upper receiver.The carrier key mounted on top of the bolt ports the gas downward into the boltcarrier body, into an expansion chamber. The bolt sits inside this chamber, fullyseated inside the bolt carrier when the bolt is locked into the chamber. The boltis in reality a piston, and the bolt carrier’s expansion chamber is actually acylinder. The relationship is the same as any piston operating within a cylinder.As gas enters that chamber, the seal created by the piston rings on the base ofbolt causes a separation of the bolt and carrier.

However, since the bolt is already locked fully forward, the result is therearward movement of the carrier. In this case, the gas actually travels into theupper receiver, through to the carrier key, to physically move the actionassembly parts. The rearward movement of the carrier causes unlocking andsubsequent steps in the cycle of functions to take place.

With indirect gas operation, there is usually mechanical intervention, as inthe case of the M60 machinegun. In this case, the gas enters a cylinder on thebottom of the barrel. The expanding gas pushes a free-floating piston to the rear.This piston in turn contacts an operating rod, to which the bolt is mounted. Asthe rod moves rearward, the bolt unlocks and moves to the rear as well.

In the indirect system the gas does enter the action assembly area. The energyis transmitted rearward by the operating rod. As a result, fewer contaminants willenter the receiver, because the gas is ported out of the cylinder and does not goall the way back to the receiver.

Gas systems, which rely upon the burning propellant, create significant foulingdeposits. These are normally referred to as “carbon” (incorrect, as carbon is anelement, not a collection of combustion byproducts). More intensive cleaning istherefore required. The proper cleaning is critical for reliable performance.

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Recoil operation is based on the law of physics that states that every actionhas an equal, but opposite, reaction. Recoil operated systems rely upon thegeneration of a force sufficient to unlock and move the action assemblycomponents to the rear. This force must also be powerful enough to extract theshell from the chamber, and fully compress the recoil spring. This force is calledthe recoil impulse.

As we discharge a weapon, energy is expended in one direction as the bulletmoves towards the target. An equal amount of energy is created which moves inthe opposing direction, rearward. This energy, the recoil impulse, operates andcycles the moving parts.

An interesting question arises: if the same amount of force is exerted rearward,why doesn’t the gun propel itself rearward at the same rate at which the bullettravels downrange?

The answer is simple. The bullet weighs only a fraction of an ounce, and ismore easily influenced by the pressure of discharge. The weapon, with the bodyof the shooter behind it, may outweigh the bullet by a factor of several thousandtimes the bullet mass.

We must consider the inversely proportional relationship of the mass, force andvelocity produced. The greater the mass, the less effect the force will have uponit. The bullet moves downrange, and the shooter remains in position. The neteffect upon the shooter is perceived as a slight impact, or recoil force, which isfelt at the shoulder.

The design and manufacture of a recoil-operated system is truly a feat ofengineering. The correct ratio of weight versus force must be achieved, as wellas accommodating proper timing through component design. The metals used inrecoil operated systems must be durable and capable of withstanding punishingimpacts repeatedly.

Recoil systems require high chamber pressures. This is because the roundmust generate sufficient force to create the recoil impulse needed, and thattranslates into higher chamber pressures. Because the operation requires highpressure, it must also have a locking system. These are common characteristicsof recoil systems: high pressures and locking systems.

Recoil operation is also very dependent upon proper operating pressures. Ifthere is a significant loss of pressure, the system can malfunction easily. For thisreason, reloaded ammunition must be kept within strict parameters for powdercharge weight, powder type, etc. Of course, reloaded ammunition is not anoption for the military armorer.

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Blowback operation is similar to recoil operation in some ways. The actionassembly components are moved to the rear by the force caused as thepropellant gases expand. As the propellant burns, pressure is created in thechamber. This pressure causes the bullet to dislodge from the case mouth andto then proceed downrange.

An equal but opposite reaction is created as the gas pushes in both directions:front and rear. In the recoil system, the recoil impulse moves the bolt and barrelto the rear. In the blowback system, it is the direct pressure against the face ofthe bolt caused by the expanding gas.

This should not be confused with gas operation, which traps and uses some ofthe escaping gases. In blowback operation, the gas simply pushes the base ofthe cartridge against the face of the bolt. The resulting action is the rearwardmovement of the bolt assembly.

An easy illustration is a party balloon. When blown up, it stores potentialenergy as pressurized air. If you open the mouth of the balloon slightly, gas willescape. If you let go of the balloon, it will fly in the opposite direction of theescaping air pressure.

Since blowback systems rely on this direct pressure against the face of thebolt, a locking system would be counter-productive. Much of the force would belost during unlocking. Consequently, blowback systems typically do not lock.Since they have no locking system, we have to operate in the range of lowerchamber pressures, to prevent damage to the weapon and operator.

So, the common characteristics of blowback operated systems are lowerchamber pressures and no locking system. Most blowback weapons arechambered for pistol cartridges, such as 9mm or .45 caliber. Some are a bitdifferent, however, like the Mk19 40mm machinegun.

This weapon uses the delayed blowback system. In this system, the bolt isstill actually moving forward at the time of firing. The blowback force has toovercome the forward momentum of the bolt, and then move it rearward. Thistype of system is useful in dealing with slightly higher chamber pressures thanfound in most blowback weapons, and allows firing the heavy 40mm projectile.

The speed of a blowback system is controlled by the mass of the operatingparts, the chamber pressure, and the tension of the recoil spring. The cycle offunctions is shorter, as there are no locking or unlocking steps to be performed.The shorter cycle can result in higher rates of fire, since the weapon has toperform fewer steps in the cycle of functions with each shot fired.

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Ammunition and Ballistics

Let’s begin with the acceptance of a basic premise: the entire purpose in firinga weapon is to cause the projectile to impact on a target. All that happens in afirearm does so to support this one requirement.

Ballistics is a very complex subject that many find confusing and difficult tounderstand. For the purposes of military small arms, it is not critical for theaverage marksman to have any knowledge of ballistic theory, except as pertainsto bullet drop and the effects of wind. However, for those who hand-loadammunition, complete knowledge is essential. The typical military armorer willnever perform this task; as mentioned earlier, it is prohibited. However, wecannot fully understand the weapon if we do not understand what it is designedto do, and how it does it.

For anyone who repairs, maintains, services or modifies firearms, knowledge ofballistics is important. It enables a better understanding of the operation andperformance of a given weapon. Although working with ballistics involvesmathematics and firing tables, a basic knowledge is easy to achieve. Justremember the caution that a little knowledge can be dangerous.

There is usually no reason to “re-invent the wheel” when it comes to ballistics.The performance data for most military and sporting rounds are available fromhundreds of sources. In this chapter, I will present broad principles, and explainsome of the computations that produce the numbers we find in ballistic tables.

Let’s begin with a definition. Ballistics is a science. It is a combination ofphysics and advanced mathematics. It is the examination and assessment ofprojectiles in flight, how they behave under motion, and what terminal effect theyhave upon a target. Ballistic studies are not restricted to weapons alone.Ballistics applies to other areas of science such as meteorology, astrophysics,astronomy, flight engineering, and forensic medicine.

With respect to the science of ballistics and its reference to firearms, we areconcerned with three principle phases of activity. These are interior, exterior andterminal ballistics.

Interior ballistics deals with the behavior of the cartridge from the moment itignites until the time the projectile exits the muzzle on the way downrange.Interior ballistics is a static science, since all of the parameters are alreadyknown, and the outcomes are easily predictable. Interior ballistics considerssuch factors as bullet weight, seating depth, rifling form, propellant type andquantity, bore diameter, barrel metallurgy, and other factors.

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Exterior ballistics deals with the flight of the projectile, on its way to the target.It commences at the moment the projectile leaves the muzzle, and deals with itsflight until impact with the target or the earth. Exterior ballistics is a dynamicscience, because the conditions affecting the flight are infinitely variable.

In my classes, I always explain this by stating an argument similar to thefollowing one:

If you fire a weapon on a rainy day, will the bullet hit a raindrop? If it does,which raindrop will it hit? And how will hitting that raindrop affect the flightpath of the projectile from that point? What if it hits another raindrop?

While this argument may seem silly, it is factual in its basis. It illustrates thatthere is an infinite capacity for the round to be affected on the way to the target.Exterior ballistics looks at the motion of the bullet in flight, the effects of wind,drag, gravity, temperature, humidity, altitude, angle of elevation, barometricpressure, and many other factors.

Terminal ballistics examines the impact of the bullet with the target or theearth. Terminal ballistics is also a dynamic science, because there are alsomany variables that are unpredictable. These include target material,composition, fluid content, penetration depth, angle of entry, interior deflection,projectile design, projectile material, relative movement of the target, bonedensity, fat mass, target weight, etc. Again, infinitely variable.

As with other areas of interest concerning firearms, there are sometimesdisputes about the validity of certain claims about performance or capability. In asubject as vast as firearms technology, one would expect that. I caution you toseek the truth through enlightened study. Always checks your sources, and thereferences of your sources. There are a lot of sales pitches out there for onebullet that outperforms another. Manufacturers have a vested interest in makingyou believe their product is best. While their ballistic charts may be accurate,exercise proper judgment when assessing their claims of performance. As I havejust stated, always check your sources.

It is common to hear exaggerations when exchanging hunting stories. In mymany years of experience I have learned that the average shooter is woefullyignorant of ballistic performance. Rather than rely on the claims of your buddies,I urge you to check valid references on the subject. As I stated earlier in this text,there is a reference publications listing at the end of this book. Please use it andincrease your knowledge through continued studies.

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Propellants and Projectiles

Since the function of the firearm is to fire the projectile, we will begin ouranalysis by discussing how this takes place. We will take a short historicaloverview, and then talk about current technologies.

Early firearms used black powder, a mixture of charcoal, sulfur, and potassiumnitrate (commonly referred to as saltpeter). There is great controversy about theorigins of black powder. You will undoubtedly read conflicting claims, and timehas shrouded the facts.

When firearms were first invented, it was rapidly discovered that round leadballs were the most preferable projectiles. Lead was readily available, being anelement. Lead also has a low melting point, meaning it could easily be meltedover a hot fire. Lead also has sufficient weight to inflict serious damage on atarget.

Black powder causes significant fouling, and so most leaden balls were cast agood deal smaller than the bore diameter of the weapon they were to be firedfrom. The melting of lead and casting of ball shot was the function of thearmorer.

The undersized dimensions of the lead ball shot made the weapons inaccurateat any range, and so the need for improvement drove technology ahead. Therifled barrel appeared, which improved the accuracy of lead shot. Initially, thesame lead shot was wrapped in a cloth patch and the combination of the riflingand patch caused the bullet to spin, improving accuracy.

However, the weapons of the day were difficult to load, since they were loadedat the muzzle. An improvement was the Minie’ (pronounced Min-yay) system,commonly called the Minie’ ball (erroneously pronounced mini-ball). This systemused a hollow conical bullet that would expand inside the barrel, causing theround to spin, and was more accurate.

Next came the introduction of smokeless powder, which was about torevolutionize the firearms industry. Smokeless powder is available in differenttypes today, although the initial type was a simple single-base powder.

Single-based powder is composed chiefly of Nitrocellulose (NC), with anitrogen component of about 13%. Steeping cellulose, a naturally occurringfiber, in nitric acid, makes NC. An antiquated term often used is “gun cotton,"when talking about early single based powder.

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The NC is made into a gelatin by dissolving it in alcohol or ether. The pasteformed is then passed through dies and extruded into shape. Finally it ischopped to the appropriate length. Ball powder was made by taking the mixtureand spraying it into cold water, forming spheres. Modern processes have sincereplaced those manufacturing techniques.

Army IMR (Improved Military Rifle) powder is composed as follows:

Nitrocellulose 90.30%Dinitrotoluene 8.0% (coating added)Diphenylamine 0.7% (coating added)Potassium Sulfate 1.0% (coating added)

Double-based powders are NC mixed with nitroglycerine. Nitroglycerineaccelerates the dissolving of the NC and lends additional explosive power. Italso makes the compound more sensitive, increasing its detonating ability. Italso has the unwanted side effects of increasing temperatures. This temperatureincrease results in damage to the chamber and bore of a weapon, and increasesmuzzle flash.

Stabilizers are also added to the chemical compound during processing. Theresult is a gelatin-like substance that can then be easily formed into shape.Cordite was an early double based powder, which got its name from the fact thatit was cut into long cords and trimmed for use in the cartridge.

Army M2 double based powder is based on the following formula:

Nitrocellulose 77.45% (13.15 nitrogen content)Nitroglycerine 19.50%Barium Nitrate 1.40%Potassium Nitrate 0.75%Ethyl Centralite 0.60%Graphite 0.30%

Diglycol powders replace the nitroglycerine with either one of threechemicals:

Diglycol-dinitrate,Triglycol-dinitrate orMethyl trimethylol-methane trinitrate

The advantage of diglycol powders is that they have lower operatingtemperatures, reducing muzzle flash and prolonging weapon life.

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Triple-based powders are basically double based powders, but nitro-guanidine is added to lower combustion temperatures. Using a lower percentageof nitroglycerine, they have high power output and fewer unwanted temperatureeffects. However, smoke output is increased, and the addition of the nitro-guanidine requires the use of solvents, adding to drying time, and thus cost.Triple based powders are used in artillery rounds and tank rounds.

The chemical constituency of Army M15 triple based powder is as follows:

Nitrocellulose 20.00% (13.15% nitrogen content)Nitroglycerine 19.00%Nitroguanidine 54.70%Ethyl Centralite 6.00%Cryolite 0.30%

Triglycol powders are triple based powders, but the nitroglycerine is replacedwith an ester of glycol. They are really excellent powders, but expensive. Theyare not popular with small arms manufacturers or users, possibly due to cost.

The size and shape of grains of powder are critical, since they define the burnrate and hence the power generated. Powder grains are further defined by typeas degressive, neutral or progressive.

Degressive powder is usually formed into balls, sheets or strips. As they burn,the total burning surface area of the grains decreases.

Neutral powder is formed as single perforated grains, or in a perforated star-like shape. The surface burning area remains relatively constant duringcombustion, until the grain is consumed.

Progressive powder is formed in rosette shape, or has multiple perforations.As it burns, the size of the surface burning area increases.

All smokeless powders fit into the category of colloidal cellulose nitrates. Acolloid is a substance in which fine particles are suspended in a continuousmedium. Gunpowders, as propellants, are considered to be low explosives.They produce large volumes of high temperature gases and do not rely onatmospheric oxygen to sustain the reaction. They typically involve moleculardecomposition.

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In a low explosive, the burn rate is usually less than 400 meters per second, or1300 feet per second. Keep in mind that the burning propellant createsexpanding gases. These gases expand because their density is less than that ofthe atmosphere, due to rapid temperature rise.

The trapped chemical, expanding violently, creates chamber pressures thatlaunch the round at a speed far in excess of the burn rate of the propellant itself.This explains why a propellant burning at a rate of only 1220 feet per secondmight create a muzzle velocity of 2600 feet per second. Low explosives changefrom a solid to a gaseous state slowly, in relative terms.

High explosives on the other hand, change states almost instantaneously.They have burn rates as high as 8500 meters per second, or 27888 feet persecond. That’s fast! The difference in the explosives is felt in their effects. Lowexplosives have a pushing or shoving effect. High explosives produce ashattering effect.

In addition, powders differ greatly for specific purposes. Pistol or shotgunpowders should never be used in rifle cartridges. They have shorter peakpressure times, especially pistol powder, which must produce the desiredvelocity in a barrel only several inches long.

Never tamper with an assembled round of ammunition. Do not remove theprojectile and “super-charge” the cartridge by adding more propellant.

Although you, as a military armorer, will never handle or store gunpowder inyour arms room, it certainly does not hurt to know how to handle it. Never storesmokeless powder in the same area as combustible or flammable materials. Thestorage cabinet should be self-venting to prevent explosion if a fire erupts. Donot keep any old or deteriorated powder on hand; destroy it. Store ammunitionpowder only in DOT approved containers. Never mix powders, and NEVERsmoke in a powder storage area. Never repackage a powder in another box.

The improvements in powder technology led to a parallel advance in projectiledesign. Lead balls and conical lead shot were replaced by jacketed bullets. Ajacketed bullet has an outer surface made of a material that is more durable thanthe lead core.

Typically, gilding metal is used in jacketed bullets. This material is composedof about 85% copper and 15% zinc. The jacket provides a bearing surface thatresists the effects of friction to a greater degree than the naked lead bullet. Thejacket also is soft enough to have the rifling contours easily engraved upon it, toimpart spin as the bullet travels down the muzzle.

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Having a jacket also prevents the lead from making contact with the bore,lessening the amount of lead fouling in the barrel. Early weapons that used thelead bullet exclusively, in combination with black powder, caused fouling whichcould actually prevent the weapon from being loaded and fired.

Today, it is a common practice for manufacturers to use soft steel casingaround the core of the bullet, and to coat this casing with a thin veneer ofcopper. The technology of today also makes the use of special alloys and plasticcoating a reality. The use of these materials minimizes friction loading whileproviding the strength needed for high-velocity projectiles.

Projectiles must have proper balance in order to spin reliably and maintain theirstability during flight. Early projectiles suffered from a lack of concentricity due tothe limits of the machinery of the day. Correspondingly, many projectiles duringthe civil war era were highly erratic in terms of their flight characteristics. Today,the sophistication of the computer-assisted design and manufacturing processmakes sure that even inexpensive ammunition is reliable and accurate.

Military organizations are restricted to the use of fully jacketed rounds as aresult of several international treaties. Most commonly referenced are the HagueDeclaration of 1899, the Declaration of St. Petersburg of 1868, and the GenevaConventions. The focus of these international documents centers on the idea ofkilling or wounding humanely, (whatever that means), and prevents the use ofcertain types of ammunition by military forces.

However, you should be aware that not all military forces in the world observethe requirements of these conventions. The forces you might encounter maybelong to rogue nations that have no regard for international laws. Rememberthat insurgents or guerrilla fighters will use whatever means they have to defeatyou.

There are many types of projectiles currently in use by hunters, competitiveshooters, law enforcement personnel and civilians. Projectiles are designed toaccomplish a certain task. This may be something as simple as putting a cleanhole in a piece of paper, or ensuring a “lights out” penetration of the MedullaOblongata by a single sniper shot from a great distance.

(The medulla oblongata is the nerve tissue at the base of the brain that controlsrespiration, circulation, and other vital body functions. Hit it, and the subject isinstantly incapacitated).

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The following are some of the more common types of projectiles currently beingmanufactured and used:

Fully jacketed. This projectile is entirely encased in a metal jacket for thereasons previously described; flight stability, uniform penetration, lower frictionloss, and conformance to the laws of war. The jacket provides a tough outershell to prevent lead atomization due to heat and high pressure during launch.The core may be a simple lead core, or a compound core made of an innercore of lead to provide sufficient mass, with a steel inner nose to increasepenetration.

Semi jacketed. This round has a jacket that covers the base and sidewalls ofthe projectile. The jacket proceeds forward to the beginning of the ogive, or thepoint at which the taper of the nose begins. The jacket ends at this point, leavingthe softer lead core exposed at the tip. The lead easily flattens inside the body,increasing cross-sectional area and enlarging the permanent wound channel.

Hollow point. A jacketed round with a recess in the nose. This recess resultsin greater injury through more controlled expansion than that found in the semi-jacketed round. Due to the nose design, it will displace more fluid, creating alarger temporary cavity in the target. This can result in more capillary bleeding, ahigher chance of inducing shock trauma, and an increased probability of tissuenecrosis.

The expansion of the projectile also results in less penetration depth, which ishighly desirable in a law enforcement or personal defense weapon. The typicalhuman body only averages between 8 and 9.5 inches total depth from thesternum to the posterior aspect of the spinal column. Projectiles that over-penetrate simply waste energy, do not transfer enough lethal force in somecases, and present danger to others in the backstop area behind the intendedtarget.

There are variations of the hollow point that feature serrations or notches onthe mouth of the projectile. These cartridges may expand like the petals of aflower for even greater cross-sectional area, or segment into individualsecondary projectiles within the body.

Since I am dealing with the subject, I will take the opportunity to discuss themechanisms of injury involved in gunshot wounds. The human body is mostlyfluid. All structures of the body contain fluid, including bone structures. Differentorgans and structures will vary in their reaction to a bullet, due to the density ofthe tissue and engorgement of blood. Soft tissues will react differently thanmuscles, cartilage or bone.

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When a bullet enters a human body at high velocity, the damage done dependsto a great extent on the location of the entry point, and the tissue or organs thatare struck by the bullet. For this reason alone, marksmanship is important. Itshould be obvious that shooting someone in the toe will have a different effectthan shooting that person in the eye. The bullet can only be most efficient whenit strikes something vital.

As the bullet enters, it attempts to compress the fluid contained within thetissue. This is because the bullet desires to occupy the same area as the tissue,at the same time, and the tissue contains fluid. Fluids, however, can not becompressed; they can only be displaced. This is the principle upon which thescience of hydraulics is based.

The bullet, moving at incredibly high speed, displaces fluid as it enters thebody. This fluid is not so easily driven from the tissue that holds it, so the tissueis compressed and displaced, creating a cavity. This cavity has severalelements.

One is the permanent wound channel. This is simply the tissue through whichthe bullet passes, which is destroyed by the bullet. The result is tissue necrosis,or tissue death. If this permanent wound channel involves a vital organ, theorgan can be destroyed or cease to function. The result will usually be death.

The temporary cavity caused by the entry and passage of the bullet is createdby the displacement of blood or other fluids. The temporary cavity in and of itselfcan sometimes have little or no consequences. When a surgeon operates on apatient, he creates a temporary cavity by retracting tissue, yet this in itself mayhave no lasting effect.

However, the mechanism by which the temporary cavity is created, traumaticpenetration of a high-velocity projectile, can result in ancillary bleeding throughdamaged capillaries, resulting in significant blood loss. Again, the placement ofthe shot means everything in terms of the ability of any given bullet to neutralizea human target.

As a bullet enters the body, the shape and weight of the projectile will greatlyinfluence its’ path and internal trajectory. A lighter, high-velocity bullet will moreeasily deflect from bone or dense tissue, possibly changing course inside thebody.

Many bullets are heavier at the tail than at the nose. This increasesaerodynamic performance, but also results in the bullet turning within the body.This is because the bullet does not react within the body as it does in the air.

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The reasons for this are the initial shock caused by impact with the body, andthe fact that the bullet is now traveling within a fluid medium. It no longer has thesame velocity, its spin characteristics are changing, and it has been subjected tothe forces of impact with the body, which cause deviation to the flight path.

The heavier base of the bullet will cause the bullet to turn 180 degrees forward,presenting the heavier base end first as it travels through tissue. This has theeffect of “cleaving," or increasing the size of the permanent wound channel asthe longitudinal aspect of the bullet, from base to tip, is presented to the tissuethrough which it passes.

Once the base is leading the bullet through the body (again, depending on thetype of projectile being used), the base may expand, increasing cross-sectionalarea. This again has the effect of widening the wound channel and displacing agreater fluid volume.

Most bullets will have this tendency to tumble within the body. This should notbe confused with tumbling through the air, which I will cover later. Again, thistype of tumbling within the body is caused by the heavier mass of the projectilebase overtaking the light nose. The end result is a 180-degree turn, unlessstriking bone or hard tissue causes a compound deflection.

Also, if bone is struck, the bone fragments themselves may become secondaryprojectiles as they are driven through surrounding tissue by the force of impact.It is also common for clothing articles, buttons, or other gear to be driven into thebody by an external impact just immediately prior to the bullet entering the body.These items may simply present themselves as debris that must be debridedfrom the wound channel, or may become secondary projectiles.

In addition to tissue destruction, traumatic shock, and blood loss, there isalways the danger of serious infection. Many persons have survived the initialwound and later died of resulting infections. Consider also that a limb orappendage may have to be amputated as well, and you get a composite view ofwhat happens to a gunshot victim.

Predicting how an individual human body will react to the impact of a bullet isvirtually impossible. Shooting two different people with bullets from the sameweapon, in the same manner, will yield different results (in medical terms). Theindividuals may react differently, but the trauma inflicted is still significant.

All this is well and good, as projectiles, especially hollow-points, are designedto do exactly what I have just described. There are other projectiles for specialuses that I will now describe:

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Wadcutters are projectiles having either a flat nose or a nose with a slight risein the center, above a flat plane. Wadcutters are used primarily for targetshooting and competition. They create a hole in a paper target with a perfectlysmooth, circular edge, making scoring disputes very rare. They also make anexcellent personal defense round, as they are very deadly and have fewertendencies to ricochet around your bedroom.

Tracers produce a trail of flame and/or smoke to mark the path of the bulletthrough the air. The flame is produced by barium nitrate and magnesium mixedwith chemicals to produce specific colors. Tracers are available in differentdegrees of brightness for special purposes. They can be used for signaling,ground illumination, distress markers, and observation of bullet impact or forincendiary effect.

Some tracers include an igniter, a paper or chemically impregnated disk, and asubigniter in addition to the tracer element. This allows the tracer to movedownrange some distance from the muzzle before igniting. The purpose for thisis the masking of the location of the weapon, and to prevent blinding the gunnersat night.

Incendiary bullets will spontaneously ignite when the projectile case isruptured as it hits a target. The projectile contains a chemical that will ignitewhen exposed to air, such as phosphorus. The idea is to set the target on fire.Therefore incendiary bullets are only effective on targets that are themselvescombustible.

There have also been explosive-incendiary bullets invented by DeWilde andPomeroy. Dewilde’s bullet used layers of explosive and incendiary chemicals,making it effective against a wider range of targets. Pomeroy’s bullet was hollowand contained nitroglycerine held in a semi-suspended state, since it wasabsorbed by a piece of fibrous paper inside the bullet. In solid or semi-solidform, nitroglycerine is relatively stable. In liquid form it is highly dangerous.

As the Pomeroy bullet proceeded towards the target, the rotation caused by therifling in the barrel would extract the nitroglycerine by centrifugal action. Theliquid would pool on the inside of the bullet, and on impact would explode like amini-grenade. Extremely effective, easy to manufacture, but unfortunately youwill not find any of them in current use.

Armor Piercing ammunition contains a projectile that has a hardened steel orsteel alloy core. This core is usually surrounded by a lead casing and coveredwith a gliding metal jacket. This is done to ensure uniformity of size and shapebetween AP rounds and ordinary ball rounds. This is necessary so that theweapons that fire different types of ammunition, like machineguns, feed reliably.

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The part of the projectile that penetrates the armor needs to be a differentshape, to maximize the penetrating abilities of the inner core. The projectileshape overall has to be aerodynamically efficient. If we used the shape of theinner core, the bullet would not fly to the target as well as it could, so we wrap itin the outer lead casing for that purpose.

Armor piercing ammunition can be used against buildings, vehicles, light-armored vehicles, bunkers and other “bullet resisting” targets. I do not knowabout you, but I consider myself to be a bullet resisting target....I do not desire toget shot!

Armor piercing ammunition is restricted in some areas by local and state laws.As much as I support the right of the individual citizen to keep and bear arms, Ican think of no legitimate reason for any private citizen to own or possess APtype ammunition at any time, for any reason, period!

There are bullets available that will defeat and penetrate personal body armor.Some will even penetrate armor rated for threat level IIIA. These bullets are notarmor piercing rounds. Armor piercing ammunition defeats plate armor, notsynthetic-fiber body armor.

As you can see, there are different rounds for different purposes. There areother types of ammunition not listed here. I have only provided basic informationon the more common types. Sometimes the choice of the right ammunition canmake the job a lot easier and safer.

A few more facts about projectile and cartridge combinations should be madeat this point. It is difficult to make general recommendations about which bulletshould be used for which purpose. But one suggestion seems to be offered bynearly all knowledgeable persons. If you are going to carry a handgun for self-defense, you should probably carry hollow point rounds. The expansion andlessened ricochet potential make them excellent candidates for close-quartercombat, as happens in a home defense situation. They also feed more reliablythan some wadcutters.

Handguns can be divided into classifications based on how reliably they feed arange of ammunition types. First class pistols can handle any ammunition,including high-powered +P ammunition reliably. Second class pistols may notfeed all hollow point ammunition with the reliability needed for combat. Thirdclass pistols should only be loaded with ball rounds to prevent feeding jams.

How do you know what classification a pistol falls into? Basically, you get whatyou pay for. If a handgun is cheap, there usually is a good reason.

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Cartridge cases

Early cartridge cases were nothing more than a paper sack or capsule, filledwith a lead ball and black powder. It was not a cartridge in the sense that weknow one today, but merely a means of keeping all the ingredients for shootinghandy.

Cartridge cases evolved slowly, at the rate that the technology of the periodpermitted. Most cartridge cases of the Civil War era were crude and non-uniform.Their improvement was limited by the abilities of the machine-tool industry.

Compounding the problems in development was the fact that many calibers hadnot been standardized. There were dozens of new weapons developed duringthis period in history, each with its own design characteristics.

It was not until the development of a good brass cartridge case, that the benefitsof smokeless powders could be fully realized. Cartridge cases changed greatlyafter the civil war, resulting ultimately in the extruded brass cases we are familiarwith in the present time.

The cartridge case provides three main functions, all equally important:

1. A cartridge case holds all the components of the round together. Theseinclude the primer, propellant and projectile.

2. The cartridge case expands during firing to create a gas seal.

3. The cartridge case acts as a heat sink, absorbing most of the heat fromthe burning of the propellant. When extracted and ejected from the gunquickly, most of the heat source is removed.

There are many types of cartridge cases, some for general use and some forspecial purposes. Some of the more common ones are the rimmed straightwall,rimless straightwall, rimless bottleneck, rimmed bottleneck, rebated, and belted.

The condition of a cartridge case is obviously important. If the case is damagedit might not feed properly. Cases can become pitted, and since some cases aremade of steel alloys or other ferrous metals, some can actually rust. Mostcartridge cases can be reloaded, which can save the shooter money, but only ifa sufficient volume of rounds are used to make the equipment investment pay foritself.

The following illustrations shown common cartridge case types:

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The above diagram shows a typical centerfire, bottleneck cartridge case. Thisis the type of case most commonly used in military firearms. Using this example Iwill explain another commonly heard firearms term:

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Headspace is a measurement of length. Specifically, it refers to the distancefrom the base of the cartridge, in contact with the face of the locked bolt, to thecommencement of the shoulder angle of the chamber. Looking at the illustration,headspace would be the distance from the very bottom of the cartridge, to thepoint where the sidewalls end and the shoulder begins to taper.

There is great controversy among some of the nation’s best known and well-respected gunsmiths, as to exactly the point where shoulder contact becomes acritical element. However, the above definition is generally accepted by those inthe firearms field.

Keep in mind that the chamber of the weapon has a corresponding shoulder, inwhich the chamber also narrows. The shoulder of the case seats against theshoulder of the chamber, defining the total area or length required. Headspaceis important for several reasons. If headspace is inadequate, that means there isnot enough room for the round to seat fully, and the bolt will not lock intoposition. This can happen if the case length is oversized. It can happen withreloaded ammunition that has not been properly sized or trimmed.

If the headspace is excessive, the opposite is true. The case is not longenough to occupy the total chamber length. This creates problems because thecartridge now has room to over-expand during firing, possibly causing a ruptureof the case. In some cases, the firing pin might not protrude far enough to strikethe primer, as the case may now be too far forward.

Timing should be discussed at this point, since the term commonly isassociated with the word “headspace”. Timing is defined as follows:

Timing: The proper sequencing of the steps in the cycle of functions: Usually a sub-function of mechanical design, requiring no intervention by the operator.

When the term timing is used, most soldiers think of the M2 Browning .50caliber machinegun. This is because that weapon features adjustable timing. Allweapons, however, require timing. As the definition implies, the timing of aweapon provides for the steps in the cycle of functions to occur in proper order.

When a step does not occur as expected, a stoppage takes place, and theweapon ceases to function. Timing is usually a product of design, which causesthe parts to move in a sequence that permits the cycle to perpetuate itself. Thisrequires no control or input from the operator of the weapon, it happensautomatically.

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Priming

Most cartridge cases use one of two types of ignition sources, either center fireor rim fire priming.

Center fire priming is accomplished using a primer that is inserted into acylindrical recess in the center of the cartridge base. Not to confuse the issue,but the base of the cartridge can also be called the head when we are referringto the base in its entirety, including the extractor groove and primer pocket.

Center fire priming technology is based upon two different primer designs, theBoxer and Berdan primers.

A British Colonel, Edward M. Boxer, designed the Boxer primer. His primerfeatures an anvil set inside the primer shell, against which the primingcompound is crushed when the firing pin strikes the base of the primer. Insidethe base of the cartridge is a vent hole or flash hole through which the ignitionflame passes to ignite the main charge of powder. Each time a piece of Boxer-style brass is reloaded, the new primer containing a new anvil and primingcharge, is placed in the primer pocket above the hole. This is an easy style ofcartridge to reload, because to dislodge the primer you need only push a rod orwire through the vent hole from inside the case.

The Berdan primer, invented by US Army Colonel Hiram Berdan in the 1860’s,does not contain an anvil like the Boxer style does. Instead it is simply a softbrass alloy cup containing the priming chemicals. The case of the cartridge hasa raised metallic “pip” in the center, upon which the priming compound iscrushed. It features several flash holes around the periphery of the primerpocket, leading into the main charge area. The Berdan primer is easier tomanufacture since it has no internal anvil like the Boxer does. It is more difficultto remove, and if the pip in the center of the pocket wears down, which iteventually can, the brass cannot be reloaded.

The compounds used in primers are usually not disclosed by the manufacturersto the public, and are considered to be trade secrets. Older primers usedcorrosive salts and chemicals that could rust or otherwise damage a weapon’sfinish, but most current primers are non-corrosive.

An emerging technology on the horizon is that of caseless ammunition, inwhich the entire cartridge case is made from a combustible plastic compound,like a plastic explosive. With this ammunition, there is no brass residue, noreloading, and no need for extraction or ejection, since the case is expendedwhen the round is fired.

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How long it will take for this technology to be adopted is unknown. It not onlyinvolves the development of the science involved, but will also require thecomplete replacement of the entire current technology. Considering that thiswould require the replacement of many millions of weapons in the United Statesalone, it will be some time before this technology is practical to use.

Currently, the US Military forces are using less-than-lethal ammunition. Thisammunition is used in training, to keep costs down and reduce the amount ofreal estate needed for firing exercises. A common type of less-than-lethalammunition is blank ammunition. Blanks contain no projectile and usually havea crimped or rosette mouth case. However, some blanks have an “over shotwad”, keeping the powder in the case and keeping it dry. The M60 machinegunblank ammunition is an example of such a round.

SRTA or short range training ammunition is another type of less-than-lethalammunition. These rounds typically have plastic projectiles containing a dye orpowder. They easily fragment on contact, marking a target as having been hit.One should not be fooled by the term less-than-lethal. Although these roundsare designed to generally not inflict lethal wounds, they can still kill! Blankrounds at close ranges can generate tremendous muzzle-blast energy. If firedagainst a human body they will cause severe injury and even death undercertain circumstances. Also, blank firing adapters may launch off the end of aweapon if not properly secured. Therefore, never fire a blank round at arepresentative enemy closer than twenty feet away.

SRTA rounds can impact with soft tissue and cause serious trauma or evendeath. They should be used with ballistic face shields and body armor to protectthe “target”, usually a person playing the role of aggressor. Without protectionfrom the projectile, a hit in the eye, ear, throat, in the mouth or groin area canhave extremely serious medical consequences, possibly death.

The basic rule of thumb is; firearms are not toys. Anything fired in a weapon,even the so-called “safe” ammunition is not really safe. In order for it to work, itstill needs to generate enough temperature and pressure to cause the weaponto cycle properly.

And, when using blank ammunition, make sure you use the correct blank firingdevice. There are different blank firing adapters for the various configurations ofthe M-16 series of rifles. They are not interchangeable amongst themselves, orwith the BFA for the M-249 machinegun. Failing to use the right equipment couldcause your weapon to fire as a single shot firearm, or to launch the BFA off theend of the barrel. Either situation is unacceptable. Refer to the equipmentinformation in the back of the operator’s manual (-10 TM) for the right gear.

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Ballistic Terminology

To understand what happens to a bullet during launch all the way through tothe time it comes to rest on the ground or in the target, we need to examinesome ballistic concepts and terms.

Grain is a term frequently heard when describing bullets or powder. The termgrain refers to a unit of measure, specifically a unit of weight. The grain is basedon an old system of measurement in which the heart kernel of a single grain ofwheat was used as the standard.

Using this standard, there are 7000 grains in one avoirdupois pound. Whatexactly is an avoirdupois pound? It is a system of measure based on sixteenounces, 7000 grains or 453.59 grams per pound.

Consequently, an ounce contains 437.5 grains, or a single grain weighs.002285714285714 ounces. I know that’s an intolerably long number, but I like tobe precise! As you can see, a grain is a very small unit of weight.

Caliber is a term used to describe the diameter of a bullet or the bore of aweapon. It is always expressed as a decimal based fraction measured to thenearest thousandth of an inch. Using this method, we can see that a .50 caliberbullet is actually one half inch in diameter, or .50 inches. In this case, it shouldbe expressed properly as .500 inches, but everyone finds it easier to say fiftycaliber as opposed to five hundred caliber.

Further examples:

.357 caliber = 357/1000ths of an inch

.22 caliber = 220/1000ths of an inch

.45 caliber = 450/1000ths of an inch

Rifling refers to the spiral grooves engraved along the inner length of the boreof a firearm. These grooves force the bullet to spin as it travels down the barrel,because the fit is so tight between the bore surface and the sides of theprojectile. A reverse image is engraved upon the surface of the bullet. Thesemarks, called striations, are unique from weapon to weapon, and indeed areused during forensic examinations to determine whether a particular gun fired acertain bullet.

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Inside the barrel, the higher areas between the engraved grooves are calledlands. The lands dig into the side of the bullet as it passes down the barrel,clutching the bullet and causing bullet rotation or spin. This spin is needed togive the bullet aerodynamic and gyrostatic stability as it flies through the air,which makes for a predictable trajectory to the target.

Rotational speed or spin rate is another crucial element. It is the number oftimes the projectile will spin per second (also expressed in turns per minute). Itnot only determines the length of time during which a bullet will retain itsaerodynamic performance, but also has a pronounced effect upon thepenetrating abilities of the projectile when it strikes the target.

Ballistic coefficiency describes the ability of a projectile to overcome dragresistance. It is expressed as a decimal based fraction with a value betweenzero and one. A zero represents no ability to fly, and a one indicates the abilityto indefinitely sustain flight under hypothetical circumstances.

There are different ways of calculating ballistic coefficiency. One method statesthat if a bullet has half the ability of the “standard” bullet, it will have a coefficientof .500, or one half the value of the number “one."

Most manufacturers will publish the ballistic coefficiency for their projectiles inthe literature accompanying a box of ammunition. Other sources are commonlyfound in firearms trade publications and gun magazines sold to the public. Theballistic coefficiency of a projectile must be known if you wish to calculate thedrift of a projectile subject to a crosswind. Use it also to predict the reduction invelocity on the way to the target caused by air resistance.

Precession is a natural phenomenon that affects all bullets as they leave themuzzle crown of a firearm. The air has a moisture content and density, and inattempting to punch through this resistance, a shock wave travels through abullet as it exits the muzzle.

This shock wave causes the bullet to wobble slightly, as a spinning top doeswhen it hits the ground. In a few milliseconds, the spin of the projectile takesover and it finds its rotational balance point. From that point on, it flies smoothly,until the spin begins to decay, at which time the bullet will tumble wildly.

Precession is the tendency of an object, in rotation, to deviate from itslongitudinal axis, or simply put, to wobble. This effect, at extremely close ranges,can make predicting the precise point of impact of the projectile tip very difficult.Precession in an extremely light projectile can contribute to the tumbling effectinside the body.

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Sectional density is an expression regarding the relationship of the weight ofthe bullet to its diameter. It is given as a decimal fractional value, and representsthe ability of the bullet to sustain momentum during flight. The higher thesectional density, the greater distance the bullet will travel while overcoming theeffects of aerodynamic drag.

However, a bullet with higher sectional density might possibly not achieve thesame muzzle velocity as a lighter bullet. The heavier the bullet is, the morepower is required to get it to the same velocity as the lighter bullet. This requireshigher chamber pressure, and might exceed the rated pressure for the weapon.This has the effect of limiting the maximum velocity possible when reloading.

Minute of angle (or minute of arc), is a term describing an amount of deflectionfrom a given straight line heading. The 360 degrees of a circle are furtherdivided into 60 minutes of arc, each composed of 60 seconds of arc. The actualvalue of a minute of angle is 1.0472 inches at 100 yards. For practical purposesit is adequate to round off this figure and say that 1 MOA equals 1 inch at 100yards, 2 inches at 200 yards, etc.

To calculate the needed MOA scope adjustment to compensate for bullet dropwith any rifle, simply determine the number of inches below the point of aim,where the bullet impacts the target. Then divide this number of inches, by thehundreds of yards to the target.

For example, if the bullet strikes the target 12 inches below the point of aim,and the distance to the target is 200 yards, simply divide 12 by 2.00. Remember,divide by the hundreds of yards! Since the distance is 200 yards, we simplymove the decimal point two places to the left. If the distance were 228 yards, wewould divide by 2.28.

In our example of 12 divided by 2.00, we come up with a need to adjust thescope a total of 6.0 minutes of angle. The scope will usually have an adjustmentwheel or index that is graduated in clicks. These clicks may represent anywherefrom 1/8 MOA to a full minute of angle, so check the scope data manual.Reversing this math formula proves the answer to be correct. If a minute of angleat 200 yards equals two inches, and we are 12 inches below the point of aim, theanswer must be 6, since 6x2=12.

Muzzle velocity is the actual speed at which a projectile travels as it leavesthe muzzle of a weapon. It is usually expressed in feet per second or fps.Sometimes it will be given in a metric value expressed as meters per second ormps. Muzzle velocity is controlled by the type of propellant burned, the burnrate, the length of the barrel, the weight of the projectile, projectile design, andtype and twist of the rifling in the bore.

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Muzzle energy is a value that explains the amount of physical work force thatcan be expended by the movement of the projectile, at the muzzle. It is a productof a calculation that multiplies the weight of the bullet in grains, by the square ofthe projectile’s velocity. This product is then divided by a constant that allows forcorrections in the speed to weight relationship, and the effects of gravity.

Muzzle energy is expressed in foot pounds of energy. A foot pound of energy isthat energy required to lift a one pound object one foot. Two foot pounds ofenergy will lift a two pound object one foot, or a one pound object two feet, etc.

Muzzle energy is only of value when factored into other calculations thatdetermine the true potential of the bullet to affect the target. It is also used tomake relative comparisons of the efficiency of one bullet versus another. Anexample would be the M193 ball round fired from the M16A1 rifle, versus theM23 incendiary round fired by the M2 .50 caliber machinegun.

In this example, the M16A1 bullet delivers 1290 foot pounds of energy at themuzzle, while the M2 incendiary round provides a whopping 21588 foot pounds.The difference in purely analytical terms expresses the ability of the amount offorce exerted to move an object. The M16A1 bullet has the potential to lift a1290-pound object one foot, while the M2 bullet can do the same for an objectweighing 21588 pounds. This is a considerable difference in power performance.

This is, of course, theoretical. It disallows for factors resulting from the impact,but is nonetheless valid from a mathematical point of view. How this translatesinto comparative efficiency of the two rounds is easier to understand. At 1900yards downrange, the M2 bullet has more impact energy remaining than theM16A1 bullet can deliver at the muzzle. At 1900 yards downrange, the M16A1bullet, with its poorer ballistic coefficiency, would have barely any terminal effectupon the target.

Stopping power is a term used to describe the relative destructive abilities ofa projectile. A formula devised by Colonel Julian S. Hatcher in 1934 is still usedtoday by many people as a model for determining ballistic performance in ahuman target. Colonel Hatcher’s formula considers the bullet weight, speed,kinetic energy, dimensions, stability and shape. The formula is expressed as:

RSP=E x A x K

In this formula, RSP equals relative stopping power. E equals the bullet energy,A equals the diameter of the bullet, and K equals the shape factor. The shapefactor can be eliminated from the equation for any two bullets having identicalshapes, thereby simplifying the mathematics.

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The shape factors are assigned as given here:

Ball rounds: 0.9Flat-nosed: 1.1Wadcutter: 1.25Hollow-point: 1.25

The end product is a number, usually containing a residual decimal value, suchas 43.22 or 55.14. By itself, this number is meaningless. When compared to theend value for another bullet, the higher number value equals higher relativestopping power. Therefore, a bullet with a value of 40.00 has 20% less powerthan a bullet with a value of 50.00.

Prior to leaving this chapter, I feel it is appropriate to mention a few factsrelating to the improvements in ballistic science. I could not possibly go into anydepth here, but as stated in earlier chapters, I will recommend a good library.

When speaking of the development of small arms and ammunition, manynames come immediately to mind. The most renowned would be John MosesBrowning, certainly the most prolific firearms inventor in history. He is thedeveloper of the following weapons;

Browning High Power pistolM1911 Government Model PistolBrowning A5 Autoloading ShotgunBrowning .30 Caliber water-cooled machinegunsBrowning Automatic Rifle (BAR)M2 .50 Caliber MachinegunWinchester Model 94 Rifle… more weapons than I could name.

Samuel Colt earned a place in history for his contribution to the science, as didGarand, Smith & Wesson, Gatling, Rubin, Ruger, Boxer, Berdan, Chinn andmany others. The development of the theories that led to the discoveries goback much farther than most people realize.

The father of modern ballistic theory would have to be Benjamin Robins, anEnglish mathematician and physicist. It is true that the earliest known writtenwork dealing with the science of ballistic trajectories was Nuova Scienzia by theItalian scientist Niccolo Fontana. His work was published in 1537, and dealt withthe optimum elevation to achieve maximum range with an artillery projectile. Thebody of knowledge advanced by Robins was more concisely applied to theworkings of man-portable firearms. As such it represents a greater contribution.

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The work of Benjamin Robins expanded upon developments in mathematicsand the physical sciences made by discoverers such as Galileo, Isaac Newtonand others. These developments, while important in understanding the nature ofthe physical relationships between motion, mass, resistance and velocity, werestill relatively useless. There was still no practical way to measure the velocity ofa projectile in flight.

Robins invented a device called the ballistic pendulum in the year 1740. Justlike an ordinary pendulum, it swung in an arc below a pivot point. When struckwith a bullet, the pendulum would react by moving in the direction of travel,being deflected by that bullet. The size of the arc would be measured. Using theother known data, such as bullet mass, the velocity could be calculated. With thespeed of the bullet known, other calculations could now be made that were notpreviously possible.

Robins’ discovery opened an entire new world of scientific knowledge aboutballistic flight. His contribution did not end with the invention of his pendulum. Hewas the first to prescribe that bullets should be loaded from the breech end, andnot the muzzle. He based his recommendation on his observation that a largeamount of pressure was lost as gas escaped past the round projectile.

Remember that this is happening in 1740, 100 years before practical rifledbarrels began to appear. He advised eliminating round shot and replacing it withan elongated projectile fired from a barrel with spiral grooves cut into it to givespin. This is the rifling we are familiar with today.

The work of Robins appears in his writing titled New Principles of Gunnery.Robins was definitely ahead of his time. Some of his concepts would not beemployed until some 100 years after his death.

At the beginning of this chapter I cautioned you that ballistics is a complex anddifficult subject. While it is easy to achieve a working knowledge, in-depthunderstanding can only come from many years of careful research and study. Inmy years of association with firearms I have always attempted to improve myknowledge, even though it sometimes appeared to not relate directly to myemployment. However, my self-improvement has led to career advancement,and I strongly recommend that you study and learn.

Please remember my admonition to not re-invent the wheel. Most of theinformation you could ever possibly require has already been developed andprinted in one form or another. Your activities should center more upon researchas a form of educational resource, rather than consuming time by trying todevelop theories that have already been proven.

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Chapter 2 Examination

1. What are the eight steps in the cycle of functions?

a. __________________b. __________________c. __________________d. __________________e. __________________f. __________________g. __________________h. __________________

2. What are the three basic types of cooling methods employed by firearms?

a. __________________b. __________________c. __________________

3. What are the four basic types of firearm operating systems?

a. __________________b. __________________c. __________________d. __________________

4. What are the ingredients of black powder?

a. __________________b. __________________c. __________________

5. What is a double-based powder?

ANSWER: _______________________________

6. What are the two common types of center-fire primers?

a. __________________b. __________________

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7. How many grains are there in an ounce?

ANSWER: _______________________________

8. What is the value of a minute of angle at 100 yards?

ANSWER: _______________________________

9. How is muzzle energy expressed?

ANSWER: _______________________________

10. Who invented the M2 .50 caliber machinegun?

ANSWER: _______________________________

Answers to this and all examinations can be found at the back of this book.

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Chapter 3. Firearms Safety and Marksmanship

This subject is understandably important. Firearms are lethal by design. A lackof the basic safety rules concerning firearms can be deadly to those who handlethem. This applies whether you are a manufacturer, armorer, gunsmith, policeofficer, hunter, soldier, target shooter or competitor.

One would assume that merely being a firearms professional automaticallyqualifies a person as competent in the safe handling of firearms. This is a falseassumption that should not be tolerated. All persons handling firearms requireproper instruction in the handling of those weapons.

A firearms instructor should be formally trained, certified as to his or herprofessional competency, and qualified with the firearms taught. Most stateshave a qualification process for civilian law enforcement personnel who providefirearms training. These certifications are required whether the individual trainsat the range during live fire, or teaches marksmanship or maintenancetechniques in the classroom.

The reasons for this are easy to understand. There is always the issue of publicliability, because personnel armed in the performance of their duty areresponsible for their actions with their assigned firearm. As employers, lawenforcement agencies do not want their personnel injured in the line of duty, asthis causes the temporary (or permanent) loss of a highly trained individual. And,as compassionate human beings, we do not want to see our fellow professionalsand their families affected by an avoidable tragedy.

In the military, however, standards are not so rigidly enforced. Some branchesof the armed forces, such as the United States Air Force, have trained andqualified personnel serving as full time instructors. The dedicated position allowsthem to concentrate on their duties, develop professionally, and providecompetent instruction in the use of weapons and deadly force.

The United States Army has no such equivalent position. The closest would bethe Drill Instructor serving at a TRADOC installation, teaching basic militarymarksmanship courses. However, once the soldier graduates from basic trainingand the MOS producing school, there usually are no personnel dedicated solelyto the task of live fire training at the unit level.

The problem presents itself after a soldier has completed training upon initialentry to active duty, and is then subsequently assigned to a troop unit or otherorganization. At this point the soldier usually only qualifies annually with theassigned weapon.

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Each army division has a G3 Training section that is responsible for oversightof military training. These personnel schedule trainees, coordinate the use ofresources, approve the contents of Program of Instruction materials, and provideother critical functions such as planning the master training calendar.

The G3 personnel are not present to supervise the training of soldiers on thefiring line. There is very little present in the way of a quality control mechanismto ensure that unit NCO’s are teaching properly. Very few NCO’s who are taskedwith teaching pre-marksmanship courses have actually attended a formal coursethat would qualify them for teaching these subjects. Very often the NCO istasked to provide training by the “hip pocket” method, whereby someone handshim a manual just before the class takes place, and tells him to “teach” thesubject.

During recurring qualification training, the soldier is supposed to receive ablock of pre-marksmanship instruction prior to live fire. The individual PMIrequirements are explained clearly in the Field Manual (FM) for each respectiveweapon.

In my classes I usually find many students who are or have been assigned tocrew served weapons by the “hey you” method. These soldiers sometimesreceived NO crew-served weapon instruction during BMT or AIT. Therefore, thequality of the PMI at the unit determines the safety margin during the trainingexercise.

During PMI, it is not adequate to merely recite the range safety rules and tellthe soldier to put his hearing protection in place. The soldier may be totallyunfamiliar with the operating system of the weapon due to the lack of priortraining.

Please do not misunderstand my intentions in presenting this information in thismanner to you. I do not intend to discredit or defame the persons assigned to thetraining task. My only intent is to illustrate the nature of the core problem thatresults in tragic injuries and deaths during live fire training, and only a fool woulddeny that these accidents take place.

By presenting this issue, I hope to impress upon you why accidents take place,and why they can be avoided. If the training with instruments of lethal force isnot conducted to the highest standard attainable, the consequences can betotally intolerable.

When dealing with deadly force, complacency itself is a significant contributor.For this reason alone you should never ignore the safety factor, and the safetyfactor to a large degree is controlled by the quality of the training provided tosoldiers.

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I will not bore you with a litany of tragedy that details the unfortunate outcomesof individual events. I will state with certainty, however, that when you becomecomplacent about safety, you become a target for disaster.

I commend those military leaders who rigidly enforce safety concepts intraining. I also know for a fact that there are many times when safety is not ahigh enough priority. This is not a statement of opinion, but a matter of historicaldetail that can be found in the records of the US Army Safety Center. As aninstitution, the US Army has a great safety record and safety program. Onewould be a fool however, to deny that people make errors in judgment.

Safety Awareness Concept

The concept behind safety awareness is simple: almost all accidents areavoidable. Even in cases where some condition may be unseen by the operatorof a piece of equipment, it could have been foreseen by the manufacturer,designer, shipper, sales person, trainer or supervisor.

The safety awareness concept requires that you be pro-active in nature. Youcan not simply respond to an accident and then say, “Well, we should have donethis...”. You must actively look for indicators of pending problems, and solvethose problems before they result in injury or death.

Not all tragedy associated with firearms results from poor operator training. Itcan be a consequence of many other factors. Sometimes a weapon is simply notwell made, as in the case of the typical “Saturday Night Special." This termrefers to a firearm so cheaply made that a criminal can afford to use it and throwit away. Throwing it away is probably in his best interest, because theseweapons frequently fail disastrously.

There are more firearms on the market like this than you might think. Most ofthe makers of rifles, shotguns and pistols are reputable manufacturers with yearsof experience, good reputation, and technologically advanced productionfacilities. However, many are made cheaply overseas, and imported underpopular brand names. These weapons can range from just being unreliable, tobeing potentially fatal to operate.

In your arms room you may encounter a variety of personally owned weapons,or POW’s. Possibly you may receive offers, as armorers usually do, to either buyone of these weapons, or repair and maintain it as a “side project." You shouldbe aware that federal and local laws regulate who may repair, service or modifya firearm.

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In your duty position as the armorer, you are specifically exempted from thelaws that regulate these activities, as long as they pertain to the performance ofyour official duties. Being the armorer does not entitle you to violate the law bysetting up an unlicensed gunsmith shop in your arms room. Doing so is amisappropriation of government funds and a UCMJ violation.

Anyway, you should never attempt to repair, service or modify a firearm withwhich you are unfamiliar. This brings me to another reason why “accidents” takeplace: poor or improper maintenance. Some states like New York only require anindividual to obtain a permit to operate as a gunsmith. There are no professionalcredential requirements, no formal training, and no supervision by the stateagencies that issue the permit.

The rule of thumb is expressed in the Latin term Caveat Emptor or “Let theBuyer Beware." As a result, it is sometimes impossible to determine the actualcompetency of a gunsmith until he has done his worst to your weapon. Assumingthat you were confident in his work, and the weapon fails with tragic results, whois really to blame?

Is it you, the unwary customer? Maybe you could have taken it to someone elsefor servicing and repair. Possibly you should have inquired further before makingyour final decision. How could you be expected to know it would fail, since thegunsmith has a license issued by the state?

Is it the gunsmith, whose lack of attention to detail might have missedsignificant indicators of pending failure? If he received training somewhere alongthe way, was it a failure of his tutor? Why should he be liable if the state issuedhim a license and he has business insurance?

Or it is the state, which failed to oversee the industry adequately? Should theynot only have a licensing procedure, but an inspection process as well? Why notestablish professional credentials and curriculum standards for the persons theylicense to do business within the state?

The whole purpose of this discussion is to make a point:

Safety is everyone’s business. If an accident occurs, all parties have acertain degree of ownership for the responsibility. In a commercial orcivil environment like the above example, all levels of decision makersare responsible for the consequences. In a military environment this isno less true. All parties concerned; the commander, safety officer, rangeofficer-in-charge, armorer, first line supervisor and trainee are equallyresponsible for the safe conduct of training with live firearms.

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This is the essence of the safety awareness concept; accidents arepreventable, everyone owns responsibility for the incident, and only a pro-activeapproach can minimize the potential for disaster.

Therefore, the issue of the quality of training is important. Quality training thatmeets the defined standards of the equipment technical manual and field manualcan mitigate or minimize the potential to a very large degree. Using the converseargument easily proves this: if we fail to train people properly with lethalinstruments, accidents will occur, even though they are largely preventable.

In all my classes I stress two things over and over: safety and combatreadiness. Anyone who has attended one of my classes will tell you that I amnearly fanatical on the subject of safety. The reason is simple. I have beeninvolved in several accidents, and learned from them. Fortunately, thoseaccidents caused no injury, just property damage. My experiences have mademe a believer in the value of safety and safety training.

I am a member of a small volunteer fire department in a rural area of New YorkState. As a member of the department I am also the training and safety officer. Itis completely unthinkable in the fire-fighting profession to send untrained andunqualified personnel into the path of danger. Training must be conducted byofficers of the department or State-certified instructors who are themselvesqualified to conduct the training.

The reason for this standard is obvious. Fire is dangerous, and the fire-groundis a deadly environment in which we operate. The same degree of danger isalways present when we train with firearms. Safety training can mitigate thepossibility of danger to the trainees, but the weapons themselves are never anyless dangerous to work with. Therefore, safety training is imperative.

Safety is more than a concept or training standard. It is also an attitude that willaffect the way in which you perform your daily work. If you are not mindful of thesafety requirements of your job, things will go wrong. As an armorer, you are theperson most directly responsible for the condition of the weapons in your armsroom.

Usually the repair is beyond the capability of the operator, and is performed bythe armorer. Even if it is above the level of the armorer’s capability, the armoreris still the individual responsible for ensuring that the weapon is repaired at thehigher level shop. When an accident occurs, the armorer’s ownership of theproblem is immediately recognized. A pro-active attitude in your approach toyour duties will minimize your exposure

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Safety Rules

With an understanding of the basic concept of safety awareness behind us,let’s take a look at the basic rules for firearms safety. What I present here is asummation of the time-honored offerings of; The National Rifle Association, thevarious doctrines of the military branches of the armed forces, and the teachingsof renowned firearms professionals whose names are immediately recognizableby any reader of shooting magazines. These concepts are universally accepted.

The document I use to teach safety is called the Ten Commandments ofFirearms Safety. I will present each rule, followed by an expanded explanation ofits logic or application to military operations.

1. Treat every gun as if it is loaded

Even when you know a weapon is clear and safe, you should still treat it withthe same respect you would accord a loaded firearm. This contributes to goodsafety habits, which may actually save a life by preventing accidental dischargeof a weapon.

In treating a weapon as if loaded, you must always control the direction of themuzzle. When handling a firearm, be mindful of the surrounding area. If inside abuilding, which direction is the safest one in which to point the muzzle?

The finger should never be on the trigger of a firearm except when it is loadedand being fired, period! Poor trigger control contributes to many of the accidentalshootings that take place in this country every year.

If you use dummy ammunition to test the functioning of a firearm, respect it andtreat the weapon as if loaded with the real thing. Never mix dummy rounds andlive ammunition in the same area. About ten years ago I had an accidental firingof a weapon in my work area, because I was testing the weapon and actuallyhad a live round in a chamber. That was a stupid, preventable error!

I am not above admitting my mistake. I certainly learned from it, and asembarrassing as it is to sometimes admit it, I use it as an example in myclassroom lectures. Hey, if it can happen to me, it can happen to you! Thebottom line is, even though I made a critical error, my awareness of muzzledirection prevented a tragedy and only resulted in a shattered window anddamage to a vehicle parked outside. What prevented injury was the fact that Itreated the weapon as though it were loaded, and controlled the muzzle

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Armorers are required to have dummy rounds to function test the weapons inthe arms vault in accordance with technical manual requirements. In all cases,dummy ammunition should be clearly distinguishable from live ammunition. Thecases should be crimped, painted black, or have holes drilled through thesidewalls. They should also have no primer and no flash hole. Use only thedummy rounds that are authorized by the weapon manual. Your localAmmunition Supply Point should supply dummy ammunition. Check with yourunit S4.

2. Be sure of your target

All too often, soldiers fall on the battlefield as a result of fratricide. Policeofficers train using firearms simulators to teach judgment shooting. As a firearmsinstructor, I often use a simulator to train engagement techniques. Training witha simulator is only one method of ensuring that you only engage the propertarget at the proper time.

There are many things to consider when engaged in actual combat situations.On the range the option is simple. All you have to do is engage the silhouettetarget. This is great for teaching basic marksmanship, or when fighting a paperarmy, but ineffective in teaching real engagement techniques.

In combat, you need two things to make you effective in engaging targets whileavoiding friendly elements. The first of these is situational awareness. Youmust be fully conscious of the position of all personnel in your immediate area,both friend and enemy. You must not only be aware of their presence, but oftheir movement and intended course of action.

Situational awareness also includes understanding your role in relation toothers in the force structure that is engaging the enemy. Are you engaging theproper targets in the assigned sector of fire? Can you engage targets ofopportunity? Is your fire supporting and complementing that of others in yourforce?

There are five basic steps in engaging targets:

1. Target detection: what’s out there?2. Target identification: is it friend or foe?3. Target assessment: what is its relative threat and priority?

4. Target acquisition: are my sights properly placed for action?5. Target destruction: engage and neutralize

The steps are a logic path. At each step along the path you apply a consciousdecision concerning engagement before proceeding to the next step.

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The other element is positional awareness. Are you properly in position toengage the target effectively while minimizing collateral damage? Are therefriendly or non-combatant personnel in the field of fire? When it is imperative toengage, can you avoid friendly casualties?

Positional awareness also defines your ability to react to events, your ability tomove, to take cover and concealment. Especially in urban tactical environments,positional and situational awareness largely define the logic behind the shoot-don’t shoot decision.

The same dedication to shooting logic should be made when hunting game,while at the range, while defending your home, or while plinking at cans in theyard. A firearm should never be discharged unless and until the logic can bedetermined. Shots in the dark are responsible for killing family members as wellas intruders. Always be sure of your target!

3. Be sure the bore is not obstructed

This seems like a simple enough concept. If there is a foreign object in thebore, it can cause catastrophic failure of the barrel. I think we can all agree onthat one. Do you realize, however, how little it takes to occlude the bore of aweapon?

In my classes I show students photographs of an M16A2 barrel that sufferedsuch a failure. It was placed in a milling machine and cut into a cross-section sothe inside can be clearly seen. The photos plainly depict what caused the failureof this weapon.

What did it take to do this damage and endanger the life of the operator? A fewgrains of sand, shown graphically in cross-section, lodged in front of theprojectile. With a high-powered rifle or handgun, it is essential that you take thetime to inspect the bore prior to firing. Do this every time.

Remember always that there are two separate steps involved: making theweapon clear and safe. “Clear” means there is no ammunition in the chamber orfeedway. The term “safe” not only means that the safety is engaged and theweapon is ready for transport or holstering, it also means that the weapon is safeto fire. If you did not check the bore, the weapon is not truly safe to fire.

How can a bore become occluded? Simply put: inattention to detail. The M16series of rifles does not tolerate having water in the bore during firing. Yet if youcarry the weapon with the muzzle elevated or at sling arms in a drivingrainstorm, you almost guarantee that the situation exists. Putting a muzzle capover the opening solves that problem nicely.

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It is extremely easy when maneuvering to allow a muzzle to make contact withthe ground. It is almost impossible to avoid in some low crawl situations, aswhen crossing swamp or desert. If you do not have a muzzle cap on the end ofthe barrel, you must be eternally mindful of the position of the muzzle.

After crossing this type of terrain, it is smart to examine the bore. If practical, doso prior to firing the weapon. Make sure the chamber is empty first!

When moving through shrubbery or low vegetation, plant stems, leaves orseeds can enter the muzzle. Check to make sure your muzzle is clear whenleaving those areas.

Now let’s discuss the unthinkable! Never chamber and fire a live round in aweapon with a blank firing adapter mounted to the muzzle! It’s hard toacknowledge that some people can actually do this, but anyone can make amistake, and it does happen.

Finally, we must never ignore problems associated with bad ammunition. It willsometimes happen that a projectile will lodge in the bore due to failure of thepropellant or other factors. This is called a “squib round.” If your weapon recoilsnoticeably lighter and has a muffled report, cease-fire! Your bore might beobstructed by a projectile. This usually happens only with reloaded ammunition.

In all cases, inspecting the bore prevents tragedy.

4. Never point at anything you do not want to shoot

This one should be considered a “no brainer.” I am sorry to say this, but this isthe one rule most commonly broken. It seems to make such perfect sense, that Ifail to see why so many people violate it.

Simply put, anything the muzzle of a weapon is pointed at is a target. Whetheryou intend to shoot it or not, it is in the direct line of fire. An unintended targetwill suffer the same consequences when struck by a bullet.

Always remember that your weapon has no mind, and therefore no concept ofloyalty or guilt. It will kill you, your child, or your friend as easily as an enemy.Each day in the United States, people tragically are killed unintentionally by thenegligent use of firearms. To a great extent, most of those tragedies areavoidable.

Always remember that stupidly is lethal when dealing with lethal power.

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I am not going to engage in a political argument for or against firearms. I willpass on to you the comments of a good friend and fellow firearms instructor, JeffHunt of Hancock, New York (a member of the 174th Security Police Squadron,New York Air National Guard, and a New York State Corrections Officer). In hisfirearms classes, he frequently makes the following statement:

“I can take this firearm, load it, and place it on this table. If it werepossible, I could come back a year later and this weapon would still be sittinghere loaded. This weapon will never fire until a human being picks it up and pullsthe trigger. It’s not the weapon that’s unsafe. It’s the person behind the gun”

His statement is undeniably true. So then, what makes firearms so dangerous?It’s not the gun, it’s the person behind the trigger. Negligent behavior with afirearm is not only inadvisable, it’s usually against the law. I can not tell you howmany times people “horseplay” with a firearm, and end up shooting someone. Ican tell you that horseplay is not tolerated in my classroom or in my presence.

Your attitude around your company area or in your arms room should beexactly the same. There is no room for negligent behavior with a firearm, evenwhen you are absolutely certain that the weapon is clear and safe. Rememberthat if you develop poor safety habits with a firearm, the end result can bedevastating. The only time an unloaded weapon should be pointed at anotherperson is during tactical training in personal defensive maneuvers. It should onlybe done when all parties involved have personally determined the weapons tobe clear and safe.

You should also be aware that the target of your “horseplay” might notappreciate your actions. You may find yourself being the target of that person’sanger. Also, the shock of unexpectedly facing the bore of a firearm can haveprofound medical consequences for some people. I have often said that youshould not do anything unless you can withstand the consequences of youractions. I would not want to live with the knowledge that I killed someone byaccident.

5. Never leave a loaded gun unattended

This rule should be easy to understand. If a person picks up a firearm, notknowing it is loaded, there can be terrible results. This is especially true if theperson is unfamiliar with the weapon, or with weapons in general. All soldiersare responsible for the physical security of the firearms assigned to them. Thereis no excuse, ever, for leaving a loaded weapon unattended. Keep in mind thatthe term unattended infers that you have not left it in the personal custody ofanother person, who assumes responsibility.

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This does not happen so much in a military environment, because the trainingis geared to prevent this from occurring. Where it happens frequently is in thehome. Unfortunately the persons who find loaded firearms are usually children.

When there are children in your home, you really need to examine the logic forhaving a firearm loaded. If the loaded firearm is usually kept on hand for selfdefense, I would like to pass some sobering facts on to you:

1. A self-defense firearm is useful only when you have immediate,unhampered access to it in an emergency.

2. The use of a firearm in self defense is often precluded by the fact that ifan intruder is armed, he usually already has his weapon deployed, and there isno way you can “out draw” him.

3. Many persons who keep firearms in the home are not trained in theirproper use, and a shooting situation is the wrong event to learn from.

4. The entire home becomes a free-fire zone during an indoor firefight.The bullets will penetrate walls, furniture and other objects, killing people youcannot see.

5. Drawing a firearm during a break-in escalates the potential for violence.The criminal now has little option but to engage you with countering lethal force.

6. Your actions in using a firearm against an intruder in your home mustbe legally justifiable or you may be criminally prosecuted.

Of course, loaded firearms should never be found in an arms room. Take a wildguess about that one. In my years of experience, do you think I have ever foundloaded firearms in an arms room? The answer, sadly, is yes.

Following proper clearing procedures when departing the range or training areashould prevent that from happening. Again, proper procedures are not alwaysfollowed. Keep eternally in mind the fact that you are dealing with lethal forcewhenever you are handling a firearm. Store them clear and safe at all times.

6. Avoid alcohol before and during shooting

I know you will find this hard to believe, I certainly did, but in my office at FortDrum I have a document advertising a shooting match where alcohol wasserved. What makes this all the more impossible to believe is that this event tookplace at a US Military Reservation!

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I can think of NO valid reason why alcohol would be anywhere near a shootingevent. I happened to be at this military installation the day after the event, andwas so astounded by the posters and flyers for it, that I took one. Could youimagine what would have happened if one of the contestants or spectators hadbeen shot, and alcohol was a factor?

What makes this so incredulous is the fact that military discipline is usually sorigid that such events are almost impossible. You might attempt to rationalize byfiguring that at least the contestants probably did not consume alcohol. Sorry, itstill fails the “smell” test. Alcohol and firearms are non-compatible.

In the civilian community, alcohol use is not uncommon during shooting events.Plenty of “good ol’ boys” plink at backyard targets while enjoying a six-pack. Askany doctor who has worked a residency in an emergency room, if he or she hasever seen an alcohol related shooting. You would be surprised how common itis.

Prior to engaging in any training with firearms, all personnel should bequestioned about prior alcohol use. Under no circumstances should any personwho consumed alcohol within 8 hours prior to training, be permitted to check aweapon out of the arms room.

You should also consider the effects of a hangover, or sleep deprivation thatmay result from binge drinking. The physical effects of an earlier state ofintoxication can affect reaction times and judgment ability. If you know anindividual to be in such a state, do not allow that person to be armed, no matterhow unpleasant the consequences. Keep in mind what could happen!

In addition to alcohol, drugs pose problems as well. This applies to prescriptiondrugs as well as recreational use of controlled substances. Persons taking anytype of antihistamine that may cause drowsiness should not be armed. Thesame is true of persons taking psychoactive substances like mood elevators,anti-depressants, barbiturates or amphetamines.

There are also drugs that can complicate injury in the event of accidental injuryat the range. Among these are aspirin or prescription anti-coagulants that cancontribute to uncontrollable bleeding.

If an individual is taking a prescription drug that presents a problem, simplyreschedule the training when the person is medically cleared. If you are thinkingright now that this is not your job, refer to my earlier statements about the safetyconcept. Safety is everyone’s job!

Alcohol and drugs on the range are an invitation for disaster.

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7. Never climb a tree or cross a fence with a loaded firearm

In a military environment, it is sometimes necessary to violate this rule. Thisshould only be done, however, when operating in close proximity to an enemyforce or when combat is imminent.

It should be remembered that you can carry a magazine in a rifle, with the boltforward on an empty chamber, and the weapon can be truly safe to handle whileclimbing. This should only be done in a military environment. It should never bedone while hunting or stalking game.

There are techniques for moving weapons partially loaded to increase themargin of safety while maneuvering. Read and understand the field manuals forthe various weapons in your arms room.

8. Never shoot at a hard flat surface or water. Be sure of your backstop.

Ricochet rounds frequently kill. There is no reliable method to predict thebehavior of a deflected or ricochet round. The danger is amplified in areaswhere compound deflection can take place. Examples are quarries, junkyards,building sites, and rock formations.

Depending on the angle of incidence, a bullet may not fragment, and mayretain much of its velocity and force even though the direction may change. It ispossible to have a compound ricochet deflect more than 90 degrees and stillhave sufficient lethal force to wound or kill.

When in the woods, be mindful of the ricochet potential of trees. Some treebark can absorb great amounts of water, which can change the way a bullet willreact when it strikes the tree.

Heavier projectiles such as shotgun slugs tend to retain much of their masswhile ricocheting off wet trees. The deadly potential of these rounds shouldnever be overlooked.

When firing any firearm, be aware of the area behind your target. You mustknow the maximum range of the weapon and projectile combination you areusing. Some types of projectiles tend to over-penetrate the target. High-poweredrifle bullets usually perform in this manner.

This alludes to the matter of situational awareness I discussed earlier. Youmust always know what is downrange behind your target. If you do not, then youare not justified in discharging your weapon.

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Generally speaking, an 80 degree fan of fire should be considered. This meansthat an area 40 degrees to the left and right of your point of aim must be clear ofdownrange hazards; like people! In addition to human targets, be aware ofcertain dangerous targets, like fuel cells, aircraft or ammunition points behindyour target.

9. Carry your weapon empty, action open

Again, this is countermanded by the requirements of military training oroperations as needed. It does raise an important issue regarding thetransportation and handling of firearms. In all my classes, I always make thefollowing point:

“Never, ever, trust your life to the safety of any firearm”

This is a valid statement. Firearms safeties are mechanical devices, subject tothe same failures as other mechanical devices. All metallic components in afirearm are subject to wear resulting from heat, stress and friction. Thecomponents of a firearms safety are no different from any other parts in terms oftheir ability to wear.

This is the reason why we always perform a function check of our firearm afterreassembling it, or before using it. You should develop the good habit ofchecking your safety each time you draw your weapon from the arms room, andevery time you issue one to a soldier.

The reason we suggest always carrying the weapon empty is simple. As Ifrequently state:

“No one was ever shot with an unloaded firearm”

You would be astounded to know how many people claim the firearm thataccidentally discharged was unloaded. Ladies and gentlemen, that is simply notpossible given our understanding of the laws of physics. Bullet wounds onlycome from bullets. An empty chamber equals no bullet wounds. Let commonsense prevail!

Just check your local newspaper for time to time and you will see what I mean.Accidental shootings are common during hunting forays and while carryingweapons to and from civilian shooting ranges. It shouldn’t happen, but it does.

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10. Store guns and ammo separately, and beyond the reach of children

No rocket science here, either! Most agencies have regulations or internalSOP’s that require the separate storage of ammunition and firearms. It is a goodpractice to maintain in the home as well.

Separate storage decreases the danger of accidental shooting. If an intrudergrabs your gun to shoot you and it’s unloaded, you’ll be happy. Trust me on thatone! The tragedy of children being shot with loaded firearms stored in homes isoutrageous. Negligent parents should be, but often are not, prosecuted.

Please remember, and apply, all the safety rules presented here. Doing so mayliterally save your life or the life of a friend or loved one. Do not forget that yourown personal negligence may result in criminal prosecution as well.

I am pleased to see that in New York State, where I reside, a more prudentattitude towards gun safety is being adopted. In the past, there was never arequirement for a handgun safety course prior to licensing a person to carry aconcealed firearm. The licensing officers of the various counties, usually aCounty Court Judge, are imposing the requirement as a local option as of thedate of this manual.

I am proud that I have been selected as an instructor in Jefferson County,having met the criteria for the definition of a duly authorized firearms instructoras codified in the New York State Penal Law.

Many handgun enthusiasts I know balked at the idea of imposing another so-called “restriction” on getting a firearms permit in New York State. Personally, Isee that it benefits them rather than hinders them. In the past, the anti-guncrowd could always point to the lack of safety training. Their claim was thatunqualified persons would carry guns in public.

Since the course is now becoming mandatory, they can no longer make thatclaim. Persons applying for the license demonstrate their knowledge of weaponssafety and their ability to handle the weapon even before the license is issued.The end result is the disarming of another argument by the anti-handgun forces.The issue of handgun control is a political powder keg. I certainly favor anyapproach that increases public safety while not infringing upon Constitutionallyguaranteed rights.

I urge you, if you are a gun owner, to join a local shooting club where goodsafety habits are taught and weapons are respected for what they are. If youhave children, make sure they are taught as well.

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Marksmanship

I can hear my critics already: “What is a section on marksmanship doing in amaintenance handbook”? People who ask that question are displaying their ownignorance about firearms maintenance. Since the entire objective of the weaponis to cause the projectile to impact on a certain point, maintenance haseverything to do with marksmanship. If the weapon is not accurate, the chanceof placing that shot on target diminishes.

There are many things the armorer can do to improve the accuracy of aweapon. I am not talking about anything exotic such as free-floating a barrel orbedding a receiver. I am referring to common everyday maladies that can becured with a screwdriver or other simple tools.

However, before we can talk about improving accuracy, we must make sure theconcepts of marksmanship are fully understood. You might be asking yourselfthe eternal question “Why”?

The answer is again simple. One of your tasks in making a firearm repair is toproperly isolate and diagnose the fault. Without an understanding of proper formand technique, you may overlook the fact that the shooter just does not knowwhat he is doing. There is no value in perpetually adjusting sights for someonewho does not know what a good sight picture is.

You may also have to test fire a weapon on the range to determine its accuracyfor training and qualification. I have had to do this many times. It usually takesplace when a shooter can not hit the zero target. At this time you test fire theweapon to determine if the weapon, and not the shooter, is causing the problem.If your marksmanship skills are not what they should be, you may not hit thetarget either!

This is the reason why armorers must fire and be familiar with all the weaponsin their respective arms rooms. How are you going to make that diagnosis if youdo not know how the weapon normally reacts and performs? Failure of thearmorer to understand how the weapon functions, results in weapons often beingsent to direct support units for no valid reason. Very often, a weapon is sent infor repair, while it is the shooter who is the problem. A well trained, competentarmorer on the range can eliminate that mistake, saving money and resources.

A well-trained and seasoned armorer can spot trouble and prevent failures. Heor she can contribute to the training effort, and conserve resources byeliminating unnecessary maintenance actions. Understanding marksmanshipprinciples is critical to the armorer’s overall understanding of the weapon as asystem.

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Human Physiology and Anatomy

Welcome to “Anatomy 101." No, this is not medical school, but anunderstanding of the real principles of marksmanship begins with a look at thehuman body. This is practical, because what we are talking about is ergonomics,or the study of the interface between human and mechanical elements. The firstelement I wish to discuss is psychological stress.

Most of the physical processes are influenced by the state of mind of theperson firing a weapon. There are many factors that influence the stress level ofa shooter at a firing range. We are not psychologists, and our aim is not toresolve issues dealing with internal conflict. However, it is important that theshooter be put at ease about the firing mission. This is true regardless ofwhether we are dealing with a trainee at the firing range, or a sniper engagingan enemy target.

Trainees at the range are frequently emotionally “on edge.” Many areconcerned about qualifying with their service firearm. For some, it is requiredthat they maintain qualification because of their duty position. Others are justconcerned about having to come out to the range to re-qualify.

For some persons, firearms training is not a pleasant experience. They do notlike lying in the mud, or freezing in cold weather. Some people are upset by thenoise, and pressure exerted by their superiors. For many, it serves as areminder of basic training.

What the shooters need to understand is that they must be aware of their ownpsychological state. They must not “compete” with themselves. The range firingexperience should be handled like any other learning experience: calmly.

External stress factors can contribute to poor performance at the range. Amongthese are excessive alcohol consumption, workplace stress, lack of sleep, anger,resentment and drug use. Have you ever considered that the so-called “benefit”of a hot cup of coffee at the range may actually harm performance? It is wellaccepted that caffeine is a powerful stimulant. It is probably the last thing weshould be giving to some soldiers prior to firing a weapon. There are manyphysiological effects related to caffeine. None of them contribute to proper use ofa firearm.

Some persons will claim that they perform better after their morning cup ofcoffee. This implies a psychological state of being; the physical effects ofcaffeine consumption are well known and accepted. It is possible that the calmone finds in their morning dose of caffeine can offset the negative aspects of thephysical reaction to the stimulant. If that works for them, that’s fine.

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Stress and attitude are directly related. A proper attitude about the purpose ofthe training can reduce the stress associated with it. You should emphasize theneed to relax when coaching a shooter with erratic performance. Very often thissingle step resolves many performance problems.

Autonomic nervous functions are those tasks performed by the body, thatrequire no application of conscious thought. Among these are pulse and pulserate, breathing, and stimulus response.

While we do not have to think about these functions for them to take place,what we think can severely affect them. For instance, a person with a pessimisticattitude about cardiac health and a fear of death, can experience acceleratedpulse and other symptoms associated with cardiac ailments.

We can influence the functions of the autonomic nervous system to someextent. However, we must breathe and have a pulse in order to live. Thepresence of these functions greatly influences the firing of a weapon.

As the body inhales air, the chest expands. As a result, the body in the proneposition moves as the shoulders are raised to accommodate the increasedvolume of the lungs. This directly affects the point of aim of the weapon, as therifle is in balance on a fulcrum, the hand. As the shoulder rises, so does thebuttstock. In a corresponding fashion, the muzzle goes down.

As the heart beats, blood is pumped through the arterial and venal network toand from organs and tissue. Each beat of the heart causes a slight movement ofthe body, and hence the weapon. Good marksmen observe this through theirrifle scope when concentrating on a target. The reticle will move slightly witheach pulse. Many refer to this as “scope jump."

It is important that the shooter understands the inability to control autonomicfunction. When one becomes overly conscious of the pulse, and attempts tocontrol it, the result is usually an increase in pulse rate. The shooter must makea conscious effort to relax, and often can use meditation techniques to obviatethe negative effects of autonomic functions. Conversely, anxiety is the enemy ofproper marksmanship.

Fatigue is a common influence contributing to poor performance at the range.In some cases it is unavoidable, and in others it is desirable, especially when wewant to determine the ability to perform under stress.

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During qualification firing, the shooter must be well rested. This meansadequate sleep and a proper psychological state. It is nearly impossible toobtain proper rest if one consumes massive amounts of alcohol the night beforefiring. If the performance of a shooter at the range is sporadic and belowstandards, ask about how well rested he or she might be. Doing so may tell younot to waste your time looking for mechanical factors associated with the firearm.

Proper conditioning can reduce fatigue. When in good physical condition, theeffects of sleep deprivation will be mitigated to a certain degree. Alwaysremember that marksmanship is a combination of mental and physical effort.Therefore the physical conditioning of the shooter will always affect the ability todeal with fatigue as an element in marksmanship training.

Breath control is one factor that can greatly improve shooting performance. Ifyou think about it as you read this handbook, you are breathing. Be conscious ofyour breathing pattern. You breathe in, there is a slight pause, and then youexhale. Again, there is a slight pause before you inhale. At rest, the healthyperson may breathe anywhere from 12 to 18 times per minute. As anexperienced range instructor, I can immediately tell a lot about the shooter’shealth and psychological state by watching the rise and fall of the rib cage.

Being aware of the respiration cycle while in a firing position is a simple thing todo. All the shooter needs to do is think about it. Applying a conscious effort torelax and breathe normally can greatly contribute to proper performance. Inorder to achieve maximum results, control of your actions in firing the weaponmust be timed to the respiratory cycle. The best method is to time the shot sothat the hammer falls in one of the lulls between exhalation and inhalation. Atthis point the rib cage is not expanded.

The idea is to be uniform from shot to shot. This is what accuracy is all about. Ifwe shoot with the rib cage expanded to different degrees of inflation, the heightof the shoulder will be different. So will our sight picture. Correspondingly, theposition of the barrel and muzzle in relation to the body changes. This does notcontribute to good shooting.

Some people prefer to take a breath and cut it off at some point, and thenshoot. This is fine as long as you are relaxed and can always have the shoulderheight at exactly the same point. Using the fully expanded or deflated lungsallows you to immediately achieve the same shoulder height with each shot. It isone of the simplest ways to improve your score.

If you are on the firing line trying to determine why the trainee is missing thetarget or doing poorly, watch the expansion and fall of the rib cage.

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Visual control technique is often an overlooked factor. There are six elementsto proper visual control we must consider. They are: the eyes, rear sight, frontsight, line of sight, target, and eye relief. Eye relief is the distance from the lensof the eye to the rear sight.

In order to be accurate with a firearm, eye relief must be consistent. Makingsure that the face is placed on the buttstock at precisely the same location,every time does it. With the M16 series rifle as an example, the best way toachieve this is to place the tip of the nose against the charging handle.

Many people will be fearful of placing their nose against the rifle, assumingthey can be injured. In that case, a finger or two can be placed against thecharging handle and used to gauge the eye relief. Place the nose against theclosest finger. Remove the fingers and the eye is in exactly the same placeevery time.

Very often a problem with obtaining a good sight picture will be related to eyerelief distance, but the soldier does not know that. You can solve that problemalso, while observing the trainee in action.

Many shooters, myself included, can achieve deadly accuracy with a rifle out to800 meters using nothing more than open, iron sights. While a rifle telescopedoes extend the range of accuracy, there is no reason why the averagemarksman can not qualify if the proper sight picture is achieved and maintained.

In a proper sight picture, the front sight is placed squarely on the desired pointof impact, and centered in the rear sight. Some weapons, by design, require acenter hold, meaning we aim for the center of mass of the target. Others requirea six o’clock hold, in which the point of the front sight is placed at the lowestpoint in the center of the target.

It is important to know the design characteristics of the weapon, since using thewrong hold position can cause you to expend many useless hours wonderingwhy you cannot hit the target! Some handguns employ a six o’clock hold. This isbecause handgun firefights take place at very short distances. Many peoplehave a tendency to shoot high on the target, and a subsequent shot will often gohigh as well. A lower point of aim will increase the chances of a hit in a vitalarea.

To obtain a good sight picture, we must not only line up the various elements,but properly concentrate on them. The human eye will normally tend to centerthe rear sight, especially if it is a peep-type sight (a circular element). Theimportant thing it to put the front sight squarely in the center of the circle or notchof the rear sight.

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In a proper sight picture, the rear sight and the target should appear fuzzy. Thefront sight should be in perfect focus. Doing so, emphasizing the front sight,enables better control of the sight picture. Do not attempt to fight the wanderingof the muzzle. This happens normally and can not be controlled to a greatextent. Concentrating on the front sight will keep the image centered as much aspossible and result in better performance.

Beware of holding the visual sight picture for too long. This results what iscommonly called retinal burn-in, causing a distorted image. If you stare at a lightbulb and then close your eyes, you can experience the effect.

Persons who wear bifocal glasses often have trouble at the range. This isbecause the bifocal lens provides the shooter with two images, near and far. It isalmost impossible for the shooter wearing bifocals to see the target while lookingthrough the near vision part of the lens. For this reason, it may be necessary forthe shooter to go without glasses, or to obtain prescription glasses specificallyfor shooting. If investing in prescription shooting glasses, one should make surethey are impact resistant, and affix to the head with a headband. This willprevent problems assuming positions, as regular glass frames tend to movewhile shooting or assuming a new position.

The sighting length, the distance from rear sight to front sight, varies fromweapon to weapon. An M24 (or Remington 700 PSS) sniper rifle has a differentsighting length than an M16A2. Therefore, the net effect is different for the sameshooter who fires both weapons.

The sighting length determines the accuracy of the weapon to a great degree.This is because the further apart the two sight elements are, the more preciselythey define the sighting line to the target. A pistol, obviously, has a very shortsighting length. This is the reason why their accuracy is usually 50 to 75 yards.This has nothing to do with the performance of the bullet or barrel. It results fromthe shorter sighting length causing a corresponding lessening of visualaccuracy.

Visual accuracy is also affected by external factors such as temperature ormirage. The density of the atmosphere and it’s related moisture content affectsour ability to see clearly at longer distances. At short-range targets, the effect isnegligible. If the shooter cannot hit the 50 meter target, do not accept any kind ofexplanation that starts with the words, “well, the temperature...”

Also consider the benefit of firing from a shaded position. If you have theoption, fire from a position that keeps you out of direct sunlight. This will reducesweating and squinting, the two enemies of good visual technique. A good pairof sunglasses also can be beneficial on bright days.

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Physical strength should be considered as a factor in determining shootingability. Often, the shooting positions are uncomfortable and must be held for along time. This is an important factor to consider in training. In a combatsituation, the soldier may have no option but to remain in position, possibly forhours.

On the range, holding a position while the rest of the line is placed in a checkfire status can be very tiring. The shooter should be instructed to modify his orher position while standing by for orders, still keeping the weapon pointed at thetarget and remaining prepared to fire.

The large muscles of the body require oxygen to perform work. This demandfor oxygen creates an increased demand for arterial blood flow. The net result isan increase in pulse and respiration rates. As previously stated, this is notconducive to good shooting results.

The shooter should therefore be instructed that the skeletal structure must beused to support the weight of the weapon and holding of the shooting position. Itshould be noted that bone on bone contact, such as between the kneecap andelbow in the low kneeling position, should be avoided. This contact promotes toomuch pivoting effect and creates instability in the position.

Whenever possible, the shooter should assume the most comfortable positionthe circumstances will allow. This aids in proper circulation, reduces skeletal andmuscular stress, and delays the onset of positional fatigue. Even the strongestperson tires eventually. A position should take advantage of soft ground, thickvegetation, or other materials that will cushion the physical contact.

Again, physical strength relates directly to physical conditioning. We demandsoldiers be physically fit because of the rigorous activity military servicedemands of them. Do not overlook the fact that poor performance on the rangemay be due to lack of strength caused by poor conditioning or fatigue.

These factors also must be considered to a much greater extent in combat,where the soldier must also carry the basic load of equipment as well as neededammunition for crew served weapons or other items. As a physical activity,shooting requires adequate physical strength.

Noise must also be considered during firing exercises. Of course, hearingprotection must be worn at all times on the firing line and within a reasonabledistance (50 meters) of firing positions. Firearms operate at high sound levelsmeasured in decibels.

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The noise radiates outward from the muzzle of a weapon as a standing wave.Rapid movement of air molecules causes the noise. The greater the pressure ofdischarge, the louder the noise level. When the wave reaches the componentsof the ear, tremendous damage can take place.

Noise levels above 120 decibels can have long term or permanent effects onhuman hearing. Tinnitus, or a ringing in the ears, may result from unprotectedexposure to high noise levels. A single exposure to high decibel noise such asfrom a .357 magnum revolver or a .50 caliber machinegun can do permanentdamage resulting in hearing loss, threshold shift, or tinnitus.

Besides the physical effects of high noise, there are also the psychologicaleffects to consider. The noise can hurt us, and your subconscious mind knowsthis. This is why so many people react to gunfire by flinching.

The problem is that people who flinch usually also anticipate the discharge ofthe weapon. This disturbs the lay of the weapon and ruins the placement of theshot on the target. The reaction to the noise is normal, but the anticipation andfear can be eliminated with proper instruction and good, double layered hearingprotection. To achieve this, wear hearing inserts inside shooting headphones.

If you can help the shooter overcome the fear and anticipation of the noise, youcan help in achieving a more relaxed state. Observe the people on the firing line.You might see them move in a slightly exaggerated manner as they fire theweapon.

To check for this, instructors use the ball and dummy training method. In thismethod, live and dummy rounds are placed in a weapon’s magazine. When thefiring pin falls on a dummy round, the instructor watches to see if the shooter willflinch. If the shooter flinches, the fall of the hammer is being anticipated, and thelay of the weapon is being disturbed prior to discharge.

Anticipation of recoil, and the attendant noise, is probably the most commonelement contributing to poor shooting. Again, if you look for these factors on therange, you can save hours trying to find a mythical problem with the weapon.

The annual gaging process, PMCS, and recurring inspections make it unlikelythat an inaccurate weapon will ever be on a firing line. Before you go looking forphantom problems, look at the weakest element. In all but a few cases, theproblem will be the performance of the shooter, and not the weapon. Civilianfirearms may not be cared for as well, so the weapon may be at fault more often.

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Trigger control is another essential element of proper marksmanship. Withoutproper manipulation and control of the trigger, all of the other efforts may bewasted. This is because the trigger finger is the one part of the human body thatmoves during the firing process. If accomplished improperly, it can disturb theposition of the weapon and cause the shot to miss the target.

The trigger finger should be firmly placed on the center of the tang of thetrigger. The trigger should be in the center of the pad between the tip of thefinger and the first joint. The trigger should not be centered in the crease of thejoint, as closing the finger will pull the trigger, and hence the weapon, towardsthe shooter’s hand.

Upon settling on the trigger, the shooter needs to remove the slack in thetrigger. This is often referred to as trigger creep. The trigger should be pulledback slightly until a greater degree of resistance is felt. At this time the trigger isset for firing. Some weapons employ what is known as a set trigger. On theseweapons, the trigger is staged first, sometimes with a second trigger. Staging thetrigger puts it in proper position for firing. This usually reduces the amount of pullneeded to discharge the weapon.

To guarantee proper trigger control, a proper grip is essential. Once the grip isestablished, it should not be broken or changed. A proper grip is one thatadequately controls the firearm and allows for movement of the trigger fingerwithout using other parts of the hand or wrist. It should be comfortable and feelnatural. It must not be a “power” grip, as the hand and fingers will get numb asthe circulation is impaired.

A good rule of thumb is to check your palm after you relax your grip. If you cansee the imprint of the stock checkering embedded on your skin, your grip isprobably too tight. As expressed in the chapter on safety, the finger should neverbe on the trigger except when actually discharging the weapon.

Natural point of aim describes the position of the body relative to the targetand weapon. If the body is not properly positioned, it can have negative effectson the shot group.

In the prone position, the shooter should take position and aim at the target.The shooter should then close his or her eyes and relax for a moment. When theeyes are reopened, the weapon should still be on target. If not, the body, and notthe weapon, should move until the position is corrected. This process should berepeated until the image remains the same when opening the eyes. Also, whenthe position is proper, the shooter should “settle in” by slightly wiggling. Careshould be taken to not realign the skeleton.

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If this procedure is not followed, then the recoil force will move the skeleton andcause the point of aim to change slightly. This results in the second and othersubsequent shots to not be exactly on target with relation to the natural point ofaim of the body. This requires more effort then to hold the sight picture, creatinga demand for more oxygen, raising the pulse, causing fatigue, etc.

Ballistics Factors and Marksmanship

In addition to all the human anatomical and psychological factors, we must alsoconsider the ballistic performance of the weapon. In other words, the accuracy ofthe firearm and ammunition must be analyzed.

As stated earlier, the weapon in a military environment is regularly inspectedand gaged, and is not commonly the cause of poor range performance. Thisshould not be interpreted to mean that it is never the weapon.

Such thinking would be lunacy, especially when we’re talking about grandpa’sold Damascus-twist shotgun. Personally owned weapons are most likely to havemechanical and accuracy problems. This is particularly true if they have beenowned by more than one person, as you can never be sure how many roundshave been fired or how well it was maintained.

After making your best determination that the poor performance on the range isnot the fault of the trainee, we must evaluate other factors to find the cause. I amcontinually amazed at the number of leaders who can not understand why theirsoldiers do poorly at the range. The answers are usually simple ones.

The first external factor to consider is environmental. Did that light bulb overyour head just go on? I hope so. A windy day can defeat even the greatest groupof marksmen at the range. One thing to remember about wind is that it is notconstant.

When we compensate, or dope, for wind, we often forget that fact. It is nottrivial, either. On the way to the target the wind might change course severaltimes by five degrees or more. The bullet will hit areas of passive, or calm air,and then enter a wind on a different azimuth.

The longer the shot, the greater the effects of wind on any given bullet. Forgeneral military marksmanship, there is little or no instruction for wind calculationand offset. This is a mistake, because the soldier in battle does not have anunlimited ammunition supply.

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Another factor to consider is the slope of the terrain. On most ranges theground is level, but when firing up or downhill, the weapon will tend to shoot highand the shooter should hold lower on the target. This will offset the difference.Information on this phenomenon can be found in any good shooting textbook ormagazine.

The rate of bullet drop also is not constant. It changes over time as the forwardspeed of the bullet diminishes. At about 2/3 of the bullet’s maximum range, theeffect of gravity becomes more powerful than the effect of drag in changing thecourse of the bullet. In most military training, we never fire out to thosedistances.

Keep in mind, the maximum range of the M855 ball round fired from the M16A2rifle is 3600 meters. You will never fire an M16A2 at a target 2400 meters away.It just is not possible to do so. Within the practical limits of militarymarksmanship, bullet drop does not have that drastic an effect. It shouldhowever, be a consideration. Bullet drop at 600 meters is significant.

Zero describes the proper placement of the sights, so that the line of sightintersects the line of flight for a given distance. All weapon barrels point upwardsin relation to the line of sight. The projectile begins flight below the line of sight,crosses over it, and falls down below it at a certain distance downrange.Weapons are manufactured this way to compensate for the effects of gravity atshorter ranges. Pitching the barrel upwards provides a greater working distancewithout having to adjust the sights. But this can only be realized when the sightshave been properly adjusted, or zeroed.

Some military firearms are designed to have a zero distance of 25 meters. Atthis distance the bullet roughly intersects the line of sight as it passes throughthe target. The bullet will normally drop to cross the line of sight again at 250meters. This is to accommodate something called battlesight zero distance.

Battlesight zero distance is that distance at which the enemy can be reliably hitbetween throat and belt buckle, with no range estimation, or sight adjustment. Ifwe aim to the center of mass, the heart, we will always hit a vital area withinbattlesight zero distance. This is because the maximum ordinate, the highestpoint of the trajectory over the line of sight, is usually between only 3 and 8inches. At 8 inches over the line of sight, if we aim for the heart, we will hit thetrachea at short range.

This is still a fatal wound, and accomplishes the task of killing the enemy. Atdistances slightly beyond 250 meters, we will hit the abdomen, probablysevering an artery or the spinal column, producing the same effect. At anydistance within battlesight zero range, fatal wounds are easily inflicted.

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Adjust sight range is that range at which the enemy can be hit between throatand belt buckle, given no more than a 50 yard error in range estimation, or sightadjustment. When we adjust sights, we are raising the trajectory of the bullet,and thereby extending the range of accuracy of the firearm beyond the zerodistance.

Ammunition is seldom a problem with military weapons, since reloadedammunition is never used. If a remarkable change in accuracy occurs with acivilian weapon, and all other factors are the same, suspect the reloadedammunition. Even with the right workup of powder and shot, the powder may beold or other factors may prevent proper performance.

Learn and understand the factors affecting marksmanship. A proper workingknowledge of the weapon is essential to diagnosing faults and making repairs.Just remember that the failure does not need to be mechanical, it could behuman.

Heed my admonition to become personally proficient with the weapons you aregoing to inspect and repair. Make arrangements to forecast additionalammunition and get on the firing line. No one but you can make this happen!

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Chapter 3 Examination

1. What are the three elements of the Safety Awareness Concept?

a. __________________b. __________________c. __________________

2. What are the five basic steps in engaging targets?

a. __________________b. __________________c. __________________d. __________________e. __________________

3. The term “safe” has two meanings. What are they?

a. __________________b. __________________

4. A person suffering from a hangover as a result of binge drinking will sufferphysical effects. What will be influenced by these physical effects?

a. __________________b. __________________

5. Can you reliably predict the direction of travel of a ricochet round?

ANSWER: ___________________

6. What are ”autonomic nervous functions”?

ANSWER: ________________________________________________

7. Complete the following sentence:

In order to achieve maximum results, control of your actions in firing theweapon must be _________________________

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8. What are the six elements of proper visual control?

a. __________________b. __________________c. __________________d. __________________e. __________________ f. __________________

9. What is the definition of “six o’clock hold”?

ANSWER: __________________________________________

10. What is the definition of “maximum ordinate”?

ANSWER: __________________________________________

Answers to this and all examinations can be found at the back of this book.

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Chapter 4. Armorer Tools and Maintenance Tips

This chapter deals with the tools used, and the care and maintenance offirearms. For Army personnel, tool information can be found in detail within TM9-243. I will cover general concepts and points of reference. Readers are urged toobtain a copy of the technical manual for detailed study.

Sadly, many people attempting to repair firearms do as much damage as good.It is easy to mar the finish of a surface by slipping with a screwdriver, or usingthe wrong type of pliers. Many people do damage with the ubiquitous hammer,or as I refer to it, the universal adjusting tool.

I am hesitant to make this statement, but feel compelled to: some armorers ruinparts by using poor maintenance techniques, usually resulting from impropertools or the wrong use of those tools.

In addition to damaging weapons, it often occurs that armorers injurethemselves by improperly using a tool. There are definitive guidelines for thesafe and proper use of hand and power tools.

The following are the safety rules for tools found in the front of TM9-243:

1. Support your local safety program and take an active part in safety meetings.

2. Inspect tools and equipment for safe conditions before starting work.

3. Advise your supervisor promptly of any unsafe conditions or practices.

4. Learn the safe way to do your job before you start.

5. Think safety and act safety at all times.

6. Obey safety rules and regulations-they are for your protection.

7. Wear proper clothing and protective equipment.

8. Conduct yourself properly at all times-horseplay is prohibited.

9. Operate only the equipment you are authorized to use.

10. Report any injury immediately to your supervisor.

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These are all commonsense rules we can live with. If followed properly, theycan save grief and pain. Tool habits are also important. A clean work area withall tools properly organized contributes to increased productivity, safety, andsupply discipline. The following tool habits are listed in the TM:

1. Keep each tool in its proper storage place.

2. Keep your tools in good condition.

3. Keep your tool set complete.

4. Use each tool only on the job for which it was designed.

5. Keep your tools within easy reach and where they can’t fall on the floor or on machinery.

6. Never use damaged tools.

Safety equipment should always be worn when using tools. These include:

1. Safety shoes. Non-skid, non-slip, flexible soles, steel toes.

2. Eye protection. Use when working with any tool.

3. Helmets. When at the range, or working near overhead hazards.

4. Gloves. Use to protect hands from cold, heat, chemicals, sharp edges.

5. Safety straps or belts. Use with elevated or suspended items.

6. Hearing protection. Use in all noise hazard areas.

Not mentioned in the TM is the clothing worn. Military armorers have no choice,the duty uniform is what it is. When working with power tools, make sure thesleeves and trouser legs will not become entangled. Civilian clothing should befire resistant. Polyester or synthetic fabrics should be avoided because of flamehazards. When they burn, they also melt into the skin, worsening the injury.

Special clothing, like shop aprons or face shields should always be worn whenworking with welding processes or acidic chemicals. Personnel removingmisfired HE rounds from the Mk19 machinegun (the armorer’s job), should wearprotective ballistic body armor.

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Calipers

Calipers are used for taking precise measurements of distance, thickness andlength. There are many types for specific purposes as illustrated in TM9-243.Calipers should always be stored in the special case in which they are shipped.They are usually TMDE items (Test, Measurement and Diagnostic Equipment),and require periodic calibration.

The various types of calipers are:

1. Simple calipers. They are hinged and use a scissor action. They have no scale and are used for simple measurements of distance. They have no locking mechanism.

2. Spring-joint calipers. Similar to simple calipers, but with a spring joint and adjustment nut for precision measuring.

3. Hermaphrodite calipers. One straight leg and one curved leg. The straight leg terminates in a sharp point. The sharp point may be easily removed on some models and types.

4. Slide calipers. Used for measuring inside and outside dimensions. They feature a scale graduated in inches, fractions or millimeters.

5. Vernier calipers. Feature two locking screws for precise positioning of the movable jaw. Once locked, fine adjustments are made using the adjustment control.

6. Trammels. Measures distances outside the range of calipers. They feature a rod and beam on which trammels are clamped. The trammels hold chucks which measure distance from point to point. Can be used as a divider by changing the points.

Vernier calipers are precision tools that must be understood in order to beused. They are commonly used in small arms shops to verify the pull length of apullover gage. This gage is a special tool used to measure the inside diameter ofa weapon tube such as that found on a mortar or howitzer.

By the way, I am often challenged on the use of the terms gage and gauge.The dictionary says that the term gage is a variation of the term gauge, ofunknown origin. As used, the term gage is usually understood to be a specialtool for measuring the gauge or dimension of an item. This is true even thoughone of the definitions of the term gauge means the same thing, a special tool.

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There are three basic types of micrometers; inside, outside and depth. Allthree types are capable of measurements to the nearest 1/1000th of an inch.Most micrometers measure distances up to one inch. Some are available withthe ability to measure up to 24 inches.

In addition to the three basic types of micrometers, there are differentmeasuring scales used. These three are; standard, vernier and metric. Again,refer to the TM for details.

Other types of measuring tools are rules, tapes, levels, bobs, adjustableparallels, v-blocks, angle plates, magnetic base indicator holders, registeringspeed indicators, surface plates and dial calipers.

Hammers

Probably the most dangerous thing in the arms room is the hammer in thearmorer’s tool kit. Improperly used, in the hands of the wrong individual, it can dothousands of dollars in damage in a very short time. The judicious use of ahammer requires no tremendous skill or training. It is a matter of common sense.One rule to remember is:

“When reassembling a firearm, if you have to use a hammer, and youdid not need the hammer to disassemble the weapon, stop. You areprobably doing something seriously wrong.”

There are several different hammers in the armorer’s tool kit. They are themachinist’s peen hammer, soft-faced hammer, and dead blow hammer.

The machinist’s peen hammer has a flat head on one side used for strikingpunches and chisels. The other end of the head is called the peen and is usedfor forming soft metals, peening rivet heads and striking metal in tightworkspaces.

Soft-faced hammers can deliver heavy blows. They are used on highlypolished or soft surfaces to prevent damage caused by a hard hammer face.There is a type of soft-faced hammer that uses removable inserts. These insertsare available in different degrees of hardness. This makes the hammer moreuseful as it can perform more tasks. Two inserts are mounted, one on each sideof the head. Inserts are made in diameters between one inch and three inches.

Dead blow hammers are filled with shot, encased in rubber and molded as asingle piece. They have a wrap around grip featuring a knurled surface toprevent slippage. They also have a flared base on the handle to prevent thehammer from leaving the hand accidentally.

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They are available in four types: standard, slimline, sledge and ball peen. Theyhave great striking power and protect the finish of surfaces due to their rubbercoating. The one-piece construction eliminates broken faces and handles.

Before using any hammer, always check the condition of the head to make sureit is securely mounted to the handle. Some hammers feature a wedge that isinserted into the wood of the handle. This wedge can loosen and fall off thehammer, making serious injury possible.

Check the striking surface to make sure it is not chipped or damaged in anyway. A damaged surface can cause the hammer to deflect unexpectedly causinginjury or damage to the work.

Pliers

Pliers should only be used when gripping or cutting is to be performed. In thecase of bolts with parallel head surfaces, or nuts with the same features, awrench should always be used when possible.

When used on nuts and bolts, pliers tend to round off the corners after a periodof time. This will result in a wrench being unable to properly fit, making thewrench and the nut or bolt useless. Pliers also compress surfaces as they grip. Ifyou are working with a soft material, you can permanently damage the material.

Pliers, since they are gripping devices, have serrated or knurled surfaces onthe inside of their jaws. These surfaces can easily cause damage to componentsand material surfaces, so they should be avoided in many cases. However,when brute locking or gripping force is required, they are the tools of choice.Pliers are available in different types as follows:

1. Slip joint pliers. Have serrated jaws with a gripping section, a cutting edge and a pivot. The pivot allows the pliers to open for larger objects.

2. Diagonal cutting pliers. Commonly called “dikes," they pivot and are used to cut light materials like wire. They should never be used to grip.

3. Lineman pliers. Have side-cutting edges, a serrated gripping section, a wire cropper, parallel handles and a fixed pivot. Lineman pliers used for electrical work must have insulated handles.

4. Parallel jaw pliers. Usually included in the armorer’s tool kit, these may feature a pair of side cutting jaws. The movement of the jaws is parallel at all times. They are used for gripping flat surfaces.

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5. Flat-nose pliers. Also sometimes called “duckbill” pliers, they have flat serrated jaws, a fixed pivot and curved handles. They are used for gripping and bending flat materials like sheet metals.

6. Round-nose pliers are used to make bends in soft wire. They have smooth round jaws, a fixed pivot and curved handles.

7. Straight-lip flat-jaw tongs are used to hold bearings in place. They have straight jaws and long straight handles.

8. End cutting pliers are sometimes called nippers. They are used to cut wire or nails flush with the working surface.

9. Wire stripping pliers are multi-purpose pliers used to strip insulation from various gauges of wire. When used, only the insulation is cut, not the wire core.

10. Wire twisting pliers are indispensable parts of the armorer tool kit. They feature locking handles for permanently gripping wire between

the the jaws. An inner arm, featuring spiral grooves, twists the wire when pulled to the rear. The jaws feature cutting edges for terminating the wire.

Wrenches

Available in many styles, wrenches are used to loosen or tighten nuts, bolts,studs and pipes. The correct wrench must be selected for the type of work to bedone. Most wrenches are made of forged alloys for strength. Quality wrenchesshould outlive the mechanic if used and cared for properly.

Wrench styles are:

1. Open end wrenches, featuring open jaws, usually offset from the shank by 15 degrees. The wrench length is determined by the jaw opening.

2. Box end wrenches surround the nut, bolt head or stud on all sides. Therefore, they cannot be used on shafts if the ends of the shafts are not accessible. They are available with 6 point and 12 point openings. Box wrenches are available as offset, half moon, split-box, ratchet, and structural tapered handle.

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3. Combination wrenches are composed of box ends and open ends. They are used for convenience, or when a job requires both types of wrench.

4. Socket wrenches are fixed to a ratchet handle, speed handle, t-bar handle, hinged handle or screwdriver handle. They fit over the heads of bolts or on top of nuts. They are usually available in 6 point or 12 point configuration.

5. Hex key wrenches also called Allen wrenches, have hexagonal sides at the handle and head. They typically can be used from either end to fit the work performed.

6. Adjustable wrenches adapt to different size items and feature a dial which adjusts the size of the opening. Used when the correct size wrench or socket is not available or suited.

7. Torque wrenches are used to tighten nuts and bolts to specific or defined tightness. The tightness is measured in degrees of resistance expressed in inch pounds or foot pounds. The Newton is also used as a metric equivalent.

8. Spanner wrenches use hooks or pins to grip an object to apply rotational force. The various types are adjustable hook, fixed hook, hose coupling pin, adjustable pin face, and fixed pin face.

9. Strap wrenches wrap around an item and tighten against it as force is applied. They use progressive force to overcome resistance. The strap may be made of cloth, synthetic fiber, or chain.

10. Vise grips are actually a type of pliers, but are considered wrenches because they lock onto an item and function as an adjustable wrench.

Files and stones

The mainstay of an armorer’s or gunsmith’s craft, files and stones can also dogreat damage if used improperly. In my classes I teach a truism I learned manyyears ago:

“When working with a file, you can take metal away, but you can’t putit back.”

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I prefer that my students use a file sparingly. My preference when working witha file is to make only several passes, and then check the work. Repeat this, andyou’ll never remove too much metal. Care must be taken when working with afile on a weapon. All surfaces of weapons are precisely the way they should be.Many surfaces are camming surfaces, and any change in dimension can causemisalignment and faulty operation.

It is important to remember that you should never change the radius of a curvewith a file. The file should be used to smooth down or remove excess metalcaused by damage to the original surface. The file should not lower or alter thedimensions of the surface in any way.

There are two basic types of files, American pattern and Swiss pattern.American pattern files are usually used for fast removal of material whereprecision is not important. Swiss files are made to more exact tolerances. Theyare finishing tools used on delicate work and usually feature finished handleswith rounded ends and knurled surfaces. Files are formed in the shape of thesurface upon which they are to be used. The different styles are:

1. Mill files, tapered to the end-point in width and thickness. They are used to sharpen mill or circular saws, or in draw-filing or finishing metals.

2. Pillar face files are similar to hand files, but much narrower. They are double-cut with one uncut face. They are used in slots and keyways.

3. Round files taper slightly towards the point. They are used for filing circular openings and concave surfaces.

4. Square files taper slightly towards the point on all four sides and are double cut. They are used for filing rectangular slots and keyways.

5. Taper files, or triangular files, are tapered towards the point on all three sides. They are used for filing saws having 60-degree teeth.

6. Three-square files are tapered towards the point. They are used for filing internal angles, and for cleaning out square corners.

7. Warding files are tapered to a narrow point for narrow space filing. They are used for lock repair and filing ward notches in keys.

8. Curved tooth files, also known as mill tooth files, are used in soft metals such as aluminum.

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Swiss pattern files are usually purchased in sets of twelve. The types includedare marking (half round), square, slitting, knife, joint (round edge), crossing(oval), barrette, flat, equaling, half-round, three-square, and round.

All files must be cared for. The filing surfaces must be protected from damage.They should be stored in boxes or pouches to prevent banging into other tools inthe tool box. The teeth of files will clog up with material. When this happens, thefile can scratch or damage the surface of the work.

To clean a file, you use a file scorer and a file brush. The files must be cleanedoften or they will not perform properly. Many people mistakenly discard a filethinking it is worn out, when it is really just clogged with metal.

One way to prevent damaging the surface of a piece of material with a file, is tofill the teeth of the file with chalk before use. Always be conscious of what youare doing with a file. A wandering file can do a lot of damage.

Stones are used to polish metal once it has been filed. Doing so smoothes outthe metal and prevents a foothold for oxidation to form. A recently filed surfacethat has not been stoned will increase friction and promote damage.

Stones are available in different shapes and grit sizes. The finer grits are usedfor fine polishing or buffing. After stoning it is usually necessary to polish asurface further with garnet paper or jeweler’s rouge and a buffing wheel.

Stones and files should not be oiled as it impairs their effectiveness. Theexception to this is oilstone, usually only used for sharpening metals such asknife and razor edges.

All tools should be inventoried and inspected monthly to make sure therequired work can be done properly when needed. It is the responsibility of thearmorer to conduct this inventory. Although better tools may be highly preferred,taking care of the ones you have is critical. If you do not, they will not give theperformance you expect of them.

Special Tools and Gages

There are many special tools, gages, test fixtures, jigs and devices used in theinspection, testing and maintenance of firearms. Many people, military included,give no thought to the consequences of repeatedly firing a weapon. Shootersjust assume that the weapon is made of durable metals and will last a lifetime.This is a mistake in judgment.

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The fact is that as mechanical devices, failure is inevitable. Maybe not in yourlifetime, but that weapon you leave to your son or granddaughter will not lastforever. A weapon will have its service life shortened if not properly cared for, ifused to extreme excess, or if fired with the wrong ammunition loads. One of theworst offenders in reducing the service life of a weapon is dirt.

You would be surprised to learn how much of a gunsmith’s business isgenerated by this one factor. Many people just do not, or will not, clean theirfirearms. Many do not know how to take the action assembly apart to clean itperiodically. And the owner should not disassemble some weapons, like theBrowning High Power pistol.

The so-called “carbon” left as a dirt residue in some guns does not present thebig problem you would assume it should. It is a normal byproduct of thecombustion process, and always present to some degree. As a dry powder-likesubstance, as long as it is not mixed with lubricants or other fluids, or nottrapped between working surfaces, it will just wipe off or blow away.

A small amount of this “carbon” on working surfaces during normal operation isto be expected. There is no compelling need to immediately disassemble andclean your weapon at the first signs of it.

However, I am not declaring that it is permissible to have a dirty firearm. WhatI am declaring is that there is no need for the classic “white glove” inspection.The weapon should always be maintained in overall clean condition. This issometimes made difficult by products like CLP, which raise dirt from the pores ofthe metal surfaces. A reasonably good job will suffice.

However, prior to being inspected with any precision tools or instruments, it isimportant that the weapon be thoroughly cleaned. Buildup of contaminants onsurfaces may prevent accurate readings during inspection. Surface dirt thatcovers a component may prevent an inspector or gunsmith from seeing smallfatigue cracks or other deformities on the surface.

Many weapons, most notably automatics such as auto-rifles and machineguns,also leave small brass particles in the receiver. The weapon must be cleanedwell enough that no residue is found in the receiver or barrel.

Once cleaned for inspection, the gages and special tools will reveal the statusof the weapon. They will detect if the bore is straight, how much trigger pull isrequired, and whether the headspace is correct. Every firearm, military orcivilian, should have a thorough annual checkout by a trained, competentprofessional.

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Even if you do not fire the weapon all year, damage may still be present. Metalwill degrade due to oxidizing processes, and captive springs held under tensionin the weapon all year would go soft and become unsuitable for firing. An annualinspection prevents pending problems from becoming serious. Small armsrepairers and civilian gunsmiths who determine the serviceability of a firearmcommonly use the following special tools and gages:

Pullover gages, as mentioned earlier, measure the inside diameter of a bore.They are used only on large caliber weapons such as mortars, recoilless rifles,howitzers, and cannons. They have a sliding inner scale that is fully extendedwhen placed in the bore. The gage is attached to two long rods, and inserted ata diagonal pitch. At the desired distance down the bore, one rod is held rigid,and the other one is “pulled over." This causes the gage to flip over inside thebore. The sliding scale will then compress to the true inner diameter. The gageis removed and the scale is read, and then verified with a vernier caliper.

Borescope gages are optical devices that are placed down the bore of aweapon. They feature the ability to illuminate the interior of the bore, and canmagnify the image of the inner surface. They are available from small, fiber-opticdevices that fit down the barrel of a rifle, to monstrous setups that requireseveral people to operate. The larger devices are used in howitzers, cannons,and inside jet aircraft engines. Some borescopes have a flexible head assembly,and some have telescoping sections featuring numerous lenses.

Headspace gages are available in two basic types, adjustable and standardlength. The adjustable headspace gage features a small inset screw assemblywith a numerical index. The screw is turned in or out to determine the actual orworking headspace. The standard length gage is a “no go” gage. Slightly largerthan the maximum allowable headspace, the bolt should not lock up with thegage inserted. If it does, it indicates that the gage is too far forward. This meansthe shoulder is worn and the headspace is excessive.

Timing gages are typically used only for automatic weapons that featureadjustable timing. The gage determines whether or not the firing pin will releasewith the bolt a certain distance from the locked position. If the firing pin releaseswith the bolt too far to the rear, the timing is early, and the weapon could fire outof battery, or unlocked. If the pin does not release with the bolt fully forward, thetiming is late, and the weapon will not fire.

Muzzle erosion gages measure the degree of wear at the muzzle of a firearm.Sometimes the muzzle will wear for different reasons, and will result in a clearlydefined loss of accuracy. The gage is typically a “no go” gage. If it does not fit,the muzzle is not worn.

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Radius gages measure the degree of radius of a curved surface. They areextremely useful in finding problems related to the timing of the steps in thecycle of functions.

Barrel straightness gages are designed for a particular caliber. The tolerancefor a straightness gage is extremely important. Some can read warpage in thebore to less than .0015 inches. The bore must be extremely clean, as theslightest dirt or residue can prevent the gage from passing through.

Firing pin protrusion gages determine the minimum and maximum amount ofthe striking point of the firing pin, which protrudes from the firing pin hole in thebolt or slide.

Firing pin hole gages are used to determine if the hole through which thefiring pin protrudes meets a defined standard. If the firing pin hole is too large, oreccentric, the firing pin might not strike the primer properly.

Hole diameter gages measure the openings for pins, plungers and detentswhen the diameter of these openings is critical. They are usually of the “no go”type. If the gage fits the hole, the hole is enlarged or non-standard.

Chamber reflection tools are used to illuminate the inner surfaces of thechamber for inspection. The usually feature a highly polished reflective surface,and seat with the mirror portion in the smaller area of the shoulder.

Air gages precisely measure the diameter of the lands and grooves within thebore. The air gage is a mechanical device operated by air pressure. It canmeasure distance to the nearest 1/10,000th of an inch (.0001 inches).

Trigger weights are used to determine the minimum and maximum weightvalues required for trigger release. They are hung from the trigger on a rod, andusually are in weight values of ounces and pounds.

Pull scales are devices that measure resistance to pull. They can also be usedto determine trigger pull, or to determine deflection when pulled against anobject such as a machinegun receiver. In this case, the amount of pull requiredtranslates directly into a measurement of the tensile strength of the metal frame.

Special tools and gages require constant care. They should never be kept in atoolbox. They should be stored in the protective cases in which they are issued.Most of them will require periodic calibration, which will guarantee that they arewithin required specifications for wear or other factors.

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In addition to the tools previously listed, there are special tools that aremanufactured locally for certain weapons. Check Appendix E in the back of yoursmall arms TM’s for specifics. Some of these tools make the job easier, andsome are required for PMCS.

Of course, if the tools are required, and you don’t have them, you have one oftwo problems. Either you can’t perform the maintenance procedure for which thespecial tool is needed, or you are doing it with more difficulty than needed.When I inspect arms rooms, I also look for the special tools, to see if they are onhand and being used. That tells me a lot about the knowledge of the armorerand the attention to detail during the maintenance process.

You should inventory and inspect your tools frequently. A monthly inventory willturn up any tools that are missing, broken, damaged or that need replacement. Ifyou purchase your own tools, remember to buy quality hardware! You only getwhat you pay for! The investment in quality will last a long time, and the cost of asingle gun damaged by a bad tool will make the price differential worthwhile.

Never lend a tool out without getting a hand receipt for it. Even your closestfriends may simply forget to return a tool to you, and that tool may be anaccountable item. Why pay for another person’s foolish mistake?

Even if you do not use your tools, you should still inventory them. It is possiblesomething could have been stolen, and you need to be on the lookout for theeternal enemy of metal: rust! If your arms room or work area is not climate-controlled, your tools could be deteriorating without your knowledge orawareness.

Army and other DOD personnel can inventory their toolbox using a documentnumbered “SC 5180-95-CL-A07-HR”. This is the hand receipt form from theSupply Catalog for the toolbox, which in military jargon is known as “Tool Kit,Small Arms Repairman”. Keep blank copies of this inventory document on hand,and keeping up with your toolbox will be much easier.

In addition to the tools in your toolbox, consider the items you will use in yourarms room which are perishable. Batteries for flashlights, some cleaningmaterials, adhesives, paint, and solid film lubricant have a lifespan. Check theexpiration date or shelf life dates of these products to make sure the requireditems are not only on hand, but also in usable condition.

The simplest way to accomplish this is to roll the inspection of those items intoyour monthly inspection of your tools and other equipment items. A properitemized inventory of your work-related equipment is essential to good armsroom management.

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Maintenance tips

You might assume that this section would be extremely detailed and full of juicyinformation on all those weapons in your arms room. Sorry to say, that’s not true.I stated in the foreword to this document that the particulars on the individualweapons would be found in the related technical manuals, and I meant it.

Do not ever assume that you know all there is to know about a firearm. In mymany years of experience I have seen so many changes and revisions totechnical manuals, I could never remember them all. In every case, whenworking with a firearm, have the manual opened to the appropriate page for theprocedure. And, make sure you inventory your publications so you know themanual is current and complete.

You have already learned how to obtain and inventory your manuals. You knowhow to post changes and revisions to the contents of those publications. Iexplained the importance of a good filing system and how to plan and scheduleyour workload. Previous chapters have also covered the essentials of firearmsoperation, ammunition and ballistics, safety, marksmanship, and other subjects.Here, in the last section of this chapter, I will sum up everything by leaving youwith a few pieces of valuable information and insight.

To begin with, this handbook does not end here. Following this chapter is theArmorer’s Glossary, painstakingly compiled and typed by myself. The sourcesare many, including USAF lesson material, myriad firearms textbooks and yearsof experience. Use it, and benefit from the knowledge it contains.

I also want to pass a warning on to you. Even as of the date of this handbook’sfirst publication, the Army is considering drastic changes to the status of Unit-level PLL and other maintenance policies. Do not use this document as a static,stand-alone source of information. Use it only as a resource to point you in theright direction, and then check the real source document, the technical manual

I will pass some wisdom on to you. The United States Army has some of thefinest combat weapons in the world. Each weapon has undergone years ofdevelopment, acceptance testing, and is subject to continual revision and re-engineering as a result of the EIR and suggestion programs.

Many soldiers and other professionals who attend my classes come to schoolwith opinions of certain weapons. That’s fine, we all have our own opinions. Youhave read several of mine in this document. But many times those opinions arefounded on half-truths and hearsay. I would like to set the record straight oncertain weapons right now.

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The M16 rifle has undergone remarkable transformations in its history. If youhave heard stories about how some of them failed to perform in VietNam, thosestories are true. I should know, I was there as a rifleman. You should also knowthat the mistakes of the past belong in the past.

The current M16A2 and M4 carbines are second to none in quality andcapability. I am still a holder of a military identification card, and just as muchsubject to mobilization as any other military member. I have an M16A2 assignedto me, and I take care of it. It will be reliable enough to save my life if the needever arises, and I have total faith in it.

I continually hear comparative judgments made by soldiers who say the .308round outclasses the .223 on the battlefield. This is an absolutely false claim. Acomparative judgment is just what it sounds like: apples and oranges. If you wantthe facts, attend one of my courses.

Every weapon and projectile combination, every one, has a purpose anddesign to achieve that purpose. This includes everything down to a .177 caliberBB pistol. Never assume that bigger is better. If you are ever shot with a “little”bullet in the wrong place, you’ll find out what I mean.

What can you as the armorer to improve accuracy with the M16A2 rifle? Forstarters, do not allow personnel in your unit to loosen the buttstock. The face ofthe shooter rests on the buttstock. The sights are mounted on the upperreceiver.

If the buttstock moves in relation to the lower receiver, it will be too loose tomaintain a proper sight picture. Each recoil of the weapon will cause the sightpicture to change slightly. That’s all it takes to keep some soldiers fromqualifying with their rifle. If the buttstock screw becomes loose, it must bereplaced. It is a one-time use item, and cannot be tightened once the initialtorque has been broken. It may seem tight, but as soon as the weapon fires, therecoil loosens the screw again. The operator is not authorized to remove thescrew. You can stop this practice at the unit level, today.

Very often a front sight post will be bent on an M16 series rifle. If the post isbent, then every time the post is turned while adjusting sights, the point of impactchanges. A soldier could spend days at the range and never zero and qualifywith a badly bent front sight. The sight posts bend because soldiers use nails orother items to adjust the front sight. And the sights are hardly ever lubricated.

Make sure the operator lubricates the front sight when doing his PMCS. Youcan also make the adjustment of the front sight easier by using the front sightremoval tool found in Appendix E of the M16 series rifle TM.

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These tools are easy to obtain. Simply fill out a work order request and submitit to your servicing Direct Support organization. Provide a photocopy of the shopdrawing for the item. When you go to the range, take the tool with you. It willmake dealing with a troublesome sight post much easier, while preventing moredamage to the sight elements.

Make sure the buffer in the weapon is serviceable. It contains several smallsteel cylindrical weights. They must move freely and independently of each otherin order to function properly. If you shake the buffer and feel a single solid massof weight moving inside, they are probably rusted together and the buffer shouldbe replaced. An ineffective buffer will not dampen the effects of the recoil of theweapon as much as it is designed to. The net effect is a greater recoil forceperceived at the shoulder of the shooter. This can cause the soldier to disturbhis or her position, and lessen accuracy.

Be careful about overheating M16 barrels. This is true of any rifle barrel. Highheat can cause the barrel to warp, causing a loss of muzzle velocity and longrange accuracy.

Make sure the soldiers properly zero their weapons at the range. I have seenmany soldiers cheat by adjusting the rear sight for elevation on the zero target.This is probably because you failed to check their front sight, and it’s bent orfrozen in place.

The only one being cheated here is the shooter. At longer ranges the zerosetting will not be valid, and the targets will be missed. You can improveaccuracy and effectiveness by making sure they comply with the FM standardsfor field zero of their weapons.

Many people believe that the M193 (55-grain) projectile and the M855 (62-grain) projectile are the same. This is terribly wrong. To begin with, I just gaveyou the comparative weights of the two projectiles. In addition to the differencesin weight, there are other differences that make these rounds incompatible forthe wrong weapon.

The M193 ball round was designed to fit the M16A1 rifle. The rifling in thatbarrel is a right hand twist, with six lands and grooves, with one complete turnevery 12 inches.

The M855 ball round was designed for the M16A2 rifle. The rifling in that barrelis also right hand twist, 6 lands and grooves. The pitch, however, is one turn in 7inches.

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The velocity of the two rounds is different, the weight is different, and therotational speed is different. Check the TM, and you will see that theperformance in terms of relative distances is different.

Beware of the bolt cam pin. If you fail to reinstall it, the consequences will bevery unpleasant. The bolt is designed to allow the cam pin to install from onedirection only. This prevents the bolt from being improperly installed.

If the bolt could be installed improperly, the ejector and extractor would be outof alignment by 180 degrees. This would mean that the ejection pattern wouldput the expended cartridge case inside the weapon instead of ejecting it out tothe right side. The result would be that the second round could not chamber, andthe weapon would cease to function. In combat, this could prove deadly.

Remember always that any two metallic components in direct contact, that aresubject to heat, stress or friction, will wear. After a period of time, the diameter ofthe bolt cam pin will wear down. The inner surface of the cam pin recess in thebolt can also wear.

If the wear becomes excessive, the bolt cam pin can actually be put in the boltfrom the wrong direction. I have seen this happen to several rifles during mycareer. When conducting PMCS inspections, always attempt to put the pin in thewrong way. This will verify the diameter of the pin is still within standards.

The M16A2 rifle and M4 carbine are feared by our enemies, with good reason. Ihave seen first hand the awesome trauma inflicted by this class of weapon. Trustin your weapon is a force multiplier. Use the force.

The M60 machinegun is perhaps the world’s finest all-purpose machinegun. Iknow many people think they are old and unreliable. This again is absolutelywrong. In the hands of a competent, trained individual, and with proper care, theM60 is lethal, reliable and dominates the firefight.

Unfortunately, it is slowly being done away with. As with any weapon, the careof the M60 determines how well it will perform. I am absolutely positive aboutthis statement: If an M60 fails, it’s probably the fault of the operator or armorer.

Remember that you, the armorer, are supposed to be looking for those wornparts! Don’t ever blame the failure of an M60 on worn parts. Blame the failure onyourself, because that is exactly where the blame lies. Read the section onCombat Operations Support in Chapter One for clarification.

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The M60 should never go anywhere without both barrels, period. If the soldieris going to clean it, he needs to clean both barrels. If he is going to the range, heneeds both barrels. If the weapon is being turned in for maintenance, bothbarrels go with the gun. Always, without fail! When you do your unit levelPMCS, make sure you inspect both barrels.

Anyone who attends my classes will tell you that I do not permit the use of theterm “spare barrel” in my classroom. It is not a spare. A spare is somethingextra, like a spare fuse or spare tire. These barrels must be changed on aregular basis as explained in the operator TM, or damage will result.

Have you inspected the range scale on the rear sight of the M60 lately? If thenumerals and range lines are worn off, how can anyone use it to properly sightthe weapon? Check to make sure the top is not broken under the rivet.

Check those traversing and elevating mechanisms! They are the mostneglected items in the arms room. They must work when needed, and that willonly happen if they are maintained properly. Make sure they zero correctly.

Also remember that the operator manual prohibits taking the gas system apartfor cleaning unless it fails to move freely. Do not allow soldiers to take themapart just to shine the piston. Make sure you show the first line leaders in yourunit the page in the TM that states this. There is a lot of negative maintenancebeing done on M60’s, and that contributes to problems as well.

There is also the common mistake operators make of reinstalling the pistonbackwards. Doing so will cause the weapon to probably fire a single shot andthen quit firing. At 23 pounds it is a highly uncomfortable and impractical sniperrifle!

Another error is the improper installation of the cover hinge pin and latch. Thehinge pin always goes in from the right side, and the latch from the left. Doing itthe wrong way can damage parts on the weapon. More importantly, it can makethe thing nearly impossible to remove in a hurry. This is important in combat, andis made worse by fear, sweaty palms, and oily fingers.

In all, I have identified about two dozen parts that can be installed backwards,upside down, or improperly on the M60. There are six in the trigger housingalone. Keep an eye on those “60 gunners” in your unit. They can be dangerousto themselves.

The M240B is replacing the M60 in many units. Unfortunately, the M60 was avictim of poor unit maintenance, and I dread the same fate for the M240B.

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The M9 9mm pistol is not a bad weapon. I have one assigned to me also, andfire it regularly. Is it the same quality of weapon as the SIG P229 or the Glock19? No, but neither is it in that price range. Those comparisons are not valid.

Keep in mind that this weapon is classified as a personal defense weapon andis issued to officers, pilots and certain other personnel. It’s only function is to firewhen pulled from the holster. This weapon plays a limited role and will seldomsee use in real combat. The Army is not in the habit of sending companies ofofficers to assault an objective with 9mm pistols in their hands. It is needed as alast-ditch means of getting the enemy before he gets you.

For law enforcement personnel, it is an entirely different matter. All militarypolice personnel carry the Beretta M9, except for CID agents and MPInvestigators, who get the SIG Sauer M11 Compact 9mm Pistol.

For those of you who serve as armorers in a law enforcement unit; be vigilant!The inspection standards for the M9 during annual safety & serviceability checksare, in my educated opinion, pretty ineffective. The standard seems to be,“When it breaks, turn it in for repair.”

Hopefully this will change. Any person who carries a pistol to protect life,property or resources, myself included, will tell you that a reactionarymaintenance policy like that can get people killed.

I consider having to draw my pistol to shoot someone in the performance of mymilitary duty to be the most unlikely event possible. I would sooner expect towake up and find out that the sun was gone forever.

Does this mean I am comfortable with a maintenance policy that reacts to afailure, and does nothing to prevent that failure? Obviously not. Remember thatPMCS stands for Preventive Maintenance Checks and Services.

Just because there are no gages or special means of inspecting the M9, thatdoes not mean you cannot inspect it. You can do better than that. You mustcarefully look for indicators of wear on mating and camming surfaces.

Use the material you have learned in training. If you have taken an armorercourse (hopefully mine!), you know how to conduct a proper inspection of afirearm. Now that you know the annual inspection is not very effective, itbecomes imperative that you conduct more aggressive inspections quarterly.

Make sure your M9 pistols have had the slide modifications applied to them.For specifics, check the technical manual.

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Be mindful of the “LA grab," a technique whereby an assailant can dismantleyour pistol as you aim it at him, while it is still in your hand. A weak point of thedesign, but easy to compensate for in a tactical sense.

In an emergency, if you lose the trigger bar spring for an M9, you can turn theweapon upside down and it will fire after you shake it. No, this has nothing to dowith the “Gangstas” of Hollywood rap-video fame.

The M249 machinegun is adequate for the task it performs. It was designed toprovide automatic firepower to the fire team and infantry squad, resulting fromthe change to the three round burst employed on the M16A2 rifle.

The overall emphasis is on ammunition conservation and fire discipline, twovery worthy things to consider; no bullets equals no victory.

The M249 is generally a reliable weapon, but like any weapon, has limitations. Ihope you do not misunderstand my intention here. I do not want you to aim anM249 at me and fire. I will certainly be killed. The point I would like to make isthat it is a different weapon than the M60, and should not be compared to it.

Several things should be understood about the M249. First, the cocking handleshould always be drawn to the rear with the palm facing upwards. This not onlyprevents the soldier from receiving a hand injury on the ejection port cover, italso ensures that the cocking handle will not override the bolt.

Second, I have not yet had a single student who was aware of the requirementto check the top of the bolt slide for bulges. This is accomplished with astraightedge, and the procedure is defined in the PMCS table of theorganizational maintenance manual. This tells me many armorers do not followthe PMCS table.

Also, the pivot pin and trigger mechanism flanges on the underside of thereceiver must be checked for parallelism. The standard is also found in theorganizational maintenance section of the -20 series TM.

Check the yoke and pivot of the bipod assembly, as well as the lockingrecesses in the tops of the legs. Wear is very common in these areas. If the legsfrequently fall out of the underside of the handguard assembly, then the springbelow the pivot is probably worn, and should be checked.

The Mk19 40mm machinegun. I can not sing the praise of this weapon anylouder, or my voice will leave me forever. Simply put, when this weapon showsup on the battlefield, the fight is over in a matter of minutes, if not seconds.

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There is no place you can hide from this weapon, nothing you can hide behind,and you cannot outrun it. At 325 to 375 grenades per minute, the toughestenemy will cry “uncle.”

You should be aware that this weapon and CLP are not compatible. Make sureyou have plenty of LSAT on hand to lubricate it. Never put your hand inside aMk19 with the bolt to the rear, unless you want to be nicknamed “Lefty." It willeasily crush your entire hand if the bolt goes forward.

Oh, I almost forgot...never twist the belt on a runaway gun with a Mk19. There’sjust something funny about those high-explosive grenade rounds; they don’t likegoing through the feed throat mechanism sideways!

Make sure that you read and understand the Mk19 operator and unitmaintenance technical manuals. All training should conform to the standards asgiven in the Mk19 field manual. The –23 TM lists three entire pages of safetywarnings. If you do not understand this weapon, you have no business firing it,period!

The M203 grenade launcher is a fine weapon as long as it is properlymounted to the M16A2 rifle! And, that’s your job! Decent range, devastatingterminal effect; what more could a soldier ask for?

The newer barrels seem to be made of a thicker material. The old ones woulddent if the rifle fell over while propped against a tree. Make sure you remount thesling onto the correct swivel! Having the rifle sling hanging in front of the barrelduring firing is very unpleasant. (Make sure your Last Will and Testament iscompleted if you want to overlook the sling mount!)

Check the TM and make sure you have no old-style firing pins in your M203’s.Also check the operating depth of the breech insert, which provides the pathwayfor the firing pin. It must be flush with the surface of the recoil plate, or to amaximum depth of .007 inches below flush.

The weapon mount must be safety wired in place. An improperly mountedweapon will be inaccurate, and damages the barrel nut on the M16A2 rifle. Makesure when you remount the weapon that you have taken all the end-play, orslack, out of the mount before tightening it.

There is a modified version of the M203 currently being fielded for mounting onthe M4 carbines. This weapon is designated as the M203A1, and is functionallyidentical to the M203. The only real difference is in the mounting hardware.

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The M2 Browning .50 caliber machinegun. This weapon has the distinctionof being in continuous service longer than any other weapon in the current USArmy inventory of fielded small arms. Invented by John Moses Browning, it tookover 20 years to perfect. It was offered to the War Department in 1920, but onlyadopted in 1934. Millions of them have been produced.

Many of the M2’s currently in use date back to World War Two, but are in asgood condition as the day they were purchased. This is a low maintenanceweapon made of quality materials. They are built to withstand the test of time bySaco Defense, Saco, Maine.

Always remember these things about the M2:

Headspace and timing must be checked when setting the weapon upfor firing. This is accomplished with a set of headspace and timing gageswhich should always be kept with the weapon.

This weapon fires from the closed bolt position and immediately placesa round in the hot chamber when the trigger lever is released. Since theweapon generates significant heat, a cookoff is always likely. Read andunderstand the safety warnings in the technical manual and field manual.

When properly set up and operated by a well-trained crew, the M2 is afearsome weapon. It has tremendous range and terminal effect. It will easilyengage and defeat vehicles, aircraft, buildings, bunkers and light armoredvehicles with its wide range of available ammunition. Respect it and it will lastindefinitely.

In the event that your assistant gunner is killed while emplacing the weapon, itis possible for an individual soldier to install the barrel alone. To install thebarrel, one soldier normally pulls the cocking handle to the rear until the barrellock mechanism is visible in the clearance hole beneath the trunnion area on theright side of the weapon.

It usually requires two persons because the barrel weighs 26 pounds and isvery long. One person can not hold back the charging handle and manipulatethe barrel to install it. However, you can take the medium sized coil of a .50caliber link, and place it between the barrel extension and trunnion after pullingback the handle. This will hold the barrel extension to the rear, allowing thesoldier to move forward to install the barrel.

Knowledgeable M2 gunners always carry a spare used link, for this purpose, ontheir ID tag chain. If needed, they can place that link in position immediately.

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Chapter 4 Examination

1. Which Army publication provides guidance on the use and care of hand tools?

ANSWER: _________________________

2. What are the six types of calipers?

a. __________________b. __________________c. __________________d. __________________e. __________________ f. __________________

3. What are the three basic types of micrometers?

a. __________________b. __________________c. __________________

4. What are the three types of hammers that may be found in the armorer’s toolkit?

a. __________________b. __________________c. __________________

5. When should pliers be used?

ANSWER: __________________________________________

6. What are “nippers’ used for?

ANSWER: __________________________________________

7. What are the various types of spanner wrenches?

a. __________________b. __________________c. __________________d. __________________e. __________________

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8. What should you never change when working with a file?

ANSWER: __________________________________________

9. What are the two basic types of files called?

a. __________________b. __________________

10. What does a pullover gage measure?

ANSWER: __________________________________________

Answers to this and all examinations can be found at the back of this book.

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Well, that’s it. I hope this handbook is useful, and I again ask you to advise meof any inclusions or changes required. My address and information appear in thefront of the book.

Following this page is an Armorer’s Glossary explaining commonly used termsin detail. In addition, there is a copy of my Unit Arms Room Inspection Checklist.

Use this checklist to self inspect your arms room operations. It will coverspecific maintenance items for the following weapons:

M60 MachinegunM16 Series Rifles/M4 CarbinesM249 MachinegunMk19 MachinegunM2 MachinegunM9 PistolM203 Grenade LauncherM224 & M252 MortarsM24 Sniper Weapon System

There are additional sections to check your administrative functions and thesmall arms toolkit. Finally, there is a publications checklist.

I will leave you with a warning I gave in the front of this handbook:

DO NOT USE THIS HANDBOOK AS A SUBSTITUTE FOR TRAINING!

If you think you can get by cheaply by not investing the time in training anarmorer, the consequences may be more than you are prepared to deal with. Forthose commanders and leaders who may read this, I hope you have a greaterappreciation of the importance of this duty position.

If you have no local training resource to conduct armorer or firearms training,do not hesitate to contact me. I am always willing to travel, local schedulepermitting, to other installations and locations to conduct training. The only costinvolved is the TDY travel expense.

Good luck, and good shooting!

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Armorer’s Glossary

Marksmanship Term Definition

Accuracy Accuracy is the ability of a firearm and itsammunition to fire bullets into small groups atvarious ranges. For sporting purposes, arifle is considered accurate if it will shoot intoa circle, the diameter of which does not exceed3 minutes of angle at 100 yards.

Accurize To modify, rework, and refine a weapon in orderto improve the characteristics of the designedfunction and accuracy capabilities.

Action The part to which the barrel is attached. In a rifleit is often called the receiver. Shotgun or double-barreled sections house all the mechanism orworking parts. The term may be further modifiedas side-action, breech-action, belt-action, snap-section, etc. It is also used to indicate thedifferent forms of charging the weapon such asbolt-action, lever-action, pump-action, etc.

Adapter An auxiliary chamber to fire smaller cartridges ina barrel of like caliber, but having a larger chamber.Adapters are made to conform to the outer wallsof the chamber and reamed to fit the auxiliarycartridge.

AFQC Air Force Qualification Course: Course of fire firedby Air Force personnel with a weapon, to determinetheir individual proficiency under the provisions ofAir Force Instructions (formerly called Air ForceRegulations).

Aggregate The sum total of the scores from two or more matches.This may be an aggregate of match stages, teammatches, individual matches or both, provided thetournament program clearly states the matches whichwill compromise the aggregate.

Aim To point or direct a weapon that propels a projectiletowards an object or spot with intent to hit it.

Air Gauge A mechanical device operated by air pressure used toprecisely measure inside and outside dimensions,usually in 1/10,000th of an inch. Normally used tomeasure the diameter of lands and grooves of a barrel.

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Air Gun A weapon which uses air to propel the projectile.

Air Resistance See Ballistic Coefficient.

Alibi A slang term used in competition to define anallowable refire.

Alignment See Sight Alignment.

Alloy A metal composed of two (2) or more metals and/orother ingredients mixed together while molten.

Alternate An extra member of a competitive team, whoseutilization is prescribed by match conditions.

Ammunition Type of munition normally containing an explosiveelement and designed to inflict damage uponstructures, personnel, materiel, or military objectives.Ammunition includes shells, grenades, pyrotechnics,bombs, and mines, together with projectiles such asbullets, shot and their necessary primers, fuzes,propellants and detonators. See Small Arms.

Angle of Departure The angle of departure is actually the angle of elevationfor the given range. Also describes the degree ofdeviation from a plotted course or trajectory.

Anneal To render soft, as in the case of metals by heating toa low red heat, and allowing to cool.

Anodize To subject a metal to electrolytic action as the anodeof a cell in order to coat it with a protective film or color.

Anschutz German manufacturer that produces standard andfree rifles. Also a common name for a type of stock.

Anvil A component part of primer construction against whichan explosive primer mixture is smashed in order toinitiate combustion. See Boxer Primer and BerdanPrimer.

Arched Housing Referring to the mainspring housing of the .45 caliberautomatic pistol, a housing with the rear portion curvedwhere it contacts the palm of the hand.

Armory A place where firearms and instruments of war aredeposited. Police armories are usually vaults withalarms and access controls. Military armories areusually a large building containing an arms vault, drillhall and offices. Also, a manufactory (usually onebelonging to the government) of arms, such as rifles,pistols, machineguns and bayonets.

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Armor-Piercing A projectile designed for use against armored aircraftand vehicles. Normally has a hardened steel alloy core.

Arms A term used to describe hand, shoulder, and lightautomatic weapons.

Arsenal An establishment, not usually public, for the storage,repair, manufacture or issue of arms and militaryequipment whether for land or naval service.

Artificial Support A competition term describing any supporting surfacenot specifically authorized for a shooting position.

Assembly The act of building a weapon to a complete unit, fromparts already manufactured. Also, a collection of partsso assembled as to form a portion of, or completeweapon.

Assembly Line The area to the rear of the firing line where competitorsassemble prior to their relay being called to the readyline and the firing line.

Autoloading Arms in which the force of the explosion of each shot isused to unlock the mechanism, extract and eject theempty shell, and to reload by stripping and feedinganother cartridge from the magazine and into the

chamber. The trigger must be pressed for eachsuccessive shot.

Automatic Arms in which the force of the explosion of the firstshot is used to continue the operation of unlocking,extraction, ejection, reloading, locking and firingcontinuously, as long as the ammunition lasts in themagazine, belt or strip, and the pressure on the triggeris continued. This name is commonly applied (in error)to autoloading, repeating firearms, especially pistols.

Auxiliary Chamber Same as Adapter.

Average The overall performance rating of an individual in hisability to score with a particular type of weapon,determined after firing a definite number of rounds ormatches. This number is usually figured on a percentilebasis and is used in establishing a classification.

Award Prize given to winning shooters or teams.

Any Rifle An NRA term meaning a centerfire rifle of any caliberor weight, not equipped with a Schuetzen-type buttplate or palm rest, nor with a trigger capable of settrigger functioning.

Any Sight An NRA term meaning a sight without restrictions asto material or construction.

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Aperture A front or rear sight, using a hole for viewing to obtainsight picture and alignment. Also the adjustable orchangeable disks that are components of the frontor rear sight to obtain different diameter holes forviewing.

Apex Extreme forward point of projectile.

Axis A straight line, real or imaginary, that passes througha body and about which the body may, or actuallydoes, revolve.

Backing Targets A blank target placed to the rear of the scoring targets,to assist in identifying the number of rounds fired, andcrossfires, in precision shooting.

Backstop A mound of earth, a hill, or any other barrier, whichwill safely deflect, stop or absorb bullets.

Base Wad An integral part of shotshell construction, whichseparates the brass head from the powder charge. Itsfunction is to seal the chamber, prevent sticking offired shells, protect the shooter from blowback, andaid in obtaining uniform pressures and velocities.

Baffles Structures of wood or other materials, used on thefiring range, to deflect and/or absorb stray or ricochetbullets.

Ball Ammunition Small arms cartridges with a general purpose, solidcore bullet intended for use against personnel andmaterial targets not otherwise requiring armor piercingor other special ammunition.

Ballistics The science that deals with the motion, behavior,appearance, or modification of missiles, propellants,rifling, wind, gravity, temperature or any other modifyingsubstance, condition, or force. The art of designingmissiles or projectiles so as to give them efficientmotion and flight behavior with the limitations set upby their purpose. See also Interior Ballistics, ExteriorBallistics, and Terminal Ballistics.

Ballistic Coefficient A numerical value, designated as a decimal fractionalequivalent between the numbers zero and one, whichindicates the effect which air resistance will have uponthe flight of a missile or projectile. The larger theballistic coefficient, the more closely will the trajectorycorrespond to the ideal flight which would be obtainedif the missile could be projected in a vacuum.

Ballistic Form Factor One of the factors used in a formula to determine aballistic coefficient.

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Ball Powder A propellant composed of small dense spheres ofnitrocellulose coated with a layer of nitro-glycerine anda detergent.

Band, Barrel A ring, usually of metal, encircling the barrel, used forattaching forearms or other parts or accessories.

Bandoleer (or Bandolier) A belt-like cloth, or other material, with compartmentsdesigned for carrying ammunition, worn suspended overone shoulder, across the chest, or under the arm.

Barrel That part of a gun or firearm through which the projectileis fired and which gives direction to the projectile.

Barrel Blank A steel rod or tube that has been bored and rifled for agiven caliber, but unchambered and unthreaded.

Barrel Whip Movement of the barrel during the process of firing.These movements are transmitted to the barrel by theforces of the propelling gas and the kinetic energydeveloped by the projectile.

Battery Description of a weapon locked in firing position.

Battery Cup A primer housing used in shotshell reloading.

Battle Sights A predetermined sight setting that, carried on a weapon,will enable the firer to engage targets effectively atbattle ranges when conditions do not permit exactsetting of sights.

Bead A small knob of metal on a firearm near the muzzle,used for a front sight in aiming.

Beaver Tail The forearm portion of a rifle or shotgun whosedimensions are wider than normal.

Bedding The precision fitting by hand of a rifle barrel, receiverand guard, to its stock, to increase and maintain itsaccuracy.

Belt Short for ammunition belt, usually linked.

Belted Cartridge A cartridge design of the rimless type, employing astep-cut or shoulder approximately one-eighth inch infront of the extractor groove. This shoulder gives theappearance of a metallic "belt" around the case. Thebelted case, therefore, enters a counterbored chamberand the "belt" around the head of the case strikes theshoulder or forward face of the counterbore, thusseating solidly into the chamber. The belted case givesall the desirable features of the rimmed case, plusthose of the rimless type.

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Bench Rest A rigid bench for rest shooting of firearms.

Bench Rest Shooting (a) Shooting from a bench rest. (b) A type of sport orcompetition shooting, where an attempt is made to firea number of shots into the smallest possible group; theultimate aim being to have all shots of one group in onebullet hole. There are practically no restrictions as toweapon size, caliber, design, shape or weight. Thegoals of organized bench rest shooters are developmentand encouragement of extreme accuracy in rifles,ammunition, equipment and shooting methods.

Bend The drop below the line of sight at the comb and heel ofa buttstock.

Berdan Primer A center fire primer, popular in Europe and Asia, whoseanvil is constructed out of part of the cartridge case. Notinterchangeable with the Boxer Primer.

Biathlon An event combining cross-country ski racing andshooting.

Big Bore A slang term used to define the weapons used in NRAor National High Power Rifle Matches.

Binocular Vision Sighting with both eyes open.

Bipod A two-legged stand or mount for a scope or weapon.

Black Powder A mixture of finely divided charcoal, potassium nitrateand sulfur, used as a propellant or explosive.

Blacken Sights To apply any black substance to sights toeliminate

glare. The common method is to use a carbide lampallowing flame to deposit carbon on the sights.

Blade Sight A metal blade, attached to the upper side of the barrelnear the muzzle.

Blank Cartridge A cartridge having, in place of a projectile, a paper cupor wadding in the mouth of the case.

Blowback (a) Escape, to the rear and under pressure, of gasesformed during the firing of the gun. Blowback may becaused by a defective breech mechanism, a rupturedcartridge case or a faulty primer. (b) Type of weaponoperation in which the force of the expanding gasesacting to the rear against the face of the bolt furnishesall the energy required to initiate the complete cycle ofoperation of the gun. A weapon which employs thismethod of operation is characterized by the absence ofany breech lock or bolt lock mechanism.

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Blown Primer A primer that has ruptured or unseated itself in the baseof the cartridge. May be due to excessive pressure,defective primer, improper firing pin length, or the brasscase being improperly annealed (soft brass).

Bluing An oxidizing process which is used to color metal invarious shades of blue and tends to prevent rust.

Boat-tail The tapered rear end of a bullet designed to increaseballistic efficiency at long range, by reducing base drag.

Boil The appearance of an upward, boiling-like motion ofmirage, when not affected by wind shift.

Bolt A sliding mechanism that closes the breech in sometypes of small arms. It usually contains the extractorand firing pin, and supports the base of the cartridge.

Bolt Action A firearm whose locking and unlocking action iscontrolled by the manual operation of the bolt.

Bolt Face That portion of the bolt that engages and supports thehead (or base) of the cartridge.

Bolt Handle That portion of the bolt grasped for manual operation.

Bolt Head The forward section of a two-piece bolt.

Bolt Sleeve The steel machining at the rear of the bolt that servesto unite all the components of the bolt assembly.

Bone Support The position the firer assumes that allows him to usehis bones to support the weight of the weapon and usehis muscles principally to hold bones in their support-ing position. This means that he can keep his musclesrelaxed and avoid the tremors that develop from strainand tension.

Bore (a) The interior of the barrel through which the charge orbullet passes. (b) The diameter measured from land toland.

Bore Reflector A device containing mirrors to inspect the bore.

Borescope A device used to examine the interior surfaces of thebore of a weapon. Usually a collection of lenses withina tube, with a reflecting mirror and light, capable ofenlarging the view of the area being inspected. May alsobe a fiber-optic device, or a mount for a small remotecamera which projects the image on a screen for thepurpose of examining the interior of the barrel.

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Boresight An instrument inserted in the bore of a weapon todetermine the bore axis and its alignment with thesights of the weapon.

Bottleneck A cartridge case whose neck diameter is smaller thanits base.

Boulenge Test A method of determining bullet velocity by using atype of chronograph.

Boxer Primer A center fire primer favored in the United States. It isa completely self-contained unit whose anvil is a smallmetal cone inside the primer cup.

Brass Empty brass cartridge case.

Breath Control To exercise proper control of the breath during theaiming and firing process, in such a manner as tominimize disturbance of sight alignment and sightpicture.

Breech The rear end of the barrel into which the cartridge isinserted.

Breech Block Any steel device used to seal the breech of a rifleat the instant of firing.

Browning (a) An oxidation produced and retained on the surface ofgun barrels by means of acid, to stop further oxidationor rust. (b) Any weapon designed or manufactured byJohn M. Browning or the Browning Arms Company, suchas the Browning Automatic Rifle.

Bridge Metal arch connecting both sides of a receiver.

Bull Gun An extra heavy barreled sporting or target rifle. Theextra weight of the barrel reduces vibration, insuringgreater accuracy.

Bullet The projectile fired from a small gun.

Bullet Base Rearmost end of the bullet.

Bullet Drop The vertical drop of a bullet due to gravity.

Bullet Gauge Gauges normally used to measure the diameter andconcentricity of a bullet.

Bullet Profile Shape of bullet from nose to base.

Bullet Pull The energy required to pull a bullet from its case.(The bullet pull is used as a measure of the uniformityand efficiency of the crimp holding the bullet in its case)

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Bullet Puller Device used to remove a bullet from the cartridge case.

Bullet Trace The visible path of a bullet passing through the atmo-sphere which can best be seen through properlyadjusted optical aids.

Bullseye (a) The center of a target; also a shot which hits it;hence any successful hit. (b) The blackened area of atarget. (c) A trade name for a commercially producedpistol powder.

Butt Plate A plate of metal, plastic or horn placed on the butt toprotect the buttstock against damage.

Buttstock The portion of a stock from the action rearward.

Cam A rotating piece, eccentrically pivoted; placed indifferent parts of weapon actions to give short lockingmotions.

Cam Effect Locking or moving with a cam.

Camming Slot An engagement surface, usually a diagonal recess,used in conjunction with a cam or roller assembly.In firearms, it is often cut into the surface of a bolt,and used to cause rotation of the bolt for lockingor unlocking.

Cannelure A groove in a bullet for containing a lubricant or intowhich the cartridge case is crimped; a groove in acartridge case, providing a purchase for the extractor.

Cant To revolve to the right or left on the axis of the borewhile aiming; as, to cant a rifle.

Caliber The diameter of a projectile, as of a bullet or shell;the diameter of the bore of a gun barrel. In rifled arms,the caliber is measured from the surface of one landto the land directly opposite. In the US and GreatBritain, the calibers of small arms and their ammunitionare usually expressed in hundredths or thousands of aninch; when so expressed, the designation usuallyrepresents a close approximation rather than an exactmeasurement. In continental Europe, calibers arenormally expressed in millimeters.

Call The ability of a shooter to determine the approximatelocation of his hit on the target through noting theposition of the sights at the instant of firing.

Carbide A chemical whose reaction when mixed with water,produces an acetylene gas.

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Carbide Lamp A miner's-type lamp whose flame is used to put carbondeposits on sighting equipment to reduce glare.

Carbine A light weight shoulder arm or rifle having a short barrel,originally used by cavalry.

Carrier Block That part of a weapon which lifts a round from themagazine and lines it up with the chamber. Usuallyfound in pump and automatic shotguns and sometypes of rifles.

Cartridge A complete round of ammunition, containing bullet,powder, case and primer.

Cartridge Case Usually a brass or steel case used to house bullet,powder and primer.

Case Forming Resizing the cartridge case to a specified size andshape by the use of a resizing die.

Case Gauge An instrument used to measure the case lengthagainst a standard.

Case Hardening The process of hardening the surface of metal whileleaving the core soft.

Case Trimming A method of shortening a cartridge case to a specificlength.

Cast Bullet A bullet formed by pouring molten alloy into a die andletting it harden.

Casting Forming objects by pouring molten metal or otherliquids into a mold.

Cast-Off The distance a stock is offset at the heel to the right,from a straight line with the axis of the bore. It is calledcast-on when to the left. For the right-handed person,it is to the right on all rifles and shotguns.

Cease Fire The command given to cause all firing to stopimmediately.

Center Fire The form of cartridge case in which the primer is placeddirectly in the center of the base.

Challenge When a competitor feels that a shot fired by himself oranother competitor has been improperly evaluated orscored, he may challenge the scoring. Such challengemust be made immediately upon the posting of thescore.

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Chamber (a) The compartment at the rear of a gun barrel thatholds a charge or cartridge; one of the compartmentsin the cylinder of a revolver. (b) To insert a round ofammunition in the chamber of a firearm or gun.

Chamber Pressure Pressure created by the rapid burning of a propellantwithin the chamber of a weapon, during firing.

Charge (a)A given quantity of explosive, either by itself, or usedas the propellant for a bomb, bullet or shell. (b) In smallarms, a cartridge or round of ammo. (c) To fill a bomb,mine shell or cartridge with a charge or propellant orexplosive filler. (d) To charge a gun; to operate the boltso as to chamber a round of ammunition.

Charger A unit attached to a weapon to chamber the first round.

Charger Clip A unit used to rapidly feed rounds into a magazine.

Checker Diamond-shaped patterns incised in metal and wood forornamentation; for matting the surface; and, when usedon a stock, to improve the grip.

Cheek Piece A projection on a part of the butt stock to afford a restfor the cheek at the time of firing a rifle.

Chief Range Officer Will have full charge of the range and pits and willconduct matches on the schedule approved by theexecutive officer of the range or club. He is responsiblefor range safety and enforcing all rules.

Choke Bore A shotgun bore slightly constricted at the muzzle.

Chronograph An electrical device used to measure the velocity of aprojectile, using time lapse principles.

Classification The average scores of an individual, with a particularweapon, in match conditions, that are used to permitcompetition between individuals that have similar orequal abilities; attempting to eliminate unfair advantageof one person over another, by predicted performance.In NRA matches, some classifications used are:MASTER, EXPERT, SHARPSHOOTER, MARKSMAN.

Clay Targets (Clays) A saucer-shaped disc used as a target in skeet andtrap shooting.

Clean Target When all shots have gone into the highest numericalscoring ring or rings.

Cleaning Rod A rod with various attachments used in cleaning thebore of a weapon.

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Clear (a) Term used to express the fact that the range isclear for firing or proceeding downrange. (b) Term usedto describe the act of removing all ammunition sourcesfrom the weapon to make it safe. (c) Act of checking theweapon ensure all ammunition has been removed.

Click Term used to describe the mechanical adjustment ofthe rear sight, affecting the strike of the bullet. On manysights the action will make a clicking sound.

Clip (a) A metal device for holding ammunition ready forinsertion into certain types of firearms or magazines.(b) A popular, but erroneous, term used to describe abox-type magazine.

Clip Shot A pair of guide grooves milled into the forward end ofa rifle receiver bridge so as to hold a clip in position forloading.

Clover Leaf Group A group of three or more bullet holes that touch eachother. Term used in scoring targets on which five ormore shots are fired so closely as to make it impossibleto distinguish the individual bullet holes.

Coach Shooting trainer, instructor, or director, sometimes aprofessional.

Coated Lens Magnesium fluoride coating on an optical surface toincrease light transmission and improve contrast.

Cock To draw back the hammer, bolt, plunger or firing pinof a firearm to make ready for firing.

Cocking Piece The projecting end of the striker, extending back andfree of the bolt in a bolt-action weapon.

Cook-Off The accidental and spontaneous discharge of, orexplosion in, a gun or firearm, caused by an overheatedchamber or barrel igniting a fuse, primer, propellant, orbursting.

Cooked Round A round left in a hot chamber, but which has notreached a temperature to initiate firing. Ballistics ofthis round are not usually the same as a normally firedround.

Comb The ridge which forms the upper edge of a buttstock.

Commands Orders given on a range for the conducting of allfiring, scoring and target operation.

Compensator A device used on a barrel of a weapon to reduce recoiland muzzle rise.

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Component A constituent part of the whole, especially one havingno function apart from the whole, such as cartridgecomponents (primer, powder, projectile).

Cone The angle cut in the breech end of a barrel to allow thebolt to be breeched tighter and therefore, keep as muchof the brass case in the chamber as possible.

Cordite An early double-based smokeless powder, formed byabsorbing nitroglycerine in guncotton, adding a smallpercentage of vaseline, and extruding the mixturethrough a die into long strings or cords.

Core The internal part of a bullet, that which is covered bythe jacket.

Coriolis Force A deflecting force exerted by the rotation of the earthupon any object in motion, as an airplane, bullet,air particle or automobile, diverting the object to theright of the velocity in the northern hemisphere, andto the left in the southern.

Creep The awareness of trigger movement during applicationof pressure.

Crimp To mechanically fold inward the mouth of a cartridgecase about the base of the bullet, sealing it in place.

Cross Fire Two or more intersecting lines of fire. In competition,when a shooter fires on a target other than his own.

Cross Hair Type of reticle used in telescopic sights.

Crown The cut made at the muzzle end of a barrel, to eliminateburrs and control the path of escaping gases.

Cyclic Rate The rate at which a succession of movements repeatsitself. Applied to the rate of fire of an automatic weapon,the maximum rate of fire for a given weapon.

Cylinder The part of a multifiring firearm holding a number ofcartridges and presenting the loads successively forfiring, by revolution about an axis.

Cylinder Bore A shotgun barrel without constriction or "choke".

Damascus A highly ornamental combination of metals, used inmaking shotguns in the 19th century. The guns wereproduced by twisting together dissimilar metal stripsand welding them.

Danger Zone Any area forward of a firing line as defined by rangeregulations or rules.

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Dead Rod A malfunctioning operating rod on an M1 rifle.

Decapping Process of removing a primer from a cartridge case.

Degressive Powder A propellant whose surface area and rate of evolutionof gas decreases as the powder burns.

Delta A point reached in a pressure curve where additionalpressures will no longer produce additional velocityof the projectile.

Depot An establishment for storing supplies or records, formaintaining equipment, or for assembling and process-ing personnel.

Deterrent A compound or element which is added to an explosiveto reduce its burning rate, such as graphite which isused to coat smokeless powders.

Detonate A combustion process which produces a vigorousevolution of smoke and flame, and which movesthrough a material at speeds faster than the speed ofsound (1100 feet per second). Such a reaction issudden and instantaneous, resulting in an explosion.

Die A tool used to cut, stamp, or form metal by pressure.

Diphenylamine A compound used as a stabilizer in themanufacture

of smokeless powders.

Disk An implement used by target pit personnel to signalthe value of each shot to the firing line.

Dispersion The scattering of shots or pellets fired on a target.

Double Two bullet holes that appear as one.

Double Action A firing cycle whereby the hammer is cocked forfiring by the rearward movement of the trigger.

Double Base Powder A propellant containing nitrocellulose and nitro-glycerine.

Double Barreled A rifle having two barrels.

Double Firing A malfunction in a semiautomatic weapon resultingin the firing of a second round automatically.

Drift A lateral divergence of a projectile from the projectedline of its heading. Usually resulting from the effects ofwind, but sometimes specifically due to reactions setup by the projectile rotation.

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Drop (a) The vertical drop of a projectile. (b) Distancemeasured from the line of sight to the top of the heeland comb of a gun stock.

Dry Fire A person practicing the fundamentals of marksmanshipwith a weapon, without the use of live ammunition.Also, the firing or "snap firing" of any weapon with anempty chamber.

Dud A bomb, shell, or cartridge that has failed to function.

Dummy A non-functioning cartridge, bomb or shell, used fortraining, maintenance testing or display.

Ear Plug A device used to protect the ears from the sound ofweapons firing.

Effective Range (a) The range up to which a weapon operates with thedesired effect. Limitations placed on this range are theterminal effect of a projectile, and the limits of humanvision. (b) The distance at which the average man canplace hits on a target within the kill zone.

Ejection The process where a case or cartridge is being thrownfrom the weapon by the ejector.

Ejector A part in a firearm for throwing out shells or cartridges.

Elbow Pad A cushion for the elbow usually attached to the sleeveof a shooting jacket or coat.

Electric Trap A device used either in skeet or trap shooting to throwthe clay target into the air.

Elevated Rib The raised sighting plane placed on top of the barrelsof a shotgun or rifle.

Elevation (a) Height or altitude. (b) The angle of elevation. (c) Thesetting on the vertical adjustment of a rear sight to allowsufficient trajectory to strike a selected target.

Energy The capacity for doing work and overcoming resistance.

Engine Turn A series of small circles polished in metal whichoverlap to form a pleasing and finishing effect, primarilyused to hold small amounts of oil as a lubricant andrust inhibitor. Usually found on rifle bolts and insidefine watches.

Erector Lens A lens in an optical instrument for making the imageappear erect instead of inverted.

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Erosion Wearing away of a weapon bore due to combinedeffects of gas washing, scoring and mechanicalabrasion. Due to the high temperatures, velocity andchemical action, the bore diameter becomes enlarged.

Expert The highest level of qualification attainable in militaryqualification courses of fire.

Extended Front Sight A bar of steel or extension of the front sight to increasethe sight radius.

Extraction The process of removing a live or spent cartridge caseor shell from the chamber of a weapon.

Extractor A part in the gun for removing shells or cartridges fromthe chamber.

Express rifle A term coined by Purdey, an eminent British gunmaker,to denote a rifle of greater velocity than normal. It was ablack powder term. The term NITRO EXPRESS, as nowused, distinguishes a rifle of extreme power andvelocity.

Eye Relief Distance from the aiming eye to the rear sight.

Familiarization firing Practice firing with a weapon.

Favor In rifle team shooting, a coaching command whichcauses the shooter to aim his group right or left. Suchas the command, "favor right". A favor does not exceedmore than one minute of angle. Corrections greater thanthis are made by sight movement.

Feeding The process of driving live cartridges from the magazineor belt into the path of the bolt or slide, prior tochambering.

Feed ramp A slanted metal surface at the rear of a barrel whichguides cartridges into the chamber during feeding.

Feet per second A unit of measure used to indicate velocity of a bullet.

Field of view A measure of the diameter of the field of vision whichthe observer can see at one time while looking throughthe telescope.

Field strip To disassemble the major components of a firearmfor cleaning, maintenance or inspection.

Fire form To shape a cartridge case by firing it in a largerchamber. The exploding gases expand the case andcause it to conform to the diameter and shape of thechamber.

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Firing line A line at which marksmen are stationed for firing.

Firing pin A rod or plunger that strikes and detonates a primerto fire the main explosive or propelling charge.

Firing point A firing station on a firing line.

Flash hole A hole in the head of a cartridge case through whichthe primer flash ignites the propellant.

Flat base A type of base used on a bullet.

Flinch A spasmodic physical reaction, usually caused byanticipation of recoil, that causes inaccuracy inshooting.

Floor plate The base or bottom of a magazine or receiver.

Flux A substance or mixture used to facilitate theamalgamation of metals or minerals when meltingthem; glass, borax, etc., are fluxes.

Folded A cartridge in which the base of the case is foldedto form the primer pocket.

Follower That part of a magazine on which the cartridges restfor feeding.

Follower spring A spring that transmits energy for function to thefollower.

Follow through When all the elements of firing a shot are maintaineduntil the shot strikes the target, such as position,sighting, breathing, squeezing, etc.

Forearm The portion of the stock lying under the barrel infront of the action, also called the fore-end.

Fouling The accumulation of a deposit within the bore of afirearm caused by solid products remaining after acartridge has been fired.

Fouling shots Shots fired for the purpose of warming the bore sothat following rounds will be better stabilized.

Frangible bullet A brittle plastic or non-metallic bullet for firingpractice, which upon striking a target breaks into apowder or small fragments without penetrating.

Free bore A type of barrel rifling where lands have either beencompletely eliminated, or reduced in front of thechamber. The purpose is to reduce chamber pressure.

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Foot pound A measurement of the expenditure of energy. A footpound is that unit of effort which will lift a one poundobject one foot. Two foot pounds will either lift a twopound object one foot, or a one pound object twofeet, and so on. Usually used to express the energyof a bullet exiting a muzzle.

Full metal case A completely jacketed bullet, such as military ammo.

Fulminate of Mercury An explosive compound extremely sensitive to shock,spark or friction, used to set off other explosives.

Function Operate, used in conjunction with the cycle of operationin a weapon.

Gage An instrument or tool used for measuring a dimensionagainst and established standard, such as a headspacegage, erosion gage, thickness gage, etc.

Gain twist A system of rifling in which the pitch of the lands andgrooves increases from breech to muzzle in order togradually accelerate a bullet to maximum rotationalvelocity as it leaves the muzzle.

Gas check bullet A device (usually shaped like a cup) fitted over the baseof a bullet designed to prevent the hot gases from fusingor melting the base of the bullet and to act as a gasseal.

Gas-operated An automatic or semi-automatic weapon that utilizespart of the expanding propellant gases in the barrel tounlock the bolt and actuate the loading mechanism. Inthe direct method, the gases themselves cause therearward motion of the action assembly componentsthrough direct pressure against these parts. In theindirect method, a piston forces an operating rod tothe rear, causing the action assembly components tomove.

Gas port In gas-operated systems, a small hole drilled into thebarrel through which some of the expanding gasesescape to furnish power for the auto-loading cycle.

Gauge A measurement, standard measure, or scale ofmeasurement. Also, the size of the bore of a firearm,especially a shotgun, as determined by the numberper pound of spherical projectiles fitting the bore.

Gilding metal Soft metal used to jacket a small arms bullet. Thismetal can be readily engraved by the lands as thebullet moves down the bore. Typically 85% copperand 15% zinc.

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Glass bedding An epoxy resin (glass) used to ensure better fit betweenthe rifle barrel and action to the wood of the stock. Alsoused to strengthen the recoil mortise in the stock.

Grain A unit of weight based on the approximate weight of asingle heart-grain contained within a kernel of wheat.There are 7000 grains in one pound, or 437.5 grainsper ounce. Bullet weights and powder measures aretypically expressed in grains.

Graphite A soft form of carbon used as a lubricant and as a glazefor grains of propellant to prevent the buildup of staticelectricity and the danger of premature explosion. Alsoused as a flash inhibitor.

Gravity factor The rate of acceleration of a body falling to the earth.

Groove The spiral grooves cut into the bore of certain types offirearms, to impart spin to the projectile for the purposeof aerodynamic stabilization.

Group Short for bullet group, a series of three or more holesmade in a target by a series of successive shots.

Gun A mechanism consisting essentially of a barrel, receiverand breech mechanism, using controlled explosives toshoot projectiles or signal flares.

Guncotton A high explosive formed by the action of sulphuric acidand nitric acid upon cellulose. Its shattering effect is toohigh to be used as a propellant, but when used withnitroglycerine and suitable amounts of solvents, it formsthe main ingredients of many modern propellants.

Gunsmith A person who manufactures, modifies or repairs guns.

Gyrostatic stability In firearms, imparting the needed spin to a projectilearound its longitudinal axis, usually by rifling, to enablea projectile to present its point in the direction of motion.

Hammer The mechanism that strikes the firing pin or percussioncap in a firearm.

Hammerless A gun whose hammers are concealed within.

Hammer gun A gun whose hammers are on the outside of the action.

Hand (pistol) The operating lever which turns the cylinder when thehammer is pulled back on the receiver.

Handguard A wood or metal cover which encloses the upper half ofa rifle barrel and protects the firers' hands from heat.

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Hand loading Manufacture of ammunition by an individual using handtools. Also used to describe the act of re-loading apreviously fired cartridge case.

Hangfire A brief delay of a round of ammunition in firing, afterbeing struck or subjected to other igniting action.

Hard ball A term used to describe government issue fully-jacketedball ammunition; usually refers to .45 caliber ammo.

Head Portion of a cartridge case, which includes the extractorgroove or rim, primer pocket and primer. The head ofthe case is actually at the bottom of the round.

Headspace In centerfire systems, the distance between the baseof the cartridge, in contact with the face of the lockedbolt, to the commencement of the shoulder angle of thechamber. In rimfire systems, the distance between thebase of the rim, in contact with the bolt, to the point ofthe chamber where the opposing side of the rim makescontact. In rimless, straight walled handgun cartridges,the distance from the base of the cartridge in contactwith the recoil plate or slide face, to the mouth of thecartridge case where it contacts the shoulder of thechamber inside the barrel.

Head stamp Markings on the head of a cartridge case that usuallyindicate the source and date of manufacture.

Heavy slide Addition of weight to a slide to reduce recoil.

Heel (a) The upper rear corner of a buttstock, or the top of abuttplate. (b) An action (heeling), caused by the firertightening the large muscle in the heel of the hand tokeep from jerking the trigger.

Hit A strike or impact on a target by a bullet.

Hold (a) To hold fire, to refrain from shooting. (b) A sightpicture obtained by the shooter and described as ahold, i.e., 6 o'clock hold or center hold.

Hollow point A projectile with a cavity within its point. May or maynot have controlled expansion features.

Hooded sight A projecting circular covering placed around the frontsight to prevent damage. A fixed front sight sometimesconfused with a globe sight which has interchangeablefront sights.

Hook Butt extension of a rifle which fits under the armpit of ashooter. Sometimes inverted to fit over the shoulder ofa shooter in the prone position.

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Housing A covering or frame used to protect integral parts ofa firearm, i.e., mainspring housing, trigger housing, etc.

Immediate action The action a person performs when a stoppage hasoccurred in a weapon, to put the weapon back intooperation with little or no loss of time.

Impact The striking of a projectile on a target or surface.

Impact area Area in which projectiles are expected to strike.

Improved cylinder Type of choke on a shotgun which controls the shotpattern. Built into a barrel containing a minimumdegree of choke.

Initiator A sensitive explosive that detonates to initiate theaction in an explosive train or device.

Inside lubricated A bullet that is lubricated before loading, containinglubricant grooves not visible in the finished cartridge.

Iron sights Unimproved metallic sights.

Jacket The metallic covering of a bullet.

Jam To stick or become inoperative because of improperloading, ejection or the like.

Jerk The effort by the firer to fire a weapon at the precisemoment the sights align with the target, usuallycausing a bad hit on the target.

Jewel A process whereby certain parts of a weapon arepolished in a circular pattern, to give luster.

Keeper Part of a sling used to prevent the sling from comingloose. May be leather rings or metallic hooks.

Kentucky windage A form of sighting and aiming usually employed whena weapon has non-adjustable sights, or when thefirer does not have time to make sight adjustments.

Keyholing Tumbling of a bullet in flight caused by failure of thebullet to receive sufficient spin from the rifling.

Kick Used to describe the recoil of a firearm at the momentof firing.

Kinetic energy That energy exerted by a moving body by virtue of itsmotion. More technically, the capacity of a moving bodyfor performing work, owing to its own motion; beingquantitatively one-half the mass times the velocitysquared.

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Kneeling position A position that is assumed by the shooter where theweight of the body is supported on one knee and theopposite foot. No other part of the body touches theground.

Known distance firing Purpose of this type of firing is to give the shooterthe opportunity to apply all the principles of marksman-ship. He learns to zero his weapon for all usable rangesand to make practical application of sight adjustments.

Knurl To checker or roughen a surface to afford better grip.

Laminated stock The gluing of thin strips of wood together into order toproduce a stock that will resist warpage and give addedstrength, usually used on target and bench rest stocks.

Land One of the raised portions in the bore of a rifled gun.

Lap A plug, usually made of lead, iron or copper, whencharged with abrasive, is used for fine grinding orpolishing.

Lead The action of aiming ahead of a moving target, so as tohit the target.

Leaded barrel Excessive lead deposit in the grooves of a barrel.

Leaded edge The marks left on the target by the bullet as it passesthrough the target.

Leaf sight Rear sight for small arms, hinged so it can be raisedfor aiming or lowered to keep from being broken whennot in use.

Length of pull The distance from the center of the trigger to the centerof the butt. Standard length of pull for rifles is usually13.5 inches.

Lever The moving handle which locks or unlocks the actionin guns or double rifles.

Lever action A rifle whose action is operated by a lever under thestock. Usually serves as a trigger guard as well as anactuating device.

Line of bore The extended bore axis of a gun.

Line of sight The straight line between an observer's eye and a targetalong which sight is taken.

Load (a) To place ammunition is a gun. (b) A particularcombination of components that comprise a loadedcartridge.

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Loading block Device designed to limit a specified number of rounds,i.e., the plug in a shotgun is a loading block.

Loading gate The swing away portion of a revolver which permits theloading and unloading of the cylinder. Normally foundon a single action revolver.

Locking lugs Extension on a locking mechanism that locks thebreech, fitting into the corresponding locking recesses.

Lubricate A substance used to reduce friction, i.e., oil, etc.

Lubrication groove Grooves on a bullet that are filled with lubricant.

Machine rest A device used to support a weapon in place to checkfunctioning, accuracy and ammunition.

Magazine (a) A structure or compartment for storing ammunitionor explosives. (b) That part of a gun or firearm that

holdsammunition ready for feeding and chambering.

Magnaflux A process used for detecting invisible minute cracksand flaws in ferrous metals, using powdered metal.

Magnaglo Used for the same purpose as magnaflux, but a slightlydifferent process using a blacklight and special dye.

Magnum A term used to denote a weapon of more than normalpower.

Mainspring That part of a weapon which furnishes energy to thehammer or striker.

Malfunction The improper operation of any part of a weapon.

Marksmanship Skill in shooting small arms.

Match A shooting competition for the award of prizes.

Match grade Special weapons, ammunition or equipment used forcompetitive match purposes.

Maximum effective range The greatest distance the average shooter may inflictcasualties or damage.

Maximum ordinate Highest point of trajectory above the line of sight.

Maximum range The greatest distance to which a weapon can shoot.

Mechanical training Training conducted for purpose of teaching disassemblyand assembly of weapons, care, cleaning, and function.

Mercuric primer A primer containing fulminate of mercury.

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Metallic sights Any sight not containing optical lenses.

Micro sights A rear sight adjustable for windage and elevation, usedon handguns.

Micrometer sights Normally refers to a rear sight which has 1/4 or lessminute of angle graduations.

Mid-range The point halfway between the firing line and target.

Mil A unit of angular measurement used in gunnery. Atrue mil is the angle determined by an arc, the lengthof which is 1/1000th of the radius; the mil is consideredto be 1/6400th of the circumference (instead of 1/6283,as there are 6283 true mils in a circle). The movementof a 1000 foot radius, by 1 mil, will move the strike of abullet 1 foot on the circumference.

Minute of angle The sixtieth part of one degree which amounts toabout 1.0472 inches at 100 yards of distance.

Mirage An optical phenomenon produced by a stratum ofhot air of varying density across which the observersees reflections. Usually seen as heat waves.

Misfire A momentary or permanent failure of a round ofammunition to fire after igniting action is taken.

Miss Failure to hit a target.

Monocular vision Viewing with only one eye while shooting.

Monte Carlo A form of butt stock in which the comb is carried backhorizontally almost to the butt, when it descends to theheel portion.

Mounts Device used for the placement of sights onweapons.

Mouth (a) The opening at the end of a muzzle. (b) The openingat the end of a cartridge case.

Mushroom Expansion of a projectile.

Muzzle The end of the barrel of a gun from which the bulletemerges.

Muzzle blast Sudden air pressure exerted at the muzzle of a gunby the rush of hot gases and air upon firing.

Muzzle brake A device attached to the muzzle of a gun barrel whichuses escaping gases to reduce the effective recoil forceof the barrel assembly on the carriage or frame. It alsoreduces muzzle blast and muzzle flash.

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Muzzle flash That portion of visible light emitted by the combustionof the propellant, and which emerges from the muzzlewith the projectile.

Muzzle velocity The speed of a bullet, relative to the gun, as it emergesfrom the muzzle. Usually expressed in feet per second.

Natural point of aim The correct position of the body in relationship to thetarget.

Neck That portion of a cartridge used to contain the rearof a bullet.

Neck reamer A tool used to slightly enlarge the neck of a cartridgecase that has been fired.

Neck size The inside diameter of a cartridge neck.

Neck trim An operation used in reloading to shorten a cartridgecase to a specified length.

Neutral powder A propellant, usually a single perforated cylindrical grainwhose burning area remains constant.

Nitrocellulose Nitric acid mixed with cellulose (usually in the form ofcotton or wood fiber), forming what is called guncotton,used in smokeless powder.

Nitroglycerine Nitric acid mixed with glycerine, used in double basedpowders. As a liquid, it is highly explosive and unstable.

Noncorrosive A term applied to primers containing no potassiumsulfate.

Nose (a) That portion of a revolver hammer that strikes theprimer. (b) That area of a bullet from the widest partto the point.

Objective lens The lens at the front of the telescope which forms the"primary image" of the object viewed.

Obturation The sealing of a chamber in a gun to prevent theescape of gas in a particular direction.

Ocular lens The eyepiece of an optical instrument.

Ogive The curved or tapered front of a projectile.

Open sight A rear gunsight having an open notch.

Ordinate A measurement made from the line of sight to theline of trajectory of the bullet at any point.

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Ordnance Military weapons, ammunition, explosives, combatvehicles, and battle material collectively, togetherwith the needed maintenance tools and equipment.

Orifice A small hole in a weapon, i.e., the gas port.

Outside lubricated Lubrication of a bullet's exterior.

Overbore Usually referred to as a cartridge case with a greaterpowder capacity than is considered adequate for thesize of the bore.

Over and Under A gun or rifle in which the barrels are placed on topof one another.

Palm rest An extension or attachment below the rifle forearmwhich aids the normal handgrip.

Paradox The term used to describe a barrel partially rifled atthe muzzle.

Parallax An apparent movement or displacement of objects inthe field of view of a telescope, with respect to thereticle. In a telescope sight, parallax occurs only whenin the optical system of the scope, the primary imageof the object falls behind or in front of the reticle, andwhen the eye moves off the optical axis of the scope.

Parapet An earthen mound protecting ranges.

Parkerize To impart a dull, relatively rough finish to a firearm byuse of powdered iron and phosphoric acid.

Pasters Small gummed pieces of paper used to patch bulletholes on a target.

Pattern (a) A checkering pattern on a stock or grip, includingthe border and all master lines. (b) The shot pattern ona target, such as caused by shotgun pellets.

Peening To draw, bend, or flatten by hammering with a peen.

Peep sight A rear gunsight having a small hole in which the frontsight is centered in aiming.

Pellet (a) One of a group of projectiles in shotgun shells.(b) A projectile fired from a gun that does not usegunpowder as a propellant force.

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Pistol (a) Any firearm, usually short barreled, designed to beheld and fired in one hand. (b) A firearm in which thechamber is an integral part of the barrel, especially aself loading pistol, as distinguished from a revolver.(c) A machine-pistol. Usually a short barreled weaponfiring pistol ammunition, and which fires automatically.

Pistol grip A gunstock, the grip of which turns down.

Pitch The angle which the butt of a firearm takes in relationto the line of sight.

Plungers (a) Any cylindrical part that operates with a plungingaction, such as a piston. (b) The firing pins which arestruck by the hammers in shotguns and double rifles,called strikers in bolt action rifles.

Point (a) A firing point or stand. (b) Nose of a bullet.

Post A vertical front sight. It may be metallic, open orhooded,

or may be incorporated in several manners and shapes,within optical telescopes.

Position A prescribed method of holding a weapon, such as the"prone" position.

Potassium nitrate A corrosive salt found in black powder compositions.Commonly called "saltpeter".

Powder A slang term for gunpowder; any substance that can beused as a propellant in a cartridge.

Powder measure Various mechanical means by which weight or volumeof powder may be measured.

Powder scale A device used to measure powder by weight.

Premarksmanship training A period of instruction in which the fundamentals ofmarksmanship are taught, applied and developed bystudents prior to actual firing.

Premium grade Match grade weapons further modified to specificationsand designated by the stamped letters P.G.

Pressure Force exerted against an opposing body.

Pressure curve (a) The arc of the projectile in the La BoulengeChronograph test to determine velocity. (b) Thegraphic curve of pressures in pounds per square inchresulting from various powder burning rates.

Pressure peak The greatest amount of pounds per square inch (PSI)of pressure created within the chamber.

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Primer A sensitive explosive device that responds to friction,percussion, electric impulse or some other disturbanceto set off a propellant or an explosive; an initiator.

Primer cup A small cup holding a primer mixture and othercomponents, used in small arms cartridges andcertain other ammunition.

Primer pocket A recess formed in the head of a cartridge case tohold the primer.

Primer salt A residue of potassium chlorate which is depositedin the bore through the use of corrosive primers.

Primer setback The backward movement of a primer cup in a cartridgeor shell case upon explosion of the propellant, as occurswhen the base of the cup is not properly supported bythe bolt face or breech block.

Primer vent Normally called the flash hole. Located in the head ofthe cartridge case between the primer seat and thepropellant in the case, to allow the primer flame toignite the powder.

Progressive burning A characteristic of most rifle powders whose burningincreases as the volume increases, to maintain anincrease in pressure on the base of the projectile.

Projectile An object projected by an exterior force, continuing inmotion by virtue of its own inertia.

Proof A standard set by gun manufacturers to insure aweapon will withstand a safe pressure for its givencaliber.

Proof mark A stamp used by gun manufacturers to identify allweapons having met the proof standard. Proof marksare usually found on the underside of the barrel orreceiver or both, depending upon the manufacturer.

Proof test A weapon which has successfully withstood the prooftest load without showing signs of metal fatigue. Prooftest loads are usually 20,000 PSI above standard loads.

Propellant An explosive powder charge for propelling a bullet, thatcreates pressure as a result of its combustion process,driving a projectile toward the muzzle of a weapon.

Pyrocellulose A variety of pyroxylin, used in making smokelesspowders and gelatin dynamites.

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Qualification In the military, the minimum marksmanship scoreneeded to attain a certain classification of shootingskill, for training or identification purposes.

Rail A device inside a receiver used to guide the bolt ormoving parts in a specified path, usually in pairs onopposing sides of the receiver. Also, the mountingpoints for some sights or palm rests.

Ramp An inclined plane designed to give proper elevationto a front or rear sight. Also a deflecting surface usedto position a bullet for chambering in an automaticweapon, such as a machine gun.

Range (a) A prescribed area where weapons firing isconducted. (b) The distance to a target from a firingpoint.

Range officer The individual in charge of firing on any given range.

Rapid fire In a semiautomatic weapon, the continued manipulationof the trigger assembly so as to fire a rapid successionof shots.

Ready commands Commands used to ascertain if personnel are preparedto commence firing on a range.

Ready line The area just to the rear of the firing line, whereshooters may wait their turn to fire.

Reamer A tool used to enlarge a hole such as the primer pocketof a cartridge.

Receiver The frame of a firearm, to which all other componentsare attached.

Receiver bridge A connector used to span the recess of a receiver toincrease its strength, usually found on weapons whichused a stamped, as opposed to a forged or milled,receiver.

Receiver sight Rear sight mounted directly on a receiver.

Recoil The backward movement of a gun or part thereof onfiring, caused by backward pressure of the recoilimpulse; a result of the equal but opposite reactionto the energy moving the bullet forward in the bore.

Recoil energy The force in foot pounds exerted rearwards by afirearm when fired.

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Recoil lug A metal surface, normally located in the forward partof the action which transmits the recoil of the barreland receiver group to the stock.

Recoil pad A cushion attached to the butt of a shotgun or rifleto absorb recoil and protect the body of the shooter.

Reload (a) To insert ammunition into an already-fired gun forthe purpose of continuation of fire. (b) To refill cartridgecases with primer, powder and projectiles, for thepurpose of re-using the case.

Reloading dies Tools used in reloading ammunition, such asresizing

and recapping dies, seating and crimping dies, etc.

Reloading tool A machine or device used in the loading of ammunition.

Resizing A process whereby a cartridge case is swaged to adesired size or shape.

Rest A support for a gun while firing, to insure accuracy.

Reticle A system of lines, wires or the like, in the body of anoptical telescope or other device, used for defining theline of sight with greater accuracy.

Revolver A handgun having a rotating cylinder carrying severalrounds of ammunition, each round being in a chamberthat comes into line with the barrel before firing.

Rib A piece of metal attached to the uppermost part of theslide or barrel. Used to raise the sighting plane, improvethe appearance of the weapon, and reduce barrelvibration.

Ricochet To skip, bounce, or fly off at an angle after striking anobject or surface.

Rifle A firearm with a rifled bore, designed to be fired fromthe shoulder.

Rifled slug A projectile used in shotgun ammunition with spiraledgrooves, the theory being that the air forces throughthe grooves, while the projectile is in flight, tending tospin the slug to affect stability.

Rifling (a) The action of cutting spiral grooves longitudinallyinto the bore of a gun barrel. (b) The spiral groovescut in the bore of barrels.

Rim The outer or extreme circumference on the head of acartridge used for head spacing in some cases, andalso for extraction.

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Rimfire A cartridge in which the priming mixture is placed inthe fold of the head of the shell. The rim is crushed bythe firing pin or striker to initiate the charge.

Rimless A cartridge case design in which the case bears norim about the head. The extractor in this case willfit into an extractor groove, also called a cannelure.

Rimmed cartridge A cartridge whose rim extends beyond the cartridgecase to control headspace and facilitate extraction.

Ruptured cartridge A cartridge case that is deformed with partial orcomplete circumferential separation around the body.

Safety A mechanical device on a weapon to keep it from firingaccidentally.

Safety fan The 35 degree area to the left and right of the line offire (totaling 70 degrees), within that area consideredthe danger zone.

Scaled round A round of ammo which has been placed in thechamber of a hot weapon and heated, or a round thathas been heated by the sun.

Scatter gun A slang term for shotgun.

Schuetzen Type of hook used in positional shooting.

Schnabel The tip of a forearm when it is made in pointed orin ornamental form. The name is derived from theGerman term for a bird's beak.

Scope Short for telescope.

Scope mounts That portion of a telescope that attaches the tele-scopes to another object, normally the scope base.

Score The total value of all the required shots fired in amatch or qualification course.

Sear That part of the lockwork of a firearm that engagesthe hammer or striker to hold it in a cocked position.

Sear nose A portion of the sear that engages the notch of theof the hammer or striker, holding it to the rear.

Season cracking (a) A small split in the cartridge brass case whichoccurs when the brass is old and the grain relaxed.(b) Small cracks that appear in gunstocks due tomoisture content changes and/or age.

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Sectional density The weight of a bullet in grains, divided by its diameter.

Semiautomatic Of a firearm or gun; using part of the force of anexploding cartridge to extract the empty case andchamber the next round, but requiring a separatepull on the trigger to fire each round.

Semi-rimmed A cartridge case design in which the case head bearsboth a rim and a hollow groove for the extractor.

Set trigger A device for lightening the trigger pull at will in orderto remove the disturbing effect of a heavy pull duringtarget shooting. Usually two triggers are used; thefront trigger sets the sear, while a light touch on therear trigger will discharge the round.

Sharpshooter A classification used in qualification firing.

Shell A slang term for cartridge case

Shell holder A tool used in rifle cartridge reloading for the purposeof facilitating ease of maintaining the cartridge casewithin the loading press.

Shell latch That part of the action assembly in a shotgun thatholds a shotgun cartridge in proper position forfeeding, chambering, or removal.

Shim A thin piece of material placed between surfaces toobtain proper adjustments.

Shot (a) Terminology for a fired round. (b) A componentused in the manufacture of shotgun shells.

Shotgun A smoothbore gun used for firing a charge of smallshot at short range.

Shotshell Cartridge typically used with shotguns, containingnumerous pellets or projectiles.

Shot string (a) In shotgun shooting, the elongation of the shotpattern. (b) In match or qualification firing, the firingof a series of shots as the result of a single command.

Short trigger Usually refers to the standard M1911A1 .45 caliberpistol trigger, or the standard length commercial trigger.

Shoulder hunch Similar to flinch. A reaction of the shoulder toward thebutt when anticipating recoil.

Side by side A weapon with two barrels placed next to each other.

Side lock Hammer offset to the side of the breech.

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Side mount A metal fixture with rings used to secure a telescopesight to the side of a receiver.

Sight A device through which a target is viewed to align thetarget with the path of the projectile.

Sight alignment When the front and rear sights are brought into properalignment with the line of sight to the target.

Sight picture The target as viewed by the shooter, with the sightssuperimposed over the point of intended impact.

Sight radius The distance from the front to rear sight.

Sighting shot Shots fired on a target used to adjust sights.

Silencer A device fixed to a muzzle, to baffle propelling gases,thereby silencing sound waves.

Single action (a) A firearm whose hammer must be cocked by handbefore firing. (b) Type of fire, made possible by cockingthe hammer, with a double-action firearm.

Single base powder A type of smokeless powder, made of nitrocelluloseprimarily.

Single shot A weapon that is capable of loading with one round,a non-repeating firearm.

Sitting position Sitting with the weight of the body supported by thebuttocks and feet or ankles, with no other portion ofthe body touching the ground.

Sizing To shape cast a bullet to the desired diameter, or toturn or shape a cartridge case to specific dimensions.

Skeet A shot gun sport in which shooters engage flying claytargets.

Skid shot An elongated bullet hole of any length caused by thebullet entering the target while the target is turning intoor out of view.

Sling A leather or web strap used to carry or support a rifle.

Slow fire A type of known distance firing in which one shot perminute is authorized.

Small of stock A name usually applied to the "hand" of the butt stock.Commonly called the pistol grip.

Smokeless powder A nitrocellulose base powder, sometimes compoundedwith nitroglycerine.

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Smooth bore A firearm with no rifling.

Soft point bullets A type of bullet with a non-fouling jacket, filled with alead or lead alloy core, closed at the base and with thelead exposed at the nose.

Solvent (a) A liquid capable of dissolving powder residue.(b) A solution of ether and alcohol to cool burning ofsmokeless powder, and to mix down the ingredientsduring the manufacturing process.

Speed lock A trigger and hammer designed for extra fast hammerfall.

Spin The revolution of a bullet around its own axis, causedby the rifling.

Spitzer A pointed bullet shape.

Spotting scope A telescope used by a shooter to observe bullet hits.

Squeeze A term used to define the rearward motion of thetrigger finger on a trigger, until a weapon fires.

Squib round A round of ammunition with little or no powder.

Stake To tighten or secure a screw or pin in place using asharp punch and hammer.

Stippling To roughen a stock to improve grip.

Stock The wooden or plastic part of a firearm, to which theaction and barrel are mounted, and made of a standardmeasurement to fit the average person; either for handfiring or for mounting to the shoulder.

Stock weld The act of fitting the cheeks or face to the side of thestock so that during recoil, the face will remain inplace, retaining a proper sight picture to follow through.

Stoppage An interruption of the cycle of operation.

Stove pipe A malfunction of the weapon resulting in the jamming ofa cartridge case in the action of a weapon, and pointingupward.

Striation Refers to the parallel impressions left on the exteriorof a projectile as a result of passing through the riflingof a firearm.

Striker A firing pin or projection on a hammer which strikes aprimer to cause firing.

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Sustained fire A rate of fire in which fire is sustained over a specificperiod of time. Usually the sustained rate of a militaryfirearm is the number of times per minute that theaverage marksman can successfully engage a man-sized target at battlesight distance.

Swage A method of shaping metal through pressure.

Swivel (a) The piece in a shotgun lock connecting the tumblerand mainspring. (b) In a revolver, the piece connectingthe spring and the hammer. (c) The oblong loop usedto mount the sling strap to the weapon, which pivots.

Tang A metal strip attached to the receiver and projectingtowards the butt to assist in securing the barrel to thestock.

Target The object at which a shooter aims.

Target frame A frame into which a target is mounted.

Telescopic sights Any sight which magnifies an image.

Terminal velocity The constant velocity of a falling body attained when theresistance of air or other ambient fluid has becomeequal to the force of gravity acting on the body.

Tersulphide of antimony A chemical agent used in hardening bullet metals.

Throat A tapered portion of a barrel extending from the endof the chamber to the beginning of the rifling.

Tip shot A slightly elongated bullet hole in a target caused bya bullet that has tipped over in flight and was notrotating truly on its longitudinal axis.

Toe The lowest portion of the butt of a rifle or shotgun.

Tracer A projectile that has a chemical composition, usuallybarium nitrate and strontium salts, which produces avisible trail of flame and smoke to mark the trajectoryto the target, and used to adjust fire.

Trajectory The curve on a vertical plane traced by a bullet, to thetarget, with respect to the line of sight to the target.

Trap A shotgun sport in which clay targets are thrown at afixed height within an angle of 130 degrees.

Triangulation A sighting and aiming exercise.

Trigger A mechanism which, when pulled, as with the finger,releases another mechanism, as in a firearm.

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Trigger control The ability to pull the trigger without movementof the

weapon.

Trigger creep An undesired movement of the trigger before the seardisconnects.

Trigger guard That part of a weapon which prevents accidental pullof the trigger by partially encircling it.

Trigger pull (a) The amount of weight or tension needed to actuatea trigger. (b) Length of trigger travel during actuation.

Trigger stop Prevents excess trigger movement rearward.

Trigger weight Used to determine the amount of pressure required toactuate a trigger.

Tube sight Type of sight enclosed in a tube for protection of thesight elements.

Tumbler The hammer in a so-called hammerless gun.

Twist The distance in inches which a bullet travels within thebarrel before completing one full revolution.

Undercut A term that applies to a front sight of a pistol that has aportion cut forward to reduce glare.

Unload To remove a magazine and/or ammunition.

Unlock To put the safety in a firing position.

Unqualified Not having requisite qualifications; failing to achieve aqualifying score in a match or course of fire.

Velocity Speed, or rate of motion, in a given direction and in agiven frame of reference.

Ventilated rib A strip of metal running the full length of a shotgunbarrel with rectangular holes evenly spaced to helpeliminate heat waves from the line of sight, producinga flat sighting plane.

Vertex The highest point of a trajectory above the weapon.

Vortex A wake or disturbance in the atmosphere caused bythe rapid passage of a projectile through the air..

Wad A material used in shotgun shells to retain powdercharge and control gases.

Wad cutter A bullet that cuts cleanly through a target upon impact,usually having a reduced propellant load.

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Wet fire Slang term used to describe firing live ammunition.

Wild cat An individually developed cartridge not manufacturedcommercially.

Windage Moving the windage adjustment of a weapon tocompensate for wide shots caused either by wind ormisalignment of the sights.

Wind doping Calculating the velocity and direction of the wind byvisual means.

Wind flag A range flag used to show wind direction and velocity.

Wind gauge (a) A device used to calculate and record the force ofwind data. (b) A graduated scale on a rear sight usedto correct deviation of a bullet due to wind effects.

X-count The number of x's or center shots fired.

X-ring An inner circle placed inside the 10-ring of a target forpurposes of ranking scores without numerical changesof the total score.

Yaw Of a projectile, to turn about the vertical axis.

Zero To adjust the sights of a firearm by calibrating theresults of firing.

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Unit Arms Room Operations Checklist

1. Arms Room Administration: GO NO GO N/A

a. Are required -10 and -20 series technical manuals for eachtype of weapon on hand? (DA Pam 25-30, MTOE/TOE/TDA) ____ ____ ____

b. Are all changes to technical manuals and other publicationspresent and properly posted? (DA Pam 310-13) ____ ____ ____

c. Is PS Magazine being distributed to the Arms Room?(TB 43-PS Series) ____ ____ ____

d. Is the ACALA Equipment Improvement Report Digest beingdistributed to the arms room? (TB 43-0001-62 Series) ____ ____ ____

e. Is an adequate stockage of required maintenance forms onhand to support maintenance operations? (DA Pam 738-750) ____ ____ ____

f. Have the Unit Armorer and assistant(s) attended the divisionUnit Armorer Course? ____ ____ ____

g. Is a DD Form 314 properly established for all equipmentrequiring periodic organizational services? (DA Pam 738-750,paragraph 3-3) ____ ____ ____

h. Are required services being properly scheduled on DD Form314 in accordance with technical manual criteria? (DA Pam738-750, paragraph 3-3) ____ ____ ____

i. Are scheduled services performed within 10% time variance?(DA Pam 738-750, paragraph 3-3 b(1)(h)1) ____ ____ ____

j. Is a signaling system used to show the current month'smaintenance requirements? (DA Pam 738-750, paragraph 3-3d) ____ ____ ____

k. Does the unit armorer perform all scheduled maintenance onunassigned equipment? (Equipment TM) ____ ____ ____

l. Are personnel utilizing DA Form 2404 when performing allscheduled services? (DA Pam 738-750, paragraph 3-4 b) ____ ____ ____

m. Is DA Form 2404 being completed and turned in wheneverdeficiencies or shortcomings are noted? (DA Pam 738-750,paragraph 3-4 d(1)) ____ ____ ____

n. Is the DA Form 2404 used for scheduled services kept onfile until the next service is performed? (DA Pam 738-750,paragraph 3-4 d(2)) ____ ____ ____

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GO NO GO N/A

o. Are faults on equipment requiring support maintenance beingpromptly transferred to a DA Form 2407 and submitted to theappropriate DSU for repair? (DA Pam 738-750, para 3-4 d(1)(b)) ____ ____ ____

p. Is the DA Form 2407 being utilized to request annual safetyand serviceability inspection and annual gaging from supportmaintenance? (DA Pam 738-750, paragraph 3-6 b(1)(a)) ____ ____ ____

q. Is documentation on hand to support compliance with annualinspection and gaging requirements? (Equipment TM) ____ ____ ____

r. Is the organizational copy of the DA Form 2407 showingrepairs to unit weapons retained for 180 days? (DA Pam 738-750, paragraph 3-6 e(4)(a)) ____ ____ ____

s. Is a DA Form 2408-4 maintained for each item listed in DAPam 738-750, Appendix E as required? (DA Pam 738-750,paragraph 5-3 f) (i.e., 60 & 81mm Mortars) ____ ____ ____

t. Are all entries on DA Form 2408-4 correct and legible? Are allcumulative totals correct? (DA Pam 738-750, paragraph 5-3 j) ____ ____ ____

u. Are the first and last entries of the DA Form 2408-4 signedonly by the unit commander? (DA Pam 738-750, paragraphs5-3 m(1) & 5-3 m(2)) ____ ____ ____

v. Are DA Forms 2408-4 promptly submitted to WatervlietArsenal each April 10th and October 10th? (DA Pam 738-750,para 5-3 k(1)) ____ ____ ____

w. Does the arms room filing system comply with the MARKSrequirements of DA Pam 25-400-2? ____ ____ ____

x. Are the following publications on hand in the arms room?:

Maintenance Management Update? ____ ____ ____

Physical Security Update? ____ ____ ____

DA Pam 25-400-2, The Modern ArmyRecordkeeping System (MARKS)? ____ ____ ____

DA Pam 310-13, Military Publications,Posting and Filing of Publications? ____ ____ ____

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GO NO GO N/A 2. M60 Machineguns

a. Are all M60 machineguns clean and free of rust? ____ ____ ____

b. Are both barrels for each weapon properly tagged (ID Tag,laced at both ends, painted flat black, with stamped numbers)? ____ ____ ____

c. Is the auxiliary equipment present for all M60 machineguns(barrel bag, pintle, T&E mechanism, glove, combination tool)? ____ ____ ____

d. Are all M60 machineguns properly assembled? ____ ____ ____

e. Are gas cylinders and vent plugs safety wired? ____ ____ ____

f. Are bipod legs in good condition and functioning properly? ____ ____ ____

g. Does the T&E mechanism zero and operate properly? ____ ____ ____

h. Does documentation in the arms room correspondence filesindicate barrel/bolt headspace checks in the last 12 months? ____ ____ ____

i. Are the machineguns free of light-reflecting surfaces? ____ ____ ____

j. Is the phosphate finish on each M60 in good condition andtouched up with solid film lubricant IAW TM requirements? ____ ____ ____

k. Are rear sights unbroken and completely readable? ____ ____ ____

l. Are the cocking handle guide rails free of distortions, burrs,nicks or other deformities? ____ ____ ____

m. Are the proper types and quantities of cleaning tools andsupplies on hand for each M60? ____ ____ ____

n. Are the rubber coatings on the handguard, cover, triggerhousing and buttstock torn, cut or loose? ____ ____ ____

o. Are bolt camming surfaces chipped or worn excessively? ____ ____ ____

p. Are the drive spring and spring guide properly matchedand serviceable? ____ ____ ____

q. Is the hydraulic buffer assembly leaking or completely dry? ____ ____ ____

r. Are the handguard baffles or latch assembly broken? ____ ____ ____

s. Do wear characteristics indicate that barrels are beingroutinely changed IAW TM requirements? ____ ____ ____

t. Are tripod assemblies adjusted properly and in goodworking condition? ____ ____ ____

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GO NO GO N/A3. M16 Series Rifles/M4 Carbines

a. Are all rifles clean and free of rust? ____ ____ ____

b. Are the proper types and quantities of cleaning tools andsupplies on hand for each rifle? ____ ____ ____

c. Are all rifles properly assembled? ____ ____ ____

d. Are the rifles free of light-reflecting surfaces? ____ ____ ____

e. Is the phosphate finish on each rifle in good condition andtouched up with solid film lubricant IAW TM requirements? ____ ____ ____

f. Are compensators tight and properly aligned at topdead center (TDC)? ____ ____ ____

g. Do all rifles function properly in all modes? ____ ____ ____

h. Are pistol grips and buttstocks tightly mounted? ____ ____ ____

i. Are handguard heatshields in place and unbent? ____ ____ ____

j. Do rear sight assemblies operate properly throughout thefull range of motion in elevation and traverse? ____ ____ ____

k. Is the forward assist feed pawl present and functioning? ____ ____ ____

l. Are the bolt carrier gas keys properly aligned, tightened,and free of cuts or tears at the leading edge? ____ ____ ____

m. Are the barrel assemblies properly tightened to the upperreceiver assemblies? ____ ____ ____

n. Are bolt rings in good condition and properly installed? ____ ____ ____

o. Are bolt locking lugs free of chips or excessive wear? ____ ____ ____

p. Are magazine catches adjusted for proper tension andoperating depth? ____ ____ ____

q. Are sling swivels of the proper type and correctly mounted? ____ ____ ____

4. M249 Machineguns

a. Are all M249 machineguns clean and free of rust? ____ ____ ____

b. Are all M249 barrels identified by serial number to themachinegun receiver? ____ ____ ____

c. Are the weapons of current configuration (all MWOs applied)? ____ ____ ____

d. Are all components present and properly functioning? ____ ____ ____

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GO NO GO N/A

e. Are bipod legs in good condition and functioning properly? ____ ____ ____

f. Are the proper types and quantities of cleaning tools andsupplies on hand for each M249? ____ ____ ____

g. Are the cocking handle stop pins secure? ____ ____ ____

h. Are cocking handle front tabs excessively worn? ____ ____ ____

i. Are cocking handles bent or distorted? ____ ____ ____

j. Does the unit armorer make front sight adjustments at thefiring range during zero phase? ____ ____ ____

k. Are all receiver welds free of cracks or pits? ____ ____ ____

l. Are compensators tight and properly aligned at topdead center (TDC)? ____ ____ ____

m. Is the phosphate finish on each M249 in good condition andtouched up with solid film lubricant IAW TM requirements? ____ ____ ____

n. Does the T&E mechanism zero and operate properly if used? ____ ____ ____

5. Mk19 40mm Machinegun

a. Are all Mk19 machineguns clean and free of rust? ____ ____ ____

b. Are all Mk19 machineguns properly assembled? ____ ____ ____

c. Is required safety wiring present and properly installed? ____ ____ ____

d. Are dummy rounds, M922, DODIC B472 available for functionchecking of Mk19's IAW PMCS tables? ____ ____ ____

e. Is the vertical cam assembly free of pits, nicks and burrs? ____ ____ ____

f. Are charging lugs burred or damaged? ____ ____ ____

g. Are only the authorized lubricants used by the Mk19 operator?(LSA, LSA-T, GMD, LAW) ____ ____ ____

6. M2 .50 Caliber Machinegun

a. Are all M2 machineguns clean and free of rust? ____ ____ ____

b. Is the auxiliary equipment present for each M2? (Barrels,headspace & timing gages, mounts, pintle and T&E) ____ ____ ____

c. Are all M2 machineguns properly assembled? ____ ____ ____

d. Are cotter pins and safety wire present where needed? ____ ____ ____

203

GO NO GO N/A

e. Are rear sight components functioning properly? ____ ____ ____

f. Are the proper types and quantities of cleaning tools andsupplies on hand for each M2? ____ ____ ____

g. Are the feeding system components properly configured? ____ ____ ____

h. Is the backplate lock latch of the proper type? ____ ____ ____

i. Are the barrel locking notches worn? ____ ____ ____

j. Does the T&E mechanism zero and operate properly? ____ ____ ____

k. Are the tripod leg extension lock assemblies operational? ____ ____ ____

l. Are all receiver rivets tight and secure? ____ ____ ____

m. Is the retracting slide handle assembly spring present andin good condition? ____ ____ ____

n. Is the flat spring for the trigger lever adjustment stop nutpresent and in good condition? ____ ____ ____

7. Pistol, M9

a. Are the pistols clean and free of rust? ____ ____ ____

b. Are the pistols properly assembled? ____ ____ ____

c. Are the pistols free of light-reflecting surfaces? ____ ____ ____

d. Are lock washers present beneath handgrip screws? ____ ____ ____

e. Do the pistols function properly? ____ ____ ____

f. Are recoil springs serviceable (TM9-1005-317-23&P, PMCStable, item 2, page 2-6)? ____ ____ ____

8. Grenade Launcher, 40mm, M203

a. Are the grenade launchers clean and free of rust? ____ ____ ____

b. Are all grenade launchers properly assembled? ____ ____ ____

c. Are all grenade launchers securely mounted to M16 seriesrifles, and absent of any excessive lateral or end play? ____ ____ ____

d. Are M203 barrel extensions loose? ____ ____ ____

e. Are M203 barrel grips secure and unbroken? ____ ____ ____

204

GO NO GO N/A

f. Are M203 mounts properly safety wired? ____ ____ ____

g. Are barrel assemblies free of dents or burrs? ____ ____ ____

h. Do all M203 grenade launchers function properly? ____ ____ ____

i. Are all breech inserts at flush or a maximum of .007 inchesbelow flush with respect to the face of the recoil plate? ____ ____ ____

9. Mortar, 60mm, M224 and Mortar, 81mm, M252

a. Are all mortars clean and free of rust? ____ ____ ____

b. Is all auxiliary equipment present and in good condition? ____ ____ ____

c. Have tubes been borescoped and inspected IAW with TM? ____ ____ ____

e. Are bipod assemblies functional and in good condition? ____ ____ ____

f. Are all radioactive items and cases properly labeled? ____ ____ ____

g. Are baseplate assemblies functional and in good condition? ____ ____ ____

h. Does the M224 mortar function properly in each mode? ____ ____ ____

10. Sniper System, M24

a. Have the snipers attended required schools? (Only schooltrained snipers may perform unit level maintenance on the M24system) ____ ____ ____

b. Are all components of the weapon system present in theshipping case? ____ ____ ____

c. Is the nylon carrying bag in good condition? ____ ____ ____

d. Is the weapon visually clean and free of rust? (Only the snipermay disassemble the weapon) ____ ____ ____

e. Are deficiencies above the operator level being corrected bythe manufacturer? (No DS/GS level maintenance authorized) ____ ____ ____

f. Are optics free of scratches, distortion and inner moisture? ____ ____ ____

11. Small Arms Toolkit

a. Are tool inventories conducted on a recurring basis? ____ ____ ____

b. Is a copy of SC 5180-95-CL-A07-HR kept in the arms room? ____ ____ ____

205

GO NO GO N/A

c. Is the toolbox in good repair and have a functioning lock? ____ ____ ____

d. Are broken, worn or unserviceable tools turned in forreplacement as needed? ____ ____ ____

e. Is the file cleaning brush used to keep files in working order? ____ ____ ____

f. Are special tools as required by TM's on hand? ____ ____ ____

206

Arms Room Publications Reference

The following listing provides the designations for the manuals and publications most commonlyused in the unit arms room by unit maintenance personnel. Operator manuals and DS/GSmanuals are not included in this listing. Field manuals are listed to provide the armorer with anoperational overview of the equipment. The user is cautioned that some of the publicationsreferenced may have been superseded, revoked or rescinded since the date this manual wasprinted. The user must verify that the following publications are current.

EQUIPMENT PUBLICATIONS

60mm Mortar, M224 FM 23-90

60mm Mortar, M224 TM9-1010-223-20&P

81mm Mortar, M252 FM 23-90

81mm Mortar, M252 TM9-1015-249-20&P

81mm Mortar, M29A1 FM 23-90

81mm Mortar, M29A1 TM9-1015-200-20&P

Abbreviations, Codes & Acronyms AR 310-50

ACALA EIR Digest TB43-0001-62 Series

Ammunition, General TM9-1300-200

Basic Cold Weather Manual FM 31-70

Bayonet, M7/M8/M9 TM9-1005-237-23&P

Blank Firing Attachment, M19 TM9-1005-314-12&P

Blank Firing Attachment, M21 TM9-1005-316-12&P

Browning Machinegun, M2, .50 Caliber HB FM 23-65

Dictionary of US Army Terms AR 310-25

Evaluation of Cannon Tubes TM9-1000-202-14

Grenade Launcher, 40mm, M203 FM 23-31

Grenade Launcher, 40mm, M203 TM9-1010-221-23&P

M16A1/A2 Rifle Marksmanship FM 23-9

M2 Practice Bolt TM9-6920-746-12&P

207

Machinegun, .50 Caliber, M2 TM9-1005-213-23

Machinegun, .50 Caliber, M2 TM9-1005-213-23P

Machinegun, .50 Caliber, M85 TM9-1005-231-24&P

Machinegun, 40mm, Mk19 FM 23-27

Machinegun, 40mm, Mk19 TM9-1010-230-23&P

Machinegun, 5.56mm, M249 FM 23-14

Machinegun, 5.56mm, M249 TM9-1005-201-23&P

Machinegun, 7.62mm, M240 TM9-1005-313-23

Machinegun, 7.62mm, M240 TM9-1005-313-23P

Machinegun, 7.62mm, M60 FM 23-67

Machinegun, 7.62mm, M60 TM9-1005-224-24

Machinegun, 7.62mm, M60 TM9-1005-224-24P

Modern Army Record Keeping System AR 25-400-2

Physical Security of Arms, Ammunition & Explosives AR 190-11

Pistol and Revolver Training FM 23-35

Pistol, 9mm, M9 TM9-1005-317-23&P

Pistol, Compact, 9mm, M11 TM9-1005-325-23&P

Posting and Filing of Publications DA Pam 310-13

Preparing and Managing Correspondence AR 340-15

Procedures for Destruction of Equipment TM750-244-7

Recoil Amplifier, M3 TM9-1005-203-12&P

Rifle, 5.56mm, M16A1 TM9-1005-249-23&P

Rifle, 5.56mm, M16A2 TM9-1005-319-23&P

Rocket Launcher, M190 TM9-1340-203-20

Shotgun, 12 Gauge, M1200 TM9-1005-303-14

Small Arms Ammunition (NATO) TB34-9-74

Small Arms Ammunition to 30mm TB9-1305-201-34

208

Sniper Training FM 23-10

Submachinegun, .45 Caliber, M3/M3A1 TM9-1005-229-12

Submachinegun, 5.56mm, M231 TM9-1005-309-23&P

Tool Kit, Small Arms Repairman SC 5180-95-CL-A07-HR

Unit Maintenance Operations FM 43-5

Use and Care of Hand Tools TM9-243

Various Machinegun Mounts TM9-1005-245-14

209

Recommended Reading List

The following publications are recommended for both the casual and seriousstudent of firearms technology. Many of these publications are still in print andcan be purchased at local gun shows or ordered through bookstores. (You willfind that most national chain bookstores are politically oriented towards theliberal “arts” crowd, and will have few, if any, serious books on guns).

Your local public library can always obtain books, even rare ones, through aprocess called inter-library loan. If your local library does not have one of thesebooks on the shelf, pester the librarian to order it for you through I-LL.

Archer, Denis, H. R., ed. “Jane’s Infantry Weapons”, Jane’s Publishers, 1976

Lugs, Jaroslav, “Firearms Past and Present: a Complete Review of FirearmsSystems and Their Histories”, 2 volumes, Grenville Press, 1975

Wilson, R. K. (with Hogg, Ian), “Textbook of Automatic Pistols”, StackpoleBooks, 1975

Sharpe,Philip B, “The Rifle in America”, Funk and Wagnall’s, 1947

Chinn, George M, “The Machine Gun”, 4 volumes, US Govt Printing Office,1951-1954

Olson, Ludwig, “Mauser Bolt Rifles”, Brownell & Son, 1977

Nelson, Thomas B, “The World’s Submachine Guns (Machine Pistols)”, Volume1, International Small Arms Publishers, 1963

“Textbook of Small Arms, 1929”, author unknown, Holland Press, 1961

Wahl, Paul, “Carbine Handbook”, ARCO, 1964

Hatcher, Julian S, “The Book of The Garand”, Infantry Journal Press, 1948

Matunas, Edawrd, “American Ammunition and Ballistics”, Winchester Press,1979

Greener, W. W., “The Gun and Its Development”, Bonanza Books, 1910

Lowry, E. D., “Interior Ballistics”, Doubleday & Co., 1968

210

End of Course Examination

1. Does MARKS apply to classified as well as unclassified materials?

ANSWER: ________________________

2. What publication prescribes the method of posting changes to manuals?

ANSWER: ________________________

3. What maintenance level is represented by the code letter “F”.

ANSWER: ________________________

4. What is the Federal Supply Class for pyrotechnics?

ANSWER: ________________________

5. If a technical manual includes a parts listing, how is that shown in the TMnumber?

ANSWER: ________________________

6. Why should technical manuals be maintained in sturdy, waterproof binders?

ANSWER: ________________________

7. What is an SSSC?

ANSWER: ________________________

8. What does the acronym “ULLS” stand for?

ANSWER: ________________________

9. Which items in your arms room require the use of a DD Form 314?

ANSWER: ________________________

10. What is an ECOD?

ANSWER: ________________________

211

11. What are the principal means of destroying weapons per TM 750-244-7?

a. __________________b. __________________c. __________________d. __________________

12. What is a cookoff?

ANSWER: ________________________

13. What is “gilding metal”?

ANSWER: ________________________

14. For what purposes are wadcutter rounds primarily used?

ANSWER: ________________________

15. Who invented the Berdan primer?

ANSWER: ________________________

16. What is the shape factor value for a hollow point round?

ANSWER: ________________________

17. What two things do you need to make you effective in engaging targets whileavoiding friendly casualties?

a. ____________________b. ____________________

18. Are the ballistics for the M193 and M855 (5.56mm) rounds identical?

ANSWER: ________________________

19. What occurs if the gas piston is installed backwards in an M60 machinegun?

ANSWER: ________________________

20. In what year was the Browning M2 machinegun adopted?

ANSWER: ________________________

212

Examination Answer Keys

Chapter 1 Examination Answer Key:

1. files managementpublications managementsupply managementmaintenance managementphysical security

2. Prescribed Load List

3. As required by the PMCS listing in the appropriate technical manual

4. fair wear and tearacceptable training damagebattle damagenegligencewillful misconduct

5. know the paths to the defensive fighting positions know the personnel in the positions, and make sure they know you share your knowledge of the weapon with the operator anticipate failure, prepare for failure, and deal with failure

6. C, O, F, H, and D

7. AR 25-400-2

8. AR 190-11

9. as directed by the unit commanderas dictated by climate conditionsprior to engaging in offensive operationsduring recovery from offensive operationsimmediately following defensive operations

10. source, maintenance and recoverability code

213

Chapter 2 Examination Answer Key:

1. feeding chambering locking firing unlocking extracting ejecting cocking

2. radiationalconductionconvection

3. manualgas

recoil blowback

4. charcoalsulfur

potassium nitrate (saltpeter)

5. A powder using nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine as its primary elements

6. Boxer Berdan

7. 437.5

8. 1.0472 inches

9. In foot-pounds of energy

10. John Moses Browning

214

Chapter 3 Examination Answer Key:

1. almost all accidents are avoidableeveryone involved owns some responsibilityyou must be proactive in your approach to safety

2. target detectiontarget identificationtarget assessmenttarget acquisitiontarget destruction

3. safe to carry safe to fire

4. judgment reaction time

5. no

6. The tasks performed by the body that require no application of consciousthought

7. Timed to the respiratory cycle

8. the eyesrear sightfront sightline of sighttargeteye relief

9. The point of the front sight is placed at the lowest point in the center of thetarget

10. The highest point of the trajectory over the line of sight

215

Chapter 4 Examination Answer Key:

1. TM 9-243

2. simple spring joint hermaphrodite slide vernier trammels

3. inside outside depth

4. machinist’s peen hammer soft-faced hammer

5. When gripping or cutting is to be performed

6. To cut wires or nails flush with the working surface

7. adjustable hookfixed hook

hose coupling pin adjustable pin face fixed pin face

8. The radius of a curve

9. american pattern swiss pattern

10. The inside diameter of a bore

216

End of Course Examination Answer Key:

1. yes

2. DA Pamphlet 310-13

3. direct support

4. 1370

5. By the inclusion of the letter “P”

6. Because you will take them to the field

7. Self-Service Supply Center

8. Unit Level Logistics System

9. Any item that has periodic maintenance requirements, established by itsrespective organizational maintenance manual

10. Estimated Cost of Damage

11. burning mechanical means explosives or gunfire scattering and burial of parts

12. a round that spontaneously ignites due to residual heat in the chamber

13. a metal used in bullet jackets, composed of 85% copper and 15% zinc

14. Target shooting and competition

15. Colonel Hiram Berdan

16. 1.25

17. situational awareness positional awareness

18. no

217

19. The weapon may fire only a single shot

20. 1934