Aristo Tel Esz Funciona Liz Musa

7/28/2019 Aristo Tel Esz Funciona Liz Musa

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History of Psychology Copyright 1998 by the Educational Publishing Foundation1998, Vol. 1, No. 1, 8- 20 1093-4510/98/53.00

T H E T H O R O U G H L Y M O D E R N A R I S T O T L E :W a s H e R e a l l y a F u n c t i o n a l is t ?

Chris topher D. GreenYork UniversityIn recent years a debate has developed over whether Aristotle's theory of the psuch~is properly characterized as having been "functionalist" in the sense that contempo-rary computational cognitive scientists claim to be adherents of that position. It isargued here that there are indeed some similarities between Aristotle's theory andthat of contemporary functionalists but that the differences between them make itmisleading, at best, for functionalists to look to Aristotle for ancient support. Inparticular, it is argued that Aristotle would not have--indeed, specifically didnot--support the claim, central to functionalism, that the mind can in principle betransported from one body to another simply by instantiating in the new body someset of organizational properties that were instantiated in the old.

Aristotle's theory o f the psuch~was firmly rooted in his broader metaphysics,according to which all things are a combination of matter, or hul~--a sometimesshadowy, indefinite stuff with the potential to become almost an yth ing--an d form,or morph~,which transforms matter into actual particular things. For instance, takesome bronze, add the form of Pericles, and you have a statue of the great Atheniangeneral. In this very simple case, "form" reduces to something very much like"sha pe." The meaning is much broader than this, however. Take some wood, forinstance, add the form of a chair, and you have a chair. Notice here that the "f or m"does not just mean the shape of a chair but includes something of its functionalcharacteristics as well. If you doubt this, imagine what would happen if you triedto add the "form" of a chair to some soapsuds. Although form was clearlydominant in Aristotle's metaphysical thinking, matter was not by any meansexcluded utterly, as is sometimes implied. Matter was thought to be necessary, justnot sufficient. Finally, consider a third example tha t brings us closer to the topic ofthis article: Take a human body, combine it with the "f or m" of life, and you have aliving human. In this case, the term form has to do almost entirely withfunction--biological and psychological function, broadly speaking--rather thanshape. This particular form- -th e one that turns a body into a living hum an--w aswhat Aristotle identified as the psuchL To be fair, Aristotle did not believe thatmatter and form were "added" together, like so many things in a recipe. Thataspect of these examples is purely pedagogical. Matter and form were tools ofconceptual analysis, ways of getting at the definitions and explanations of things.This metaphysical framework, in which things are analyzed with respect to theirform and matter, is called hylomorphism.Beyond these basic principles, however, almost every aspect of the interpreta-tion of Aristotle's theory of the psuch~has generated controversy. It is perhaps not

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Christopher D. Green,Department of Psychology,York University,North York, Ontario, Canada M3J 1P3. Electronic mailmay be sent to [email protected]. Christopher D. Green's World Wide Web address is http://www.yorku.ca/faculty/academic/christo.


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ARISTOTLE AND FUNCTIONALISMs u r p r is i n g t h a t t h e d e b a t e a b o u t w h a t s o r t o f t h e o r y A r i s t o t le p r o p o s e d h a s , a t l e a s to v e r t h e la s t f e w d e c a d e s , p r e t t y w e l l t r a c k e d t h e d e b a t e a b o u t w h a t s o r t o f a th e o r yo f m i n d i s a c t u a l l y tr u e . B e c a u s e A r i s t o t l e 's t h e o r y o f th e psuch~ s e e m s to h a v e s om u c h t o d o w i t h " f u n c t i o n , " t h e r e h a s b e e n a m o v e m e n t o f la t e to a s s i m i la t e h i st h o u g h t o n t h e t o p i c t o c o n t e m p o r a r y c o m p u t a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n a l i s m . 1 I n t h i s a r t ic l e Ic r i ti c a l ly r e v i e w t h e l e a d i n g i n t e r p re t a t io n s o f A r i s t o t l e ' s t h e o r y o f t h epsuch~ o v e rt he l a s t 15 yea r s , pa r t i cu l a r l y thos e t ha t c l a i m t ha t Ar i s t o t l e was a f unc t i ona l i s t wi t hr e s p e c t to t h e r e la t i o n b e t w e e n b o d y a n d psuch~. A r e v i e w i s n o t th e s o l e p u r p o s eo f t h is a r t ic l e , h o w e v e r . I c o n c l u d e b y a r g u i n g t h a t th e r e i s a g e n e r a l s e n s e i n w h i c hA r i s t o t l e m i g h t b e c o n s i d e r e d t o h a v e b e e n a d i s t a n t re l a t iv e o f c o m p u t a t i o n a lf u n c t i o n a li s t s b u t t h a t it c o u r t s s e r i o u s e r r o r a n d g l a r in g a n a c h r o n i s m t o c o n s t r u et h i s in a w ay t ha t pu t s Ar i s t o t l e a t t he head o f a l i ne o f t houg h t t ha t l e ads d i r ec t l y t ot h a t s c h o o l o f t h o u g h t ( v iz . , a r t i f i c i a l- i n t e l li g e n c e - i n s p i r e d c o g n i t iv e s c i e n c e ).I f i rs t e x a m i n e s o m e o f t h e h i s t o r ic a l l y m o r e s i g n i f ic a n t o p t io n s w i t h r e s p e c t tom i n d - b o d y r e la t io n s . S u b s t a n c e d u a l i s m i s a p o s it io n a d v a n c e d b y R e n 6 D e s c a r te si n th e 1 7 th c e n t u r y . I t h o l d s t h a t t h e r e a r e s e p a ra t e " s u b s t a n c e s " c o r r e s p o n d i n g t ot h e b o d y ( v iz . , m a t t e r) a n d t h e m i n d . D e s c a r t e s c a l l e d t h is m e n t a l s u b s t a n c e t h e re scogitans. D e s c a r t e s ' s p o s i ti o n c a m e u n d e r a t t a c k a l m o s t i m m e d i a te l y . O n e o f t h em o s t d a m a g i n g c r i ti c i sm s w a s t h a t i f t h e m i n d i s t h o u g h t t o c a u s e t h e b o d y t om o v e , a s D e s c a r t e s b e l i e v e d , h o w c a n a n i m m a t e r i a l m e n t a l s u b s t a n c e c a u s e t h em a t e r i a l s u b s t a n c e o f th e b o d y t o d o a n y t h i n g ? C a u s e i s a r e l a ti o n t r a d i ti o n a l l yt h o u g h t t o h o l d o n l y b e t w e e n t w o ( o r m o r e ) m a t e r i a l e n t it ie s . P a r t l y a s a re s u l t o ft h i s c r i t i q u e , p e o p l e v e r y s o o n b e g a n w o r k i n g t o d e v e l o p monist t h e o r i e s - -t h e o r i e s th a t p o s i t o n l y o n e k i n d o f b a s i c s u b s t a n c e .T h e r e a r e , o b v i o u s l y , t w o b a s i c m o n i s t a l t e r n a t i v e s t o D e s c a r t e s : i d e a l i s m ,w h i c h p o s i t s t h a t th e r e i s o n l y m e n t a l s u b s t a n c e ( a n d t h a t th e b o d y , a n d a ll o t h e rm a t t e r , i s j u s t a " p r o j e c t i o n , " o r s o m e s u c h , o f t h e m i n d ) , a n d m a t e r ia l i s m , w h i c hp o s i ts t h a t t h e r e is o n l y m a t e r i a l s u b s ta n c e ( a n d t h a t t h e m i n d i s s o m e h o w m a t e ri a l,o r d o e s n o t e x i s t at a ll ). O n e v e r y w e l l - k n o w n s o r t o f m a t e r ia l i st th e o r y o f th e m i n d( p e r h a p s, b e t te r , an " a n t i - t h e o r y " o f m i n d ) i s b e h a v i o r i s m . B e h a v i o r i s m2 ho l dst h a t al l m e n t a l t a l k ( e .g . , " H o r a t i o w a n t s t o p l a y b a s e b a l l . " ) i s r e a l l y j u s t t a l k a b o u td i s p o s i t i o n s t o b e h a v e i n c e r t a i n w a y s ( e . g . , " G i v e n a p p r o p r i a t e c o n d i t i o n s ,H o r a t io i s l ik e l y to p l a y b a s e b a l l . " ) ( S o m e b e h a v i o r i s ts h a v e a r g u e d t h a t t h e y a r en o t m a t e r i a li s t s b u t a r e " a g n o s t i c " a b o u t a ll m e t a p h y s i c a l q u e s t io n s , i n th e m a n n e ro f t h e l o g i c a l p o s it iv i s ts . F o r m y p r e s e n t p u r p o s e s t h e y c o u n t a s m a t e ri a li s ts i n a tl e a s t t h e m i n i m a l s e n s e t h a t t h e y d o n o t p r o p o s e a n y n o n m a t e r i a l s u b s t a n c e s a n da r e i n c l i n e d to t r e a t th e i n v e s t i g a t io n o f a n i m a l b e h a v i o r i n p r e c i s e ly t h e s a m e w a yt h e y w o u l d t r e a t t h e b e h a v i o r o f n o n l i v i n g e n t i ti e s, s u c h a s p l a n e t s, s ta r s, a n dc h e m i c a l s . )

A n o t h e r m a t e r i a li s t th e o r y o f m i n d , c a l l e d physicalism, a l so w a s p o p u l a r i n t h em i d d l e o f th e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y . O n e f o r m o f p h y s i c a l is m3 pop u l a r i n t he 1950s ho l ds

ILest there be any confusion, this article does not discuss the possibil ity that there may be somesort of connection between Aristotle's position on the psuch~and a position called functionalism hatwas advocated by Dewey, Angell, Carr, and others during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.2The are many different specific formulations of behaviorism. The one discussed here is the oneentertained by philosophers, particularly Gilbert Ryle (1949), during the middle of the 20th century.Others, formulated by psychologists such as Watson, Tolman, Hull, and Skinner, differ somewhat.3See, in particular, Feigl (1960/1970) and Smart (1959/1970).


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10 GREENt h at a n y t h in g o n e s a y s a b o u t t h e m i n d c a n - - a n d s h o u l d, i f o n e w a n t s t o b es c i e n t i f i c - - b e r e d e s c r i b e d a s s o m e t h i n g a b o u t t h e a c t iv i t y o f t h e b r ai n . T h i s i s as t r o n g l y r e d u c t i v e f o r m o f m a t e r i a l i s m i n th a t i t c l a i m s t h a t d e s c r i p t i o n s o f m e n t a le v e n t s c a n b e " r e d u c e d " t o d e s cr i p ti o n s a b o u t n e u r o l o g ic a l o n e s . P u t a n o t h e r w a y ,i t c l a i m s t h a t m e n t a l e v e n t s a n d b r a i n e v e n t s a r e i d e n ti c a l. F o r t h i s re a s o n t h is f o r mo f p h y s i c a l is m i s s o m e t i m e s c a l le d i d e n t i t y t h e o r y . O n e i m p o r t a n t i m p l i c a t i o n o fp h y s i c a l i s m i s t h a t th e r e n e e d n o t b e s u c h a t h in g a s c o n s c i o u s n e s s , o n e o f t h ep r i m a r y a t t ri b u t e s o f D e s c a r t e s ' s r e s c o g i t a n s ( b u t s e e P l a c e , 1 9 5 6 ).

A t a b o u t t h e s a m e t i m e t h a t p h y s i c a l is m r o s e t o p ro m i n e n c e , i t a l so b e c a m ep o p u l a r t o c l a i m t h a t A r i s t o tl e 's t h e o r y w a s o f r e n e w e d i m p o r t a n c e p r e c i s e l yb e c a u s e i t h a d b e e n p h y s i c a l i s t ( t h o u g h A r i s t o t l e , o r c o u r s e , n e v e r s a i d s o ,s p e c i f ic a l l y ); h e n e v e r s e e m e d t o s a y a n y t h in g s p e c i f i c a ll y a b o u t c o n s c i o u s n e s s i nD e a n i m a 4 o r h is o t h e r w o r k s ( g i v e n s o m e n a r r o w i n t e rp r e t a ti o n s o f ce r t a in w o r d ss u c h a s a i s t h e s i s , " s e n s a t i o n " o r " p e r c e p t i o n " ) . T h i s i s w h e r e o u r s t o r y a b o u t t h em o d e m i n t e rp r e t a ti o n o f A r i s t o t l e b e g i n s .P r e l i m i n a r y S p a r ri n g : E a r l y D e p a r t u r e s F r o m t h e P h y s i c a l i s t I n te r p r e t a ti o no f A r i s t o t l e

I n t h e e a r l y 1 9 7 0 s J o n a t h a n B a r n e s ( 1 9 7 1 - 1 9 7 2 / 1 9 7 9 ) a r g u e d t h a t t h e p o s i t i o ni n f a v o r o f A r i s t o t l e ' s h a v i n g b e e n a p h y s i c a l i s t i s e r r o n e o u s ( p . 3 2 ) . A l t h o u g h h ec o n c e d e d t h a t A r i s t o t l e n e v e r p r o p o s e d a m e n t a l s u b s t a n c e , a s h a d D e s c a r t e s , t h isd i d n o t c o m m i t A r i s t o t l e t o p h y s i c a l i s m , a s h a d o f t e n b e e n s u p p o s e d ( p . 3 4 ) .I n s t e a d , B a r n e s c l a i m e d t h a t A r i s t o t l e ' s t h e o r y i s b o t h n o n s u b s t a n t i a l i s t ( i . e . ,c l a i m i n g t h a t t h e r e i s n o m e n t a l s u b s t a n c e ) a n d n o n p h y s i c a l i s t ( i .e ., c l a im i n g t h a tth e p s u c h ~ i s n o t c o m p l e t e l y r e d e s c r i b a b l e i n p u r e l y p h y s i c a l t e r m s ) . T h e q u e s t i o n ,t hen , f o r Ba rne s w as t o a r t i cu l a t e a m a te r i a l i s t i n t e rp re t a t i on o f Ar i s to t l e ( fo r i fA r i s t o t le w e r e n o t a m a t e r ia l is t , t h e n t h e r e w o u l d b e l i tt le p o i n t i n d i s c u s s i n g h i mse r ious ly a t a l l i n t he Z e i t g e i s t of the ea r ly 1970s ) , w i thou t i ts be ing s t r i c t l yp h y s i c a l i s t . W h a t B a r n e s u l t i m a t e l y a r g u e d w a s t h a t A r i s t o t l e ' s t h e o r y h o l d s t h a tth e p s u c h ~ i s o n l y a n a t t ri b u t e o r p r o p e r t y o f t h e m a t t e r o f w h i c h t h e b o d y i sc o m p o s e d ( i n th e s e n s e t h a t a f u n c t i o n i n g b o d y c a n b e s a i d t o h a v e t h e p r o p e r t y o fb e i n g a l iv e , b u t t h e r e i s n o p a r ti c u l a r m a t e r ia l p a r t t h a t c a n b e c r e d i t e d w i t h g i v i n gl i f e t o t h e b o d y ) . T h i s p o s i t i o n i s s o m e t i m e s c a l l e d p r o p e r t y d u a l i s m b e c a u s e ,a l t h o u g h i t d e n i e s t h a t t h e r e i s a m e n t a l s u b s t a n c e o f t h e s o r t th a t D e s c a r t e sp r o p o s e d , i t a c c e p t s t h a t t h e r e m a y b e m e n t a l p r o p e r t i e s ( s u c h a s s e n s a t i o n s a n dc o n s c i o u s n e s s ) t h a t a re s o m e h o w p r o d u c t s o f t h e ( o r g a n iz a t i o n o f th e ) m a t t e r o ft h e b o d y . A l t h o u g h B a r n e s d e n i e d b e l i e v i n g A r i s t o t l e 's t h e o r y t o b e c o r r e c t , h e s a i dt h a t i t s e e m s " a t l e a s t a s g o o d a b u y a s a n y t h i n g e l s e c u r r e n t l y o n t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a lm a r k e t. P h i l o s o p h y o f m i n d h a s f o r c e n tu r i es b e e n w h i r l e d b e t w e e n a C a r t e s ia nCh a ryb d i s and a s c i en t i f i c [ i. e ., phys i ca l i s t ] S cy l l a : Ar i s t o t l e ha s t he l ook o f anO d y s s e u s " ( p. 4 1 ) . 5

41 have mad e use of several translations o f De anima in the writing of this article. Am ong thesewere L awson-Tan cred's (1986), Hicks's (19 93, in Du rrant's Aristotle's De anima in Focus), andHett 's (1986). I ha ve also, of course, had s om e recourse to Smith's (1941, in M cKeon's The BasicWorks o f Aristotle, and B arnes's (1984, in The Complete Works of Aristotle).5Scylla and C harybdis we re said in Greek m yth to be two monsters that guard the Straits ofMessina, between Italy and Sicily. The story of Od ysseus's navigation past them is told in B ook XIIof the Odyssey.


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ARISTOTLEAND FUNCTIONALISM 11Richard Sorabji (1974) argued against both the traditional physicalist view of

Aristotle's theory and Barnes's "attribute theory," as well as against the view,which he said was still held by some, that Aristotle was a dualist of the Cartesiansort. 6 Instead, he claimed, "Aris totl e's view is something sui generis. It is not to beidentified with the positions of more recent philosophers" (p. 64). Sorabji wasmost impressed with Aristotle's comparison of the relation of the psuchd and thebody to that holding between a house and the bricks of which it is made. Thesecannot be identical, as physicalism argues, because, as Sorabji pointed out, the"bricks can outlast the house" (p. 78). Aristotle's view was not Cartesian either,however, because he believed the psuch~ to be dependent for its existence on thebody in a way Descartes did not (just like a house is dependent on the bricks out ofwhich it is made for its existence). Descartes believed the mind to be separablefrom the body, at least in principle. Aristotle stated several times, however, tha t it isnot. 7 Thus, Sorabji claimed, "Aristo tle improves on some present-day materialists,and on Descartes" (p. 78). Sorabji's ultimate interpretation of Aristotle's theory isdifficult to paraphrase. He focuses on Aristotle's claim (in De motu an imal ium)that desire is just a heating of the blood around the heart. This heating is said tocause an expansion which, in turn, moves the body. Given this account, Sorabjiargued, the fact "that desire should cause movement is no more (and no less)puzzling than that heating around the heart would cause expansion. But if desireslead to movement, then there is a sense in which the capaci ty for desire isresponsible for movement" (p. 86). The capacity itself is not material, though it isdependent on being composed of particular materials, just as the house isdependent on being made of certain materials to satisfy its function of being ashelter (consider, for instance, a house made of tissues). Because Aristotle saidrepeatedly that the psuch~ is a set of functions or capacities (for nutrition,perception, etc.), Sorabji concluded that "this in turn means that the [psuch~] isresponsible for mov ement" (p. 86).Even though Sorabji claimed not to want to assimilate Aristotle's theory to anymodern one, Howard M. Robinson (1978) argued that Sorabji's interpretation isvery close to being functionalist. Functionalism8 is another (at least faintly)materialist view of mind that rose to a scendancy when physicalism and behavior-ism began to fall out of favor in the 1960s and 1970s. Recall that behaviorism says,roughly, that mental talk is "reall y" just talk about dispositions to behave in certainways. Functionalism, to a first approximation, is the claim that this is not quitegood enough. According to functionalists, the disposition to behave in a certainway must be accompanied by some sort of "internal state" for that disposition tobe considered psychological. A cone, for instance, when set upon its point, might

6Sorabji (1974, p. 70), in fact, assimilatedBarnes's view to that of the Cartesian, arguing hat thetrue materialist (he cited Rorty, 1970) must give up talk of mental properties altogether.7Only he "active intellect,"discussed brieflyand obscurely n 111.5of D e anima, was said to beimmortal, unchangeable, and separable from the body. It apparently flies in the face of the rest ofAristotle's theory of thepsuch~ and thus haunts much of the current discussion, n the sense that fewdiscuss it openly but everyone knows it is there, lurking in the background. As do most, I discuss itbelow only very briefly,for if it is taken at face value hen there is no point in Aristotle's theoryas aninteresting alternative o Cartesian dualism. The rest of the theory, however, has much of interest tooffer.SAgain, this shouldnot be confusedwith he evolutionary unctionalismof Dewey,Angell, Carr,and others.


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12 GREEN

b e s a i d to h a v e a d i s p o s it i o n t o f a ll o v e r , b u t t h i s d o e s n o t w a r r a n t p s y c h o l o g i c a lde s c r i p t i ons o f it s behav i o r ( e . g . , tha t i t want s t o f a ll ). Ps ych o l og y , t hen , a cco r d i ngt o t he f unc t i ona l i s t , i s t he s t ud y o f the s t r uc t u r e o f t he s e i n t e r na l s t a t e s, no t j u s t t h ei den t i f i c a t ion o f t he d i s pos i t i ons f o r w h i ch t h ey a r e r e s pons i b l e . I n t he 1960s, t hes t r u c t u r e s o f t h e s e i n t e r n a l s t a t e s b e g a n t o b e e x p l o r e d b y w a y o f a t t e m p t s t os i m u la t e t h e m w i th c o m p u t e r p ro g r a m s o f v a r io u s k i n d s. T h e c l a i m t h a t th ei n t e r n a l s t a t e s m u s t o p e r a t e i n t h e s a m e w a y a s c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s i s c a l l e dcomputat ional funct ional i sm a n d i s th e g r o u n d o f m u c h o f t h e w o r k d o n e i na r ti fi c ia l i n t e l l ig e n c e a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y c o g n i t i v e s c i en c e . 9

O n e o f th e k e y i m p l i c a t io n s o f f u n c t i o n a l i s m is t h a t m i n d s c a n , i n p r in c i p le , b e" t r a n s p o r t e d " i n to a n y p h y s i c a l s y s t e m t h a t c a n b e a r r a n g e d s o a s t o p r e s e r v e th ef u n c t i o n a l re l a ti o n s . T h u s , a h u m a n m i n d c o u l d , f o r i n s t a n c e , b e i n s t a n ti a t e d in a ne l e c t r o n i c c o m p u t e r , p r o v i d e d t h e c o m p u t e r w a s p r o g r a m m e d p r o p e r l y ( t h ef a m o u s a r t if ic i a l i n t e l li g e n c e r e s e a r c h e r M a r v i n M i n s k y h a s e v e n s u g g e s t e d t h is a sa s o l u t io n t o t h e p r o b l e m o f h u m a n m o r t a l it y !). T h i s i s k n o w n a s t h e transportabil-ity thesis a n d f ig u r e s c r u c i a ll y in t h e a r g u m e n t b el o w .R o u n d 1: T h e F i r st F u n c t i o n a l is t I n t e r p r e t a ti o n o f A r i s t o t l e

a n d I t s R e b u t t a lA l t h o u g h R o b i n s o n ( 1 9 7 8 ) c r i t ic i z e d S o r a b ji ( 1 9 7 4 ) f o r a s s i m i l a t in g A r i st o t -l e ' s t h e o r y t o c o n t e m p o r a r y f u n c t i o n a l i s m d e s p i t e S o r a b j i 's d e n i a l th a t t h is i s w h a th e h a d a t t e m p t e d t o d o , R o b i n s o n ' s c r i ti q u e w a s n o t c o m p l e t e l y m i s p l a c e d , f o r th ea r c h f u n c t i o n a l is t o f th e e a r l y 1 9 7 0 s, H i l a r y P u t n a m ( 1 9 7 5 b ), q u i p p e d t h a t " w h a tw e [ f unc t i ona l i st s ] a r e r ea l l y in t e r e s t ed i n , a s Ar i s t o t l e s aw, i s f o r m a nd n o t m a t t e r .Wh at i s our in tel lectual for m ? i s th e q u e s t i o n , n o t w h a t t h e m a t t e r i s " ( 1 9 7 5 b , p .302 ) . Rob i ns on ( 1978 , p . 115 ) cou n t e r e d t ha t Ar i s t o t l e ' s t heo r y i s no t f unc t i ona l i s t

b e c a u s e A r i s to t l e w a s , a f t e r a ll , c ru c i a l l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e i s s u e o f a w a r e n e s s ( o rc o n s c i o u s n e s s ) o f s e n s a t i o n s , s o m e t h i n g t h a t f u n c t i o n a l i s m d e n i e s ( o r , a t b e s t ,i g n o r e s) . N o t i c e t h a t th i s v i e w i s e x a c t l y t h e o p p o s i t e o f t h a t w h i c h l e d p h y s i c a li s tst o s h o w r e n e w e d i n t e re s t in A r i s to t l e 's t h e o r y e a r l i e r i n t h e c e n t u r y . P u t n a m ' s q u i pw a s d e v e l o p e d b y M a r t h a N u s s b a u m ( 1 9 7 8 ) i n to a f u l l- b l o w n i n t e r p re t a t io n o fA r i s t o t le ' s p s y c h o l o g y . I n a n e x t e n d e d m o c k d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n A r i st o t le a n d t h ea n c i e n t m a t e r i a l i s t D e m o c r i t u s , N u s s b a u m e x p l i c i t l y l i n k e d h y l o m o r p h i s m t of u n c t i o n a l i s m , t h o u g h s h e w a s s i l e n t o n t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r c o m p u t a t i o n a ls t ru c t u r e m i g h t b e o n e o f th e k i n d s o f f o r m s A r i s t o tl e c o u l d h a v e a c c e p t e d .I n an a r t ic l e c r i t ic a l o f N us s ba um 's ( 1978) f unc t i ona l i s t i n t e r p r e t a t i on o fA r i s to t l e, R o b i n s o n ( 1 9 8 3 ) a r g u e d t h a t A r i s t o t l e 's t h e o r y is , c o n t r a r y t o m o s t 2 0 t hc e n t u r y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , d u a l i s t i c a f t e r a l l . T h e p r i m a r y p i e c e o f e v i d e n c e h eb r o u g h t f o r w a r d f o r t h is v i e w i s A r i s t o t l e 's a c c o u n t o f th e a c t i v e i n t e l le c t (D eanima, I II .5 ) , w h i c h i s p l a in l y s a i d t o b e i m m a t e r i a l a n d s e p a r a b l e f r o m t h e b o d y .M o s t 2 0 t h c e n t u r y i n te r p r e te r s o f A r is t o tl e h a v e t e n d e d t o i g n o r e t h is f a c t , f o c u s i n gi n s t e a d o n t h e p o s s i b i li ty t h a t t h e r e s t o f A r i s t o t l e 's t h e o r y o f p s y c h o l o g y m i g h th e l p e x t r ic a t e u s f r o m t h e d i l e m m a i n w h i c h D e s c a r t e s is o f t e n b l a m e d f o r h a v i n gcau gh t u s . Rob i ns on ( p. 124 ) s a i d t ha t m a t e r i a l i s ts have t yp i ca l l y t r i ed to d i s m i s st h e a c t iv e i n t e l l e c t as t h e u n f o r t u n a t e e f f e c t o f A r i s to t l e 's o v e r a l l m e t a p h y s i c a lp o s i t io n a n d n o t a c e n t r a l p a r t o f h is p s y c h o l o g i c a l t h e o r y i n a n y c a s e . A c c o r d i n g t o

9See, in p articular, Putna m (1960/1975a) and F odo r (1968, 1975, 1981).


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ARISTOTLE AND FUNCTIONALISM 13

R o b i n s o n ( p . 1 2 7 ) , h o w e v e r , t h e a c t i v e i n t e l l e c t i s e s s e n t i a l t o A r i s t o t l e ' s t h e o r y i fh e i s t o h a v e a n a c c o u n t o f h o w p e o p l e c a n t h i n k a b o u t a b s t ra c t p r o p e r ti e s ( s u c h a sb e i n g a t ri a n g le ) . R e c o g n i z i n g t h a t m o s t p e o p l e w o u l d n o t b e c o n v i n c e d b y t h isa r g u m e n t , h o w e v e r , R o b i n s o n w e n t o n t o a r g u e t h a t t h e r e i s o t h e r e v i d e n c e t h a tA r i s t o t l e ' s t h e o r y i s d u a l i s t i c t h r o u g h a n d t h r o u g h . I n p a r t i c u l a r , h e p o i n t e d t o a na n a l o g y A r i s t o tl e o f f e r e d in B o o k I o f De anima--that t h e psuch~ b e a r s t h e s a m er e l a t i o n t o t h e b o d y a s d o e s a s a i l o r t o h i s s h i p . B y R o b i n s o n ' s l i g h t n o p l a u s i b l en o n d u a l i s t i c i n t e r p r e t a t io n o f t h is a n a l o g y i s p o s s i b l e . O t h e r s , h o w e v e r , h a v ed i s m i s s e d t h e s a i l o r a n a l o g y a s a m e r e t u r n o f p h r a s e , i n d i c a t i n g n o t h i n g e s s e n t i a la b o u t A r i s t o t l e ' s p o s i t i o n .R o b i n s o n ( 1 9 8 3 ) w a s q u i c k t o p o i n t o u t , h o w e v e r , t h a t h e d o e s n o t t a k eA r i s t o t l e ' s d u a l i s m t o h a v e b e e n e q u i v a l e n t t o th a t o f D e s c a r t e s. I t i s, h e s a id ," m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d " ( p. 1 3 2) t h a n th a t o f D e s c a rt e s b e c a u s e t h e h y l o m o r p h i c( i. e. , m a t t e r a n d f o r m ) r e l a ti o n p o s i t e d b e t w e e n b o d y a n d m i n d i s " m o r e i n t i m a t e "( p . 1 3 2) th a n t h e s i m p l e c a u s a l r e l a t i o n p r o p o s e d b y D e s c a r t e s . R o b i n s o n ' sa t t e m p t s , h o w e v e r , t o a r t ic u l a t e t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n A r i s t o t l e ' s a n d D e s c a r t e s ' sd u a l i s m s a r e o b s c u r e . M o s t c l e a r ly , h e n o t e d ( p p . 1 4 1 - 1 4 2 ) t h a t f o r A r i s t o t l e th ec o n s c i o u s s u b j e c t is th e c o m p o u n d o f m i n d a n d b o d y , r a t h e r t h a n , a s fo r D e s c a rt e s ,t h e m e n t a l s u b s t a n c e a l o n e , s o m e h o w " t r a p p e d " i n th e b o d y . T h u s , A r i s t o t le ' st h e o r y g o e s s o m e w a y t o w a r d e x p l a i n i n g w h y c o n s c i o u s n e s s c a n n o t e x i s t a p a r tf r o m a b o d y ( v iz . , i t r e q u i r e s b o d i l y s e n s e o r g a n s t o g e t t h o u g h t - o b j e c t s o f w h i c h t ob e c o n s c i o u s ) . R o b i n s o n d o e s l it tl e, h o w e v e r , t o e x p l a i n ju s t h o w A r i s t o t le ' ss u p p o s e d d u a l i s m d i f f e rs f r o m t h a t o f D e s c a r te s w i t h o u t i t s e lf b e c o m i n g n o n d u a l -i s t i c .I n re s p o n s e t o R o b i n s o n ( 1 9 8 3 ), N u s s b a u m ( 1 9 8 4 ) r ig h t l y p o i n t e d o u t s o m e o ft h e t r e m e n d o u s d i f f er e n c e s b e t w e e n A r i s t o t l e 's a n d D e s c a r t e s' s p o s i t i o n s . T h em o s t i m p o r t a n t o f t h e se h a s t o d o w i t h t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l s c o p e o f A r i s t o t le ' sh y l o m o r p h i s m a s o p p o s e d t o D e s c a r t e s 's d u a l i s m . D u a l i s m a d d r e s s e s o n l y t h ei s s u e o f t h e r el a ti o n o f t h e b o d y t o t h e m i n d ( o r so u l) . H y l o m o r p h i s m , b y c o n t r as t ,a d d r e s s e s th e m u c h b r o a d e r q u e s t i o n o f j u s t w h a t a s u b s t a n c e - - a n y s u b s t a n c e - - i s .T h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h is f r a m e w o r k t o th e m i n d - b o d y p r o b l e m ( a n d I u s e t h e t e r mmind h e r e q u i t e b r o a d l y , r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t A r i s t o t l e ' s psuch~ d o e s n o t m a p o n t o o u rmind v e r y e x a c t l y ) i s b u t a s p e c i a l c a s e o f a l a r g e r m e t a p h y s i c a l p o s i t i o n . T o p u tt h i n g s p e r h a p s m o r e c o n c r e t el y , d u a l i s m h a s n o t h i n g t o s a y a b o u t t h e e x i s t e n c e o fc h a i rs a n d h o u s e s , w h e r e a s h y l o m o r p h i s m i s s p e c if i ca l ly d i r e c t e d a t j u s t s u c hp r o b l e m s ; t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a p i le o f b r i c k s a n d a b u i l d i n g i s , r o u g h l y , t h a t th eb u i l d i n g - f o r m h a s b e e n c o m b i n e d w i t h b r i c k - m a t t e r to r e s u lt in a n e w k i n d o ft h i n g , o n e t h a t c a n f u n c t i o n a s a s h e l t e r . N e i t h e r t h e b r i c k s a l o n e , n o r t h eb u i l d i n g - f o r m a l o n e ( w h a t e v e r t h a t m i g h t b e ), c o u l d d o t ha t.

B e t w e e n R o u n d s : F u n c t i o n a l i s m L i c k s It s W o u n d sA n o t h e r w e l l - k n o w n a t t e m p t t o e x p l i c a t e A r i s t o t l e ' s t h e o r y i s C h r i s t o p h e rS h i e l d s 's ( 1 9 8 8 ) a r ti c le " S o u l a n d B o d y i n A r i s t o t le . " S h i e ld s c o n s i d e r e d f o u ro p t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f A r i s t o t le : ( 1 ) th a t t h e psuch~ i si d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e b o d y , ( 2 ) t h a t th e psuch~ i s a n a t t r i b u t e o f t h e b o d y , ( 3 ) t h a t t h eb o d y " c o n s t i t u t e s " t h e psuch~, a n d ( 4 ) th a t t h e psuch~ i s a n i m m a t e r i a l s u b s t a n c e .T h e f ir st o f t h e s e o p t i o n s - - i d e n t i t y t h e o r y - - i s q u i c k l y d i s p e n s e d w i t h : A r i s to t l eh i m s e l f s a y s i n Metaphysics, " w h e n t h e [ c o m p o n e n t s o f so m e t h i n g] h a v e b e e n


7/13

14 GREEN

b r o k e n u p , s o m e t h i n g n o l o n g e r e x i s t s . . . b u t t h e e l e m e n t s [ c o n t i n u e t o ] e x i s t "( 1 0 4 1 b ). I f b o d y a n d psuch~ w e r e i d e n t i c a l , o n e c o u l d n o t c e a s e t o e x i s t a n d t h eo t h e r c o n t i n u e t o e x i s t.

T h e s e c o n d o p t i o n , a t tr i b u t e th e o r y , is d e s c r i b e d b y S h i e l d s ( 1 9 8 8 ) a s b e i n g t h ec l a i m t h a t " p e r s o n s a r e m a t e r i a l s u b s t a n c e s w h i c h n o n e t h e l e s s h a v e i m m a t e r i a lp r o p e r t i e s w h i c h a r e c a u s a l l y o r n o n - c a u s a l l y n e c e s s i t a t e d b y p h y s i c a l s t a te s o f t h eb o d y " ( p . 1 1 2 ). F o r i n s ta n c e , w e m a y c o n t i n u e t o t a l k c o h e r e n t l y a b o u t t h o u g h t sa n d b e l i e f s a s w e t r a d i t i o n a l l y h a v e a s l o n g a s w e r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e y a r ei m m a t e r ia l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e a c t i v i ty o f t h e b r a in ( i n m u c h t h e s a m e w a y w e m a yt a l k a b o u t t h e v a l u e o f a h o u s e , e v e n t h o u g h w e r e c o g n i z e t h a t it is o n t o l o g i c a l l yd e p e n d e n t - - t h o u g h o b v i o u s l y i n q u it e c o m p l e x w a y s - - - o n th e m a t t er o f w h i c h t h eh o u s e , a n d p e r h a p s o t h e r n e a r b y o b j e c t s , a r e c o n s t r u c t e d ) . S h i e l d s i d e n t i f i e dB a r n e s ( 1 9 7 1 - 1 9 7 2 / 1 9 7 9 ) a s t h e p r im a r y a d v o c a t e o f th is p o s i t io n a n d g l o s s e s h i sa r g u m e n t a s f o l l o w s :

1) Persons have som e immaterial s tates;2) These canno t be s tates o f the soul , s ince i t is not substant ial ;3) Therefore, they mus t be s tates of the bod y or com poun d (of bo dy and soul) , bothof w hich a re material ;Therefore, Aristotle is an attribute theorist. (p. 112)

S h i e l d s r e j e c t e d P r e m i s e 2 " o n t h e g r o u n d t h a t s o u l s a r e f o r m s a n d s o a r es u b s t a n t i a l " ( p. 1 1 2 ). A t f i r st b l u s h t h is w o u l d s e e m t o b e a h i g h l y t e n d e n t i o u sc l ai m , d e p e n d e n t e n t i re l y o n h o w o n e c h o o s e s t o i n te r p re t " s u b s t a n c e . " T h e t h re a to f e q u i v o c a ti n g b e t w e e n t h e A r i s to t e li a n a n d n o r m a l c o n t e m p o r a r y m e a n i n g sl o o m s l ar g e . S h i e l d s r e c o g n i z e d t h i s, h o w e v e r , a d m i t t i n g t h a t " t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a tA r i s t o t l e i s a n y s o r t o f a t tr i b u te t h e o r i s t c o l l a p s e s i n t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r t h es o u l is c o n s t i tu t e d b y m a t t e r " ( p . 1 1 2 ) a n d t h u s m o v e d o n t o O p t i o n 3 ; n a m e l y , th a tt h e b o d y c o n s t i tu t e s t h e psuch~.

T h e n o t i o n o f " c o n s t i t u t i o n " b e i n g u s e d h e r e i s a t r i c k y o n e . S h i e l d s ( 1 9 8 8 )d e f i n e d i t t h u s: " L e t u s s a y t h a t t h e b o d y c o n s t i tu t e s t h e [psuch~] i f a n d o n l y i f atany g iven po in t i n i t s h i s t o ry , t he [psuch~] h a s a l l a n d o n l y t h e n o n - h i s t o r ic a l a n dn o n - m o d a l p r o p e r t i e s t h e b o d y h a s " ( p . 1 1 3) . T o u n d e r s t a n d t h e s e c a v e a t s , it m a yb e e a s i e r to w o r k w i t h t h e e x a m p l e o f a h o u s e . I m a g i n e a c e rt a i n h o u s e w h i c h i s t h eh o m e o f a m a n n a m e d K l in k . I f i t w e r e i d e n ti c al w i t h K l i n k ' s h o m e , y o u w o u l d n o tb e a b l e t o s a y a n y t h in g a b o u t it qua h o u s e t h a t c a n n o t b e s a i d a b o u t i t qua K l i n k ' sh o m e . O n e t h i n g t h a t c a n b e s a i d a b o u t t h e h o u s e , h o w e v e r , i s t h a t i t w a sp r e v i o u s l y o w n e d b y s o m e o n e e l s e - - s a y , a n o t h e r m a n , n a m e d K r a n k . I t i s n o t tr u e,h o w e v e r , o f K l i n k ' s h o m e t h a t it w a s p r e v i o u s l y o w n e d b y K r a n k . I t w a s n o t t h e nK l i n k ' s h o m e . K l i n k ' s h o m e w a s t h e n s o m e p l a c e e l s e , p r e s u m a b l y . T h u s t h e h o u s ea n d t h e h o m e a r e n o t i d e n t i c a l . A c c o r d i n g t o S h i e l d s ' s d e f i n i t i o n o f constitution,h o w e v e r , h i s t o ri c a l p r o p e r t ie s , s u c h a s t hi s o n e , a r e e x c l u d e d f r o m t h e c o n s t i t u ti o nr e l at i o n , s o th i s a r g u m e n t c a n n o t b e r u n a g a i n s t t h e c l a im t h a t t h e h o u s e c o n s t i tu t e sK l i n k ' s h o m e .A n o t h e r t h i n g t h a t c o u l d b e s a i d o f t h e h o u s e i s t h a t it c o u l d p o s s i b l y h a v e b e e no w n e d b y s o m e o n e e l s e n o w ( if , f o r in s t a n c e , K l i n k h a d d i e d b e f o r e b u y i n g i t) . I nt h e s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h K l i n k w e r e d e a d , h o w e v e r , i t w o u l d n o t b e r i g h t t o s a y t h a tK l i n k ' s h o m e c o u l d p o s s i b l y b e o w n e d b y s o m e o n e e l s e (f o r t h e re w o u l d n o t b e a" K l i n k ' s h o m e " t o o w n ) . T h u s, a g a i n , t h e y a re s h o w n n o t t o b e i de n t ic a l.


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P o s s i b i l i t y , h o w e v e r , i s a m o d a l p r o p e r t y , a n d t h e s e a r e e x c l u d e d f r o m t h ed e f i n i t i o n o f c o n s t i t u t i o n . S o , i f a l l t h e o t h e r p r o p e r t i e s h o l d - - f o r e x a m p l e , t h a tb o t h t h e h o u s e a n d t h e h o m e c a n b e s a id t o b e p a i n te d w h i t e - - t h i s h o u s e m a y b esa id to constitute K l i n k ' s h o m e b u t n o t b e identical w i t h i t.A m o n g t h e p r o p e r t i e s th a t b o t h t h e c o n s t it u t in g a n d t h e c o n s t i tu t e d t h in g m u s ts h a r e a r e a l l th e i r c a u s a l p r o p e r ti e s . F o r i n s t a n c e , i f a s t o r m w r e c k s t h e h o u s e , i tm u s t a l s o w r e c k t h e h o m e . I t i s o n t h i s g r o u n d t h a t S h i e l d s ( 1 9 8 8 ) a t t e m p t e d t or e f u t e t h e i d e a t h a t t h e b o d y , a c c o r d i n g t o A r i s t o tl e , m a y b e s a i d t o c o n s t i t u t e th epsuchL T o d o s o h e c i t e d A r i s t o t l e 's o w n w o r d s t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t th e psuch~ (a )c a n n o t b e m o v e d , ( b ) c a n n o t b e g e n e r a t e d o u t o f p r e - e x i s ti n g s t u ff , (c ) c a n n o t b ed i v i d e d , a n d ( d ) is n o t d e c o m p o s a b l e i n to e l e m e n t s . A l l o f t h e se , h o w e v e r , a r ec a u s a l p r o p e r t ie s o f t h e b o d y : N a m e l y , i t c a n b e m o v e d , g e n e r a t e d , d i v i d e d , a n dd e c o m p o s e d . I f t h e b o d y c o n s t it u te d t h e psuch& h o w e v e r , t h e y w o u l d b e c a u s alp r o p e r t i e s o f t h e psuch~ as we l l . Th i s po i n t f i gu r e s pa r t i cu l a r l y c r uc i a l l y i n t hep r e s e n t d i s c u s s i o n b e c a u s e S h i e l d s n e x t w r o t e t h a t t h e m o s t p l a u s i b le f o r m o f th i ss o r t o f c o n s t i t u ti o n a l i s m i s c o n t e m p o r a r y f u n c t i o n a l i s m . S o i t w o u l d t h u s s e e m t h a tS h i e l d s b e l i e v e s t h a t A r i s t o t le w a s not a f unc t i ona l i s t . As I wi l l s how, howeve r ,S h i e l d s c h a n g e d h i s p o s i ti o n d r a m a t ic a l l y .H a v i n g r e j e c t e d t h e f i rs t t h r e e o p t i o n s f o r i n t e r p r e t in g A r i s t o t l e 's v i e w o f t h er e l a ti o n b e t w e e n t h e psuch~ a n d b o d y , S h i e l d s ( 1 9 8 8 ) o p t e d f o r t h e f o u r t h o n e : t h a tthe psuch~ i s a n i m m a t e r i a l su b s t a n c e . H e w a s q u i c k t o p o i n t o u t, h o w e v e r , t h a t h ed o e s n o t b e l i e v e A r i s t o t l e ' s p o s i ti o n t o h a v e b e e n t h e s a m e a s t h a t o f D e s c a r t es .I n s t e a d o f t h e psuch~ b e i n g a n i m m a t e r i a l s u b s t a n c e u t t e r ly i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h eb o d y , a s D e s c a r t e s m a i n t a i n e d , S h i e l d s a r g u e d th a t A r i s t o tl e w a s a " s u p e r v e n i e n td u a l i s t . " T h e d e f i n i t i o n S h i e l d s g a v e o f s u p e r v e n i e n t d u a l i s m i s v e r y - - o n e i si n c li n e d to s a y " o v e r l y " - - - c o m p l i c a t e d . I n e s s en c e , it c o m e s d o w n t o t h e i d e a t h att h e i m m a t e r i a l s u b s t a n c e o f t h e psuch~ i s i n s o m e ( n o t v e r y w e l l - s p e c i f i e d ) w a yo n t o l o g i c a l l y d e p e n d e n t o n t h e m a t e r i a l su b s t a n c e o f th e b o d y , b u t n o t n e c e s s a r i l yt h is b o d y , o r e v e n a b o d y v e r y m u c h l i k e t h is o n e . N o w , e x c e p t f o r t h e c l a i m t h a tt h i s f o r m o f d e p e n d e n c e , w h a t e v e r i t m a y b e p r e c i s e l y , r e s u l t s i n a n i m m a t e r i a ls u b s t a n c e b e i n g p r o d u c e d , t h i s p o s i t i o n s o u n d s v e r y m u c h l i k e c o n t e m p o r a r yf unc t i ona l i s m . Bu t r eca l l t ha t f unc t i ona l i s m i s a pos i t i on t ha t Sh i e l d s had r e j ec t edi n h i s d i s cus s i on o f cons t i t u t i ona l i s m . Reca l l a l s o t ha t i t s t r ong l y i m p l i e s t he" t r a n s p o r t a b i l i t y t h e s i s " t h a t psuchai c a n b e m o v e d f r o m o n e b o d y ( b i o l o g i c a l ,c o m p u t a t i o n a l , o r w h a t h a v e y o u ) t o a n o t h e r , a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e n e w b o d y i ss u i t ab l y a r r a n g e d t o r e c e i v e i t.

R o u n d 2 : F u n c t i o n a l i s m G o e s o n t h e A t t a c kT h e q u e s t i o n o f A r i s t o t le a n d c o m p u t a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n a l i s m w a s f i n a ll y b l o w nw i d e o p e n w h e n S h i e l d s ( 1 9 9 0 ) b l u n t ly a s s e rt e d t h a t " A r i s t o t l e a n d c o n t e m p o r a r yf u n c t i o n a l i s t s s h a r e d e e p t h e o r e t i c a l c o m m i t m e n t s . S o d e e p a r e t h e s e c o m m i t -m en t s t ha t i t i s f a i r t o r ega r d A r i s t o t le a s t he f i r s t f un c t i ona l i s t " ( p . 19 ). Th i s s eem st o b e a f ia t c o n t r a d i c t i o n o f S h i e l d s ' s 1 9 88 c l a i m t h a t f u n c t i o n a l i s m is a f o r m ac o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m a n d t h a t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m i s a n i n a d e q u a t e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o fA r i s t o t l e 's p o s i t io n . G o n e f r o m t h e 1 9 9 0 a r t ic l e is t h e c a r e f u l , s u b tl e a r g u m e n t a t i o no f t h e 1 9 88 a r ti c le , r e p l a c e d b y a t e n d e n t i o u s , q u a s i - h is t o ri c a l a r g u m e n t t h a t l e a d st o a r a d ic a l n e w v i e w o f A r is t o tl e . I w i l l tr y t o s h o w t h a t th i s v i e w g o e s m u c h t o of a r and i s , i n f ac t , f a ls e .


9/13

16 GREEN

S h i e l d s ( 1 9 9 0 , p . 2 0 ) a r g u e d t h a t A r i s t o t l e ' s t h e o r y w a s a r e s p o n s e t ot h e o r e t ic a l p r e s s u r e s a n a l o g o u s t o t h o s e t h a t g a v e ri s e to c o n t e m p o r a r y f u n c t i o n a l -i s m ; n a m e l y , t h e n e e d t o r e m a i n w i t h in t h e c o n f i n e s o f m a t e r i a l is m a n d t h er e c o g n i t i o n t h a t p h y s i c a l i s t v e r s i o n s o f m a t e r i a l i s m a r e t o o c o n s t ra i n i n g t o b ep l a u si b le . H e r e s p o n d e d t o R o b i n s o n ' s ( 1 9 8 3 ) c a u t io n t h a t A r i s to t l e w a s c o m m i t -t e d t o c o n s c i o u s p h e n o m e n a t h a t h a v e n o p l a c e i n s t r i c t f u n c t i o n a l i s m w i t h t h ec l a i m t h a t " w e a k " f u n c t i o n a l i s m n e e d n o t r e s t r i c t t h e u s e o f " m e n t a l i s t v o c a b u -l a r y . " N o t c o n t e n t t o l e a v e i t a t t h at , h o w e v e r , h e c o n t i n u e d t h a t b e c a u s e A r i s to t l es o m e t i m e s p r e s e n t e d d e f i n it i o n s o f m e n t a l s t a t e s th a t d o n o t i n c l u d e s u c hv o c a b u l a r y ( s u c h a s a n g e r b e i n g t h e h e a t in g o f th e b l o o d a r o u n d t h e h e a rt ), " t h e r ei s r e a s o n t o s u p p o s e t h a t A r i st o t l e a c c e p t s s t r o n g f u n c t i o n a l i s m " ( p . 2 8 ) .

M o s t s t r i k i n g a b o u t S h i e l d s ' s 1 9 9 0 t h e s i s , h o w e v e r , w a s t h e c o n f i d e n c e w i t hw h i c h h e a s s e r t e d t h a t A r i s t o t l e w h o l l y e n d o r s e d th e c o n t e m p o r a r y " t r a n s p o r t a b i l -i t y " t he s i s ( v i z . , t ha t p s u ch a i c a n b e m o v e d f r o m o n e m a t e r i a l b a s e t o o t h e rp o s s i b l y q u i t e d i f f e r en t o n e s ) . H i s d e f e n s e o f t h is r a d i c a l i n t e r p re t a t io n i s b a s e d o nt e x t u a l e v i d e n c e t h a t m u s t b e r e g a r d e d a s d u b i o u s a t b e s t .

F i r s t, i n a pa s sag e i n De a n ima ( 4 1 2 b ) , A r i s t o tl e c l a i m e d t h a t t h e e y e i s d e f in e db y t h e f u n c t i o n o f s e ei n g . S h i e l d s ( 1 9 9 0 ) t o o k t h is t o m e a n t h a t A r i s t o t l e b e l i e v e dtha t anything t ha t s ee s i s an eye . I n a c e r t a i n s ense t h i s i s t rue , bu t Ar i s t o t l e g ive s noh i n t o f b e l i e v i n g t h a t a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h an a c o n v e n t i o n a l , b i o l o g i c a l e y e c o u l dp o s s i b l y s e e . T h e p o s s i b i l i t y i s s i m p l y g i v e n n o c o n s i d e r a t i o n . S h i e l d s t o o k t h ec o m m e n t o u t o f it s c o n t e x t. A r i s t o t l e 's p o i n t h e r e w a s t h a t a d e a d e y e i s, i n a c e r t a ins e n s e , n o l o n g e r a n e y e b e c a u s e i t c a n n o l o n g e r s e e , n o t t h a t s o m e t h i n g e l s e ,e n d o w e d w i t h s ig h t, w o u l d t h e r e fo r e b e a n e y e e n d o w e d w i t h psuch~. Thi s l a t t e rp o s s i b i l i t y s e e m s l it e r a ll y t o h a v e n e v e r o c c u r r e d t o h i m .

S e c o n d , i n a p a s s a g e i n De a n ima ( 4 0 8 b ) , A r i s t o tl e s p e c u l a t e d t h a t i f a n o l dm a n h a d h i s e y e s r e p l a c e d w i th a y o u n g e r m a n ' s e y e s h e w o u l d " s e e j u s t as ay o u n g m a n . " S h i e l d s ( 1 9 9 0 ) c o n s t r u e d t h is a s m e a n i n g t h a t " o n e c o u l d g r a d u a l l yr e p l a c e b o d y p a r t s a t w i l l w i t h o t h e r s o f the right sort [ it al ic s a d d e d ] . . , a n d s ti lle n d u p w i t h a f u n c t i o n i n g h u m a n b e i n g " ( p . 2 1 ) . B u t a g a i n , t h e r e i s n o i n d i c a t i o na n y w h e r e t h a t A r i s t o t le b e l i e v e d t h at a n y t h i n g b u t th e c o n v e n t i o n a l b i o l o g i c a lp a r ts c o u l d p o s s i b l y b e " o f t h e r ig h t s o r t . " T h e r e i s n o q u e s t i o n o f p r o s t h e t ic e y e she re .

F ina l ly , in Metaphysics, A r i s to t le a s k e d t h e f o l lo w i n g q u e s t io n : " T h e f o r m o fm a n a l w a y s a p p e a r s i n f le s h a n d b o n e s a n d t h e s e s o r ts o f p a rt s ; a r e t h e se , t h e r e f o r e ,t h e p a rt s o f t h e f o r m a n d a c c o u n t [ o f m a n ] ? " H e t h e n a n s w e r s h i s o w n q u e s ti o n ," N o , t h e y a r e b u t m a t t e r , b u t b e c a u s e [ m a n i s n o t s e e n ] c o m i n g t o b e i n o t h e r[ m a t e r i a l s ] , w e a r e n o t a b l e t o s e p a r a t e t h e m " ( 1 0 3 7 a - b ) . O n t h i s b a s i s S h i e l d s( 1 9 9 0 ) a r g u e d t h a t, i n A r i s t o t l e ' s m i n d , " n o t h i n g h i n d e r s [ m a n ' s ] b e i n g r e a l i z e d ino t h e r w a y s " ( p . 2 3 ) . T h e r e i s l i t t l e t o w a r r a n t t h i s i n f e r e n c e , h o w e v e r . A t b e s tA r i s t o t l e i s s a y i n g t h a t w e c a n n o t t e ll i f p e o p l e c o u l d b e r e a l i z e d i n o t h e r m a t e r i a ls .A t w o r s t i t i s s i m p l y i n c o n c e i v a b l e t o h i m t h a t i t c o u l d b e d o n e i n a n y o t h e r w a y .O n e c a n o n l y b e s t u n n ed a t t h e a n a c h r o n is m t h at s e e m s t o b e b e i n g p e r p e t r a te d b yS h i e l d s i n s u c h i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . T h e r e i s s i m p l y n o e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e n o t i o n o ft r anspo r t ab i l i t y o f p s u c h a i w a s e v e r s e r i o u s l y c o n s i d e r e d b y A r i s t o tl e .

I n a m u c h m o r e s o b e r a r ti cl e p u b l is h e d i n 1 9 9 2, M y l e s B u r n y e a t a r g u e da g a i n s t t h e c l a i m t h a t A r i s to t l e w a s a f u n c t io n a l i s t i n t h e m o d e r n s e n s e o f t h e t e rm .H i s a r g u m e n t , l i k e m a n y o t h e r s, i s p r e m i s e d o n t h e b e l i e f th a t A r i s t o tl e , u n l i k e


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c o n t e m p o r a r y f u n c t i o n a l i s t s, t h o u g h t a w a r e n e s s t o b e a c r u c i a l p a r t o f m e n t a lp r o c e s s e s . B u r n y e a t w e n t f u r t h e r t h a n m o s t , h o w e v e r , c l a i m i n g , c o n t r a S o r a b j i( 1 9 7 4 ) , t h a t w h e n A r i s t o t l e s a i d t h a t p e r c e p t i o n r e s u l t s f r o m a s e n s e o r g a n b e i n g" a f f e c t e d " b y t h e s e n s e d o b j e c t , h e is n o t r e f e r ri n g t o a p h y s i o l o g i c a l c h a n g e ( e .g . ,t h e e y e - j e l l y b e c o m i n g r e d w h e n a r e d th i n g i s p e r c e i v e d ) . I t i s, r a th e r , a c c o r d i n g t oB u r n y e a t , a c a s e o f a w a r e n e s s o f t h e o b j e c t b e i n g r e a l i z e d i n t h e o r g a n ( e .g . , t h ee y e " r e g i s t e r i n g " r e d ) . A s e v i d e n c e , h e t u r n e d t o a n o t h e r o f A r i s t o t l e ' s a n a l o g i e s :t h at t h e e y e p e r c e i v i n g i s l ik e t h e b l o c k o f w a x r e c e i v i n g a n i m p r e s s i o n f r o m as t a m p . B u r n y e a t n o t e d t h a t w h e n a c i rc u l a r o b j e c t is p r e s s e d i n t o a s q u a r e b l o c k o fw a x , t h e b l o c k d o e s n o t i t s e l f b e c o m e c ir c u l a r; " i t h a s r e g is t e r e d , a n d n o wd i s p l a y s , a c i r c l e " ( p . 2 2 ) . T h u s , h e c o n t i n u e d , t h e e y e p e r c e i v i n g a r e d o b j e c t d o e sn o t i t s e l f b e c o m e r e d ; i t o n l y r e g i s t e r s t h e r e d im p r e s s i o n m a d e o n i t. T h i s" r e g i s t r a t i o n , " a c c o r d i n g t o B u r n y e a t , i s o n l y i n a w a r e n e s s , n o t i n i t s p h y s i c a lb e i n g . I f so , B u r n y e a t w e n t o n , f u n c t i o n a l i s m , w h i c h b e c a u s e o f it s e s s e n t i a lm a t e r i a l i s m i s t ry i n g t o o u t l i n e a n a c c o u n t o f t h e p h y s i c a l p r o c e s s o f p e r c e p t i o n( a m o n g o t h e r m e n t a l a c t i v i t ie s ) , i s a t o d d s w i t h t h e A r i s t o t e l ia n p r o j e c t .

A p a s s a g e f r o m D e a n i m a t h at B u r n y e a t ( 1 9 9 2 ) h i m s e l f c i te d s e e m s t o s h o ww h e r e h e m a y h a v e g o n e a s t ra y : " W h a t t h e n is s m e l li n g a p a r t f r o m b e i n g a f f e c t e d ?O r i s s m e l l i n g a l s o a w a r e n e s s ? " ( D e a n i m a , 4 2 4 b ) . I t s e e m s t h at B u r n y e a t t r ie d t od r i v e a w e d g e b e t w e e n t h e p h y s i c a l a n d t h e c o n s c i o u s w h e r e A r is t o tl e h i m s e l fr e s i s t e d d o i n g s o : P e r c e p t i o n i s c l e a r l y s a i d t o b e b o t h t h e o r g a n " b e i n g a f f e c t e d "( p r e s u m a b l y p h y s i o l o g i c a l ly ) a n d a k in d o f " a w a r e n e s s " i n t h e o rg a n . C o n t r a ry t oB u r n y e a t ' s im p l i c a t io n , m o s t c o n t e m p o r a r y f u n c t i o n a l i s t s w o u l d h a v e l it tl ed i ff i cu l ty w i t h th is . T h e y w o u l d s i m p l y c o n c e d e t h a t t h e y h a v e n o a c c o u n t o f t h e" a w a r e n e s s " s i d e o f t h e e q u a ti o n . B u r n y e a t t r ie d t o r e b u t th is , h o w e v e r . H e a r g u e dt h a t t h e p a r a l le l t h e f u n c t i o n a l i s t s s e e b e t w e e n A r i s t o t l e a n d t h e m s e l v e s i s i l lu s o r yb e c a u s e A r i s t o t le t o o k v i t a l f u n c t io n s , r a t h e r t h a n p h y s i c a l o n e s , t o b e b a s i c .A c c o r d i n g t o B u r n y e a t t h e a i m f o r A r i st o t le , i n c o n t r a s t to u s , w a s n o t t o e x p l a i nv i ta l p r o c e s s e s i n te r m s o f p h y s ic a l o n e s . B e c a u s e m a t te r w a s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e s ol o w l y a nd " i n s u b s t a n t i a l " - - m e r e p o t e n t i a l - -i t c o u l d n o t p o s s i b ly g ro u n d a ne x p l a n a t i o n o f li fe . B e c a u s e A r i s t o t l e ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f m a t t e r w a s s o r a d i c a l lyd i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e o n e w e h a v e i n h e r i t e d f r o m t h e C a r t e s i a n r e v o l u t i o n , w e c o u l dn o t p o s s i b l y b e l i e v e A r i s t o tl e 's t h e o r y o f p s u c h ~ , n o r h e o u r s . T h u s , a c c o r d i n g t oB u r n y e a t , h e c o u l d n o t p o s s i b l y h a v e b e e n a fu n c t i o n a l is t . A s B u r n y e a t p u t it ,

I f we w ant to get awa y from Cartesian dualism, w e cannot do i t by t ravelingback wa rds to Aristotle , b ecau se although Aristot le had a non-Cartesian conc ept ofthe soul, we are stuck with a m ore o r less Cartesian conce pt of the physical. To betruly Aristotel ian, w e wo uld have to s top bel ieving that the emergen ce of l i fe orm ind requires an explanation. (p. 26)S p l i t D e c i s i o n ? F u n c t i o n a l i s ts M a k e a C o n c e s s i o n

N u s s b a u m a n d P u t n a m ( 1 9 9 2 ) r e s p o n d e d d i r e c tl y to B u r n y e a t ' s ( 1 9 9 2 ) a rt ic le ,b u t t h e y d i d n o t o p e n l y s u p p o r t S h i e l d s ' s r a d i c a l c l a im s . F i r s t , t h e y r e p e a t e d m a n yo f t h e a rg u m e n t s t h a t N u s s b a u m ( 1 9 8 4 ) h a d m a d e a g a i ns t R o b i n s o n ( 1 9 8 3 ) w i thr e s p e c t t o h y l o m o r p h i s m b e i n g a m u c h b r o a d e r m e t a p h y s i c a l t h es i s th a t c an n o t b ep r o p e r l y e v a l u a t e d w h e n t h e d i s c u s s i o n i s r e s t r ic t e d t o th e q u e s t i o n o f t h e p s u c h ~ ;i f y o u d e n y t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f m a t t e r w i t h r e s p e c t t o th e p s u c h ~ t h e n y o u a r ec o m m i t t e d t o d e n y i n g i t w i t h r e s p e c t t o , s a y , c h a i r s a s w e l l . S e c o n d , w i t h t h i s


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18 GREEN

a r g u m e n t i n h a n d , N u s s b a u m a n d P u t n a m ( 1 9 9 2 ) d e n i e d o u t r i g h t th a t A r i s t o t l ec o n s i d e r e d l i fe t o b e e s s e n t i a l l y i n e x p l i c a b le :W hen Aristot le argues against material is t ic reduct ionism he co uld not possibly berelying on the "p rim itive " nature of intentionality, o r on the inexplicable chara cterof li fe and mind for the s imple reason that his defen ce of form is me ant to apply . . across the board to al l substances, wh ether or not they have "m ind " or even l i fe .(p. 30)

N u s s b a u m a n d P u t n a m t h e n p r e s e n t e d t e x t u a l s u p p o r t f o r t h e c l a i m t h a t A r i s t o t l ew a s c r u c i a l l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h th e p h y s i o l o g i c a l s i d e o f th e p s y c h o l o g i c a l e q u a t i o n ,n o t o n l y f r o m De anima b u t a l s o f r o m De motu animalium a n d De sensu. T h e yr e g a r d i t a s " e s p e c i a l l y u n w i s e t o r e g a r d [De anima] as the c e n t r a l t e x t w h e nd i s c u s s i n g t h i s p a r ti c u l a r p r o b l e m " ( p. 3 7 ) b e c a u s e A r i s t o t l e h i m s e l f s a i d in Deanima h e i s r e s tr i c ti n g h i m s e l f t o " s t r u c t u r a l " m a t t e r s w i t h r e s p e c t to t h e psuch~,i s sues o f t he phys io log i ca l ba se hav ing been d i s cus sed i n o the r works . Thus , absence o fe v i d e n c e s h o u l d , h e r e e s p e c i a ll y , n o t b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s e v i d e n c e o f a b s e n c e

F i n a l ly N u s s b a u m a n d P u t n a m ( 1 9 9 2 ) g o t d o w n t o th e m a t t er o f w h e t h e r o r n o tA r i s t o t l e s h o u l d b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s a fu n c t i o n a li s t. A r i s t o t l e r e j e c t s D e m o c r i t e a nr e d u c t i v e m a t e r i a li s m a n d P l a t o n i c i d e a l i s m i n f a v o r o f a p o s i t i o n i n w h i c h t h eo r g a n i z a ti o n , o r f o r m , o f m a t t e r i s k e y t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e n a t u re o f a t h in g , e v e nw h e n t h at " t h i n g " i s t h e psuch~. C e r t a in l y , h o w e v e r , t h e k i n d o f o r g a n i z a t io nA r i s t o t l e h a d i n m i n d w a s n o t c o m p u t a t i o n a l O f c o u r s e , t h is w a s n o t m a d e v e r yc l e a r w h e n P u t n a m m a d e h i s f a m o u s q u i p a b o u t f u n c t i o n a l i s t s h a v i n g t h e s a m ei n t e r e st i n f o r m a s A r i s t o t le i n t h e 1 9 7 0 s . I t a ll s e e m e d m u c h m o r e o b v i o u s t o th e mi n 1 9 9 2 , h o w e v e r , b y w h i c h t i m e P u t n a m ( 1 9 8 8 ) h a d r e p u d ia t e d c o m p u t a t i o n a lf u n c t i o n a l i sm . T h i s i s a m u c h w e a k e r n o ti o n o f w h a t c o u n t s a s f u n c t io n a l i s m t h a ni s f o u n d i n S h i e l d s ' s ( 1 9 9 0 ) a r t i c l e , a n d i t m a k e s A r i s t o t l e a d i s t a n t c o u s i n o fc o n t e m p o r a r y f u n c t i o n a l i s t s , m a n y t i m e s r e m o v e d , r a t h e r t h a n a d i r e c t l i n e a lances to r .

C o n c l u s i o nN u s s b a u m a n d P u t n a m ( 1 9 9 2 ) h a v e , I t h i n k , g o t t e n t h i n g s a p p r o x i m a t e l y r i g h th e r e ( t h o u g h t h e r e i s a n a t t e m p t t o a s s i m i l a te A r i s t o t le t o W i t t g e n s t e i n n e a r t h e e n d

o f t h e p i e c e o f w h i c h o n e s h o u l d b e d e e p l y s u s p ic i o u s) . E v e n s o , I b e l i e v e t h e yr e a d A r i s t o t l e a l i t t l e t o o l i b e r a l l y . C o n t e m p o r a r y f u n c t i o n a l i s m p u t s v i r t u a l l y n or e s t ri c t io n o n w h a t k i n d o f m a t t e r m i g h t u n d e r p i n a p a r t ic u l a r c o m p u t a t i o n a l s t at e ,s a v e t h a t i t b e c o m p l e x e n o u g h t o b e a b l e t o r e a l i z e t h e c o m p u t a t i o n a l s t a t e i nq u e s t i o n . A r i s t o tl e , I t h in k , w o u l d h a v e h a d n o t r u c k w i t h th i s. H e w a s q u i t e c l e a rt ha t t he on ly m a te r i a l o b j ec t t ha t ha s t he po t en t i a l t o be a l i v ing t h ing i s a( b i o l o g i c a l ) b o d y . I n fa c t , h e w e n t s o f a r a s t o s a y t h a t o n l y a living b o d y h a s t h i spo t en t i a l ( and , t hus , t ha t t h i s po t en t i a l ha s a l r eady been ac tua l i z ed ; De anima,4 1 2 b ) . E v e n d e a d b o d i e s , it w o u l d s e e m , n o l o n g e r h a v e t h e p o t e n t ia l f o r li fe .

N o w , i f A r i s t o t l e w a s n o t t h e s o r t o f f e l l o w w h o c o u l d e n v i s i o n b r i n g i n g a d e a dbo dy b ack t o l i fe ( i. e ., r e j e c t i ng t he pos s ib i l i t y t ha t a f t e r dea th i t r e t a i n s w i th in i t ap o t e n t i a l fo r li f e t h a t c o u l d b e " r e - a c t u a l i z e d " b y th e " a p p l i c a t i o n " ofpsuchO), itw o u l d s e e m a fa i r b e t t h a t n e i t h e r w a s h e t h e s o r t w h o w o u l d a t tr i b u t e th a t p o t e n t ia lt o c o m p u t e r s ( o r t h e r m o s t a t s , o r l i q u i d r u n n i n g t h r o u g h p l a s t i c t u b e s , o ra s s e m b l a g e s o f b e e r c a n s a n d s t ri ng , t o u s e a f e w o f c o n t e m p o r a r y c o g n i t i v e


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scientists' more fanciful suggestions). Perhaps it is fair to say that he was afunctionalist in the general sense that he be lieved the psuchO to be the functioningof a particular body, but it seems unlikely that he would have endorsed even alimited form o f the transportability thesis (except perhaps in the limiting case of anidentical clone down to, say, the molecular level). The kind o f life a body has is, forAristotle, too intimately connected to the kind of body it has for it to be shiftedaround willy-nilly. In fact, he was quite explicit about this in the oft-ignored Book Iof D e a n i m a :

[Other philosophers of the psuch~] do not try to determine anything about thenature of that which is to receive [the psuchO], as if it were possible, as in thePythagorean myths, that anypsuch~ could be clothed in any body--an absurd view,since it is apparent that each body has its own particular form and shape. (407b,translation from Everson, 1995)If Aristotle is right about this, then it is, perhaps, Pythagoras we should be lookingto as a precursor to the functionalists, not Aristotle.

In summary, then, Aristotle might be considered to have been a functionalist inthe very general sense that he did not believe it possible to explain life and mind inreductive physiological terms. His definitions of vital processes, such as percep-tion, are functional. There is no hint, however, that he believed, even in principle,that these functions might be "lifted out" of the body in which they are found andmoved or reproduced somewhere else. In this Aristotle is at odds with contempo-rary functionalism. That is, his position is distant enough from that advocated bycontemporary functionalists that it seems more misleading to include him amongthem than to regard his theory as something apart--something su i gener i s , asSorabji (1974) called it. The temptation to assimilate it to our current accounts,partly in an effort to gain for them an air of ancient authority, is ever present. As farback as the 6th century John Philoponus noted that "commentators on Aristotle areinclined to try to attribute to him doctrines which they themselves think sound"(ca. 550/1991, p. 12). 1 Ancient as the temptation is, it is one that we should resist.If we can, we may find that Aristotle's account of the psuchO is a theory from whichwe can still learn a thing or two.

lI would ike to thank Simon Kemp for bringing this passage to my attention.References

Barnes, J. (1979). Aristotle's concept of mind. In J. Barnes, M. Schofield, & R. Sorabji(Eds.), Artic les on Aristotle: VoL 4. Psyc holo gy an d aesthetics (pp. 32-41). London:Duckworth. (Originally published in Pro ceed ings o f the Aristotelian Society, 1971-1972)Barnes, J. (1984). The comp lete w orks o f Aristotle . Princeton, NJ: Princeton UniversityPress.Burnyeat, M. F. (1992). Is an Aristotelian philosophy of mind still credible.'? (A draft). InM. C. Nussbaum & A. O. Rorty (Eds.), Essays on Aristot le 's De anima (pp. 15-26).Oxford, England: Clarendon Press.Durrant, M. (Ed.). (1993). Aristot le 's De anima in focus. London: Routledge.Everson, S. (1995). Psychology. In J. Barnes (Ed.), The Cam bridge com panion to Aristot le(pp. 168-194). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.


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Aristo Tel Esz Funciona Liz Musa

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