ARGUMENTATION

ARGUMENTATIONWhat is argumentation?

Argumentation is NOT fighting. It does not even have to involve conflict. It is convincing an audience to think or act in a particular way.

Why is argumentation important? Understanding how argumentation works will

make you more aware of how people are trying to move you. This will allow you to better evaluate your own opinions and the opinions of others.

To reinforce an existing view and create sentiment to maintain the status quo.

To call to actionTo change people’s mindsTo lessen an objection To earn support for a view

PURPOSES

ISSUES AND CLAIMSISSUE:

An issue is a concern or problem about which people disagree.

For example: testing cosmetics on animals

CLAIM:

A claim is a person’s opinion about an issue.

For example: Animals should not be used to test the safety of cosmetics.

AUDIENCESYour audience will affect how you establish your issue and

claim. While you want to convince the audience to think as you do, this may be an unreasonable expectation. Sometimes all you can hope for is a particular audience to consider your point of view and agree that there is some merit. There are three types of audiences:

SUPPORTIVEWAVERINGHOSTILE

SUPPORTIVEThis audience is already sympathetic to your

point of view. Because they are already on your side, your

purpose will focus more on moving your audience to act more than think a certain way.

For example: Rather than argue the benefits of recycling in school, you might want to argue that your audience should begin a letter-writing campaign to urge administrators to set up recycling bins all over campus.

WAVERING This audience is NOT committed to your view

but can be brought to your side. Either they have not made up their minds, they

are unaware, or they do not much care about the issue.

They need more information. You should identify the reasons for resistance

and address them. For example: You may address that some

students think that recycling is too much of a hassle. You can argue that conveniently placed recycling bins make recycling easier than they think, and that any moderate inconvenience is a small price to pay for a cleaner environment.

HOSTILE This audience is strongly against your view or

are difficult to explain due to apathy or anger.

You must have a realistic purpose when addressing this audience. You may have to settle for lessening his/her objection.

For example: The school’s financial advisor is strongly against the recycling program because the school has no money to run it and layoffs are on the horizon. You may want to convince him to consider recycling when the school’s financial picture improves, or to present evidence that the recycling program will be financially beneficial.

KINDS OF SUPPORT There is never an absolute wrong or

right side when dealing with a debatable issue

To convince your audience, you must demonstrate that your claim is MORE CORRECT than opposing ones.

THREE KINDS OF SUPPORT: APPEALSLogical (Logos)Emotional (Pathos)Ethical (Ethos)

LOGOS: BASED ON LOGIC OR REASON

To Appeal to Logos (Logic): Theoretical, abstract language Denotative meanings/reasons Literal and historical analogies Definitions Factual data and statistics Quotations Citations from experts and authorities Informed opinions

Effect Evokes a cognitive, rationale response

PATHOS: BASED ON EMOTION

To Develop Ethos: Language appropriate to audience and subject Restrained, sincere, fair minded presentation Appropriate level of vocabulary Correct grammar

Effect Demonstrates author’s reliability, competence, and respect for the audience’s ideas and values through reliable and appropriate use of support and general accuracy

ETHOS: BASED ON THE CHARACTER OF THE SPEAKER

To Appeal to Pathos (Emotion): Vivid, concrete language Emotionally loaded language Connotative meanings Emotional examples Vivid descriptions Narratives of emotional events Emotional tone Figurative language

Effect Evokes an emotional response

LOGICAL APPEALS To appeal to the audience’s sense of

logic you must offer compelling reasons and evidence.

Reasons: explain WHY you believe something

Evidence: is specific facts, statistics, and examples.

No matter how compelling the reason, it NEEDS to be supported with EVIDENCE.

SOURCES OF EVIDENCEPersonal experience and observation

Reading and television viewing

Class lecturesThe experiences of othersResearchTestimony of authorities

AVOIDING LOGICAL FALLACIESErrors in reasoning: Three types

Basing a conclusion on insufficient evidence

Using sweeping generalizations

Using inaccurate generalizations

AVOIDING LOGICAL FALLACIES Guilt by association: Do not attack an idea on

the basis of the people associated with the idea. Only athletes want funding for the school’s

stadium. The people who do or do not side with the idea or

action have nothing to do with it’s validity. Ad Hominem: Avoid name calling or attacking

personality rather than ideas. The principal is so out of touch he does not know

what his student’s need. It is legitimate to criticize what people do or think,

but it is unfair to attack the personalities of people themselves.

AVOIDING LOGICAL FALLACIES Do not defend or attack an idea or action on

the grounds that people have ALWAYS believed that idea or action. Children have always learned to read in the first

grade, why start earlier? Everything believed in the past and present is not

always what is for the best. FALSE ANALOGY: Avoid illogical comparisons.

The voters in the city have never passed the bill to allow gay people to marry. They will never vote a gay person to be our next senator.

How voters feel about marriage laws, does not necessarily pertain to how they feel about a political candidate who happens to be gay.

AVOIDING LOGICAL FALLACIES Sweeping generalizations: Do not assume that

what is true for one person will be true for everybody.

When I was a child, my parents spanked me, and I turned out fine. Clearly, there is not harm in spanking as a form of punishment.

Just because one person suffered no ill effect, does not mean no one will suffer ill effects.

Begging the Question: Do not offer an unproven statement as truth.

Unnecessary programs like shop and home economics should be eliminated to balance the school budget.

The importance of shop and home economics is debatable, so you cannot assume they are unnecessary and argue from there. You must first prove they are unnecessary.

AVOIDING LOGICAL FALLACIES Non Sequitur: Avoid drawing a conclusion

that does not follow from evidence. Feminism is a potent social force in the United States.

No wonder our divorce rate is so high. Many factors contribute to the divorce rate; no logical

reason establishes feminism as the sole cause or even one cause.

Either/Or : Do not present only two options when more than two exist.

Either you support a strike, or you are opposed to organized labor.

The sentence ignores other possibilities, such as opposing the strike but believing the union’s demands should be met, and opposing the strike but calling for more negotiations.

AVOIDING LOGICAL FALLACIES Bandwagon appeals: Argue that everyone

believes something so the audience should too. All the other teachers believe that the bell schedule

should be 7 periods, so it must be a good idea. The issue should be argued on the merits of the 7

period bell schedule NOT on the basis of who favors it.

Post-hoc: Do not assume that an event that precedes another even is the cause of that event. After the students read Catcher In The Rye, the

number of teen pregnancies went up. The book causes pregnancy.

There are so many other factors that could have caused the number of teen pregnancies to go up.

EMOTIONAL APPEALS Emotion also plays a role. When we make up our minds about something, how we FEEL about the

issue can determine our decision along with what we THINK about it. For example: Charities that want your contribution will often

include sad pictures of hungry children along with their request. Focus on the audience’s values

For example : To appeal to the audience politicians will often show themselves working their way to the top. This embodies the core American value---willingness to work hard to advance oneself.

Focus on the audience’s needs For example human beings need to feel attractive, so a toothpaste

advertisement may claim that using their brand will cause a brighter smile.

It is possible to combine a logical appeal with an emotional appeal, this may, if done correctly, make support more effective. Don’t overdo it, it can not replace logic. Audiences can become skeptical when emotional appeals are overused.

ETHICAL APPEALS No matter how strong your other support is, you

cannot convince an audience who does not trust you.

You must earn the audience’s trust by establishing your authority and present yourself as reliable.

For a strong ethical appeal, you must present compelling reasons and evidence, write well reasoned arguments that avoid logical fallacies, and avoid over using emotional appeals.

If you have knowledge or experiences that particularly qualify you as an “expert”...mention them.

Two important strategies: raising and countering objections and creating good will.

RAISING AND COUNTERING OBJECTIONS

Ignoring opposing views will weaken your position. You will come across as someone who has not weighed all the options.

If you acknowledge the most significant arguments, your position seems carefully thought out.

Raising and countering objections is a two part process.

First, state the opposition’s point. This is raising the objection.

Then, you make the point less compelling by introducing a point of your own. This is countering the objection.

RAISING AND COUNTERING OBJECTIONS

Two strategies 1. Offering an equally compelling point of your own to

balance out the opposition• Some people claim that Jane’s lack of experience in

student government will make her a poor class president. (objection raised) However while she has not had actual experience in student government, she has served as President of several after-school clubs as well as team captain of the soccer team. These experiences should provide her with the skills needed. Furthermore, our current student body president came to the job with no experience... (Objection countered)

2. Showing that the opposition’s point is untrue• Some of Jane’s detractors say that she is not well

enough to do the job. (objection raised) However, Jane’s physical fitness examination last month shows she’s in perfect health. (Objection countered)

CREATING GOOD WILLNo matter how misguided you

think their views are, a confrontational stance will only alienate your audience further.

Establishing common ground Demonstrate that you understand

the opposing view point and take it seriously.

PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT Help you present logical, emotional, and

ethical appeals.

Describe present details that surround the issue

Narrate tell a story that proves your point

Give examples show different situations

Process Analysis explain how a plan works

Compare and Contrast show how it is better/worse than its alternative

Cause and Effect explains how your claim will be a catalyst for change.