Are There Any Fallacies in the Reasoning?

CO SCI 58 Asking the Right Questions

Fallacies

You’ve learned to identify issue and conclusion, reasons, ambiguities and assumptions. Now you’re ready to start evaluating the quality of the reasoning.

A fallacy is a reasoning “trick” that an author uses while trying to persuade you to accept a conclusion.

Common Fallacies

Many fallacies are so common they have been given formal names.

It’s not important to memorize the names, just to be able to identify that there is a fallacy.

Ad HominemProving a point by attacking a person or group

rather than ideas. Name-calling is a common practice.

From a letter to the L.A. Times 10-7-02 p. C8 regarding the a $28 billion award to a smoker:

All you need is 12 dimwitted jurors to fall for your victimization sob story, and you win the lawsuit lottery. The truth be damned. Just because 12 jurors say the moon is made of green cheese doesn’t make it true.

Appeal to Emotion

Authors use words that have an emotional appeal to sway you. Appeal to pity is the most common one for Ms. Lane’s class.

Please give me more time for my assignment. My beloved best friend is so sick and I am worried to death. I just can’t concentrate on school right now.

There are Lots of Appeal Fallacies!

Appeal to Authority Appeal to Belief Appeal to Tradition Appeal to Fear Appeal to Flattery Appeal to Ridicule Appeal to Spite … We could go on.

Appeal to Questionable Authorityor Tradition

We’ve always done it this way. Or X is against/for it so you should be too. Is X a reliable

Our workers have always been happy working 9-5; there’s no need to change that schedule.

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Ad Populum(also called an Appeal to Popularity)

Appeals to group-approved attitudes.

Most Americans agree that…

Everybody knows that….

Americans want to be protected against terrorists. We must use face recognition systems in public gathering places.

That’s not fair. All the other kids get to go to the rave! Everyone knows the governor is unreliable; if we keep

trusting him not to raise taxes, we could all be in debt by next year.

EquivocationA key word or phrase is used with two or more meanings in

an argument such that the argument fails to make sense once the shifts in meaning are recognized.

Of course I don't have a problem with alcohol. I'm getting my school work done, showing up for my job on time, and doing o.k. with my boyfriend. O.k., so I have a drink or two every night -- but I just do it to relax and be social. Besides, a family friend with a heart condition was told by his doctor to have a glass of wine every day to help him relax and improve his digestion, so my drinking is just my way of staying healthy.

Extension FallacyAttacking a position that appears similar to but is

actually different from an opponent’s position. Then concluding that the opponent’s real position has been refuted.

I support the idea of one’s choice to have their belly button pierced. Everybody should have the freedom to express their uniqueness in a way that they really enjoy and makes them feel good about themselves. What is more of a unique way than self-expressing yourself through body decorations?

Adapted from Ravy Sam’s letter to the Press Telegram. 10-6-02 page A21

Also called straw manThe “straw man” here is the idea of freedom of

expression to refute parental arguments against belly button piercing.

Parents are usually concerned with health issues like infections and tearing. They’re not against self-expression.

Either 0r FallacyAlso called a False DilemmaThe writer oversimplifies an issue by stating only

two choices when there are really more. Watch for:

either ….or…

the only alternative is..

the two choices are…

because A has not worked, only B will…

Example: False Dilemma

The Chinese government is so fierce about controlling the information dispensed among its citizenry that it recently shut down thousands of Internet cafes and blocked search engines Google and AltaVista.

Chinese citizens deserve to become full members of the Internet society. American companies must show support for our values and refuse to provide Internet services in China until these gag orders are lifted.

Companies must?

American companies must … refuse to provide Internet services in China

It’s presented as though there are two black and white options, no Internet service for the Chinese people or wide open freedom.

Red Herrings

The author diverts your attention away from the real issue. The “red herring” is the other issue he’s using to divert you.

Kids are experts

Why didn’t you call me when you didn’t come home by 11p.m. from your date?

My brother doesn’t have a curfew for dates.

Wishful ThinkingConfusing “What Should Be” and “What Is”

Reality or “what is,” is often in conflict with “what should be.”

Computer game makers should not be forced to participate in a rating system. Parents should review the game content to see if they deem it appropriate for their child.

Confusing Naming with Explaining

Naming makes us think that we have identified something that the person has or is that makes him act accordingly. A different name for a behavior is presented as the cause of it.

Sony, Panasonic and other electronics manufacturers are against legislation requiring recycling fees. It’s big business versus the earth.

Big business is greedy and bad, earth is good

Perfect Solutions

If a solution doesn’t completely eliminate the problem, that doesn’t make it bad. It may be superior to no solution at all.

We should not go through the extra expense of installing a firewall because hackers will still find security holes.

Begging the Question

The speaker may put the burden on you to prove that his conclusion is not correct instead of giving reasons.

Isn’t is worth $10 a month to protect your home computer from hackers?

Show me that space aliens don’t exist!

Or he may build on an unproven assumption.

Have you stopped beating your wife?

More Begging the Question

Sometimes the “reason” is just the conclusion restated in a slightly different way. It’s circular reasoning.

Internet filtering software should be installed in schools because undesirable sites will be blocked.