Aquila nipalensis -- Hodgson, 1833ANIMALIA -- CHORDATA -- AVES -- ACCIPITRIFORMES -- ACCIPITRIDAECommon names: Steppe Eagle; Aigle des steppes

European Red List AssessmentEuropean Red List Status

CR -- Critically Endangered, (IUCN version 3.1)

Assessment InformationYear published: 2015Date assessed: 2015-03-31Assessor(s): BirdLife InternationalReviewer(s): Symes, A.Compiler(s): Ashpole, J., Burfield, I., Ieronymidou, C., Pople, R., Wheatley, H. & Wright, L.Assessment RationaleEuropean regional assessment: Critically Endangered (CR)EU27 regional assessment: Not Applicable (NA)

This eagle has undergone extremely rapid population declines in European Russia within three generations (50 years). It is therefore classified as Critically Endangered in Europe. It does not occur within the EU27.

OccurrenceCountries/Territories of OccurrenceNative:Albania; Armenia; Azerbaijan; Bulgaria; Georgia; Moldova; Romania; Russian Federation; Turkey; UkraineVagrant:Belarus; Croatia; Czech Republic; Denmark; Estonia; Finland; France; Germany; Greece; Hungary; Italy; Netherlands; Norway; Poland; Slovakia; Spain; Sweden

PopulationThe European population is estimated at 800-1,200 pairs, which equates to 1,600-2,400 mature individuals. The species does not occur in the EU27. For details of national estimates, see Supplementary PDF.

TrendIn Europe the population size is estimated to be decreasing by 80% or more in 49.8 years (three generations). For details of national estimates, see Supplementary PDF.

Habitats and EcologyIn Europe this species inhabits virgin plain or hill-steppes, semi-deserts and remote steppic valleys amongst mountains, preferably where feather grass (Stipa pennata) or wormwood (Artemisa) are present and especially where rodents such as suslik are common (Hagemeijer and Blair 1997). It returns to its breeding grounds between January and May (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001) and breeding occurs April to July. Birds time their arrival for spring and the start of breeding is highly dependent on availability of its chief prey species. The nest is constructed of sticks with the nest cup lined with smaller twigs and many other materials, such as old rags, bones, moulted feathers and camel dung. Nests have traditionally been built as large platforms on the ground, although recent habitat alterations seem to have caused a shift to building a few metres higher in bushes or trees. It feeds mainly on small mammals on its breeding grounds, with susliks forming the vast majority of its diet in some areas (Meyburg and Boesman 2013). When susliks are scarce they will feed on middle-sized mammals or dead saiga antelope (Tucker and Heath 1994). The species is migratory, with birds wintering in south-east Africa and southern Asia (Meyburg and Boesman 2013).Habitats & Altitude

Habitat (level 1 - level 2) Importance OccurrenceGrassland - Subtropical/Tropical Dry major breedingGrassland - Temperate major breeding

Habitats & AltitudeHabitat (level 1 - level 2) Importance Occurrence

Rocky areas (eg. inland cliffs, mountain peaks) suitable breedingAltitude 0-3000 m Occasional altitudinal limits

ThreatsThe species has declined in the west of its breeding range, including extirpation from Romania, Moldova and Ukraine, as a result of the conversion of steppes to agricultural land combined with direct persecution (Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001, Meyburg and Boesman 2013). It is also adversely affected by power lines and is very highly vulnerable to the impacts of potential wind energy developments (Strix 2012, Meyburg and Boesman 2013). Young eagles are taken out of the nest in order to sell them to western European countries (Mebs & Schmidt 2006). This species is also vulnerable to the veterinary drug diclofenac (Sharma et al. 2014).Threats & Impacts

Threat (level 1) Threat (level 2) Impact and StressesAgriculture & aquaculture

Agro-industry farming

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Majority (50-90%) Rapid Declines High Impact

StressesEcosystem conversion; Ecosystem degradation

Biological resource use

Hunting & trapping terrestrial animals (intentional use - species is the target)

Timing Scope Severity ImpactPast, Unlikely to Return

Majority (50-90%) Rapid Declines Past Impact

StressesReduced reproductive success

Energy production & mining

Renewable energy Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Majority (50-90%) Slow, Significant

DeclinesMedium Impact

StressesEcosystem degradation; Species mortality

Pollution Herbicides and pesticides

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Majority (50-90%) Slow, Significant

DeclinesMedium Impact

StressesSpecies mortality

Transportation & service corridors

Utility & service lines

Timing Scope Severity ImpactOngoing Majority (50-90%) Negligible declines Low Impact

StressesSpecies mortality

ConservationConservation Actions UnderwayCMS Appendix II. CITES Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. There are currently no conservation actions known to be in place for this species.

Conservation Actions ProposedEstablish large nature reserves and other kinds of protected areas within the remaining grassland steppes of Europe. Dangerous electric powerline constructions should be replaced or fitted with protective devices. Educate herdsmen and other locals in the ecological value and vulnerability of this species (Tucker and Heath 1994). Continue research into the impacts of diclofenac and other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs to establish the sensitivity of this species to veterinary drugs. Promote a ban on the use of diclofenac in Europe.

BibliographyFerguson-Lees, J.; Christie, D.A. 2001. Raptors of the world. Christopher Helm, London.Hagemeijer, W.J.M. and Blair, M.J. 1997. The EBCC Atlas of European Breeding Birds: Their Distribution and Abundance. T and A D Poyser, London.Mebs, T., and Schmidt, D., 2006. Die Greifvögel Europas, Nordafrikas und Vorderasiens. Kosmos Verlag.

BibliographyMeyburg, B.U. and Boesman, P. 2013. Steppe Eagle (Aquila nipalensis). In: del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A., Sargatal, J., Christie, D.A. and de Juana, E. (eds.) 2013. Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. (retrieved from http://www.hbw.com/node/53157 on 21 January 2015).Sharma, A.K., Saini, M., Singh, S.D., Prakash, V., Das, A., Dasan, R.B., Pandey, S., Bohara, D., Galligan, T.H., Green, R.E., Knopp, D. and Cuthbert, R.J. 2014. Diclofenac is toxic to the Steppe Eagle Aquila nipalensis: widening the diversity of raptors threatened by NSAID misuse in South Asia. Bird Conservation International 24: 282–286.Tucker, G.M. and Heath, M.F. 1994. Birds in Europe: their conservation status. Cambridge, UK: BirdLife International (BirdLife Conservation Series no. 3).

Map (see overleaf)