AQA A Level Psychology Topic Essays · 2019-11-27 · AQA A LEVEL Psychology topic essays: Social...
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AQA A Level Psychology
Topic EssaysSocial Influence
Joseph Sparks & Helen Lakin
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Page 2 AQA A LEVEL Psychology topic essays: Social influence
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Joseph and Kate are two newly qualified teachers who recently joined Christ the King College. Their colleagues are going on a one‐day strike due to pay and conditions. When Kate was asked why she went on strike, she said, “After sitting in the staff room and hearing the arguments from my colleagues, I realised they were right, and the conditions are definitely getting worse for teachers”. When Joseph was asked, he said, “I just fancied a day off and didn’t want to be the only one sitting in the office alone, so I thought I would join everyone else”. Discuss explanations of conformity. Refer to Joseph and Kate in your answer. (16 marks) Therearetwokeyexplanationsofconformity:informationalsocialinfluenceandnormativesocialinfluence.Normativesocialinfluence(NSI)iswhenapersonconformstobeacceptedandtofeelliketheybelongtoagroup.Hereapersonconformsbecauseitissociallyrewarding,ortoavoidsocialrejection;forexample,feelingliketheydon’t‘fitin’.Asch’s(1956)studyintoconformityprovidesresearchsupportforNSI.Hefoundthatmanyoftheparticipantswentalongwiththemajorityandprovidedanobviouslyincorrectansweronalinejudgementtask.WhenquestionedbyAschinpost‐experimentalinterviews,participantssaidthattheychangedtheiranswertoavoiddisapprovalfromtherestofthegroupwhichclearlyshowsthatNSIhadoccurred,astheparticipantsconformedtofitin.Furthermore,Aschdemonstratedthatwhenthepressuretopubliclyconformisremoved,byaskingparticipantstowritedowntheiranswersonapieceofpaperratherthansaythemaloud,theconformityratesfellto12.5%.ThisprovidesfurtherevidenceforNSIbecausethereductioninpublicpressurereducedtherateofconformity.JosephisdemonstratingNSIbecauseheisconformingsothatheisn’taloneandsoastojoininwitheveryoneelse.Theextractdoesn’tsuggestthathebelievesthestrikeisright,whichwouldbelinkedtoinformationalsocialinfluence,andthereforeheisconformingtobeacceptedandbelongtothegroup.Furthermore,Josephisalsodemonstratingcompliance,whereheisonlychanginghispublicbehaviour,butnothisprivatebelievesintheshort‐term.However,NSIisnottheonlyreasonthatpeopleconformandsomepeopleconformforinformationalreasons.InformationalSocialInfluence(ISI)iswhenapersonconformstogainknowledge,orbecausetheybelievethatsomeoneelseis‘right’.ISIisusuallyassociatedwithinternalisation,whereapersonchangesboththeirpublicbehaviourandtheirprivatebeliefs,onalong‐termbasis.This
Keyterminologydefinedfromtheoutsetwithanappropriateexampletoillustratetheexplanation.EffectiveuseoftworesearchvariationsconductedbyAschtoenhancetheevaluativediscussionforNSI.AppropriatereferencetothecontextandhowNSIexplainsJoseph’sbehaviour.Well‐detailedalternative
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semi‐permanentchangeinbehaviourandbeliefistheresultofapersonadoptinganewbeliefsystem,becausetheygenuinelybelievethattheirnewbeliefsare‘right’orthatthemajorityare‘experts’.Jenness(1932)providesresearchsupportfortheroleofISI.Participantswereaskedtoinitiallymakeindependentjudgementsaboutthenumberofjellybeanscontainedinajarandthendiscusstheirestimatesinagroup.Followingthediscussion,participantsthenmadeanotherindividualprivateestimate.Jennessfoundthatthissecondprivateestimatemovedclosertothegroupestimateandthatfemalestypicallyconformedmore.ThisshowsthatISIwilloccurinunfamiliar,ambiguoussituationsastheparticipantsbelievethattheygainknowledgefromthegroupandarenowmorelikelytoberight.KateisdemonstratingISIbecausesheisconformingbecauseshebelievessomeoneelse(hercolleagues)areright.Theextractstates:“Irealisedtheywereright,andtheconditionsaredefinitelygettingworseforteachers”.Furthermore,Kateisalsodemonstratinginternalisationasshehaschangedherpublicbehaviour(bygoingonstrike)andherprivatebeliefs(‘Ibelievetheyareright’)whichislikelytoresultinalong‐termsemi‐permanentchangeinbehaviour.[~525Words]
explanationforconformityispresentedhere,strikingagoodbalancebetweenNSIandISIdescriptions.ThesecondevaluationparagraphmakesexcellentuseofJenness’researchtosupporttheroleofISI.Finally,thediscussionistiedbacktothequestiontoexplainhowISIexplainsKate’sbehaviour,witheffectivereferencetothescenario.
ExaminerStyleComments: MarkBand4Thisessaydemonstratesanexceptionallyclearunderstandingoftwoexplanationsofconformity–NSIandISI–withexplicitengagementwiththescenario.Theknowledgeandunderstandingconveyedisbothaccurateanddetailed,strikingabalancebetweenthetwoconceptsinequaldepth.Theevaluationcommentaryisthorough,effectiveandfocusedonthedemandsofthequestion.Theapplicationskillsdemonstratedhereareestablishedandconsistentthroughouttheresponse.
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Page 4 AQA A LEVEL Psychology topic essays: Social influence
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Outline and evaluate research examining conformity. (16 marks) Therearetwokeyexplanationsofconformity:informationalsocialinfluenceandnormativesocialinfluence.Normativesocialinfluence(NSI)iswhenapersonconformstobeacceptedandtofeelliketheybelongtoagroup.Hereapersonconformsbecauseitissociallyrewarding,ortoavoidsocialrejection;forexample,feelingliketheydon’t‘fitin’.Asch’s(1956)studyintoconformityprovidesresearchsupportforNSI.Hefoundthatmanyoftheparticipantswentalongwiththemajorityandprovidedanobviouslyincorrectansweronalinejudgementtask.WhenquestionedbyAschinpost‐experimentalinterviews,participantssaidthattheychangedtheiranswertoavoiddisapprovalfromtherestofthegroupwhichclearlyshowsthatNSIhadoccurred,astheparticipantsconformedtofitin.Furthermore,Aschdemonstratedthatwhenthepressuretopubliclyconformisremoved,byaskingparticipantstowritedowntheiranswersonapieceofpaperratherthansaythemaloud,theconformityratesfellto12.5%.ThisprovidesfurtherevidenceforNSIbecausethereductioninpublicpressurereducedtherateofconformity.WhiletheAschstudyprovidessupportforthenotionofNSI,morerecentresearchhasyieldeddifferentresults.Forexample,PerrinandSpencer(1980)conductedanAsch‐styleexperimentandfoundaconformitylevelof0.25%.Therefore,itcouldbearguedthattheresultsofAscharetheresultsofadifferenteraanddonotrepresentconformityandtheideaofNSIin2017.However,itmustbenotedthatPerrinandSpencerusedaverydifferentsampletoAsch,consistingofengineeringandmathematicstudents.Therefore,itcouldbethatthelowerlevelsofconformitywerealsoinfluencedbytheparticipant’sexpertiseinproblemsolvingtasks.However,NSIisnottheonlyreasonthatpeopleconformandsomepeopleconformtoforinformationalreasons.InformationalSocialInfluence(ISI)iswhenapersonconformstogainknowledge,orbecausetheybelievethatsomeoneelseis‘right’.ISIisusuallyassociatedwithinternalisation,whereapersonchangesboththeirpublicbehaviourandtheirprivatebeliefs,onalong‐termbasis.Thissemi‐permanentchangeinbehaviourandbeliefistheresultofapersonadoptinganewbeliefsystembecausetheygenuinelybelievethattheirnewbeliefsare‘right’orthatthemajorityare‘experts’.
Astrongstarttotheessayusingspecialistvocabulary.Effectiveuseofresearchevidencetocreateelaboratedevaluativecommentary.Aninterestingcounter‐argumenttobalancethediscussionwithfurtherdiscussionprovided.Well‐detailedoutlineofasecondexplanationofconformity,againusingspecialistvocabularyinanexemplarymanner.
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Jenness(1932)providesresearchsupportfortheroleofinformationalsocialinfluence.Participantswereaskedtoinitiallymakeindependentjudgementsaboutthenumberofjellybeanscontainedinajarandthendiscusstheirestimatesinagroup.Followingthediscussion,participantsthenmadeanotherindividualprivateestimate.Jennessfoundthatthissecondprivateestimatemovedclosertothegroupestimateandthatfemalestypicallyconformedmore.ThisshowsthatISIwilloccurinunfamiliar,ambiguoussituationsastheparticipantsbelievethattheygainknowledgefromthegroupandarenowmorelikelytoberight.WhileJennessprovidesconvincingevidencefortheroleofISI,itmustbenotedthathisexperimenthasbeencriticisedforlackingecologicalvalidity.Providinganestimateofthenumberofbeansinajarisarathermundanetaskwithnosocialconsequences.Consequently,itislegitimatetoquestionwhetherwewoulddisplaysuchlevelsofISIintasksthathavemoresignificantsocialconsequences,forexample,hearingevidenceinacourtcasefroman‘expert’barrister.Therefore,untilfurtherresearchexaminingISIisconductedinthereal‐world,theseresultsremainconfinedtothelaboratory.[~575Words]
ResearchsupportfortheroleofISIiswell‐detailedandaccurate.LimitationofJennessstudycreatesabalanceinthediscussionfortheroleofISIinconformity.
ExaminerStyleComments: MarkBand4Thisisawell‐structuredessaywhichevidentlyfollowedaclearplantooutlineandevaluateNSIandthenrepeatthisformulaforISI.Thishasprovedeffectivetocreatearesponsewhicheffectivelydealswithseveralpiecesofresearchexaminingconformityasaformofsocialinfluence.Theuseofspecialistterminologyisconsistentthroughout.
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Page 6 AQA A LEVEL Psychology topic essays: Social influence
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Discuss factors that can affect conformity. Refer to variations of Asch’s experiment in your answer. (16 marks) Therearethreemainfactorsthataffectwhetherapersonconforms:groupsize,unanimityandtaskdifficulty.Firstly,itislogicaltoassumethatalargergroupwillincreasetherateofconformity,becausethesizeofthesocialpressureincreases.However,researchbyAschhasfoundthattheeffectofgroupsizeisnotsostraightforward.InAsch’soriginalexperiment,onerealparticipantwasplacedamongsixtoeightconfederates.Aschfoundthattheaverageconformityratewas32%.Aschfoundthatwhentherewasonlyoneconfederate,conformitydroppedtojust3%andwhenthereweretwo,conformitydroppedto12.8%.However,withthreeconfederates,Aschfoundthatconformityremainedthesameataround32%.Increasingthegroupsizehaslimitations.WhenAschincreasedthesizeofthemajorityto15confederateshefoundthatconformitystartedtodrop.Thismaybebecausethesituationisseenasbizarreandtheparticipantsstartedtobecomesuspicious,leadingtodemandcharacteristics.Theseresultsshowthatgroupsizehasasignificantimpactonconformityandthatwhenagrouphasthreeormorepeople,conformityreachesitshighestlevelatapproximately32%.Anotherfactorthataffectsconformityisunanimity,whichistheextenttowhichthemajorityagreeintheirviewsorbehaviour.Ifamajorityifunanimousintheiropinion,thentheyaremorelikelytohaveasignificantimpact.Aschexaminedtheideaofunanimityinavariationwhereoneoftheconfederateswasinstructedtogivethecorrectanswerthroughout.Inthisvariation,theaverageconformityratedroppedtojust5%.Thisshowsthatwhenamajorityisbroken,peoplearemorelikelytoresistthepressuretoconform.Thisisbecausetheydonotfeelasthoughtheyarealoneandtheydonothavetogoalongwiththegroup.Thefinalfactorthataffectsconformityistaskdifficulty.IntheoriginalAschexperimentthecorrectanswerwasalwaysobvious;therefore,theparticipantswereconformingduetonormativesocialinfluenceandadesiretofitin.However,inoneofthevariations,Aschmadethelengthoflinessignificantlysmallerandmoredifficulttojudge.Inthisvariation,Aschfoundthattherateofconformityincreased.
Aswiftintroduction,namingthekeyfactorsthatcanaffectconformity.Groupsizeasafactorisclearlyexplained.Well‐detailedandhighlyaccurateknowledgeofgroupsizeandAsch’svariationsispresented.Thisdiscussionislinkedtothequestionandconsidersthepossibleimpactofdemandcharacteristics.Theideaofunanimityiswell‐explainedandaccurate.AppropriatereferencetoAsch’svariationwhichdemonstratessupportforthenotionofunanimityaffectingconformityrates.Thethird,andfinal,factoroftaskdifficultiswellexplained.
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Thisislikelytobetheresultofinformationalsocialinfluence,asindividualslooktoanotherforguidancewhencompletingthetask,suggestingthatastasksbecomemoredifficult,peoplearemorelikelytoconform.Furthermore,Jenness(1932)alsoprovidesresearchsupportfortheideaoftaskdifficultly.InJenness’study,participantswereaskedtoinitiallymakeindependentjudgementsaboutthenumberofjellybeanscontainedinajarandthendiscusstheirestimatesinagroup.Followingthediscussion,participantsthenmadeanotherindividualprivateestimate.Jennessfoundthatthissecondprivateestimatemovedclosertowardsthegroupestimate.Jennessconcludedthatthisshiftinjudgementwasduetotheambiguityofthetaskandthereforethedifficultofthetaskledpeopletoconformforinformationalreasons,astheybelievedthatthegroupweremorelikelytobecorrect.[~525Words]
Theevaluativecommentaryisclearanddrawsontwosupportingstudiesthatarelinkedtoinformationalsocialinfluence.
ExaminerStyleComments: MarkBand4Thisisawell‐detailedanswerwhichaccuratelyoutlinesthethreefactorswhicharenamedonthespecificationthatcanaffectconformity,namely:groupsize,unanimityandtaskdifficulty.Eachsectionoutlinesthefactor,drawsonsupportingresearchbyAschandprovidesathoroughandeffectivediscussionlinkedbacktothequestion.Furthermore,theanswerintegratesspecialistterminologythroughout,includingreferencestonormativeandinformationalsocialinfluence.
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Page 8 AQA A LEVEL Psychology topic essays: Social influence
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Outline and evaluate research into conformity to social roles. (16 marks) Zimbardo(1973)conductedastudyonconformitytosocialroles,calledtheStanfordPrisonExperiment.Theaimofhisexperimentwastoexaminewhetherpeoplewouldconformtogivensocialroleswhenplacedinamockprisonenvironment.Hissampleconsistedofmaleuniversitystudentswhowererandomlyassignedtooneoftwosocialroles:prisonerorguard.The‘prisoners’werearrestedbylocalpolice,givenanumberedsmockedtowear,andchainswereplacedaroundtheirankles.Theguardsweregivenuniforms,sunglasses,handcuffsandatruncheonandwereinstructedtoruntheprisonwithoutusingphysicalviolence.Theexperimentwassettorunfortwoweeks,althoughitwasterminatedafteronlysixdays.Zimbardofoundthatboththeprisonersandguardsquicklyidentifiedwiththeirsocialroles.Withindaystheprisonersrebelled,whichwasquicklycrushedbytheguards,whothengrewincreasinglyabusivetowardsthem.Theguardsdehumanisedtheprisoners,wakingthemduringthenightandforcingthemtocleantoiletswiththeirbarehands;theprisonersbecameincreasinglysubmissive,identifyingfurtherwiththeirsubordinaterole.ArecentreplicationoftheStanfordPrisonExperiment,carriedoutbyReicherandHaslam(2006),contradictsthefindingsofZimbardo.Inthisreplication,theparticipantsdidnotconformtotheirsocialrolesautomatically.Forexample,theguardsdidnotidentifywiththeirstatusandrefusedtoimposetheirauthority;theprisonersidentifiedasagrouptochallengetheguard’sauthority,whichresultedinashiftofpowerandacollapseoftheprisonsystem.TheseresultsclearlycontradictthefindingsofZimbardoandsuggestthatconformitytosocialrolesmaynotbeautomatic,asZimbardooriginallyimplied.Furthermore,individualdifferencesandpersonalityalsodeterminetheextenttowhichapersonconformstosocialroles.InZimbardo’soriginalexperiment,thebehaviouroftheguardsvarieddramatically,fromextremelysadisticbehaviourdisplayedbyaroundonethirdoftheparticipantsinthatrole,toafewguardswhoactuallyhelpedtheprisonersbyofferingsupportandsympathy,givingcigarettesandreinstatinglostprivileges.Thissuggeststhatsituationalfactorsarenottheonlycauseofconformitytosocialroles,anddispositionalfactorssuchaspersonalityalsoplayarole,implyingthatZimbardo’sconclusioncouldhavebeenover‐stated.
Atimelyintroductionnamingappropriateresearchintoconformitytosocialrolesfromtheoffset.AccurateanddetaileddescriptionofZimbardo’sprocedureinassigningsocialrolestotheparticipants.ClearknowledgeofthekeyfindingsfromtheStanfordPrisonExperimentarepresented.Aneffectiveevaluationpointdrawingattentiontocontradictoryresearchonthesametopic.Aninterestingfactortoconsider.
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Zimbardo’sexperimenthasbeenheavilycriticisedforbreakingmanyethicalguidelines,especiallyprotectionfromharm.Fiveoftheprisonerslefttheexperimentearlybecauseoftheiradversereactionstothephysicalandmentaltorment.Furthermore,someoftheguardsreportedfeelingsofanxietyandguiltasaresultoftheiractionsduringtheStanfordPrisonExperiment.AlthoughZimbardofollowedtheethicalguidelinesofStanfordUniversityanddebriefedhisparticipantsafterwards,heacknowledgedthatthestudyshouldhavebeenstoppedearlier.Ithasbeensuggestedthathewasrespondingmoreintheroleofsuperintendentoftheprisonratherthanastheresearcherwithresponsibilityforhisparticipants.Furthermore,thefactthatZimbardoonlyusedmaleparticipantsinhissampleshowsabetabias,ashisresearchmayhaveignoredorminimisedthedifferencesbetweenmenandwomeninrelationtoconformitytosocialrolesandthereforeweareunabletoconcludewhetherfemalesconformtosocialrolesinasimilarway.[~525Words]
Effectiveevaluativecommentaryincludingreferencetoethicalissuesandtheadditionalissueofbetabias.
ExaminerStyleComments: MarkBand4Thisisawell‐detailedandaccurateaccountofZimbardo’sStanfordPrisonExperimentinvestigatingconformitytosocialroles.Theoutlineisconcise,yetthorough.Theevaluationcommentaryiseffectiveinmostplaceswiththefinalparagraphhighlightingthecontroversialnatureofthestudy,culminatingthehigh‐leveldiscussionofZimbardo’swork.
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Page 10 AQA A LEVEL Psychology topic essays: Social influence
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Discuss research into obedience as investigated by Milgram. (16 marks) Milgraminvestigatedwhetherordinarypeoplewouldobeyanordertoinflictpainonaninnocentperson.Hissampleof40maleAmericanvolunteerswenttoYaleUniversity,wheretheymettheexperimenterandanotherparticipant(aconfederate).Itwasfixedsothattherealparticipantwasassignedtheroleof‘teacher’andinstructedtogiveanelectricshockofincreasingstrength(from15–450volts)tothe‘learner’everytimehemadeamistakeonalistofwordpairs.At300voltsthelearnercouldbeheardcomplaining,butafterthattherewerenofurtherresponses.Theexperimentcontinueduntileithertheparticipantrefusedtocontinue,orthemaximumof450voltswasreached.Iftheytriedtostop,theexperimenterwouldofferaverbalprod,e.g.‘Theexperimentrequiresthatyoucontinue’.Milgramfoundthatallparticipantswentto300voltsand65%administeredthefull450volts.Inaddition,qualitativeobservationsreportparticipantsshowingsignsofdistressandtension:sweating,stutteringandtrembling.OnecriticismofMilgram’sstudyisthatitbrokeseveralethicalguidelines.Milgramdeceivedhisparticipantsastheybelievedthattheyweretakingpartinastudyonhowpunishmentaffectslearning,ratherthanonobedience.Theywerealsodeceivedbytheriggingoftheroleallocationthatwasinfactpre‐determined.Duetothenatureofthetask,Milgramdidnotprotecttheparticipantsfrompsychologicalharm,sincemanyofthemshowedsignsofrealdistressduringtheexperimentandmayhavecontinuedtofeelguiltyfollowingtheexperiment,knowingthattheycouldhaveharmedanotherhumanbeing.SomecriticsofMilgrambelievedthatthesebreachescouldservetodamagethereputationofpsychologyandjeopardisefutureresearch.AnothercriticismofMilgram’sstudyisthatitlacksecologicalvalidity.ThisisbecauseMilgramconductedalaboratorystudy,whichisverydifferentfromreal‐lifesituationsofobedience.Ineverydaylife,weoftenobeyfarmoreharmlessinstructions,ratherthangivingpeopleelectricshocks.Asaresult,weareunabletogeneralisehisfindingstoreallifesituationsofobedienceandcannotconcludethatpeoplewouldobeylesssevereinstructionstothesamedegree.However,Milgramcountersthisclaim,statingthatthelaboratorycanreflectwiderauthorityrelationshipsseeninreal‐lifesituations.Forexample,Hoflingetal.(1966)foundthatnursesweresurprisinglyobedienttounjustifiedinstructionsfromadoctorinahospitalsettingandthis
Milgram’saimisclearlystatedattheoffset.AnaccurateoverviewofMilgram’sprocedureispresented.ThoroughknowledgeofMilgram’sfindingsisevident.Aninterestingstarttotheevaluativecommentaryconsideringthelastingimpactofthisinfamousstudy.Anotherwell‐measuredlimitationofMilgram’sresearchonobedienceisconsideredinthesecondevaluationparagraph.However,theansweralsoprovidesaneffectivecounter‐
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suggeststhatMilgram’sfindingsdoapplyoutsidethelaboratory.AnothermethodologicalcriticismofMilgram’sstudyisthatitlackspopulationvalidity.ThisisbecauseMilgramusedabiasedsampleof40maleAmericanvolunteersfromabroadlyindividualisticsociety.Therefore,weareunabletogeneralisetheresultstootherpopulations,particularlycollectivistcultures,ortoexplainthebehaviouroffemalessinceitcannotbeconcludedthatthosewithotherculturalexperiences,orfemaleparticipants,wouldrespondinasimilarwaytothatobservedoriginallybyMilgram.ThefactthatMilgramonlyusedmaleparticipantsinhisoriginalsampleshowsabetabias,ashisresearchmayhaveignoredorminimisedthedifferencesbetweenmenandwomeninrelationtotheconclusionsdrawnregardingobediencetoauthority.Itcanalsobecriticisedasbeingandrocentric,sincetheresultscannotbegeneralisedtofemales.[~550Words]
criticismtodevelopthispointfurther.Thefinaldiscussioncommentconsiderstheissuesofculturalbiasandbetabiasappropriately,relatingbacktheevaluationbacktothequestion.
ExaminerStyleComments: MarkBand4Thisisanexcellentresponsetothisexamquestion.TheanswershowssoundknowledgeandunderstandingofMilgram’soriginalstudyinvestigatingobediencetoauthority.Thediscussioniscanteredonthreelimitationsandprovidesanin‐depthcommentarythatisthoroughandeffective,embeddingissuesanddebates, withconsistentuseofspecialistterminology.
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Page 12 AQA A LEVEL Psychology topic essays: Social influence
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Outline and evaluate how situational variables have been shown to affect obedience to authority. (16 marks) Situationalvariablesfocusonexternalfactorsthataffectthelikelihoodthatsomeonewillobeyorders,includingproximity,locationanduniform. MilgramconductedhisoriginalresearchinalaboratoryofYaleUniversity.Inordertotestthepowerofthelocation,MilgramconductedavariationinarundownbuildinginBridgeport,Connecticut.Inthisvariation,thepercentageofparticipantswhoadministeredthefull450voltsdroppedfrom65%to47.5%,highlightingtheimportanceoflocationincreatingaprestigiousatmospheregeneratingrespectandobedience.Likewise,Milgramdemonstratedthepowerofuniforminavariationwheretheexperimenterwascalledawayandreplacedbyanother‘participant’(confederate)innormalclothes,ratherthanalabcoat.Here,thepercentageofparticipantswhoadministeredthefullshockdroppedto20%.Whilethisvariationappearstosuggestthatuniformisanimportantfactorthataffectsobediencetoauthority,itisunclearfromthisvariationalonewhethertheuniformisthecontributingfactororwhethertheexperimenteralsoappearsmorelegitimateduetohissocialstatusandrole.However,thereisadditionalresearchsupportfortheroleofuniformaffectingobediencerates.Bickman(1974)conductedafieldexperimentinNewYorkCitywhereconfederatesstoodonthestreetandaskedmembersofthepublicwhowerepassingbytoperformasmalltasksuchaspickingupapieceoflitterorprovidingacoinfortheparkingmeter.Theoutfitthattheconfederatewaswearingvariedfromasmartsuit,jacketandtie,amilkman’soutfitorasecurityguard’suniform.Itwasfoundthatinthisfinalconditionthemembersofthepublicweretwiceaslikelytoobeytheordergivenbythe‘securityguard’,whichsupportsMilgram’sideathatauniformaddstothelegitimacyoftheauthorityfigureandisasituationalvariablewhichincreasesobediencelevels.Proximityreferstohowclosesomeoneorsomethingis.InavariationofMilgram’sexperimentwheretheteacherandlearnerwereinthesameroom,thepercentageofparticipantswhoadministeredthefull450voltsdroppedfrom65%to40%becausetheteachercouldunderstandthelearner’spainmoredirectly.Inanothervariation,theexperimenterlefttheroomandgavetheinstructionsoverthetelephone.Withthis
Thethreesituationalvariablesaffectingobediencenamedonthespecificationarenamedfromtheoutset.Well‐explainedimpactoflocationwithaccuratefindingspresented.Well‐detailedknowledgeofMilgram’svariationsisusedtosupportthenotionofuniform.EffectiveevaluationdrawingonrelevantresearchsupportfromBickmantoillustratethepoweroftheuniforminaffectingobedience.
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variationtheobediencelevelsfellevenfurtherto20.5%.Thisshowsthatproximityaffectsobedienceintwoways:1)thecloserapersonistoanauthorityfigurethemorelikelytheyaretoobey;2)thecloserapersonistotheconsequencesoftheiractions,thelesslikelytheyaretoobey.Whilesituationalvariableslikeuniformandproximityareseentobeimportant,researchsuggeststhatotherfactors(e.g.culture)alsoplayanimportantrole.KilmanandMann(1974)replicatedMilgram’soriginalstudyproceduresinAustraliabutfoundthatonly16%oftheparticipantsshockedthelearneratthemaximumvoltagelevelof450VwhereasMantell(1971),ontheotherhand,showedthatitwas85%whenconductedinGermany.Thiscross‐culturalcomparisonshowsthatdifferentsocietiesfollowalternativehierarchicalstructuresandchildrenmaybesocialiseddifferentlyfromayoungagetobemore,orless,obedient.Thissuggeststhatwhilesituationalfactorslikeuniformandproximityareimportant,otherfactorsmayplayamoresignificantroleinobedientbehaviour.[~525Words]
ThenotionofproximityisdefinedandthendemonstratedwithtwoappropriatevariationsfromMilgram.Awell‐detailedandeffectiveevaluationpointdrawingoncross‐culturalresearchisusedtoexploreothercontributingfactors.
ExaminerStyleComments: MarkBand4Thisresponseisofanappropriatelengthforaquestionwhichattemptstocoverallthreesituationalvariablesaffectingobediencenamedonthespecification.Theelusivebreadthanddepthtrade‐offhasbeenachievedthroughpreciseandaccuratedescriptionandinterestingandwell‐elaborateddiscussion.Theenmeshmentofissuesanddebatesintotheresponsedemonstratesahighlevelofknowledgeandunderstandingofthedemandsforthosewantingtosecureentryintothetopmarkband.
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Page 14 AQA A LEVEL Psychology topic essays: Social influence
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Outline and evaluate the authoritarian personality as a dispositional explanation for obedience. (16 marks) Dispositionalexplanationsforobediencefocusoninternal(personality)characteristicswithinhumansthatcontributetoobedience.OneparticularexplanationfocusesontheauthoritarianpersonalitywhichwasproposedbyAdorno.Adornoetal.(1950)believedthatthefoundationsforanauthoritarianpersonalitywerelaidinearlychildhoodbecauseofharshandstrictparenting.Thiscreatesresentmentwithinthechildastheygrowupand,sincetheycannotexpressitatthetime,thefeelingsaredisplacedontootherswhoareseenas‘weak’or‘inferior’.AccordingtoAdorno,thispersonalitytypeiscorrelatedwithprejudiceanddiscriminationaswellasobedience.Adornoetal.conductedastudyusing2000middle‐class,CaucasianAmericanstofindouttheirunconsciousviewstowardsotherracialgroupsbydevelopinganumberofquestionnairesincludingtheF‐scale,whichmeasuredfascisttendencies.ThosehighontheF‐scalewerestatus‐conscious,moreobedienttoauthorityfiguresandshowedanextremesubmissivenessandrespect.Theyalsobelievedthatsocietyrequiresstrongleadershiptoenforcerigid,traditionalvalues,hencetheirdispositionalpreferenceforobedientbehaviour.Thereisresearchsupportfortheauthoritarianpersonalityasanexplanationforobedience.MilgramandElms(1966)conductedpost‐experimentalinterviewswithparticipantswhowerefullyobedientinMilgram’soriginalstudy,toseeiftherewasalinkbetweenhighlevelsofobedienceandanauthoritarianpersonality.ItwasfoundthattheobedientparticipantsscoredhigherontheF‐scaleincomparisontothedisobedientparticipants.Furthermore,theobedientparticipantswerelessclosetotheirfathersduringchildhoodandadmiredtheexperimenterinMilgram’sstudy,whichwasquitetheoppositefordisobedientparticipants.ItwasconcludedthattheobedientparticipantsinMilgram’soriginalresearchdisplayedmorecharacteristicsoftheauthoritarianpersonality.Theremaybeindividualdifferencesthatcontributetothedevelopmentoftheauthoritarianpersonality.ResearchbyMiddendorpandMeleon(1990)hasfoundthatless‐educatedpeoplearemorelikelythanwell‐educatedpeopletodisplayauthoritarianpersonalitycharacteristics.Iftheseclaimsarecorrect,thenitispossiblethatitisnotauthoritarianpersonalitycharacteristicsalonethatleadtoobedience,but
Strongintroductionidentifyingkeyresearchersintotheauthoritarianpersonalityfromtheoffset.Briefoverviewofthemethodologyusedtoassessauthoritarianpersonalitypresented.Keyfindingsrelateddirectlytothequestionofexplainingobedience.ResearchsupportfromMilgramandElmsusedeffectivelytobegintheevaluativecommentary.Aninterestingcounter‐argumentsuggestingthateducationisamediating
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alsootherfactors,includinglevelsofeducation.Theremaybemethodologicalcriticismsassociatedwiththemeasuresusedtodetermineauthoritarianpersonalitytraits.ItispossiblethattheF‐scalesuffersfromresponsebiasorsocialdesirability,whereparticipantsprovideanswersthataresociallyacceptable.Forexample,participantsmayappearmoreauthoritarianbecausetheybelievethattheiranswersaresocially‘correct’andconsequentlytheyareincorrectlyclassifiedasauthoritarianwhentheyarenot.This,therefore,reducestheinternalvalidityofthequestionnaireresearchmethodusedindeterminingthedegreeofauthoritarianism,suggestingthatotherfactors/explanationsmayberesponsibleforobedientbehaviour.Adornoetal.cametobelievethatahighdegreeofauthoritarianismwassimilartosufferingfromapsychologicaldisorder,withthecauselyingwithinthepersonalityoftheindividual(nature)butoriginallycausedbythetreatmenttheyreceivedfromtheirparentsatayoungage(nurture).Obedientbehaviouris,therefore,determinedbyoursocialisationexperiencesandnotaresultoffreewill.However,somepsychologists(e.g.humanisticpsychologists)woulddismisstheseclaimsandarguethathumanshavethecapacityforfreewillandchangeandthatdispositionalexplanationsforobedienceareoverlydeterministic.[~525Words]
factor.Abalanceddiscussionisprovidedwithalimitationofthemethodsusedtoassessauthoritarianpersonality.Thefinalparagraphconcludestheessaywithappropriatereferencetoissuesanddebates.
ExaminerStyleComments: MarkBand4Thisisawell‐structuredandessaywhichprovidesanaccurateandwell‐detailedoutlineofkeyresearchintotheauthoritarianpersonalityasadispositionalexplanationforobedience.Thefollowingevaluativecommentarycoversarangeofeffectivepointstosupportandcritiquethisconcept.Overall,theessayisclear,coherentandfocusedandspecialistterminologyisusedthroughout.
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Page 16 AQA A LEVEL Psychology topic essays: Social influence
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Two A level students were discussing the topic of social influence after their last psychology lesson. Louise: “It’s incredible how some people can resist social influence isn’t it, Matt? They must have a strong personality with lots of confidence”. Matt: “I don’t agree with you, Louise, I think people are more likely to resist social influence if the people they are with do so too”. Outline and evaluate two explanations of resistance to social influence. In your answer, refer to the views expressed by Louise and Matt in the conversation above. (16 marks) TherearetwoexplanationsofresistancetosocialinfluencethatrelatetoLouiseandMatt’sconversation:socialsupportandlocusofcontrol.Louisesuggeststhata‘confidentpersonality’isthereasonwhypeopleresistsocialinfluenceandthereforesheisadvocatingadispositionalexplanation,linkedtotheideaoflocusofcontrol.Peoplewithaninternallocusofcontrolbelievethattheyhavecontrolovertheirlifeandarelessconcernedwithsocialapproval.Individualswithaninternallocusofcontrolare,therefore,moreindependentandfinditeasiertoresistsocialinfluence.Itcouldbeinferredthatapersonwitha‘strong’personalitywouldbemorelikelytodisplayaninternallocusofcontrolandthereforeresistsocialinfluence.Thereisresearchsupportfortheideathatindividualswithaninternallocusofcontrolarelesslikelytoconform.Spector(1983)usedRotter’slocusofcontrolscaletodeterminewhetherlocusofcontrolisassociatedwithconformity.From157students,Spectorfoundthatindividualswithahighinternallocusofcontrolwerelesslikelytoconformthanthosewithahighexternallocusofcontrol,butonlyinsituationsofnormativesocialinfluence,whereindividualsconformtobeaccepted.Therewasnodifferencebetweenthetwogroupsforinformationalsocialinfluence.Thissuggeststhatnormativesocialinfluence,thedesiretofitin,ismorepowerfulthaninformationalsocialinfluence,thedesiretoberight,whenconsideringlocusofcontrol.TheseresultssuggestthatLouise’sviewispartlycorrect:anindividualwitha‘strong’personality’(internalLOC)islikelytoresistsocialinfluence,inparticular,thepressuretoconform,especiallyinsituationsofnormativesocialinfluence.However,theresultsalsosuggestthatLouise’sviewisnotnecessarilycorrectincasesofinformationalsocialinfluence,whereapersonconformstobecorrect.
Aswiftintroductionsettingthescenefortherestoftheessay.Applicationtothecontextisembeddedeffectivelyfromtheoff‐set.Anaccuratedescriptionofinternallocusofcontrolandhowthisrelatestoresistance.EffectiveevaluativecommentarydrawingonrelevantresearchsupportfromSpector.Selectionofappropriatematerialfromthescenarioappropriatelydiscussedinthecontextofthisessay.
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Matt,ontheotherhand,putsforwardasituationalexplanation.Mattsuggeststhatresistanceisbasedonthepresenceofotherswhichislinkedtotheideaofsocialsupport.Peoplearemorelikelytoresistsocialinfluenceiftheyhaveanally–someoneelsewhosupportstheirpointofview.Havinganallycanhelpanindividualtobuildconfidenceandremainindependentbecauseitbreakstheunanimityofthegroupandsuggeststhatanotherpointofviewispossible.Thereisevidencetosupporttheideathatsocialsupportcanreducesocialinfluence.InoneofAsch’s(1951)variations,oneoftheconfederateswasinstructedtogivethecorrectanswerthroughout.Inthisvariation,therateofconformitydroppedto5%.Thisdemonstratesthatiftherealparticipanthassupportfortheirbelief(socialsupport),thentheyaremorelikelytoresistthepressuretoconform.ThissuggeststhatMatt’sviewthatresistingsocialinfluencedependsonwhetherothers‘dosotoo’isalsosupportedbyresearch.Aschclearlydemonstratesthatsocialsupportlowersthepressureofthegroupmakingiteasiertodemonstrateindependentbehaviour.[~500Words]
Thesecondfactornamedattheoutsetisdescribedinsuitabledepthtoachievebalance.Evaluativecommentarycompletedwithanotherdiscussionofresearchsupport.Applicationtothescenarioisconsistentthroughouttheresponse.
ExaminerStyleComments: MarkBand4Thisisanexcellentresponsetowhatcansometimesbeconsideredacomplexquestion,giventhefocusonresistance.Theresponsehascorrectlyidentifiedlocusofcontrolandsocialsupportasthenoteworthyfeaturesfromthenovelcontextprovided.ThesearebothaccuratelydescribedandappropriatelyappliedtotheconversationbetweenLouiseandMatt.Furthermore,thediscussionisofanappropriatelengthgiventhedivisionofmarksacrossthethreeassessmentobjectives.
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Page 18 AQA A LEVEL Psychology topic essays: Social influence
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Outline and evaluate research into minority influence. (16 marks) Differentfactorscanenhancetheeffectivenessofaminority,including:commitment,flexibilityandconsistency.Consistencyreferstothewayinwhichminorityinfluenceismorelikelytooccurwhenthememberssharethesamebeliefandretainitovertime.Moscovici(1969)conductedastudytoseeifaconsistentminoritycouldinfluenceamajoritytogiveanincorrectanswer,inacolourperceptiontask.Hissampleof172femaleparticipantswereplacedingroupsofsixandshown36slides,allvaryingshadesofblue.Theparticipantshadtostateoutloudthecolourofeachslide.Twoofthesixparticipantswereconfederates.Intheconsistentcondition,thetwoconfederatessaidthatall36slidesweregreen;intheinconsistentcondition,theconfederatessaidthat24oftheslidesweregreenand12wereblue.Moscovicifoundthatintheconsistentcondition,theparticipantsagreedon8.2%ofthetrials,whereasintheinconsistentcondition,theparticipantsonlyagreedon1.25%ofthetrials.Moscoviciusedabiasedsampleof172femaleparticipantsfromAmerica.Asaresult,weareunabletogeneralisetheresultstootherpopulations,forexamplemaleparticipants,andwecannotconcludethatmaleparticipantswouldrespondtominorityinfluenceinthesameway.Moscovici’sresearchcanbecriticisedasbeinggynocentricashisresearchtakesanexclusivefocusontheconformingbehaviouroffemaleparticipantstoaminorityinfluence.Furthermore,researchoftensuggeststhatfemalesaremorelikelythanmalestoconformandthereforefurtherresearchisrequiredtodeterminetheeffectofminorityinfluenceonmaleparticipantstoimprovethelowpopulationvalidityofthisexperiment.Moscovicihasbeencriticisedforbreachingethicalguidelinesduringhisstudy.Hedeceivedhisparticipants,astheyweretoldthattheyweretakingpartinacolourperceptiontestwheninfactitwasanexperimentonminorityinfluence.ThisalsomeansthatMoscovicididnotgainfullyinformedconsent.Althoughitisseenasunethicaltodeceiveparticipants,Moscovici’sexperimentrequireddeceptioninordertoachievevalidresults,asiftheparticipantswereawareofthetrueaim,theymighthavedisplayeddemandcharacteristicsandacteddifferently.Thus,acost‐benefitanalysiswoulddeemthattheinsightgainedfromsuchresearchwasworththeshort‐termcosttotheparticipantswhichcouldbedealt
Severalfactorsidentifiedatthebeginning.Theessaycontinuestoconsiderresearchintoconsistencyinrelationtominorityinfluence.AccurateanddetailedoutlineofMoscovici’sresearchstudy.Soundknowledgeofthekeyfindingsfromtheinvestigationarepresented.Theevaluativecommentaryiskick‐startedwithavalidcriticismoftheresearchsample,withanissueembeddedseamlessly.Theevaluationisdevelopedwithanotherlimitationconsideringtheethical
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withbymeansofadebrieffollowingthestudy.Therearemethodologicalissueswithresearchintominorityinfluence.Judgingthecolourofaslideisanartificialtaskandthereforelacksmundanerealism,sinceitisnotsomethingthatoccurseveryday.Researchconditionsarecriticisedasbeingtoofarremovedfromcasesofreal‐worldminorityinfluencesuchaspoliticalcampaigning.Theimplicationsofreal‐worldcasesarealsogrosslydisproportionatetothoseseeninalabsettingastheycanforsomepeopleliterallybecasesoflifeordeathandassuchMoscovici’sresearchlacksexternalvalidity.[~485Words]
implications.TheessayconcludeswithathirddrawbackofMoscovici’sresearchintominorityinfluence.
ExaminerStyleComments: MarkBand4ThisisadetailedandaccurateaccountofMoscovici’sstudyonminorityinfluenceinvestigatingtheimpactofconsistency.Theoutlineprovidessufficientbalancebetweentheprocedureandfindings.Theevaluationconsidersthreelimitationsofhisresearchwiththefirstparagraphembeddingareferencetoissuesanddebatesintheformofgynocentricbias.Allinall,anexcellentessay.
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Page 20 AQA A LEVEL Psychology topic essays: Social influence
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Outline and evaluate the role of social influence processes in social change. (16 marks) Socialchangereferstohow,overtime,beliefs,attitudesandbehavioursofasocietyarereplacedwithnewnormsandexpectations.Therearemanyprocessesthatareinvolved,thefirstofwhichisconsistency.Displayingaconsistentviewpointisbeneficialinbringingaboutsocialchange,asthemessageappearsmorecredibleandcanhelptoconvinceamajority.AnotherprocessistheAugmentationPrinciple.Whenthemajoritypaysattentiontoselflessandriskyactionsbeingtakenbytheminoritygroup,itismorelikelytointegratethegroup’sopinionintotheirownpersonalviewpointsduetothepersonalsacrificemadebytheminority.Oncetheminorityviewpointhasgottheattentionofsomeofthemajoritygroupmembers,moreandmorepeoplebeginpayingattentionandtheminorityviewpointgathersmomentum,whichiscalledthesnowballeffect.Finally,NormativeSocialInfluencecanencouragesocialchangebyreportingthebehaviourorattitudesofthemajority,tourgeotherstofollowsuittofitinwiththegroup.Minorityinfluencecanoftenactasabarriertosocialchange.Bashiretal.(2013)wereinterestedininvestigatingwhysomanypeopleresistsocialchangeevenwhentheybelieveittobeneeded.Itwasfoundthatsomeminoritygroups,suchasenvironmentalactivistsorfeminists,oftenliveuptothestereotypesassociatedwiththosegroups,whichcanbeoff‐puttingforoutsiders.Thismeansthatthemajorityoftendoesnotwanttobeassociatedwithaminorityforfearofbeingstereotypicallylabelled.Thereisresearchsupportfortheroleofnormativesocialinfluenceasaprocessforsocialchange.Nolanetal.(2008)conductedastudywhichspannedonemonthinCaliforniaandinvolvedhangingmessagesonthefrontdoorsofpeople’shousesinSanDiego,encouragingthemtoreduceenergyconsumptionbyindicatingthatmostotherresidentsintheneighbourhoodwerealreadydoingthis.Asameansofcontrol,somehousesreceivedamessageaboutenergyusagebutwithnoreferencetothebehaviourofotherpeopleinthearea.Itwasfoundthattheexperimentalgroupsignificantlyloweredtheirenergyconsumption,showingthatconformitycanleadtopositivesocialchange.Minorityinfluenceandmajorityinfluencemayinvolve
Keyterminologyisoutlined,settingthescenefortherestoftheessaytoflow.Asecondprocessinvolvedinsocialchangeisaccuratelydescribed.Specialistvocabularyisusedeffectively.Afourthconceptcompletestheoutlineelementofthequestion.Aninterestingargumentispresentedtobegintheevaluativecommentary.Effectiveuseofresearchstudiesisusedtosupportthepointbeingdiscussed.
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AQA A LEVEL Psychology topic essays: Social influence Page 21
differentlevelsofcognitiveprocessing.Moscovicibelievesthataminorityviewpointforcesindividualstothinkmoredeeplyabouttheissue.However,Mackie(1987)countersthis,suggestingtheoppositetobetrue.Shesuggeststhatwhenamajoritygroupisthinkingoractinginawaythatisdifferentfromourselvesweareforcedtothinkevenmoredeeplyabouttheirreasons.This,therefore,castsdoubtonthevalidityofMoscovici’sminorityinfluencetheory,suggestingitmaybeanincorrectexplanationofsocialchange.Reportsofsocialchangewithinsocietycaninvolveconceptsthathavenotbeen,orcannotbe,testedempirically,whichmeansthattheylackscientificcredibility.Furthermore,manyexamplesofsocialchangerestonisolatedcasestudies(e.g.MartinLutherKing)andtherefore,anidiographicapproachisoftentaken.Consequently,thereisalargeamountofsubjectiveinterpretationinvolvedinexplainingtheoccurrencesofsocialnormsandsuchevidenceshouldbetreatedwithcaution.However,thereisalsoalargequantityofresearchthatsupportstheprocessesinvolvedinsocialchange,suchasthatofAsch,MilgramandMoscoviciwhichtakeanomotheticapproach,astheyhaveeachcreateduniversallawstoexplainhumanbehaviourundercertainsocialcircumstances.Takentogether,theseisolatedcasestudiesandrelativelylargescalestudiesprovidecredibilitytotheunderlyingprocessesinvolvedinsocialchange.[~537Words]
Aneffectivecounter‐argumentispresentedtocreatebalanceintheresponse.Theessayisroundedoffwithknowledgeablediscussionofrelevantissuesanddebates.
ExaminerStyleComments: MarkBand4Thisquestioncanoftenactasastumblingblockformanystudents.However,thisresponsenavigatesfourkeyconceptsinvolvedasprocessesinsocialchangewithrelativeease.Keyterminologyisusedeffectivelyandconsistentlythroughouttheanswer.Theevaluativecommentaryiswell‐supportedwithrelevantresearchdrawntoelaboratethediscussionpoints.Asuperbeffort.
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NOTES
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NOTES
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More Psychology revision and support at:
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Page 25 AQA A LEVEL Psychology topic Essays: SOCIAL INFLUENCE
1. Joseph and Kate are two newly qualified teachers who recently joined Christ the King College. Their colleagues are going on a one-day strike due to pay and conditions. When Kate was asked why she went on strike, she said, “After sitting in the staff room and hearing the arguments from my colleagues, I realised they were right, and the conditions are definitely getting worse for teachers”. When Joseph was asked, he said, “I just fancied a day off and didn’t want to be the only one sitting in the office alone, so I thought I would join everyone else”.
Discuss explanations of conformity. Refer to Joseph and Kate in your answer. (16 marks)
2. Outline and evaluate research examining conformity. (16 marks)
3. Discuss factors that can affect conformity. Refer to variations of Asch’s experiment in your answer. (16 marks)
4. Outline and evaluate research into conformity to social roles. (16 marks)
5. Discuss research into obedience as investigated by Milgram. (16 marks)
6. Outline and evaluate how situational variables have been shown to affect obedience to authority. (16 marks)
7. Outline and evaluate the authoritarian personality as a dispositional explanation for obedience. (16 marks)
8. Two A level students were discussing the topic of social influence after their last psychology lesson. Louise: “It’s incredible how some people can resist social influence isn’t it, Matt? They must have a strong personality with lots of confidence”. Matt: “I don’t agree with you, Louise, I think people are more likely to resist social influence if the people they are with do so too”.
Outline and evaluate two explanations of resistance to social influence. In your answer, refer to the views expressed by Louise and Matt in the conversation above. (16 marks)
9. Outline and evaluate research into minority influence. (16 marks)
10. Outline and evaluate the role of social influence processes in social change. (16 marks)
social influence essays