Shashini Tennekoon

Why do we learn a language? To read books

To speak

To pass an exam

Methods and approaches change Depending on the kind of proficiency needed

Reading comprehension Oral

Change of theories of the nature of language & of language learning

Grammar Translation The sole form of instruction –mechanical translation

Learn grammar rules through detailed analysis

Based on disconnected sentences

Translation of texts into & out of target language

Offspring of German scholarship

GTM Goal of learning language- to read its literature

To benefit from the mental discipline & intellectual development

Views lang. learning as memorizing rules & facts in order to understand & manipulate morphology & syntax of the foreign language

First language is maintained as the reference system

Reading & writing major focus

Little/no systematic attention to litening & speaking

Vocabulary selection based on the reading text used

Words taught through bilingual word lists, dictionary study & memorization

The sentence is the basic unit of teaching(distinctive feature)

GTM Accuracy is emphasized

Students are expected to achieve high standard in translation

To pass large number of formal written examinations

GTM Grammar taught deductively

Presentation of grammar rules

Studying them

Practice translation

A syllabus with sequencing of grammar points through out text

Attempt to teach grammar in systematic way

GTM Native language is the medium of instruction

Used to teach new items

Comparisons are made between L1 & Target

GTM Dominated from 1840’s – 1940’s

Still practiced widely in the world in modified form

where understanding of the literary texts is the focus

When little need is there to speak

Used in college level to teach contemporary texts for teaching in foreign languages

Criticisms Rigorous method of study

Memorizing endless lists of unusable rules and vocabulary

Attempted to produce perfect translations of literary prose

Not liked by learners

Creates frustration for students

Few demands on teachers

No theory

No advocates

No literature offering justification

No attempt to relate it to issues in linguistics, psychology or education

Mid & late 19th century opposition from several European countries laid foundation for development of new ways of language teaching

Increased demand for oral proficiency as a result of communication development

C. Marcel (Frenchman)(1793-1896) Child learning as a model

Emphasized importance of meaning

Proposed reading be taught before other skills

Located language teaching within a broader framework

T. Prendergast (Englishman)(1806-1886)

Children use contextual & situational cues to interpret utterances

They use memorized phrases & routines in speaking

Propsed the first “structural syllabus” supporting learners be taught the most basic structural patterns occur in language

F. Gouin (Frenchman)(1831-18960) Lang. learning facilitated through using language to

accomplish events consisting of a sequence of related actions

Used situations & themes as ways of organizing and presenting oral lang. (Gouin series) ex. Chopping wood, opening door etc.

To present new teaching items in context to make meaning clear

Use of gestures & actions

Reform Movement Educators recognized the need for speaking

proficiency

Interest in how children learn language

Henry Sweet(English) Wilhelm Vietor (German), Paul Passy (French) provided intellectual leadership

Discipline of linguistics were revitalized-emphasized speech is primary

Phonetics established for new approach to speech

Henry Sweet (1845-1912) Sound methodical principles based on analysis of

language and study of psychology

Careful selection of what is to be taught

Imposing limits on what is to be taught

Arranging what is to be taught on four skills

Grading material from simple to complex

Wilhelm Vietor ( 1850-1918) Used linguistic theory

training in phonetics would enable to pronounce accurately

Speech is fundamental (rather than grammar)

Value of training teachers

IPA-1886 Study of spoken language

Phonetic training

Use of conversation texts

Inductive approach to grammar

Teaching meaning through associations within the target language

Reformers agree that Spoken language is primary

Phonetics should be applied

Learners should first here the language before seeing written form

Words be presented in sentences & be practiced in meaningful contexts

Rules of grammar should be introduced after practicing in context

Translation to be avoided

Native lang. could be used to explain new words & check comprehension

Natural Method Founded by L.Sauveur

Foreign lang. could be taught without NL or translation

Meaning conveyed through demonstration & action

F. Franke provided theoretical justification (direct association between forms & meanings in TL)

Natural Method Language be best taught using it actively in the

classroom

No analysis of grammar rules but direct & spontaneous use of language

Induce grammar rules

Tr. Replaced the text book in the early stages

Speaking with systematic attention to pronunciation

Words taught using mimes, demonstration & pics.

Direct Method Most widely known of natural methods

Introduced in France & Germany

Also widely known in US-by Sauveur & Berlitz

Principles & Procedures CR instruction exclusively in TL

Only everyday vocab. & sentences taught

Oral skills built in a carefully graded progression organized around Q & A exchanges

Grammar taught inductively

New teaching points introduced orally

Guidelines on teaching oral lang. Never translate: demonstrate Never explain: act Never make a speech: ask questions Never imitate mistakes: correct Never speak with single words: use sentences Never speak too much: make sts speak much Never use book: use lesson plan Never go too fast: keep sts pace Never speak too slowly: speak normally Never speak too quickly or loudly: speak naturally Never be impatient: take it easy

Contd. Concrete vocab. Taught through demonstration,

objects, pics

Abstract concepts through association of ideas

Both speech & listening comprehension taught

Correct pronunciation & grammar emphasized

Criticism Failed in public schools

Required native speakers to teach

Dependent on teacher’s skills

Prohibition on use of native language

Compare & Contrast GTM & Direct

Audiolingual MethodBackground Effect of world war 11

Army Specialized Training Program-1942

Objective- to attain conversational proficiency

Methodology derived from intensive contact

Value of intensive oral based approach

Many foreign students

American approach to ESL- Audiolingualism-mid 1950’s

Launching of first satellite by Russians

Audiolingual Method Combination of structural linguistic theory, aural-oral

procedures, contrastive analysis & behaviouristpsychology

Charles Fries applied principles of structural linguistics to lang. learning

Problems of learning attributed to conflict of different structural systems (oral approach/aural oral approach/structural approach)

Advocated aural training first-pronunciation-speaking-reading & writing

Contd. Termed coined by Prof. Nelson Brooks 1964

Turned language teaching from an art to science

Lang. viewed as a system of structurally related elements for the encoding of meaning, the elements being phonemes, morphemes, words, structures & sentence types

“structural” referred to……. Elements in a were thoughht of as being lineraly

produced in a rule governed (structured) way

Language samples could be exhaustively described at any level of description (phonetic, phonemic, morphological etc.)

Linguistic levels were thought of as systems within systems (pyramidally structured)

Behaviourist theory B. F. Skinner verbal behaviour is similar to non verbal

behaviour

Stimulus response theory

Language mastery as acquiring a set of appropriate language stimulus response chains

Principles Foreign language learning is basically a process of

mechanical habit formation

Spoken form before written form

Analogy provides a better foundation than analysis

Meanings of words can be learnt in linguistic & cultural context & not in isolation

Contd. Native like fluency sought

Early stages oral skills gradually to other skills

Language skills are taught in the order of L,S,R & W

Dialogue presented & memorized, gr, patterns selected & practiced in drills

Dialogues & drills forms the basis of classroom practice

Dialogues contextualize key structures

Drills Repetition

Inflection

Replacement

Restatement

Completion

Transposition

Expansion

Contraction

Transformation

Integration

Rejoinder

Restoration

Criticism Most widespread use in 1960’s

Theoretical foundations unsound in terms of learning theory & language theory (Chomsky,1966)

Practical results fell short of expectations

Sts unable to transfer learning into real communication

Procedures boring & unsatisfying

Lack of alternative to Audiolingualism

1970’s 1980’s period of adaptation, innovation, experimentation & confusion

Several proposals appeared but no claim in mainstream language teaching

Eg.TPR, Silent Way,counseling-learning

Total Physical Response Developed by James Asher (Prof. of Psychology)

Method built around coordination of speech & action

Teach language through physical activity

Based on developmental psychology, learning theory, humanistic pedagogy, lang. teaching procedures proposed by Harold & Dorothy Palmer(1925)

Contd. SL learning parallel to child first lang. acquisition

Speech directed to young children consist primarily of commands

Children respond to physically before verbal responses

Role of affective factors (humanistic psy.)

Undemanding in terms of ling. Production & involves game like movements reduce learner stress & facilitate learning

TPR Grammar based view of language

“ most of gr. structures & vocab. can be learned by the skillful use of imperatives by instructor”

The verb in the imperative as the central linguistic motif around which lang. learning is organized

Stimulus response view as providing learning theory underlying teaching pedagogy

Linked with trace theory of memory in psychology (more often /more intensive memory connection is traced the stronger the memory association be & more likely it will be recalled)

TPR Three influential learning hypothesis used

Bio- program

Listening first-comprehension acquired from physical responses-speech evolves naturally

Brain lateralization

Right brain learning(Piaget-learning through motor movement)

Reduction of stress

Absence of stress through pleasurable learning activities

TPR Objective: oral proficiency at a beginning level

Produce learners capable of an uninhibited communication intelligible to a native speaker

Goals must be attainable through use of action based drills in imperative form

Sentence based syllabus

Initial attention to meaning rather than form

Grammar taught inductively

Fixed number of items to be introduced at a time

Conversational dialogues are delayed until after about 120 hours of instruction

Other class activities include role plays & slide presentation

TPR

Role plays center on everyday situations

Learners have the primary role of listener & performer

Learners must produce novel combinations

Monitor & evaluate their own progress

Teacher plays & active & direct role

Detailed lesson plans required

Speaking ability to develop on leaner’s own pace

Teacher should model parents’ feedback

Can be used in association with other methods

Communicative Language Teaching Need to focus on communicative competency rather

than mastery of structures

Increasing interdependence of European countries

The work of The Council of Europe & D.A. Wilkins, & vanEK and Alexander,(1980) had a major impact on the birth of CLT

An approach not a method

CLT Communicative competence as the goal

Procedures to teach four skills

Focus on interdependence of language and communication

Comprehensive approach

No single authority, text or model

Pays attention to both functional & structural aspects

CLT Learners work in groups/pairs in problem solving

tasks

Direct practice of communicative acts

Learning by doing (experience based)

material developed on learner needs

Learner centered

Communicative competence (Hymes-1972)

Learner first learning second

Principles of CLT Learners learn a language through using it for

communication

Authentic & meaningful communication should be the goal of CR activities

Fluency is an important dimension

Communication involves integration of different language skills

Learning is a creative process that involves trial & error

Compare & contrast CLT & ALM

Method vs Approach An approach is a set of correlative assumptions dealing

with the nature of language teaching & learning

Method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material no part of which contradicts & all of which is based upon the selected approach

Technique is implementational A particular trick, strategy used to accomplish an immediate objective

Eclectic None of the methods completely successful

Teachers in USA adopted various features from different methods to suit their purpose

A combination of elements from methods is called eclectic

What are the advantages & disadvantages?

References

Hewage. A.K.(2003) Readings in ELT Methodology. Colombo: Denuma Publications

Richards, J.C. & Rodgers, T.S. (2006) Approaches &Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press