Approach and Methodologies Guide

Intercultural Leadership Development Practicum School of International Service

American University FALL 2015

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The Intercultural Leadership Development practicum team consisted of thirteen graduate students from the School of International Service (SIS) at The American University. Dr. Amanda Taylor, professor at SIS, guided the practicum program. Each student contributed substantial research and analysis to provide this comprehensive guide for the client, PYXERA Global. This document details the research, data analysis, and methodologies of the Intercultural Leadership practicum team findings. This is designed to be a comprehensive guide and analysis of how the team’s final conclusions and recommendations were constructed. The “What is Intercultural Leadership Development” section summarizes the team’s literature review of existing intercultural leadership development theories, frameworks, and a recommendation for the most appropriate model (competencies) that would best reflect the specific value proposition of PYXERA Global’s Global Pro Bono programs. The “How Do You Longitudinally Measure Intercultural Leadership Development” section describes the comprehensive research design and methodology options for assessing the longitudinal program impact of the Global Pro Bono programs.

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Table of Contents

I. What is Intercultural Leadership Development?

Methodology ................................................................................................................... 4

An Approach Overview ................................................................................................... 5

A Conceptual Overview .................................................................................................. 7

Data Analysis ............................................................................................................... 10

Five Core Competencies Gained in a Global Pro Bono Program ................................. 13

Five Core Competencies Applied to Personal and Organizational Level Outcomes .... 16

Literature Review Conclusion ....................................................................................... 20

II. How to Longitudinally Measure Intercultural Leadership Development?

Evaluation Methodology and Reasoning ...................................................................... 21

Method One: Surveys ................................................................................................... 24

Method Two: Case Research Approach Studies .......................................................... 25

Method Three: Quasi-Experimental .............................................................................. 27

Methodology Evaluation Conclusion ............................................................................ 28

III. Appendices

Appendix I: Evaluation Options for Competencies ....................................................... 29

Appendix II: Evaluation Options for Outcomes ............................................................. 31

Appendix III: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches ................................................ 32

Appendix IV: Content and Inductive Approach ............................................................. 33

IV. Tables and Matrix

Table 1: Key Leadership Frameworks ............................................................................ 7

Table 2: Intercultural Leadership Competencies .......................................................... 11

Matrix 1: Domains of Leadership .................................................................................. 12

Table 3: Five Core Intercultural Leadership Competencies .......................................... 14

Table 4: Methodological Approach for Measuring Competencies ................................ 23

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I. What is Intercultural Leadership Development?

Methodology In order to develop a holistic overview of Intercultural Leadership Development, we explored the definition, description, analysis, and evaluation of leadership through the following literature domains: business, human resource management, psychology, sociology, international relations, and communication. We selected peer-reviewed professional and academic journals, drawing on both qualitative and quantitative analyses of leadership studies conducted in business, military, and education contexts. First, we decided the major possible frameworks to analyze Intercultural Leadership Skills. Then, to ensure a comprehensive conceptualization, we compiled and analyzed theories and case studies from multiple fields of research, including: business, cross-cultural communications, education, and psychology. Next, we examined focused areas of leadership skills, existing leadership skills, cross-cultural communications skills, and intercultural leadership theories. By examining these theories within the selected fields, we were able to determine the theories that currently exist and case studies that have been previously conducted to look for real examples of leadership skills and intercultural development competencies that can be gained through leadership programs. Academic literature research was conducted through the American University (AU) library portal by accessing databases such as LexisNexis, Scopus, JSTOR, Psycinfo, and EBSCOHost. The literature provided insight into current studies on intercultural leadership development skills and experiences that we identify as critical core competencies. The competencies are necessary to our methodological approach to measure the overall personal and organizational outcomes from participating in corporate volunteerism programs, such as PYXERA Global’s Global Pro Bono programs. Additionally, academic case studies were referenced in the initial process primarily to support the theories that we researched. Keyword search terms included:

“Global leadership” “Leadership development programs” “Cultural competencies” “Intercultural leadership competencies”/“leadership competencies” “Intercultural development” AND “competencies” “Leadership development” AND “competencies gained”

After establishing an academic foundation of leadership theories and intercultural development skills from approximately 35 studies (leadership explored in military, business, and education contexts), the team examined case studies from various businesses and corporations that participated in corporate volunteerism or pro bono programs. We found that leadership theories on intercultural leadership development in the academic literature provided a base knowledge of skills that could potentially be gained, and we found reasons they would be

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beneficial for the individual or for an organization. However, we could not find evidence of the impacts of corporate volunteerism studies. Within the case studies, we were able to find both anecdotal and statistical evidence of the powerful transformational experiences and impacts corporate volunteerism programs produce in the individual participants and for the organizations. The case studies helped us understand how the core competencies were measured and analyzed in different scenarios. Academic literature is unclear about the link between competencies and outcomes, but anecdotal evidence reveals that there is a link between the competencies we have identified and the outcomes in leadership learning and behavior. Additionally, whereas the academic literature provided the core competency terms, it did not demonstrate how to apply the terms to corporate volunteerism leadership examples. The majority of the case studies reviewed provided evidence of how competencies are systematically investigated, shaped by global interactions, and measured for both personal growth and organizational growth. Case studies from the following organizations and corporations were reviewed:

Emerging World Bankers Without Borders Taproot

Corporate international service learning case studies included:

Microsoft: MySkills4Afrika Microsoft: Front Lines Credit Suisse: Global Citizen’s Program Education Initiative GlaxoSmithKline: PULSE Volunteer Partnership Ernst and Young: EY Building a Better Working World Vantage Program BD: Volunteer Service Trip IBM: Corporate Service Corp Cargill: Leading Across Boundaries

An Approach Overview Leadership development theories stem from multidisciplinary roots such as business, human resource management, psychology, sociology, international relations, and communication. In order to understand how to develop leaders and leadership, we first sought to understand the different conceptions of what it means to be a leader. Across our analyses of these bodies of literature, we discovered different framings and definitions of leadership development and different terminologies describing characteristics of a leader. In our literature review of both “leadership” theories broadly and “intercultural leadership” theories specifically, we found three core frameworks emerge as the most distinct and common ways of understanding different approaches to leadership development. These three framings show different ways of understanding the characteristics and nature of leadership. These three distinct approaches (1) The Trait Approach (2) The Behavior Approach and (3) The Situational Approach, underpinned the evolution of our core competency matrix.

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Intercultural leadership emerges in international management literature as a distinct concept in these approaches as communicating and being effective across cultures, which involves intercultural communication competence in self, in action, and in situation. The emergence of this literature and field of study occurred in the 1970s as multinational corporations began to realize the challenges associated with international business. Across our analysis of the bodies of literature, intercultural leadership emerged as a dominant thread in literature beginning in the early 1990s to describe the need for leadership characteristics to be contextualized in international business practices, especially as globalization demanded a shift in leaders’ skill sets to navigate the increasingly complex and interconnected world. Multiple intercultural competency frameworks demonstrate that core competencies are developed over time and are framed as “global competencies” or “cultural competencies”. The majority of intercultural leadership literature cites Mitchell Hammer’s Intercultural Development Index, Geert Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions, and the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness Research Project as pillars in the field. Based upon our review of intercultural leadership definitions, we created a definition that aligns with the mission of the Global Pro Bono program: The ability to strategically navigate and meet objectives in a complex, globalized market through effectively engaging others and leveraging diverse perspectives across cultures. Global leadership, as an umbrella concept of intercultural leadership, encompasses how a leader can and should operate in an increasingly globalized world. Global leadership draws upon the ability to navigate mega global trends and macro-level issues such as globalization, migration, and economic changes. The idea of being a global citizen is situated in the global leadership framework, which varies from intercultural leadership in that global citizenship emphasizes having a global mindset competency. Intercultural leadership, however, emphasizes multiple competencies, including the business, social, and self-mindset. In a more personalized and localized context, intercultural leadership measures the degree of personal ability to navigate cross-border work effectively in the context of managing cultural influences on marketing and business practices. Intercultural leadership is a leader’s ability to perceive, analyze, and decode behaviors and situations in multiple cultural contexts.

The Trait Approach The trait approach conceptualizes leadership as the inherent personality characteristics of an individual leader which includes internal traits, personality characteristics, motives, and values that are critical to leadership development and correlate to leadership success. Such characteristics include: self-confidence and a sense of personal identity, vigor and persistence, and a capacity to drive change. Core competencies identified in this approach include: self-management, emotional resilience, self-confidence, and optimism. The trait approach identifies how self-management and relationship management lead to both self-awareness and social awareness so that leaders are able to interact effectively with others in any environment. In terms of intercultural leadership development, this approach captures the emotional intelligence a leader carries with him/her to operate effectively in global contexts. Core competencies include: cultural awareness, resilience, empathy, and self-efficacy.

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The Behavior Approach The behavior approach captures how leadership is not only about personality characteristics but also about actions and behaviors. This approach describes the action in what leaders “do”; it captures the leaders’ skill sets. It includes the cognitive intelligence leaders possess in learning and adapting, and developing. In terms of intercultural leadership development, this approach captures the cultural intelligence a leader uses to operate effectively in intercultural contexts. Core competencies identified in this approach include: relationship management, interpersonal engagement, diplomacy, and social flexibility.

The Situational Approach The situational approach assesses the leadership competencies in response to the needs and demands of the work environment in which a leader operates. Rather than just examining the individual leader, it includes organizational leadership capacity. If the context in work situation influences behavioral tendencies, then it is necessary to understand how the context may influence the development of successful leadership outcomes. In terms of intercultural leadership development, this approach captures business intelligence in how a leader views, leads, and adapts to different contexts to operate effectively. As the world becomes more globalized, it is imperative for leaders to view the world through multiple lenses to understand and evaluate different situations. Core competencies identified in this approach include: perception management, tolerance for ambiguity, cross-cultural communication, and inquisitiveness.

A Conceptual Overview Although a single key definition, theory, or model of leadership does not exist in the field, there are core competencies that emerge regardless of the discipline examined. Key leadership skills and competencies are continuously being reworded, reworked, and reformatted. The table below (Table 1) categorizes key leadership frameworks we referenced to determine the core competencies relevant for PYXERA Global’s Global Pro Bono programs. Drawing on the literature and research of different leadership approaches, we chose to highlight leadership theories that have elements of each approach embedded within them. It was increasingly clear that the approach foundations produced common themes, specifically competency themes that underpinned the development of our own competency matrix

Table 1: Key Leadership Frameworks

Leadership Theory

Organization/Source

The Trait Approach

The Behavior Approach

The Situational Approach

The 5 Practices of Exemplary Leadership

Jim Kouzes and Barry Posner

- Inspire a Shared Vision: Leaders foster collaboration

- Model the Way: Leaders set the example and lead the way

- Challenge the Process: Leaders challenge the status quo and look for

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Model

and inspire others - Encourage the Heart: Leaders celebrate accomplishments.

- Enable others to Act: Leaders create and sustain others’ contribution to work.

innovative ways to improve the organization.

Leader Levels

The Center for Creative Leadership

- Leading Self: Leaders establish credibility, embrace flexibility, understand one’s own values and culture, and lead with purpose.

- Leading Others/Manages: Leaders coach and develop others, resolve conflict, embrace change, negotiate adeptly, create engagement, and leads team achievement.

- Leading the Function/ Organization: Leaders drive results, work across boundaries, catalyzes change, leads outwardly, and creates strategic alignment.

People-Centered Leadership

Ken Blanchard

- Purpose over Ego: Leaders serve others and are people-oriented - Make Your Intentions Explicit: Leaders communicate intentions and don’t assume.

- For Instead of From: Leaders focus on what they want for their employees in order for them to achieve what they want from them. - Grow Your People to Grow Your Organization: Leaders cultivate passion, knowledge, and value in others.

- Less is More: Leaders help others prioritize goals and concentrate on ones that will have the most impact. - Partner for Performance: Leaders are strategic about partnerships and building trust - The Objective is People and Results: Leaders create alignment with others and build their organization.

Third-Way Solutions

Gundling, et. al.

- See Differences: Leaders have cultural self-awareness and invite the

- Close the Gap: Leaders achieve results through relationships and frame-shifting.

- Open the System: Leaders expand ownership of projects and help develop future leaders - Establish Solutions:

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unexpected - Preserve Balance: Leaders adapt, add value, and are flexible.

Leaders influence across boundaries.

Polaris Global Leadership Competency Model

Carolyn Feuille and Bruce Griffiths

- Personal and Emotional Intelligence: Leaders have composure, learning ability, and can view themselves objectively.

- Social and Cultural Intelligence: Leaders build relationships/ networks, share information, are socially aware, and become influential.

- Organizational leadership: Leaders are problem solvers, decision makers, and have business and financial acumen to adapt to different situations. Leaders have the ability to understand how business functions and the interconnectedness of different parts.

Transglobal Leadership Matrix

Linda Sharkey, et. al

- Uncertainty Resilience: Leaders have the ability to deal with ambiguity, complexity and differences. - Pragmatic Flexibility: Leaders adapt to other cultures - Perceptive Responsiveness: Leaders act on intuition and fact; anticipate hanging needs of customers and other key stakeholders.

- Team Connectivity: Leaders integrate across boundaries. - Global Intelligence: Leaders seek to understand the legal, economic, governmental, and procedural environment in which they are operating. They have the ability to balance global standardization with local needs.

- Talent Orientation: Leaders achieve goals through people; in every situation they are engaged and oriented toward talent development. - Cultural Intelligence: Leaders learn and practice the cultural requirements necessary for success. - Business Intelligence: Leaders are able to operate from functional, process, and data frameworks and different points of view.

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- Moral Intelligence: Leaders understand how ethics are different in different parts of the world. - Emotional Intelligence: Leader empathize and connect with others.

The Global Mindset

Angel Cabrera and Gregory Unruh

- Global Psychological Capital: Leader’s ability to be open to new experiences, have respect for and curiosity about other cultures.

- Global Intellectual Capital: Leader’s ability to learn and interact with various cultures by learning the rules of engagement and interpret cross-cultural contexts correctly; leaders have the ability to build long-lasting relationships.

- Global Social Capital: Leader’s ability to expand networks and accept alternative interpretations of a set of circumstances. It is an investment in formal and informal education.

Data Analysis The next step in the process was to develop the core competencies. For this the team created a comprehensive matrix diagram to portray the three categories of core types of intelligences and skills that are necessary to gain in intercultural leadership development. The table (Table 2) uses the case studies and the academic foundations to go beyond a conceptualization of intercultural leadership and general leadership skills to an explanation of leadership development.

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After reviewing the relevant skills and competencies that individuals are most likely to gain after his/her participation in a global pro bono program, we compared them to the intercultural core competencies highlighted in intercultural leadership theories such as Mitchell Hammer’s Intercultural Development Index, Geert Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions, and the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness Research Project. These cultural theories emphasize the additional intelligences needed when operating in global contexts such as: cultural awareness, resilience, individualism, collectivism, power distance, and duality/cognitive complexity. We then directed our research attention to leadership case studies, specifically of Global Pro Bono and international volunteerism programs to understand which behavioral competencies would inform our own selection of core competencies.

Table 2: Intercultural Leadership Competencies

SELF

COGNITIVE (THINKING)

TRAIT

AFFECTIVE (FEELING)

SITUATIONAL

BEHAVIORAL (DOING)

Self-Confidence Stress-Management Curiosity & Open-Mindedness

Interpersonal Engagement Cross-Cultural Communication Conflict Management

Cultural Awareness Acceptance of Behaviors & Values Innovating

Self-Efficacy Resilience & Hardiness Empathy

Diplomacy Cultural Adaptation Cultivation & Collaboration

Cognitive Complexity Duality/Pluralism Visioning & Implementing

We first used “cognitive”, “affective”, and “behavioral” as terms to reflect the academic literature that describe the approaches to leadership development. We then reframed these words to “thinking”, “feeling” and “doing” in Table 2 to describe these approaches more clearly. The original graph was then transformed into a diagram that could better reflect a circular flow and interconnectedness of the three categories of intercultural leadership competencies. The research uncovered the fact that human behavior is a critical element to learn and develop leadership competencies, but it should not stand alone in isolation; instead, it should be intermixed with skills, thoughts, and feelings. The new circular diagram reflects that intercultural leadership development is an ongoing multi-directional and multi-faceted value process; it is not static and it requires leaders to be adaptive to different challenges and trends.

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Matrix 1: Domains of Leadership

At this point in our literature review research process, we began de-emphasizing the use of academic competency wording and selected five competencies in “business” and “corporate” language. Therefore we again reframed the three domains, which reflect the three approaches to leadership. We considered how these domains could be termed in business language so the original terms “trait”, “behavior” and “situational” in Matrix 1: Domains of Leadership, were translated to “emotional intelligence”, “practical approach”, and “intellectual understanding”. The three domains reflect the three approaches to leadership: trait (individual emotional intelligence), behavior (intellectual understanding, intellectual and cultural intelligence), and situational (practical approach, business intelligence). We created the matrix into a circle to depict that these three domains are not independent of one another; rather, they are nonlinear dynamics that affect how leaders (re)shape strategy and engage authentically with others. Different intercultural competencies are situated in the

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three domains and in operation together. They compel a leader to navigate intercultural relations and situations with realistic expectations. After narrowing our original competencies graph into the circular diagram above, we found that specific competencies emerged in the leadership literature continuously regardless of the domain. We narrowed our competency circular diagram down to a circle of five core competencies that includes: teamwork, communication skills, intercultural awareness, self-awareness, and resilience. These five core competencies were the five most commonly emerging competencies that cut across business, human resource management, psychology, sociology, international relations, and communication sources. Additionally, they are the most effectively measured competencies utilized in prior longitudinal evaluation studies (of study abroad programs and office of personnel management) and have an impact on concrete outcomes within a company (i.e. employee engagement results in employee retention).

Five Core Intercultural Leadership Competencies Gained in a Global Pro Bono Program Our research identified five core intercultural competencies that fit into the three approaches to the development of intercultural leadership quality domains. As a way to frame the domains to reflect the goals of Global Pro Bono programs, we modified our terms again from practical approach, intellectual understanding, and emotional intelligence to “skills”, “knowledge” and “emotion”:

1. “Skills” (practical approach/business intelligence) - Refer to the function/role of a leadership position

2. “Knowledge” (intellectual understanding/ cognitive intelligence) - Refers to the knowledge needed to accomplish the leadership roles/functions

3. “Emotion” (emotional intelligence) - Refers to the emotional intelligence leaders possess in order to manage leadership role and function

The eighteen general intercultural leadership competencies have been condensed to five core competencies. These five core competencies encompass the most prevalent of the eighteen, which cut across all research disciplines and have been successfully measured in previous longitudinal leadership evaluation studies. The competencies require awareness of self, others, and the spaces in which to operate. The role of the organization is to cultivate leadership competencies that require not only a defined set of values and principles, but inclusive policies and structures that allow employees to work effectively at an individual and organization level in different cultural contexts. The five core competencies can operate on an individual, team, or organizational level. For example, the intercultural leader exercises leadership if he/she can listen to the needs of his/her teammates and colleagues and act on that knowledge. An organization exercises leadership if it can engage its employees and can work to retain employees. The outcomes of

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the five competencies not only lead to individual leadership effectiveness and success, but also improved organizational performance.

Table 3: Five Core Intercultural Leadership Competencies

INTERCULTURAL LEADERSHIP

COMPETENCY DESCRIPTION

LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

APPROACH OUTCOMES

1. Teamwork Influencing and Negotiating

Skills Personal Level: Non-Judgmentalness; Stress Management Organizational Level: Employee Engagement; Talent Retention

2. Self-Awareness Visioning and Innovating

Knowledge Personal Level: Authentic Flexibility; Reflective Decisiveness; Realistic Optimism Organizational Level: Talent Retention; Corporate Insight and Depth of Learning

3. Intercultural Awareness

Leveraging Diversity and Seeing things from others’ perspectives

Knowledge Personal Level: Multicultural Learning, Sharing Leadership, Cultural Bridger Organizational Level: Employee Engagement; Corporate Insight and Depth of Learning

4. Resilience Strategic Thinking and Problem Solving

Emotion Personal Level: Understanding Interdependence; Pragmatic Trust, Global Organizational Savvy Organizational Level: Brand Reputation; Talent Retention; Employee Engagement

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5. Communication Skills

Listening and Consulting

Skills Personal Level: Mindful Communication; Create and Build Trust Organizational Level: Employee Engagement; Brand Reputation

1. Teamwork: Influencing and Negotiating

Influencing and negotiating, a skills-based competency, refers to working collaboratively, having negotiation expertise, and stakeholder orientation.

2. Self-Awareness: Visioning and Innovating

Visioning and innovating, a knowledge-based competency is the ability to know, articulate, and clarify values and increase alignment with the goals and mission of the company while working collaboratively. Leaders have the ability, knowledge, and freedom to experiment and to be creative with resources.

3. Intercultural Awareness: Leveraging Diversity and Seeing things from others’ perspectives

Leveraging diversity and seeing things from others’ perspectives, knowledge-based competencies are the abilities to present effective messages to diverse audiences, navigating global and local paradoxes and adapting leadership styles based upon particular cultural contexts.

4. Resilience: Strategic Thinking and Problem Solving

Resilience is an emotions-based competency that refers to a leader’s ability to overcome challenges and how well he/she manages stress. Resilience and stress management is the ability to maintain emotional stability in unstable or critical circumstances. Stress-management monitors one's cognitions and emotions, the capability to recognize what variety of social support strategies will be helpful for self-maintenance in particular situations, and the willingness to request social support when necessary. By learning how to modify the response (and coping behaviors), one eventually learns adaptive responses for a variety of stressful situations and becomes more resilient in the face of failure. A leader who practices resilience is a strategic thinker and solves problems by leading across multiple time zones and myriad cultures.

5. Communication Skills: Listening and Consulting

Listening and consulting, a skills-based competency, refers to actively engaging and empowering others, incorporating feedback, organizational networking, and team

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management. Employees who gain this skill internally build the corporate network of communication, increasing employee retention.

Five Core Leadership Competencies Applied to Personal and Organizational Level Outcomes The five core leadership competencies gained or improved upon completing a Global Pro Bono program are expected to lead to both personal and organizational level outcomes (i.e., meaningful changes in knowledge, skills, behavior, and status). Below we articulate how competencies are demonstrated in action: The main personal level outcomes include:

Stress Management Mindful Communication Create and Build Trust Multicultural Learning Sharing Leadership Cultural Bridger Authentic Flexibility Non-Judgmentalness Reflective Decisiveness Realistic Optimism Understanding Interdependence Pragmatic Trust Organizational Savvy

The four main organizational level outcomes include:

Brand Reputation Talent Retention Employee Engagement Corporate Insight and Depth of Learning

To better explain how the organizational level outcomes are derived by the core competencies, we define the organizational level outcomes as:

1. Brand Reputation For the individual participant, brand reputation is an increased loyalty to the company mission, core values, strategy, and ability to work with culturally diverse groups or teams as a brand ambassador.

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For the company, brand reputation is increased brand awareness and recognition in the international marketplace, attracting new clients and stakeholders, and a push to improve its mission and reduce costs without compromising quality. The five core leadership competencies relate to brand reputation in the following ways: TEAMWORK increases brand reputation as individuals improve their abilities to collaborate and negotiate. Improved teamwork and collaboration from increased COMMUNICATION SKILLS allow employees to be confident with the work that they are doing. Satisfied employees are more likely to be loyal to the company and feel affiliated with the company, along with citing it as a positive place to work. This makes employees more likely to recommend the company to a friend. jobs. INTERCULTURAL AWARENESS increases brand reputation as employees become more capable of working with diverse audiences, including international audiences with different cultures and practices. Employees also learn to adapt their styles to different audiences. This cultural awareness allows the company to be seen as socially responsible and as a prospect for greater partnership and collaboration in diverse and emerging markets. Finally, with greater SELF-AWARENESS, participants become better leaders who can set more challenging goals and inspire new visions that move the company forward. The company then increases its brand reputation as the company becomes known for being forward-thinking and progressive. The leader’s ability to practice RESILIENCE improves brand reputation because he/she is able to emotionally connect with stakeholders overseas while representing his/her company in a positive and memorable way.

2. Talent Retention For the individual participant, talent retention means recognizing how he/she complements the organization’s mission and create positive impact. Individuals then have increased motivation to achieve the organization’s goals and strategies, as well as a renewed drive for excellence to improve the organization’s goals, work plans, and incentives. Furthermore, individuals have an increased investment and alignment with the organization’s mission. Lastly, employees have increased interest in how the organization’s programs are being run, who is or is not benefiting, and how programs can be strengthened. For the company, talent retention means employees are more loyal and willing to stay with the company. Therefore, companies do not have to use resources to hire and train new employees. Participation in a Global Pro Bono program also attracts new talent for employees who value the presence of corporate volunteerism programs. The five core leadership competencies relate to talent retention in the following ways: TEAMWORK improves employees’ abilities to work collaboratively and negotiate conflicts, and employees that can negotiate and work together are more likely to be satisfied with their jobs. Teamwork increases employees’ loyalties to the company, and they are more willing to stay with the organization, which may lead to lower turnover rates. SELF-AWARENESS provides leaders with the skills to align with the company’s goals and contribute to achieving those goals, deepening their affiliation with the company. Employees embrace and commit to

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the organization’s culture that values learning and adaptive leadership skills. INTERCULTURAL AWARENESS also helps attract diverse new talent by promoting the company as culturally aware and adept at navigating diverse cultural contexts. Employees will have the ability to articulate and model clear, thoughtful, and timely internal and external communication with increased motivation to maintain relationships with overseas partners. RESILIENCE improves the employees’ abilities to overcome challenges, allowing them to be more satisfied with their work for the organization, also leading to lower turnover rates. COMMUNICATION SKILLS improve an employee’s ability to clearly articulate his/her ideas and engage other employees in order to enhance the work environment within the overall company that will strongly influence people to stay. Acknowledging cultural differences by using effective communication techniques and listening skills improves the understanding on what motivates people to choose to stay or leave a company.

3. Employee Engagement For the individual participant, employee engagement means navigating and relating to the organization’s various stakeholders, including external partners and resources. Employee engagement also means having the ability to listen more and understand how to engage effectively with people from diverse backgrounds and embed experiential learning into his/her career trajectory. For the company, employee engagement means embracing responsibility to deliver meaningful, measurable, and financially sustainable results for the people or causes the organization is in existence to serve. It is the ability to empower employees to perform better, which improves the employee’s ability to mobilize within the organization into higher positions. The five core leadership competencies relate to employee engagement in the following ways: TEAMWORK increases collaboration and negotiation skills, so employers feel closer bonds with each other, sustaining organization alignment and loyalty. RESILIENCE, which includes strategic thinking, and effective problem solving, also helps employees form closer bonds with each other by being able to overcome problems and conflicts. SELF-AWARENESS helps inspire innovation, vision, and strategic goals for oneself and for the organization. COMMUNICATION SKILLS improve with an increased ability to manage team members, work through challenges, and provide solutions to problems. Effective [and improved] leadership skills increases team relations, allowing employees to feel more connected with the organization. INTERCULTURAL AWARENESS takes an experience from a Global Pro Bono program, and reinforces the advantage for an employee to interact and collaborate with members from culturally diverse backgrounds in order to produce a diverse research process and achieve impactful results. Furthermore, employees will be committed to nurture relationships developed overseas.

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4. Corporate Insight and Depth of Learning For the individual participant, corporate insight and depth of learning means reflecting on individual work-related experiences that will encourage insight and complex learning as a continuous process of leadership development within the company. This also means that the individual will have the ability to evaluate and process learned information that can be used to apply a framework to any given situation and construct meaning from work content. The individual is then able to process learned information and apply the information to the appropriate contexts and settings For the company, corporate insight and depth of learning assesses what the organization should and should not be doing in accordance with its values and missions. It also allows employees to redirect resources to the highest-opportunity area by making data-informed decisions to gain a deeper understanding of the larger environment in which they operate including: racial, cultural, geographic, historical, and political dynamics. The five core leadership competencies relate to corporate insight and depth of learning in the following ways: An improvement in TEAMWORK skills increases an employee’s insight and breadth of learning by increasing the employee’s ability to collaborate with others and see diverse points of views to mediate a solution. According to the Emerging World Benchmark impact study, participants identified that CISL (Corporate International Service Learning) experiences took them out of their comfort zones and improved these five competencies specifically: self-awareness, self-confidence, problem-solving, ability to see things from different perspectives, and the ability to deal with ambiguity. RESILIENCE develops collectively within the organization as a continuous cognitive learning process by first understanding an individual’s intuition and common sense which allows the individual to comprehend the complexities of personal and professional problems to solve. Insight into people and situations involving the company workplace is an essential characteristic to managing, training, and developing a successful team. SELF-AWARENESS increases employee alignment with the values of the company, and it also increases employees’ awareness of whether the organization embodies and executes values, mission, and promises. They are then also able to reflect upon experience to consider the value-added to his or herself and to the company. INTERCULTURAL AWARENESS provides an opportunity for an employee to process, analyze, and interpret the cultural experience learned through an immersion service learning program. The employee examines a situation through a cultural lens and reflects on the similarities and differences of information in intercultural contexts and perspectives. Awareness as a continuous cognitive learning process by first understanding an individual’s intuition and common sense which allows the individual to comprehend the complexities of personal and professional problems to solve. Insight into people and situations involving the company workplace is an essential characteristic to managing, training, and developing a successful team. COMMUNICATION SKILLS will demonstrate an employee’s depth of knowledge and understanding by the ability to conduct a dialogue or consultation with team members.

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Literature Review Conclusion We have uncovered in our literature review that intercultural leadership development programs generate the five core competencies listed above. These core competencies are important because they establish a basis for PYXERA Global to demonstrate how aspiring intercultural leaders can think, act, and be global leaders. When leadership is executed in cross-national and cross-cultural contexts, leaders must be aware of how their leadership style can change in order to connect with others and overcome cultural boundaries, craft effective strategies for both local and global contexts, and contribute to the mission of the program. A well developed intercultural leader must then maintain global interactions to continue to grow intercultural competencies. The purpose of unpacking these competencies in the literature review is to provide a simple foundation for PYXERA Global to frame the effectiveness of Global Pro Bono programs to companies. To explain the value of these leadership development programs, PYXERA Global could communicate to companies that the major goal of these programs is to develop the specific five core competencies in participants. In order to show that these competencies have been developed, PYXERA Global can then measure the base level of participants for these competencies before the program begins, create specific components to enhance the understood five core competencies during the program, and measure participants directly after the program concludes as well as periodically thereafter. Our research has shown that it is much easier to measure competencies than it is to measure outcomes. For example, using the method listed above, if PYXERA Global frames the Global Pro Bono programs to companies in such a way that the leadership development, which occurs on these programs, is the overarching program goal, this can be analyzed by measuring participants before, during, and after programs. However, it is much more difficult to analyze how a company functions before sending leaders on a Global Pro Bono program and measuring the impact in how it functions after participants return to the company. Stating that an employee was able to gain X amount of additional contracts relating to Y amount of dollars in added revenue for the company because of his or her experience in a Global Pro Bono program is difficult to control for outside variables and correlation mistakes. However, we can say that a leader’s development in a competency such as teamwork (which can be measured) does have an effect on company outcomes because it has the capacity to stimulate employee engagement with the company which can increase employee retention and saves X amount of dollars in costs of training new talent. This is why we chose to focus on finding evaluation methods that could measure intercultural leadership competencies most effectively, rather than purely evaluating organizational level outcomes. The following section explains the three evaluation methods we found in our research to be most useful for PYXERA Global to measure the core leadership competencies developed in leaders during a Global Pro Bono program.

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II. How to Longitudinally Measure Intercultural Leadership Development? In order to frame our research in the longitudinal evaluation, we reviewed professional and academic journals that provided both qualitative and quantitative options for measuring leadership development within the professional spheres of business, military, and education. Through this literature, we explored the definition, description, analysis, and evaluation of leadership. These domains and case studies shaped how we considered possible evaluation methods for longitudinal evaluation of the Global Pro Bono programs. As the literature review explains above, our research shows that it is easier and more feasible to measure leadership competencies than it is to measure organizational outcomes. This is because leadership competencies can be measured for leaders across organizations of any size and with any mission. Organizational outcomes are more difficult to measure because these types of outcomes can change depending on the company size, whether it is a multinational organization or non-profit, and the specific goals of that particular company. To mitigate this, we decided to propose a survey approach that is very feasible and can assess the competencies on an individual level. Additionally, we suggest that PYXERA Global does not measure outcomes directly, but instead, use case studies or a quasi-experimental approach in order to begin making connections between competencies and organizational outcomes.

Evaluation Methodology and Reasoning As we processed how the case studies and competencies related to longitudinal evaluation, several key questions emerged, such as, “What is longitudinal evaluation?, How does it work?, and What are the concrete benefits of longitudinal evaluation?” There was difficulty in extracting the answers because there were no prior studies that specifically conducted a longitudinal assessment of intercultural leadership competency development. The most in-depth articles detailing how a longitudinal study should work were largely within the healthcare field. Although they were only marginally related to our research, they provided useful information on how longitudinal evaluations have been successfully executed in the past. These articles demonstrated the types of methodologies that could be used in a longitudinal evaluation, which served to inform our recommendations, most notably—surveys and case research approach studies. At this point, the team was actively debating whether we would be measuring leadership “competencies” or leadership “outcomes”. While this vocabulary discrepancy may seem insignificant, the difference between the terms directly correlated with the type of methodological approach we would select for evaluation options. As a result, two methodology matrixes were created and reviewed for potential strengths and weaknesses: one applicable to competencies and one applicable to outcomes. These matrixes can be found within the Appendices. We also added a comparison table of measurements and data collection. Since the literature review illustrated that the proficiency levels of leadership competencies evolve over time, we determined that longitudinal assessments are in fact the most effective in measuring the five competencies selected. The best methodological approach for implementing a longitudinal study for participants of the Global Pro Bono program would be to

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utilize qualitative measurements of intercultural leadership development. This was determined by weighing each of the methodologies’ pros and cons from Table 4 (below). Qualitative data collection provided the most practical, comprehensive, and inclusive results for the longitudinal study of leadership competences and outcomes. In our analysis of the theories and the case research approach studies, the most effective qualitative methodological approach would involve extracting data from the narratives provided by the Global Pro Bono participants through interviews and surveying specific case studies. Moreover, this type of analysis would involve researching the corporate environment the participant returns to in order to determine if those competencies are being used and are continuing to grow. Both case research approach studies and surveys will demonstrate strong correlations between PYXERA Global’s Global Pro Bono program and the development of intercultural leadership over time. Additionally, we found that the quasi-experimental approach to studying leadership competencies longitudinally is by far the most scientific and causational way of assessing leadership development. It should be noted that when using the quasi-experimental approach, it is imperative to use a control group to provide clear evidence of the variable group competency development versus the control group. Thus, PYXERA Global could greatly benefit from using the model described above, but should also keep in mind the complexity that this approach requires, as well as potential high monetary cost.

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Table 4: Methodological Approach for Measuring Competencies

Design/ Approach

Logic (Purpose) Potential Tools Challenges

Survey This method allows for a breadth of information, but can also be very specific depending on the framing of the questionnaires. Online surveys are relatively simple to administer and require minimal effort from the participants.

Online surveys Tools: Survey Monkey, 9lenses, etc.

The scope of the questions can be limited. The best option to use a matrix design akin to 360-degree design. Over time, the participants may lose interest in filling out the survey, or they will have left the company.

Case Research Approach Study

It can provide PYXERA Global with a few in-depth cases that feature rich narratives and detailed stories. Case studies can frame the impact participants are making on the organization and can provide information of the organization’s environment and ability to nurture these newly gained competencies.

Interviews, Surveys, Journals, Participant Observations, Media monitoring, Tracking Accomplishments.

Labor-intensive process for participants and for PYXERA Global. Case Studies only offer snapshots that the researcher may or may not be able to build on later.

Quasi- Experimental Approach

This method can help establish direct links between Global Pro Bono program and desired competencies using objective and quantifiable data analysis. The method requires non-randomized control group and experimental group. The goal is to compare and contrast the two groups to isolate the impact of the global pro bono program.

Online surveys, Interviews, Journals, Participant Observations, Media monitoring, Tracking Accomplishment from individual and organizational levels.

Challenging to use because of the difficulty in controlling variables. Also requires standardization of environments, which is not feasible. Labor and cost intensive.

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Method One: Surveys (Trend, Change, and Number Oriented) PYXERA Global administers a pre-departure survey and a post-program survey. We believe these are the building blocks of a strong evaluation strategy. We propose to expand the survey strategy to include a longitudinal approach. Measuring not only the levels of satisfaction, but also the base and post-program competency levels will allow PYXERA Global to see whether or not the Global Pro Bono experience contributes to the participants’ growth in the identified areas. Within the survey methodology, PYXERA Global can choose intensive or in-depth questions, a short census of the demographics of the participants, or cover a breadth of areas with likert scales. Additionally, this can provide data regarding employment retention of participants of the Global Pro Bono program and allow for PXYERA Global to take into account changing attrition rates of responses within their evaluation methods. A downfall of this methodology is the possibility of single bias. Single bias occurs when data comes from only one source, such as self-reported surveys. Implementing this method longitudinally, however, can reduce single bias as measurements are taken over and over again. Our research has found that the core five competencies are the unifying and underlying set of metrics that can be applied to all participants regardless of their origin or external environment. Focusing the questionnaire on the competencies will allow PYXERA Global to compare participants from various organizations and build a comprehensive picture, using a larger data set (vs. segmenting by a company). Below we outline our logic and strategy for implementing this approach. Logic Statement: PYXERA Global aims to understand what competencies are gained from a Global Pro Bono program. Surveys can track trends and changes in competency levels overtime and provide an analytical tool for further research. Surveys can be administered to a wide range of participants, regardless of their physical location. Moreover, the survey method is the most feasible evaluation approach, offering a low cost and low time commitment. Process: Administer a yearly survey for 5 years. Because attrition rate increases with time and an average time spent with a company for today’s employee is around 4.6 years, we propose a pilot evaluation program to be carried out for the next 5 years. This will minimize the risk of losing contact with the alumni, and allow PYXERA Global to get concluding results in a reasonable timeframe. If the evaluation is successful, there is a possibility of extension for 10+ years, however the pool of respondents is likely to shrink. PYXERA Global currently has over 8000 alumni. The average survey response rate is around 20 percent, which would provide a sample set of 1600 responses. Depending on the number of new participants completing the program each year, we project the core sample size to remain somewhat stable, or possibly increase slightly since newer alumni are proven to be more responsive. Cost: Depending on the level of intricacy and the number of potential respondents needed, the surveys can be implemented at a relatively low cost. The most significant upfront investment is the time and effort dedicated to the creation of questions aiming to provide needed insight. Once the questionnaire is developed, the deployment of the surveys can be done electronically

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using various tools. The surveys can be analyzed in-house or partially/wholly outsourced to the analytics companies, such as 9lenses, etc. Positive Example: Emerging Worlds used a survey approach to draw out some of the competencies associated with their CISL program. Emerging Worlds has recently finished their CISL Impact Benchmark Study, in which they sought to understand the impact of the program on the participant and organizations as well as find ways to improve the program overall. They partnered with 5 companies and contacted approx. 450 participants with an astounding 70% response rate. In total 310 alumni responded to the online survey. In their survey they explored five areas including depth of learning, breadth of learning, career mobility, employee retention and employee engagement. What is of particular interest for the purposes of our work, is their leadership competencies which include self-awareness, working with diverse groups, effective collaboration, etc. Overall, they have structured their competencies and areas of interests slightly differently from ours, however, there are significant overlaps. Emerging Worlds survey method is an example of how competencies can be used to show impact. With the competencies that we are proposing, you can use surveys to also show the impact of your GPB program.

Method Two: Case Research Approach Studies (Process, Story, and Change Oriented) Moving beyond the capacities of survey data, we recommend case research approach studies which include a series of comprehensive interviews, focus groups and context analysis. While the use of surveying is still applicable to this approach, self-reported participant data is supplemented with controlled interviews, which provide a more detailed account of pre and post-program evaluation. We believe that by strategically developing a comprehensive case research approach study, PYXERA Global can document changes overtime, showcase transformative effects of the program, and expose the process through which the program affects participants. This approach will give PYXERA Global an in-depth look at behavioral factors and life events that may affect the overall development of the participants. Case research approach studies allow for comparison of participants, which can provide a platform for demonstrating the effectiveness of the Global Pro Bono program. For instance, if the participants are experiencing personal difficulties or other extraneous factors, they will be recorded in a case analysis and incorporated into the overall evaluation. PYXERA Global can understand differences in competencies and overall impact within the participant groups. Moreover, case research approach studies can help demonstrate the benefits to the organization/corporate client, by understanding other organizational factors. For example, PYXERA Global can incorporate a cost-benefit analysis comparing their GPB program with other leadership development programs within a particular organization, looking at areas such as retention rates and motivation value. Below we outline our logic and strategy for implementing this approach. Logic Statement: PYXERA Global aims to understand what competencies are gained from a Global Pro Bono program and how these competencies impact the individual and the company. Case research approach studies allow PYXERA Global to gain a more detailed

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perspective on how competencies affect individual and organizational outcomes as well as frame this understanding in a specific context. Process: The method can be used to answer various questions and can be adapted to the specific needs of the evaluation. In conducting case research approach studies, we offer two different approaches that cater to two different potential questions. 1. What kind of impact does PYXERA Global’s Global Pro Bono program have on individual participants and their career growth trajectory?

To evaluate this, we propose a series of interviews, surveys and focus groups with the individuals who successfully completed the program. In this approach, the same 9 alumni (3 who have completed the program one year ago, 3 - three years ago, 3 - five or more years ago) would be evaluated yearly within a time period of 5 years. This gives the ability to examine the growth process of the same individuals at different time-frames out of the program, and zero in on the individual pathways of each alumni. The data from the interviews, focus groups and surveys would be cross-referenced with a wider alumni survey, as well as to the company and industry data. We recommend the minimum of 3 participants from each year, to provide a sufficient sample for the study. In this model a group from each organization will be treated as a separate case, and would require greater attention paid to the context in which the alumni and the company itself are operating. 2. What kind of impact does PYXERA Global’s GPB program have across companies who participate?

To evaluate this, we propose to conduct a series of interviews, surveys and focus groups with a select group of individuals who have successfully completed the program. In this case, a different set of 9 participants (3-one year after program, 3-three years, 3-five or more years) would be evaluated every year for 5 years. This gives the ability to compare groups of alumni at the equal time-distance from the program across various companies. In this case the competencies will be measured at specific times (1, 3, 5 years) after the program, and allow to look for consistencies in alumni personal development. The organizational context would need to be closely examined to understand the potential impact of alumni competencies on the companies. Participant selection matters, as it frames the case study and somewhat confines the finding to a selected group. For the pilot program, we recommend to seek recommendations for the 9 participants from each company and choose the individuals each company recommends. Alternatively, a call to volunteer can be issued to all alumni within each company and the first 9 respondents that meet the qualifications can be chosen (3 one year after the program, 3 - three years, 3 - five or more years). Cost: The time commitment associated with case research approach studies is one of the largest cost factors. Also, an implementation of a scientific case study requires an experienced and highly qualified team, who can ensure the consistency of the study methodology and is able to interpret the findings. Such expertise can be expensive to acquire, if not already

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present in-house. Contracting options are available with organizations like Mission Measurement and the exact cost would greatly vary on the scope of the work need.

Method Three: Quasi-Experimental (Science, Comparison, and Causality Oriented) Although the aforementioned case research approach studies ideally provide a strong correlation, the quasi-experimental approach is more likely to provide evidence of a causal relationship between the Global Pro Bono program and leadership competencies. The quasi-experimental approach is often found in “hard” social science and scientific studies, as these areas have a higher likelihood of controlling the environment the participants are subjected to or have a natural phenomenon. This creates a control group exogenously by the event not happening in similar areas around the global. To implement this method for the Global Pro Bono programs, PYXERA Global’s clients would need to establish a participant group and a control group. Control groups would be made up of individuals who applied for the Global Pro Bono program or are otherwise qualified for consideration, but did not participate in the program. It is important to note that the control group shares virtually all of the same attributes and qualifications of the participant group. This is necessary because it lowers the possibilities that the groups are inherently different, allowing for a stronger correlation between participants of the Global Pro Bono program and gained leadership competencies. In other words, PYXERA Global can claim participants of their Global Pro Bono program gained a deeper understanding of core competencies and abilities to use those competencies when compared to a similar group who did not participate in the program. The quasi-experimental method would be more costly to run, especially when taking into consideration the possible number of participants who did not participate in the program through the entire process of pre-departure selection and post-program evaluation. The control group is also subject to environmental changes and externalities, making this approach less feasible in terms of cost and time commitment. Below we outline our logic and strategy for implementing this approach. Logic Statement: PYXERA Global wants to understand the overall impact of their program on participant and corporations. This method demonstrates the most potential for drawing conclusions about the relationship between the Global Pro Bono Program and gained leadership competencies. Essentially, this method allows PYXERA to make a quasi-causal claim about the benefits of their GPB program. Process: we suggest PYXERA Global focus on at least two companies who have been committed to Pro Bono and have a number of participants who did the program in the past. Once the companies agree, the evaluation will include a systematic case Study approach, with the addition of a control group. The control group will consist of participants who applied for the program but could not go - ideally participants who were accepted and could not go last minute.

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Cost: This approach is the most time consuming and cost intensive of the three options. As with the case research approach studies, this method requires an implementation of a scientific inquiry done by an experienced and highly qualified team that can ensure the consistency of the study methodology and is able to interpret the findings. Such expertise can be expensive to acquire, if not already present in-house. Outsourcing this study may not decrease the cost, due to the extensive work that is involved from a third party provider.

Evaluation Methodology Conclusion The three methodologies proposed to PYXERA Global each have their strengths and weaknesses. As mentioned, the survey methodology is a good starting point for PYXERA Global to begin their evaluations. The quasi-experimental evaluation, on the other hand, is the ideal evaluation strategy. With all things considered, we propose PYXERA Global choose the case research approach based on its feasibility and ability to dive deeper into individual and organizational impact. The case research approach will tap into the most important indicators of growth, which are the intercultural leadership competencies, while also giving insight into how these participants utilize the gained competencies. Additionally, if PYXERA Global eventually wants to measure organizational outcomes, executing the case research approach option will provide further information on the decisions individuals make within the corporation, framing an outcomes-based evaluation.

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III. APPENDICES

Appendix I - Evaluation Options for Competencies

Methodology Design/Approach

Logic for this Approach

Potential Tools Challenges

Qualitative (Case Research Approach)

Can provide PYXERA Global with a few in-depth cases that feature rich narratives and detailed stories..

Interviews, Journals, Participant Observations, Media monitoring, Tracking Accomplishments

Labor-intensive process for participants and for PYXERA Global employees. Offers snapshots that the researcher may or may not be able to build on later.

Participatory Approach - Participants actively contribute to the design of the evaluation tools by helping with interview/survey questions, themes, and ideas.

It may help PYXERA Global understand what their clients are most interested in knowing, or what they feel they should have gained from the experience.

Interviews, Surveys, Focus groups

The participants may not be interested/ or have the time to be this involved in the evaluation process.

Experimental Approach- Compare and contrast participants in the program with others who did not participate and track changes over time in a quantitative analysis.

Can help establish direct links between Pro-Bono program and desired competencies using objective and quantifiable data analysis.

Control group and experimental/treatment group

Hardly used because of the difficulty in controlling variables. Also requires standardization of environments, which is not feasible. Labor and Cost intensive.

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Mixed Methods Approach

Mixed Method approach helps get the full picture.

Interviews, Text analysis, Ethnographies, Narratives, Surveys, Participant Observation, Tracking accomplishments, Relationship mapping, Journals

Labor and cost intensive. Best done with an in-house team.

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Appendix II - Evaluation Options for Outcomes

Methodology Design/Approach

Logic for this Approach

Potential Tools Challenges

Experimental Approach

Experimental Approach is the best way for PYXERA Global to “prove” that their program is making an impact by using a control group to show the comparison.

The effects of the programs are demonstrated by comparing a treatment group with a control group.

Low feasibility Time intensive Costly Controlling the environment during the program and after is not realistic

Economic Approach-Inspired by welfare economics. The values of a public action are the sum of the benefits it provides to individuals. (Cost-Benefit Analysis or Cost-Effectiveness Analysis)

This approach might appeal to PYXERA Global because it can detail a numeric value to their clients that they can later showcase in their marketing approach

Cost-Benefit Analysis - Estimates and totals up the equivalent $ benefits and cost of projects to the community, in order to establish whether they are worthwhile Cost Effectiveness Analysis-the effectiveness of a program is given a monetary value and compared to the cost based on the programs substantive goals

Difficult to monetize qualitative variables

Mixed Methods Approach

Combining methods can provide a holistic analysis.

Multi-criteria Analysis - Some criteria can be grouped and compared per two and presented in a matrix in order to calculate indicators of concordance or discordance (ranking method)

Time intensive Costly

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Appendix III – Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches

Quantitative Approaches Qualitative Approaches

Structured design Gather data open-end

Statistical methods Occurs in a natural setting

Needs standardization Experimental and subject aspect

Precision Narrative

Objectivity Could have more than one technique

Reliability

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Appendix IV - Content and Inductive Approach

Content Inductive

Identifying coherent and important themes and patterns.

Patterns, themes, and categories of analysis come from the data. Thus, emerge out rather than be decided prior.

Pulling data together that address particular questions and subdividing that data into coherent categories, pattern and themes.

Look for natural variation.

Labeling data and establishing index. This requires particular attention to variation in program process and the ways participants respond to and are affected by the programs.