Applying Critical Consciousness:Culturally Competent Disaster ResponseOutconnesRachael D. Goodman and Cirecie A. West-Olatunji

H i h e authors explored the use of critical consciousness as a training tool to provide effective, culturally competent di-saster response counseling services to disaster-affected communities. The results are presented of a qualitative studyevaluating the outcomes for participants in a disaster response outreach project serving residents of post-Katrina NewOrleans. Participants demonstrated increased personal and cultural awareness and also constructed new knowledgerelated to counseling outreach competencies.

Because of the devastating effects of natural and human-madedisasters, there is an increasing global need for mental healthprofessionals to provide disaster relief outreach services(Guha-Sapir, Hargitt, & Hoyois, 2004; Herman, 1997; U.S.Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, 2006; Walter,2005). Mental health professionals are responding to disasters,including hurricanes in the United States and earthquakes inArmenia (Kalayjian, 1995). The counseling profession hasbegun to foster a global counselor identity through endeav-ors such as the global mental health facilitator designationestablished by the National Board for Certified CounselorsInternational (2007). However, the counseling professionhas not developed an initiative that places counselors at theforefront of providing disaster response services on a globallevel. Cultural competence involves three primary attributes:(a) the therapist's awareness of her or his own worldview, (b)the therapist's development of an understanding of the client'sworldview, and (c) the therapist's development of culturallyappropriate clinical interventions (Sue & Sue, 2003). Bycreating culturally competent disaster outreach experiences,counselors can provide disaster mental health services to com-munities in need. In this way, the counseling profession cancarry out its expressed commitment to social justice (Kiselica& Robinson, 2001) and cultural competence (Arredondo et al.,1996). The purpose of this study was to expand counselors'knowledge of cultural competence, using critical conscious-ness (Freiré, 2000) as a framework, when engaged in disasterrelief counseling services.

•Review of the LiteratureIn the response to the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina in theGulf Coast region of the United States, the American Coun-seling Association (ACA) referred approximately 20% of themental health counselors who were deployed by the SubstanceAbuse and Mental Health Services Administration ( Kennedy,2006). ACA's executive director, Richard Yep, recognized thatnot all mental health professionals deployed to the Gulf Coast

were adequately trained. Some of those deployed lacked skillsin trauma and crisis counseling and an awareness of the roleof a postdisaster mental health worker.

Mental health and disaster response professionals agreethat both preparation and cultural competence are neces-sary in effective disaster responses (Halpem & Tramontin,2007). Findings of the Institute of Medicine's Committee onResponding to the Psychological Consequences of Terror-ism indicated that mental health professionals often do nothave disaster response experience or training (cf. Reid et al.,2005). Furthermore, there is a notable absence of literatureestablishing the practice of and training for cultural competen-cies in disaster relief (Mollica et al., 2004). This suggests thatcurrent disaster preparation may be insufficient. Moreover, itis crucial that counselors become more culturally competentso that they can better meet the increasing need for disasterresponse within global and multicultural contexts.

The Need for Culture-Centered Disaster Response

Critical in the successful assessment, conceptualization, andtreatment necessary for a client's progress is an understandingof the cultural, social, and historical context of the present-ing problems (Goodman & West-Olatunji, 2008). Issues ofmacrosystemic oppression and historical trauma contextualizeindividuals' predilections toward not only the counseling ex-perience, but also the counselor (Cross, 1998; Harrell, 2000).Understanding sociocultural conditions facilitates the concep-tualization of the needs of individuals in ethnically diverse andlow-income communities (West-Olatunji, 2008). Multiculturalcounseling research suggests that there are differences in thecultural orientations between dominant and nondominant indi-viduals (Atkinson, 2004; Holdstock, 2000; Ibrahim, Roysircar-Sodowsky, & Ohimshi, 2001; Roysircar, Arredondo, Fuertes,Ponterotto, & Toporek, 2003; Sue & Sue, 2003). Clients' ad-herence to their own cultural orientations influences the typesof coping strategies they use. Thus, counseling interventionsthat are informed by cultural values can increase efficacy by

Rachael D. Goodman and Cirecie A. West-Olatunji, Department of Counselor Education, University of Florida. Correspondenceconcerning this article should be addressed to Rachael D. Goodman, Department of Counselor Education, University of Florida, 1215Norman Hall, PO Box 117046, Gainesville, FL 32611-7046 (e-mail: goodmanRD@gmail.com).

458© 2009 by the American Counseling Association. All rights reserved.

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intentionally incorporating these strategies (Pedersen & Ivey,1993). Furthermore, counselors' personal biases can limit theircultural competence and reduce their efficacy with culturallydiverse clients (Constantine, 2002).

Training for Critical ConsciousnessCritical consciousness involves the ability to reflect on one'spersonal biases in working collaboratively with individualsand community stakeholders to take action and transform ex-isting obstacles to a satisfactory quality of life (Freiré, 2000).Critical consciousness has been used in educational trainingprograms and community development initiatives to fosterawareness, empowerment, and social justice ideals (Harden,1996; Watts, Williams, & Jägers, 2003). This praxis-orientedperspective establishes counselors as critical coinvestigatorswith the community they are serving (Nelson & Neufeldt,1998). Thus, critical consciousness can serve as a vehicle forthe development of empowerment and cultural competence.Infusing the principles of critical consciousness into counselortraining for disaster response prepares clinicians for currentand future disasters service.

The process of becoming critically conscious beginswith reflection and the development of awareness (Harden,1996). During this process, awareness of personal biases anda deeper understanding of complex social issues develop(Ginwright & Cammarota, 2002; Hernandez, Almeida, &Dolan-del Vecchio, 2005; McKnight, 2004; Sakamoto &Pitner, 2005). This awareness engenders transformation ininterpersonal relationships whereby counselors seek morecollaborative and empowering relationships with their clients

(McKnight, 2004; Sakamoto & Pitner, 2005). The develop-ment of critical consciousness may also allow counselorsto work collectively with colleagues, thereby transformingthe experience of working in a group into one of reciprocity,engagement, and growth (Campbell & MacPhail, 2002; Gay& Kirkland, 2003).

The theory of critical consciousness has been used in thecounseling profession and in other professions as a tool forthe development of cultural competence and social justiceideals (Alschuler, 1986; Hanna, Talley, & Guindon, 2000).The process of increasing awareness through reflection iscritical in the development of cultural competence becauseit can liberate individuals from socially embedded and oftenunconscious hegemonic views (D'Andrea, 2005; Ivey & Col-lins, 2003). Freire's (2000) theory has been used to facilitatecritical thinking and to engender a greater understandingof oppression, leading to action orientated to social justice(Watts, Griffith, & Abdul-Adil, 1999). Before the study, weused established models of critical consciousness to identifyseven steps and corresponding outreach protocols that wouldhelp disaster response participants move toward critical con-sciousness (see Table 1).

Critical consciousness oflèrs a model that can improve coun-selor training and increase cultural competence. The purpose ofthis study was to determine whether incorporating critical con-sciousness in a training experience in disaster mental health wouldincrease counselors' cultural competence. We hypothesized thatas a result of involvement in an outreach experience, participantswould demonstrate critical consciousness that would informtheir disaster response and cultural competencies. We asked

TABLE 1

Assessing and Developing Critical Consciousness in Disaster ResponseSteps Description Outreach Protocol Participant Quotes1. Awareness

(Sakamoto &Pitner, 2005)

2. Respect(McKnight, 2004)

3. Context(Ginwright &Cammarota, 2002)

4. integration(Hanna et al.,2000)

5. Empowerment(Harden, 1996)

6. Praxis(Watts et ai.,1999)

7. Transformation(Aischuier, 1986)

Participants recognize that theybring their own biases into theenvironment.

Participants vaiue community mem-bers' funds of i<nowledge.

Participants acknowledge the socio-poiitical context.

Participants integrate knowiedge intociinicai conceptuaiizatlon.

Participants are abie to appropriateiyintervene with empowerment asthe goal.

Participants formulate advocacyaction.

Participants integrate the experi-ence into their own personal andprofessionai identities for trans-formation.

The appiication process inciuded (a)short-answer items, (b) essay, (c)inventories, and (d) orientation.

A community informant ied participantson a 6-hour tour.

Participants read about and discussedthe sociopoiiticai context.

Participants were provided with iive su-pervision and daily process sessionsby the ciinicai supervisor.

Participants engaged in supervision,daiiy process sessions, and ciinicaimodeiing by the ciinicai supervisor.

The ciinicai supervisor established pro-ionged engagement as an essentialelement of the training experienceand reinforced articulated desires forsocial justice.

Daily written reflection that culminated insummative whoie-group process.

"I am embarrassed to admit that I didnot expect New Orleans to be so richin cuiture."

"Even with aii the sadness and questions,we saw resiliency."

"His community has been mistreatedand neglected, and they are aii hurt-ing for it."

"What we need to do is have a discussionwith the peopie expressing that needabout how they can get those thingsthemseives."

"This trip has been empowering for usas counseiors and has taught us tobetter empower others."

"My lenses have changed. I want to domore in New Orleans.... I kept thinking,where is the government? Someoneshouid be helping with this. This cityshould not still look like a war zone ayear after the storm."

"One week in New Orleans has changedmy outlook as a person and as a profes-sionai. i came on this trip as a student,counseior, and woman, but those wordshave been redefined."

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the question, "What are the outcomes of incorporating criticalconsciousness in a disaster mental health counseling outreachexperience?" Specifically, "Does critical consciousness influencecultural competence?" It was also hypothesized that through theprocess of developing critical consciousness, participants wouldexpand their cultural competence, including identifying culturallybased strengths and Stressors and providing culturally appropriateclinical interventions informed by ecosystem knowledge.

•MethodResearch Design

We chose culture-centered research methodology, borrowedftom educational research, because of its emphasis on trans-formation and praxis (King & Mitchell, 1995; Tillman, 2002).Culture-centered research establishes transformation as a keyelement, from the research design through data analysis. De-sign, analysis, and interpretation are trans-subjective behaviorswhereby transformation occurs as an outcome of the researchendeavor (Tillman, 2006; West-Olatunji, 2005). These culture-centered methods were used in this study.

The principal researcher (the first author), a EuropeanAmerican female doctoral counseling student, and the secondauthor, an Afiican American female counselor educator, wereable to access their lived experiences to inform the researchdesign and analysis. The first author's feminist beliefs and gen-dered experiences within social and academic settings informedher decision to use an ethnological framework that emphasizedcollaborative inquiry. The second author's experiences as aclinical researcher in impoverished communities and as afemale counselor educator of color in the area of multiculturalcounseling shaped the chosen methodological framework. Theassumptions of both researchers, therefore, fi-amed the mannerin which they viewed, understood, and analyzed the data.

ParticipantsThe purposeful sample comprised 6 outreach participants, all ofwhom were women between the ages of 23 and 53 years (meanage, 31 years). The participants were master's-level counseling(n = 5) and psychology students (« = 1) in counselor educationand school psychology programs, respectively, at a large south-eastern U.S. university. The ethno-cultural backgrounds of theparticipants were Haitian American (n= 1), Indian American(n=l), and European American (n = 4). A counselor educatoraccompanied the participants and served as on-site clinicalsupervisor for their clinical experiences. The clinical supervisor,an African American woman and former resident of New Or-leans, was a licensed professional counselor and marriage andfamily therapist. The clinical supervisor served as coprincipalresearcher on this research project.

Data SourcesParticipants completed the application packet, which consistedof a demographic information form, an essay, and screening

measures, and made daily journal entries during the outreachexperience. The demographic information form and essayrequested disclosure about participants' relevant personaland academic experiences. The screening measures includedthe Life Orientation Test (LOT; Scheier, Carver, & Bridges,1994) and the American-International Relations Scale (AIRS;Sodowsky & Plake, 1992). The LOT measures self-care anddispositions, and the AIRS measures cross-cultural tolerance.All participants received satisfactory scores on both measureswith no significant or outlying responses. After participantsprovided informed consent, the aforementioned informationwas used as data sources for the study.

Procedure

Applications were distributed to graduate counseling studentsin classes and via e-mail. Six students responded to the call forapplications. Two external reviewers, both faculfy members,evaluated the applications: one from the host university andone from outside the university. The criteria used to evaluatethe applications were motivation to expand cultural compe-tence, inclination for social justice, and prior considerationshown for cultural and contextual issues. The purpose ofthe review was to eliminate any applicants who may havedemonstrated low levels of multicultural awareness and/orself-care coping skills, as indicated by their scores on theAIRS and the LOT

During a 4-hour orientation program, participants wereasked to sign informed consent forms to participate in theresearch project. The clinical supervisor conducted the on-campus orientation where participants were introduced tooutreach philosophy. Protocols were established for partneringwith and entering the community via a counselor educatorserving as faculty-in-residence at a prekindergarten througheighth grade charter school. Participants also received infor-mation about the service recipient community and participatedin discussions and interactive exercises that fostered reflectionas a foimdation for their disaster response work.

At the beginning of their 8-day outreach experience inNew Orleans, Louisiana, a counselor educator from the localuniversity introduced the participants to the community byproviding them with a tour of the of the areas of the city thatwere devastated by Hurricane Katrina. During the remainderof the week, participants provided disaster response counselingto teachers and other school personnel at the designated site.The school faculfy and administrators were approximately twothirds African American; the remaining staff" members wereEuropean American. Participants provided the following typesof counseling services: brief counseling, crisis intervention,individual consultation, information sharing, and referrals.Additionally, participants had the opportunify to be a partof a 2-hour parent night program at the school in which theyhanded out information sheets on recognizing signs of traumain children. They also responded to questions from individual

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parents. The clinical supervisor provided live supervision andfacilitated process sessions throughout the outreach.

During the outreach, primary participant tasks were to (a)provide counseling services that used partnering and focusedon empowerment, (b) keep a journal for reflection, and (c)engage in processing with peers and faculty supervisor. Par-ticipants engaged in 3 to 4 hours of process and reflectiontime daily. This enabled them to engage in introspection andunderstanding, both of which are crucial steps toward theacquisition of critical consciousness (Gay & Kirkland, 2003;Harden, 1996). All outreach activities involved participants aspartners with the community, further establishing the modelof critical consciousness through coinvestigation. In addition,participants frequently engaged in dialectic process with theirpeers and supervisor.

Data AnalysisData analyses consisted of (a) reading through the journal en-tries and highlighting comments or phrases that were representa-tive of the participants' experiences, (b) clustering highlightedstatements into summary statements on the right margin of thejournal notes, and (c) creating domains of meanings from theclustered summary statements. Data were analyzed using NVivo(v2.0), a qualitative analysis software tool. The researchersdiscussed the coding variables, the nodes, and what was foundduring review of the data. Through dialogue, the researcherswere able to condense themes and reach consensus about thedomains of meaning. After the results were assimilated, theresearchers met with the participants to engage in memberchecking whereby they dialogued with the participants re-garding interpretations of the participants' realities to ensuretruth value of the data (Creswell, 1994). Through synergisticconversation, the participants provided comments and reflectedon the findings of the study to confirm and elaborate on thethemes. Additionally, after the results had been compiled, theresearchers reexamined the relevant literature and reachedagreement. The domains of meaning that emerged from thedata were summarized along with actual quotes associated witheach of the categories.

To ensure trustworthiness, we used member checking(periodic reflective statements with the participants to en-sure truth value of the data), triangulation of data throughthe use of multiple sources, and participatory investigationwhereby members of the outreach group collaborated withthe researchers in the design, interpretation, and dissemina-tion of the study.

•ResultsOur hypothesis was that an outreach experience would resultin increased critical consciousness and thus inform partici-pants' disaster response skills in culturally competent ways.On the basis of our literature review, we expected participantsto articulate the unique needs, cultural orientations, and

Stressors of culturally diverse individuals (Atkinson, 2004;Holdstock, 2000; Ibrahim et al., 2001 ; Roysircar et al., 2003;Sue & Sue, 2003; West-Olatunji, in press). Furthermore, itwas anticipated that the participants would identify the useof culture and an ecosystemic perspective to inform clinicalinterventions (Kurpius & Rozecki, 1992; Pedersen & Ivey,1993; West-Olatunji & Watson, 1999).

Analysis of the data revealed six primary themes: criticalconsciousness, group cohesion, mentoring, transformation,self-care, and cultural competence. A node search of the datashowed that the theme of critical consciousness was mostprevalent (n = 86). The second most frequent theme was groupcohesion (n = 46), followed by mentoring (n = 35), transfor-mation (n = 25), self-care (n = 19), and cultural competence(n = 14). Through member checking, discussion, and reviewof the literature, we reached consensus regarding the relation-ship between the themes and were able to collapse the sixthemes into two dominant areas: critical consciousness andmeta-knowledge. The other themes were viewed as outcomesof the two dominant areas, with critical consciousness serv-ing as an interactive construct with cultural competence andmeta-knowledge as an overarching theme for group cohesion,mentoring, and fransformation/self-care.

Critical Consciousness for Skill DevelopmentOur investigation demonstrated an increased consciousnessamong the participants that appeared to have shifted howthey conceptualized and intervened with clients. The viewsexpressed by the participants showed a social justice-orientedperspective, an expected outcome of the development of criti-cal consciousness. One participant wrote about a meeting atthe school: "As I looked at the fully-attentive, packed room Isaw resiliency." One participant stated, "The goal is to try andhelp them depend on one another, building the system insteadof enabling dependency on us." Similarly, another participantwrote, "We are not here to influence their community in away that they will feel dependent on our presence. . . . [W]ecould empower them to talk to someone that is a part of theircommunity." Furthermore, participants applied this theme ofempowerment not only to their clients but also to themselves:"This trip has been empowering for us as counselors and hastaught us to better empower others."

Participants viewed their development of a new under-standing of consciousness as profound: "So if we were usinga metaphor of a light bulb turning on above your head whensomething clicks, then today can only be described as the mostbeautiñil explosion of flreworks on the fourth of July." Theyalso reported that the outreach trip was a crucial element intheir leaming process: "I caught myself before I said, 'I wishI had known what I know now at the beginning of the trip.'Because, it dawned on me, I don't think we could have learnedthis any other way." Another participant stated, "I feel like inthe hour or two we spent with [the client] I learned more thanI could having read a whole book or attended a lecture." One

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wrote, "I feel like every time [the clinical supervisor] talksand we process as a group, I leam more than I could in weeksin a classroom." Participants reported being transformed bythe outreach: "One week in New Orleans has changed myoutlook as a person and as a professional."

Participants demonstrated with clinical examples how theyapplied new clinical knowledge that developed through thereflection process. One wrote, "It made me realize that. . .there is so much more behind what people say on a surfacelevel, and a great deal of introspection is required in order toeven understand the basics." Another virote, "If the clients arenot coming to your office or agency, then go out to them andsee what can be done to reach them."

Critical Consciousness for Cultural CompetenceIn expressing cultural competence, participants demonstratedan awareness of culture and reflected on its impact on thetherapeutic process when providing disaster counseling:"Their strong belief system was beneñcial. Individuals mightbe reluctant to ask for help for fear of burdening others thatare grieving." One participant remarked on the concludingbonding ritual, noting "I also liked that it was somethingthat was Afrocentrically [sic] driven and allowed all of us toshare in a new cultural experience to end what has been trulya culturally driven week."

Participants demonstrated an understanding of the impor-tance of cultural competence in counseling. One participantstated, "When we arrived at the school, we were laid backand tried to flt in within their own system, instead of forcingthem to adjust to our own." Another participant remarked onthe outcomes of culturally competent counseling: "Culturecentered, commimity-based counseling is not only one of themost well-received approaches, I was surprised how brief itcan be and how beneñcial it can be to counselors."

In addition to the findings on critical consciousness andcultural competence, our initial analysis of the data yieldedfour other themes: group cohesion, mentoring, self-care, andtransformation. Discussion informed by member checkingand relevant literature enabled us to reconceptualize howthese themes relate to one another and to determine thatmeta-knowledge is an umbrella construct for group cohesion,mentoring, self-care, and transformation. Meta-knowledgerefers to the synergistic articulation of two or more people thatallows for new, shared knowledge to develop. The researchersconsidered these subthemes part of meta-knowledge becausethey are outcomes that are commonly expected to occurthrough the process of engagement in group outreach, as hasbeen found in previous research on outreach (Dingman &Ginter, 1995).

The results of this study appear to show that the out-reach was a transformative developmental experience thatmoved students from a precritical consciousness stage tometa-knowledge construction to critical consciousness andcultural competence (see Figure 1). Using the group dialectic

Cultural Competence Critical Consciousness

Precritical Conscrousnessi and Self-Aw <tene<;s

FIGURE 1

Pyramid of Critical Consciousness Development

process to generate new knowledge, participants describedintegrating this understanding into their personal and profes-sional identities as both critically conscious and culturallycompetent counselors. Thus, the results of this study suggestthat the outreach experience enabled participants to developcritical consciousness that allowed them to practice disasterresponse counseling in a culturally competent manner. Criticalconsciousness was demonstrated through participants' articu-lation of key principles, such as awareness, respect, contextualknowledge, integration of knowledge, emphasis on empower-ment, praxis, and transformation (see Table 1).

•DiscussionThis study oflers preliminary support for a training model that usescritical consciousness to instill cultural competence. The develop-ment of cultural competence, a critical component of counseloreducation (Arredondo et al., 1996), can be facilitated through in-novative and experiential programs for counseling students. Theparticipants in this study demonstrated that the outreach enabledthem to engage in meaningful dialogue and reflection with theirpeers, a key element of developing cultural competence (D'Andrea,2005; Ivey & Collins, 2003; Roysircar, Gard, Hubbell, & Ortega,2005). The opportunity to have interactions with people fk)mdiverse populations, which is provided in such an outreach experi-ence, has been shown to increase cultural competence and reducecultural bias (Burnett, Hammel, & Long, 2004; Hagan, 2004;Musucci & Renner, 2000). Engaging in a real-world experiencefacilitates the development of clinical skills, including the abilityto integrate theory with practice (Arman & Scherer, 2002).

Counselor education programs can integrate outreach intosuch courses as multicultural counseling or community coun-seling. This study may be significant to counselor education inthat programs can use this innovative and experiential means toeducate students and to provide service. Finally, this study hasimplications for community outreach. Therefore, engaging in

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community outreach that is informed by critical consciousnessprovides a model for outreach that engenders culturally compe-tent service (D'Andrea, 2005; Ivey & Collins, 2003).

•Future ResearchFurther research on culturally competent disaster response isneeded to expand on the results presented in this article. Futureresearch in this area can include the examination of participantcharacteristics in relation to outreach results. The participantsof this outreach project were female, master's-level graduatestudents in counseling or psychology. Characteristics of theparticipants, such as gender and ethnicity/race, are importantto examine, because these characteristics might play a rolein group cohesion. Research has indicated that homogeneousgroups are more cohesive than heterogeneous groups; thus,having participants who are more varied could be significant(Lieberman, Wizlenburg, Golant, & Di Minno, 2005). Theprevious clinical training and counseling experiences of par-ticipants might also be a factor in the outreach outcomes. Par-ticipants with previous outreach experience or other learningexperiences that have been focused on critical consciousnessmay have already developed cultural competencies (Ivey &Collins, 2003). These assets could create variance in the par-ticipants and affect the group dynamic, which in turn affectscohesion and the outreach results (Yalom, 2005).

Future research can also examine the organizational elementsof the outreach to see how these affect outcomes. The outreachpresented in this article was organized by a university-affiliatedprofessor and engaged students as participants. Other outreachprojects might be facilitated by national organizations or bycommunity mental health agencies. Therefore, participantsmight be drawn fiom a wider pool, increasing the likelihood ofdiversity within the participant group and possibly decreasingcohesion (Lieberman et al., 2005). Seeking participants fromdiverse backgrounds might also offer greater cultural com-petence, because individuals from marginalized populationscould offer an alternative perspective to the dominant perspec-tive and engender more effective counseling (Atkinson, 2004;Holdstock, 2000; Ibrahim et al, 2001; Roysircar et al, 2003;Sue & Sue, 2003). Certainly, these elements can have an impacton the outreach results and will need to be further examined toexpand on the knowledge gained in the current study.

Finally, future research can address issues related to thetype of disaster for which counseling is being provided. Thisoutreach project focused on hurricane recovery in the UnitedStates. However, because of the worldwide increase in both human-made and natural disasters (Walter, 2005), it is critical that thecounseling profession develop effective outreach services fornational, international, human-made, and natural disasters.Cultural competence, a critical skill for effective counseling(Arredondo et al, 1996), will be particularly important in the in-ternational arena where counselors are almost certain to interactwith individuals from cultures that are different from their own.

The notable absence of literature establishing the practice of andtraining for cultural competencies in disaster relief (Mollica etal, 2004) indicates clearly that research must be expanded inthe area of disasters on an international scale. Future researchcan expand on the preliminary knowledge gained through thisstudy to determine how outreach can be facilitated effectivelyand globally for all types of disasters.

In summary, this study examined the outcomes for participantsin a disaster response counseling outreach effort that was guidedby critical consciousness. We found that participants began thisprocess by engaging in self-reflection and self-awareness, whichled to the development of meta-knowledge. As part of the de-velopment of meta-knowledge, the participants exhibited groupcohesion, mentoring, transformation, and self-care. Moreover,the development of meta-knowledge led to the development ofcritical consciousness, which enabled participants to provideculturally competent disaster response counseling. Implicationsof the findings are that using critical consciousness to engageparticipants in disaster response first provides much neededservices to communities that have been affected by disaster.Second, it ensures that these services are provided in a culturallycompetent manner. Third, it creates a relationship between facultyand students that may be transformative for counselor trainees.Further research is needed in this area to determine how outcomescan be reproduced or enhanced and what factors are salient inplanning such an outreach experience.

This study provides a nascent understanding of how criticalconsciousness can be used to extend counselor training andfacilitate the development of cultural competence and socialjustice ideals. Indeed, counseling students and outreach partici-pants in general are likely to be reflective, as was found in thisstudy. The researchers attempted to extend this tendency forreflection by using critical consciousness to emphasize socialjustice. This is of particular importance as the counseling profes-sion integrates social justice ideals into counselor identity.

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