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Introduction to the Human

Body

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Anatomy and Physiology provide the

foundation for understanding the bodys

parts and functions

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Overview

ANATOMY ( = MORPHOLOGY)

ana - up, -tomy - process of cutting up.

Anatomy was first studied by DISSECTION.

morpho = form or shape

Refers to the study of STRUCTURE and the

relationships among structure.

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Overview

PHYSIOLOGY

Deals with FUNCTIONS of the body parts, or how

they work.

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Overview

Both Anatomy and Physiology are verybroad topics with many subdivisions:

Anatomy subdivisions:

GROSS ANATOMY - deals with structures that canbe studied without a microscope.

SYSTEMIC ANATOMY - covers specific systems of thebody.

Ex. Nervous system, circulatory system.

EMBRYOLOGY - development from fertilized egg to

end of8th week in utero.

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Overview

Anatomy (continued)

PATHOLOGY - study of structural changes caused

by disease.

HISTOLOGY - microscopic study of structures of

tissues.

CYTOLOGY - study of cells.

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Overview

Physiology subdivisions:

CELL PHYSIOLOGY - study of the functions of cells.

NEUROPHYSIOLOGY - study of the functional

characteristics of nerve cells.

ENDOCRINOLOGY - study of hormones and how

they control body functions.

IMMUNOLOGY - study of the bodys defensemechanisms.

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Structural Organization

For us to begin our study of the body, first we

have to understand how it is organized.

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2. CELLULAR LEVEL

Includes basic structural and functional units of

the organism.

MOLECULES group together to form CELLS.

Cells contain specialized organelles that perform

specific functions.

Ex. Mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum

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3. TISSUE LEVEL

Tissues are made up of groups of similarly

specialized cells and their intercellular material

that work together to perform certain specialfunctions.

CELLS group together to form TISSUES.

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Example of tissue: Cells of the epithelium

(lining) of the stomach.

Include cells that:

Produce mucous - lubricates food as it passes through

the stomach.

Parietal cells - produce acid in the stomach.

Chief cells produce enzymes needed to digest proteins.

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Tissues

Four basic kinds of tissues:

Epithelial

Connective

Muscle

Nervous

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4. ORGAN LEVEL

Different tissues are joined together to form an

ORGAN.

Organs have more or less definitive form and are

composed oftwo or more different tissues.

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Example of organ level of structural

organization - STOMACH components.

A serous layer of cells (serosa) around the outside

protects the stomach and reduces friction when

the stomach rubs against other organs.

Muscle tissues layers of the stomach contract to

mix food and pass it on to next digestive organ. The epithelial layer lining the stomach produces

mucus, acid, and enzymes.

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5. SYSTEM LEVEL (Organ-System Level)

A SYSTEM consists of an association of organs that

have a COMMON FUNCTION.

Ex. Digestive System - mouth, salivary glands,

pharynx (throat), esophagus, stomach, small

intestine, large intestine, rectum, liver, gallbladder,

pancreas.

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6. ORGANISM

All parts of a body functioning with one another

constitute a total ORGANISM - one living

individual.

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Principal Systems of the

Human Body

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Integumentary System

Components: SKIN and structures derived from it, such as

hair, nails, sweat glands, oil glands.

Functions: Regulate body temperature.

Protection.

Elimination of waste.

Receives stimuli such astemperature, pressure,and pain.

Helps make Vitamin D.

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Skeletal System

Components:

All BONES of the body, their associated cartilages,and joints of the body.

Functions: Supports and protects the

body.

Gives the body leverage.

Produces blood cells.

Stores minerals.

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Muscular System

Components:

All MUSCLE tissue of the body,

including skeletal,

visceral(), and cardiac. Functions:

Movement.

Maintains posture.

Generates heat.

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Nervous System

Components:

Brain, spinal cord, nerves,

and sense organs, such as theeye and ear.

Functions:

Regulates body activities

through NERVE IMPULSES.

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Endocrine System

Components:

All glands that produce

HORMONES, for example,

thymus and thyroid glands.

Functions:

Regulates body activities

through hormones transported

by the cardiovascular systemfrom an endocrine gland to a

target organ.

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Lymphatic System

Components:

Lymph, lymph nodes, lymph vessels, andlymphatic organs, such as the spleen, thymus

gland, and tonsils. Functions:

Returns proteins to the cardiovascular system.

Filters the blood.

Produces blood cells.

Protects against disease.

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Respiratory System

Components:

Lungs and a series of passageways leading into andout of the lungs, such as the pharynx (throat) and

trachea. Functions:

Supplies oxygen to the body.

Eliminates carbon dioxide from the body.

Helps regulate the acid-base balance of thebody.

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Digestive System

Components:

A long tube and associated organs such asthe salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and

pancreas.

Functions:

Performs physical and chemical breakdown of

food for use by cells Eliminates solid wastes.

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Urinary System

Components:

Organs that produce, collect, and eliminate urine,

including the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and

urethra. Functions:

Regulates chemical composition of the blood.

Eliminates wastes.

Regulates fluid and electrolyte balance and volume.

Helps maintain acid-base balance of body.

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Reproductive System

Components:

Organs (testes and ovaries) that produce

reproductive cells (sperm and ova) and organs

that transport and store reproductive cells.

Functions:

Reproduces the organism.

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Lecture 2 Life Processes

Organisms carry on certain processes thatdistinguish living from non-living things.

1. METABOLISM - sum of ALL chemical processesthat occur in the body.

Metabolism = catabolism +anabolism A. CATABOLISM - breaking down large complex

molecules into smaller, simpler ones.

B. ANABOLISM - building up of complexchemical substances from smaller, simplerones.

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Life Processes

2. RESPONSIVENESS - ability to detect andrespond to changes in external or internalenvironment.

3. MOVEMENT - motion of the whole body,individual organs, single cells, or evenorganelles within cells.

4. GROWTH - increase in body size thatresults from an increase in the number or sizeof cells or both.

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Life Processes

5. DIFFERENTIATION - changes that a cellundergoes to develop from anunspecialized to a specialized state.

STEM cell - - - > MATURE cell 6. REPRODUCTION - formation of new cells

for growth, repair, or replacement, or theproduction of a new individual.

All of these life processes must be done atVERY CONTROLLED LEVELS.

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Homeostasis

All of the cells of the body need a relatively

STABLE condition to function EFFECTIVELY.

This maintenance of stable conditions for its

cells is an ESSENTIAL function of every multi-

celled organism.

This stable condition is called HOMEOSTASIS.

Heart rate , blood pressure

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Homeostasis

One of the main effector mechanisms in the body

for maintaining HOMEOSTASIS is the control of

BODY FLUIDS.

These include:

INTRACELLULAR FLUIDS - within cells.

EXTRACELLULAR FLUIDS - outside body cells.

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Homeostasis

Extracellular Fluid Types:

INTERSTITIAL fluids - ECF located BETWEEN cells.

BLOOD PLASMA - ECF within blood vessels.

LYMPH - ECF within lymphatic vessels.

CEREBROSPINAL FLUID in brain and spinal cord.

SYNOVIAL FLUID in joints.

AQUEOUS HUMOR and VITREOUS HUMOR inthe eyes.

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Homeostasis

If homeostasis is disturbed, ILLNESS may

develop and if it is not restored, DEATH may

occur.

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Homeostasis

Homeostasis is constantly disturbed bySTRESS.

Defined, STRESS is any stimulus that tends to

create an imbalance in the internal environment. It may be:

EXTERNAL - outside the body, ex. heat, cold, loudnoises.

INTERNAL - within the body, ex. low blood glucoselevel. Dont eat

PSYCHOLOGICAL - ex. demands of work, school.

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Homeostasis

Most homeostatic mechanisms of the bodyare regulated by:

NERVOUS SYSTEM - detects a change, sends amessage to counteract the stress.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM - a group of glands thatsecrete chemical regulators, called HORMONES,into the blood.

Utilizing these systems, the body can regulate

its internal environment through a multitudeof FEEDBACK MECHANISMS or SYSTEMS.

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Feedback Mechanisms

Feedback Systems involve a cycle of events in

which information about the status of a body

CONDITION is continually monitored and

reported or fed back to a central controlregion.

Example - blood pressure, body temperature,

blood glucose level.

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Feedback Mechanisms

Consists of:

1. RECEPTOR - monitors changes and sends INPUT

to the CONTROL CENTER.(brain)

Any stress that changes a controlled condition is calleda STIMULUS.

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Decrease heart rate

Dilate blood vessel

Lower blood

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Feedback Mechanisms

Consists of:

2. CONTROL CENTER - determines the value at

which some aspect of the body (CONTROLLED

CONDITION) should be maintained.

Ex. blood pressure

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Feedback Systems

3. EFFECTOR - receives information, called

OUTPUT, from the CONTROL CENTER and

produces a RESPONSE.

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Feedback Systems

If the response REVERSES the original

stimulus, the system is a NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

SYSTEM.

If the response ENHANCES or intensifies the

original stimulus, the system is a POSITIVE

FEEDBACK SYSTEM.

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Feedback Systems

Generally, negative feedback systems tend to

maintain conditions that require FREQUENT

adjustment within physiological limits.

Ex. Body temperature, blood glucose level.

Most feedback systems in the body are NEGATIVE.

Positive feedback systems are important for

conditions that DO NOT require constant fine-tuning.

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Disease

A DISEASE is a pathological process with a

definite set of characteristics in which part or

all of the body is not carrying on its normal

functions. Homeostasis is NOT IN BALANCE.

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Disease

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Disease

SYMPTOMS - subjective changes in body

functions that are NOT apparent to an

observer.

Ex. headache, nausea, anxiety.

SIGNS - objective changes that a clinician can

observe or measure.

Ex. Swelling, high blood pressure.

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Di i l T

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Directional Terms Anatomical Position

When a region of the body is described in an

anatomical fashion, we assume the body is in the

ANATOMICAL POSITION. Erect and facing the observer, arms at sides,

palms of the hand are turned forward so the

radius and ulna do not cross.

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Directional Terms

DIRECTIO Principles

ofAnatomyandPhysiology, 13th Edition

Tortora, Derrickson NAL TERMS are used to

describe EXACTLY where body structures arepositioned.

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Directional Terms

DIRECTIO Principles

ofAnatomyandPhysiology, 13th Edition

Tortora, Derrickson NAL TERMS are used to

describe EXACTLY where body structures arepositioned.

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Directional Terms

SUPERIOR = Cephalad = Craniad TOWARD the head or the upper part of a

structure; generally refers to structures in thetrunk.

Ex. The heart is superior to the liver.

INFERIOR = Caudad

AWAY from the head or toward the lower part of a

structure; generally refers to structures in thetrunk.

Ex. Stomach is inferior to the lungs.

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Directional Terms

ANTERIOR = Ventral

Nearer to or at the FRONT of the body.

Ex. The sternum is anterior to the heart.

POSTERIOR = Dorsal

Nearer to or at the BACK of the body.

Ex. The esophagus is posterior to the trachea.

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Directional Terms

MEDIAL NEARER the MIDLINE of the body or a structure.

Ex. The ulna is on the medial side of the forearm.

LATERAL

FARTHER from the MIDLINE of the body or a

structure.

Ex. The lungs are lateral to the heart.

INTERMEDIATE BETWEEN two structures.

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Directional Terms

PROXIMAL

NEARER the ATTACHMENT of an extremity to the

trunk or a structure.

Ex. The humerus is proximal to the radius.

DISTAL

FARTHER from the ATTACHMENT of an extremity

to the trunk or a structure. Ex. Phalanges are distal to the carpals (wrist bones).

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Directional Terms

SUPERFICIAL

TOWARD or on the surface of the body.

Ex. Muscles of the thoracic wall are superficial to the

viscera in the thoracic cavity.

DEEP = Internal

AWAY from the surface of the body.

Ex. Muscles of the arm are deep to the skin of the arm.

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Directional Terms

PARIETAL

Pertaining to the outer wall of a body cavity.

Ex. Parietal pleura surrounds the lungs.

VISCERAL Pertaining to the covering of an organ.

Ex. The visceral pleura covers the external surface of

the lungs.

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Planes

PLANES - imaginary flat surfaces that pass

through body.

SAGITTAL plane - runs vertically

MIDSAGITTAL (MEDIAN) Plane - through the

midline of the body, runs vertically and divides the

body or organs into equal right and left sides.

PARASAGITTAL Plane - also runs vertically, butdivides the body or organs into unequal left and

right portions.

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Planes

FRONTAL (CORONAL) Plane

Runs VERTICALLY and divides the body or organs

into ANTERIOR and POSTERIOR.

HORIZONTAL (TRANSVERSE) Plane Runs PARALLEL to the ground and divides the

body or organs into SUPERIOR and INFERIOR

portions.

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Planes

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Planes

FRONTAL (CORONAL) Plane

Runs VERTICALLY and divides the body or organs

into ANTERIOR and POSTERIOR.

HORIZONTAL (TRANSVERSE) Plane Runs PARALLEL to the ground and divides the

body or organs into SUPERIOR and INFERIOR

portions.

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Body Cavities

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Body Cavities

Spaces within the body that contain internalorgans are called BODY CAVITIES:

Two principal cavities:

1. DORSAL BODY CAVITY 2. VENTRAL BODY CAVITY

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CAVITY COMMENTS

Cranial cavity Formed by cranial bones and contains brain

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Cranial cavity Formed by cranial bones and contains brain.

Vertebral canal Formed by vertebral column and contains spinal

cord and the beginnings of spinal nerves.

Thoracic cavity (Chest cavity) contains pleural and pericardial cavities and mediastinum

Pleural cavity Each surrounds a lung; the serous membrane of

each pleural cavity is the pleura.

Pericardial cavity Surrounds the heart; the serous membrane of the

pericardial cavity is the pericardium

Mediastinum Central portion of thoracic cavity between the lungs; extends from

sternum to vertebral column and from first rib to diaphragm; contains

diaphragm heart, thymus, esophagus, trachea, and several large blood vessels.

Abdominopelvic Cavity Subdivided into abdominal and pelvic cavities.

Abdominal cavity Contains stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, small intestine, andmost of large intestine; the serous membrane of the abdominal

cavity is the peritoneum.

Pelvic cavity Contains urinary bladder, portions of large intestine,

and internal organs of reproduction.

CAVITY COMMENTS

Cranial cavity Formed by cranial bones and contains brain

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diaphragm heart, thymus, esophagus, trachea, and several large blood vessels.


Abdominal cavity Contains stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, small intestine, andmost of large intestine; the serous membrane of the abdominal

cavity is the peritoneum.


and internal organs ofreproduction.

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Body Cavities

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Body Cavities

Dorsal Body Cavity Located near the posterior (dorsal) surface of the

body. Divided into:

A. CRANIAL CAVITY - a bony cavity formed bycranial (skull) bones and contains the brain.

B. VERTEBRAL or SPINAL CANAL bony cavityformed by the vertebrae of the backbone and contains

the spinal cord and beginnings of the spinal nerves.

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Body Cavities

Ventral Body Cavity = COELOM A thin tissue layer called a SEROUS MEMBRANE lines

the wall of the ventral body cavity and covers the

organs within it.

Located on the anterior (ventral) aspect of the body.

Organs inside the ventral body cavity are called

VISCERA.

Ventral body cavity walls are composed of skin,

connective tissue, bone, muscles, and serous

membranes.

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Body Cavities

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Body Cavities

Ventral Body Cavity can be divided into:

A. THORACIC CAVITY - chest cavity, upper portion.

B. ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY - lower portion.

What divides the ventral body cavity into thoracic and

abdominopelvic components?

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Body Cavities

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Body Cavities

Thoracic Cavity contains:

TWO PLEURAL CAVITIES - each containing a lung.

The cavity itself is composed of the small, fluid-filled

space between the part of the serous membrane thatcovers the lung and the part that lines the wall of the

thoracic cavity.

The Serous membrane associated with the lungs is

called the PLEURA.

PARIETAL versus VISCERAL pleura.

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Body Cavities

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Body Cavities

Thoracic Cavity MEDIASTINUM - mass of tissue between the

pleura of the lungs that extends from the sternum

to the vertebral column. Includes almost all of the contents of the thoracic

cavity, except lungs.

PERICARDIAL CAVITY- encloses heart.

VISCERAL versus PARIETAL PERICARDIUM.

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Body Cavities

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Body Cavities

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( ) Plane

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Body Cavities

Abdominopelvic Cavity: 1. ABDOMINAL CAVITY - contains stomach,

spleen, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, small intestine,

most of the large intestine, kidneys, and ureters. The serous membrane associated with the abdominal

cavity is called the PERITONEUM.

PARIETAL versus VISCERAL peritoneum.

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y

Abdominopelvic Cavity(peritonium) 1. ABDOMINAL CAVITY - contains stomach,

spleen, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, small intestine,

most of the large intestine, kidneys, and ureters. The serous membrane associated with the

abdominal cavity is called the PERITONEUM.

PARIETAL versus VISCERAL peritoneum.

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CAVITY COMMENTS


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heart, thymus, esophagus, trachea, and several large blood vessels.


peritoneum

Abdominal cavity Contains stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, small intestine, and

most oflarge intestine; the serous membrane of the abdominal

peritoneum cavity is the peritoneum.


and internal organs ofreproduction.

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Body Cavities

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Abdominopelvic Cavity PELVIC CAVITY - lower portion. Contains the

urinary bladder, sigmoid colon, rectum, and

internal male or female reproductiveorgans.

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abdominopelvic regions

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abdominopelvic regions

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Abdominopelvic Regions and

Quadrants

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Quadrants

The abdominopelvic area may also be dividedinto FOUR QUADRANTS for locating pain,

tumor, or other abnormalities.

Right upper quadrant (RUQ)

Left upper quadrant (LUQ)

Right lower quadrant (RLQ)

Left lower quadrant (LLQ)

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Medical Imaging

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Various kinds of medical imaging proceduresall anatomists to visualize structures inside the

bodies and are used to diagnose a variety of

disorders.

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AP1PPTCh1

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