AP He Me No Logic a Approach Experiences With Technology

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Education Tech Research Dev (2011) 59:487510

DO 10!1007"s1142#$010$917#$2

R E % E & R ' & R T ' E

& *heno+eno,o-ica, a**roach to e.*eriences

/ith techno,o-: current state *ro+ise and uturedirections or research

%e3ne+ 'i,esi

u3,ished on,ine: 15 Octo3er 2010&ssociation or Educationa, 'o++unications and Techno,o- 2010

&3stract n this *a*er conce*tua,ie e.*eriences /ith techno,o- as an o36ect o stud

or educationa, techno,o- research and *ro*ose *heno+eno,o- as a hi-h, suita3,e

+ethod or studin- this construct! 3e-in 3 revie/in- e.istin- research ocusin- on the

construct o e.*eriences /ith techno,o- and the a**roaches uti,ied or its stud! To

au-+ent this ,iterature e.*,ain the *heno+eno,o-ica, conce*t o e.*erience and

descri3e its uti,it or understandin- e.*eriences /ith techno,o-! *ro*ose the theoretica,

and +ethodo,o-ica, a**roach o *heno+eno,o- as a ra+e/or or deve,o*in- a researcha-enda on e.*eriences /ith techno,o- and or uniin- e.istin- ,ines o research in this

area! To i,,ustrate the *ro+ise o this a**roach and to aci,itate its a**,ication descri3e a

research desi-n consistent /ith the theoretica, under*innin-s o *heno+eno,o- inc,udin-

+ethods or co,,ectin- and ana,in- data as /e,, as ethica, and va,idit considerations

s*eciic to this research desi-n! conc,ude 3 identiin- severa, *ossi3,e research

directions uti,iin- a *heno+eno,o-ica, a**roach in educationa, techno,o- to incite

urther research in this area!

e/ords heno+eno,o- E.*erience E.*eriences /ith techno,o-

ua,itative research

Techno,o- 3road, deined has i+*acted societies and individua,s in +an /as ro+

su3t,e chan-es in everda e.*eriences to transor+ation o societies cu,tures and /as

o ,ivin- (ost+an199#)! or e.a+*,e the *rintin- *ress has ,ed to +ass co++unication

and conver-ence o cu,tures (;cuhan 19>?oun- %cho,ar &/ard!@@

%! 'i,esi (&)

%choo, o Educationa, o,ic and eadershi* The Ohio %tate Aniversit 29 B! Boodru &ve!122 Ra+seer a,, 'o,u+3us O 4#210$1177 A%&e$+ai,: ci,esi!1Cosu!edu

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/ritin- has a,tered the /ritin- *rocess (an-ert$Dro/ns 199#) and Be3 2!0 has intro$

duced ne/ *ossi3i,ities or teachin- and ,earnin- 3 oerin- a ne/ /a o *roducin- and

sharin- inor+ation on the nternet (iu et a,! 2008=;addu. et a,! 2008= %tevenson and

iu 2010)! &,thou-h so+e caution a-ainst ho,din- too hi-h e.*ectations o techno,o- in

education ('u3an198>since e.*eriencin- a

+ediated event is su3stantive, dierent ro+ direct e.*erience o an event the resu,tin-

*heno+ena or conscious *erce*tions +ust 3e su3stantive, dierent@@ (*! 1


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& *heno+eno,o-ica, a**roach to e.*eriences /ith techno,o- 489

'urrent state o the ie,d

Research in educationa, techno,o- has +ade i+*ortant contri3utions to our understandin- o

the re,ationshi* 3et/een techno,o- and teachin- and ,earnin-! &t the sa+e ti+e the a3ove

discussion o techno,o-@s i+*act on societies and individua,s hi-h,i-hts an area that is*resent, understudied= this need is a+*,iied 3 revie/s o the ie,d and ca,,s or uture

research! or e.a+*,e Tho+*son (2005) indicated that /e need to increase our no/,ed-e

a3out e.*eriences o ne/ teachers /ith techno,o- and the in,uence o these e.*eriences on

their teachin- *ractice and on student ,earnin-! &,so esta3,ished tech$no,o-ies have not 3een

suicient, studied in *ractice (Ro3,er and nee 200#= %trud,er 200#)! n addition to studies

ocusin- on outco+es o usin- esta3,ished techno,o-ies research ocusin- on individua,s@

e.*eriences /ith those techno,o-ies cou,d unearth +ore inor+ation a3out vita, *rocesses o

teachin- and ,earnin- /ith techno,o-!

urther+ore educationa, techno,o- research /ou,d -reat, 3eneit ro+ an increased

uti,iation o Iua,itative a**roaches /hich /ou,d 3e va,ua3,e or e.*,orin- *heno+ena

and their deve,o*+ent as /e,, as or co+*,e+entin- Iuantitative +ethods and va,idatin-

and enrichin- their indin-s (%avene and Ro3inson 2004= Tho+*son2005)! Asin- +u,$

ti*,e +ethodo,o-ies in a co+*,e+entar /a +a a,so 3eneit the ie,d as a /ho,e! n

order to address the co+*,e.it o so+e to*ics in addition to e.*eri+enta, +ethods and

co+$*arisons +u,tiaceted a**roaches co+*rehensive and in$de*th Iua,itative studies

and detai,ed descri*tion o conte.t are needed (Ro3,er and nee 200#= %trud,er200#)!

&ccordin-, the use o Iua,itative research in educationa, techno,o- has 3een encour$

a-ed= or e.a+*,e %avene and Ro3inson (2004)invited the contri3ution o Iua,itative

researchers to e.*and the Iuestions and t*es o inIuir e.istin- in educationa, techno,$o-! o/ever so ar *heno+eno,o- has not 3een oered as a research +ethodo,o- in

the ie,d! Thus this *a*er serves to co+*,e+ent e.istin- ,iterature encoura-in- and

-uidin- the use o various Iua,itative research traditions in educationa, techno,o-!

*ro*ose 3oth a research a-enda ocusin- on e.*eriences /ith techno,o- and a

*hi,oso*hica, and +ethodo,o-ica, a**roach or its i+*,e+entation! eore *resentin- the

*heno+eno,o-ica, a**roach to e.*eriences /ith techno,o- revie/ deinitions o

e.*erience and the e.istin- ,iterature on e.*eriences /ith techno,o-!

E.*eriences /ith techno,o- and research in educationa, techno,o-

The conce*t o e.*erience advanced in this *a*er /i,, 3e e.*ress, contrasted to everdause o the ter+= the distinction 3et/een t/o conce*ts o e.*erience in usser,@s /or /i,,3e urther descri3ed 3e,o/! n -enera, use there are t/o +ain deinitions or e.*erience:

(1) the a**rehension o an o36ect a thou-ht or an e+otion throu-h the senses or +ind= (2)

active *artici*ation in events or activities ,eadin- to the accu+u,ation o no/,ed-e or si,,

(The &+erican erita-e 'o,,e-e Dictionar 2000)! These deinitions su--est that e.*erience

and education are intert/ined! n act De/e (19#8)deined education as educative e.*erience

that invo,ves inte,,ectua, and +ora, -ro/th interaction and conti$nuit! %i+i,ar,

'sisent+iha,i@s (1991) theor o o*ti+a, e.*erience 3ased on the conce*t o ,o/J>>the

state in /hich *eo*,e are so invo,ved in an activit that nothin- e,se see+s to +atter@@ (*! 4)J

+aintains that such a state is +ost conducive to ,earnin-! arrish (2009) ar-ues or a vie/ o

,earnin- as e.*erience and su--ests that this conce*t shou,d 3e an inte-ra, *art o instructiona,

desi-n! n su+ the i+*ortance o e.*erience in education

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and ,earnin- is /e,, esta3,ished and thus e.*erience /ith techno,o- as a construct ineducationa, techno,o- research is /orth o and *ro+isin- or a research a-enda!

iterature on e.*eriences /ith techno,o-

The i+*ortance o studin- hu+ans@ e.*eriences /ith techno,o- inc,udin- those o

teachin- and ,earnin- /ith techno,o- is evident in the *ro+inent ro,e the ter+ >>e.*e$

rience@@ has 3e-un to *,a in educationa, techno,o- (riesen 2005) and the e.tant research

/ith the the+e o e.*erience /ith techno,o-! The ,iterature investi-atin- e.*eriences

/ith techno,o- inc,udes three +ain areas o educationa, techno,o- research na+e,

studies o: (1) students@ e.*eriences /ith on,ine education= (2) teachers@ e.*eriences as

the inte-rate techno,o- in their teachin-= and (#) users@ *scho,o-ica, e.*eriences /ith

co+*uter a**,ications!

The irst strea+ studies students@ e.*eriences o tain- courses and ,earnin- throu-hon,ine education! t inc,udes studies o hi-her education students@ e.*eriences /ith and

*erce*tions o e$,earnin- ('oncannon et a,! 2005=Fi,3ert et a,! 2007= Horton and ath$

a/a 2008)= studies o e.*eriences and outco+es in distance education and assess+ent in

co+*arison to traditiona, or+ats ('ars/e,, et a,! 2000=ni*e and ee 2002= Tho+as et

a,! 2002)= and studies o students@ e.*eriences resu,tin- ro+ s*eciic techno,o-

a**,icationssuch as interactive +u,ti+edia resources or -rou* *rocess su**ort techno,o-

(Davies et a,! 2005=Gones et a,!2001=au,us et a,!200a short unvarnished a**raisa, o one

*articu,ar ,earnin- e.*erience@@ (%hace, 2004 *!


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techno,o- over t/o decades a-o! ',ear, a concentrated eort is needed to cu,tivateresearch on e.*eriences /ith techno,o- and to 3ui,d a research a-enda!

urther+ore o those studies investi-atin- e.*eriences a +a6orit ocus either on

eva,uatin- the ,earnin- environ+ent +ateria,s and"or instructiona, desi-n or on assessin-

the Iua,it o or satisaction ro+ e.*erience (e!-! 'oncannon et a,! 2005= Davies et a,!2005=Fi,3ert et a,!2007=Best et a,!2007=Bood et a,!200#)! Other studies concentrate on

se,ected as*ects o e.*erience such as the outco+e o ,earnin- ee,in-s or attitudes (e!-!

'ars/e,, et a,! 2000= Davies et a,! 2005=au,us et a,! 200>an

instru+enta, vie/ o ,earnin- +a consider on, the i++ediate, +easura3,e outco+es o

a ,earnin- e.*erience *articu,ar, its i+*acts on co-nition 3ehavior or *eror+ance@@ (*!

51#) even thou-h the e+otiona, socia, cu,tura, *o,itica, and aesthetic Iua,ities o

e.*eriences have +ore than i++ediate re/ards!

&ccordin- to De/e@s (19#8) conce*t o continuit ,earnin- does not tae *,ace in

distinct e*isodes= rather ever e.*erience an individua, +aes sha*es (or 3etter or /orse)uture e.*eriences 3 in,uencin- attitudes *reerences and aversions! t is this

re,ationshi* 3et/een *ast and uture e.*eriences that or+s the oundation o ,ie,on-

,earnin-= thereore e.a+ination o e.*eriences /ith techno,o- *er se and its +u,ti*,e

acets /ou,d ena3,e us to understand desi-n and"or in,uence ,ater ,earnin- e.*eriences!

or e.a+*,e desi-n and user$riend,iness o educationa, sot/are a**,ications +a sha*e

students@ attitudes and +otivation to/ard usin- co+*uters 3 *rovidin- or either an

e.*erience o sea+,ess i++ersion into a si+u,ated environ+ent or a rustratin- technica,

e.*erience! %i+i,ar, so+e a**,ications o techno,o- in education can *ro+ote

+u,ticu,tura,is+ critica, thinin- and socia, 6ustice (%,eeter and Tette-ah 2002) /hereas

others +a even i unintentiona,, /or a-ainst these -oa,s! &n e.a+*,e o the ,atter in

the ,iterature is the sot/are Ore-on Trai,= /hi,e 3ein- *o/eru, in its acade+ic -oa,s it

has 3een criticied or carrin- so+e 3iased cu,tura, and socia, +essa-es (i-e,o/ 1997)!

%uch secondar +essa-es cou,d have ,on-$ter+ in,uence on students throu-h co,,atera,

,earnin- (De/e 19#8)!

n su+ studin- e.*eriences /ith techno,o-ies inc,udin- 3oth the *rocess o en-a-in-

/ith techno,o-ies and the educationa, outco+es o usin- the+ /ou,d ena3,e us to

understand the entire ran-e o conseIuences and 3$*roducts o e.*eriences /ith educa$

tiona, techno,o-! Even thou-h a /ea,th o ,iterature has investi-ated the outco+es o

e.*erience co+*arative, ,itt,e research has ocused on the inter+ediate or ,on-$ter+as*ects o e.*eriences /ith techno,o- (inc,udin- cu,tura, as*ects aesthetic di+ensions

and e+otiona, Iua,ities) (&st,eitner and eutner2000= Funa/ardena et a,! 200#=arrish

2009)! Thereore +ore research studin- e.*erience in a +ore inc,usive and +u,tiaceted

+anner and ocusin- on e.*erience *er se (in addition to research on outco+es o e.*e$

rience) is needed! The need or a 3roadened ocus has a,so 3een reco-nied 3 others! or

e.a+*,e &st,eitner and eutner (2000) hi-h,i-ht the i+*ortance o e+otiona,, sound

instructiona, techno,o- /hi,e Ke,etsianos (2007) underscores aesthetics o ani+ated

*eda-o-ica, a-ents in ,earnin-!

urther+ore revie/ o the ,iterature revea,s that research on e.*eriences /ith tech$no,o-

is not tied to an enco+*assin- ra+e/or! & ra+e/or uniin- a diuse co,$,ection o

studies can increase the contri3ution o a research area and ena3,e no/,ed-e accu+u,ation

throu-h co,,ective eort (annain and i+ 200#)! & uniin- construct and ra+e/or or the

sste+atic stud o e.*eriences /ith techno,o- and a +ethodo,o-ica, ra+e/or that is

consistent /ith that theoretica, ra+e/or /ou,d aci,itate the creation

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o a co++unit o scho,ars and a coherent 3od o research /hich /ou,d in turn su**ortand aci,itate the research a-enda on e.*eriences /ith techno,o-!

e,o/ revie/ +ethods that are co++on, used to stud e.*eriences and discuss their

suita3i,it or studin- e.*eriences /ith techno,o-! To advance research on e.*eriences

/ith techno,o- as educationa, *heno+ena then *ro*ose *heno+eno,o- as a uniin-ra+e/or and +ethodo,o- or a research a-enda on e.*eriences /ith techno,o-!

heno+eno,o- inc,udes a *hi,oso*hica, a**roach to the conce*t o e.*erience a +eth$

odo,o- to -uide research desi-n and +ethods to stud e.*eriences in de*th!

& *heno+eno,o-ica, a**roach to studin- e.*eriences

& variet o research +ethodo,o-ies are co++on, used across the socia, sciences to stud

e.*eriences such as the versati,e E.*erience %a+*,in- ;ethod (E%;) ('sisent+iha,i et a,!

1977) /hich is -enera,, concerned /ith 3readth rather than de*th o e.*erience! n

educationa, techno,o- research ocusin- on as*ects o e.*erience has *ri+ari, uti,ied

various Iuantitative +ethods to ana,e data co,,ected throu-h surves or sca,es (e!-! onradt

et a,! 200#= Thatcher et a,! 2008= Bei3e, et a,!2008)! Overa,, ana,ses o Iuantitative data such

as data co,,ected 3 +eans o satisaction sca,es ocus on se,ected acets o e.*erience to

discover causa, re,ationshi*s! &n i+*ortant stren-th o these Iuantitative research desi-ns is the

a3i,it to test +ode,s /ith /hich to *redict outco+es o e.*erience 3ased on inde*endent

varia3,es= standardied +easures do not atte+*t to understand the su36ective nature o

e.*erience and can on, ca*ture the chosen constructs!

On the other hand Iua,itative +ethods a,,o/ studin- e.*eriences in -reater de*th! &sis the case or research +ethods in -enera, dierent a**roaches to Iua,itative inIuir are

suita3,e or dierent research o36ectives ('res/e,, 2007= 'rott 1998)! or e.a+*,e

ethno-ra*hic research ai+s to stud the 3ehaviors o a cu,ture$sharin- -rou* and descri3e

their cu,ture ('res/e,, 2007= Fu3riu+ and o,stein 1997)= critica, a**roaches ai+ to

Iuestion ideo,o- e.*ose *o/er re,ations and tae action or chan-e ('rott 1998)= and

deconstructionist research ai+s to sho/ that thin-s (e!-! te.ts 3e,ies) do not have

deina3,e deter+ina3,e or 3ounded +eanin-s (Derrida 1997)! heno+eno,o-ica, research

is a sste+atic atte+*t to uncover and descri3e structures o ,ived e.*erience to arrive at a

dee*er understandin- o the nature or +eanin- o e.*eriences o *heno+ena (Fior-i 1985=

usser,1970a= ;oustaas1994=van ;anen 1990)!%o+e *ast studies in educationa, techno,o- have used Iua,itative +ethods to stud

e.*eriences in -reater de*th (e!-! ro/n and Barschauer200


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& *heno+eno,o-ica, a**roach to e.*eriences /ith techno,o- 49#

s*eciica,, desi-ned to stud the essence and +eanin- o e.*erience!2 Thus it is *he$

no+eno,o- that is uniIue, suited to 3ui,din- a research a-enda on e.*eriences /ithtechno,o- and contri3utin- to theoretica, unit in a research area on e.*eriences in a ie,d!

urther+ore o the various Iua,itative a**roaches *heno+eno,o- is nota3,e in that it

co+*rises a theoretica, ra+e/or and +ethod desi-ned s*eciica,, to stud ,ivede.*eriences o *heno+ena ro+ the *ers*ective o those /ho e.*erience the+ (Fior-i

1985= ;oustaas 1994= van ;anen 1990)! Thus research ai+in- to deve,o* a dee*er

understandin- o severa, individua,s@ co++on or shared e.*eriences o a *heno+enonJ

or e.a+*,e so as to deve,o* *ractices or *o,iciesJconstitutes the *ro*er do+ain o

*heno+eno,o- ('res/e,, 2007)!

heno+eno,o- is 3oth a *hi,oso*hica, and theoretica, a**roach *re+ised on a *he$

no+eno,o-ica, conce*t o e.*erience as /e,, as a research +ethodo,o- consistent /ith this

theoretica, ra+e/or! n other /ords *heno+eno,o- is not +ere, an a,ternative

+ethodo,o- 3ut a,so an a**roach to conce*tua,ie and stud e.*erience /ith consistent

*hi,oso*hica, oundations (Fior-i 1994)! To esta3,ish /hat Iua,iies a Iua,itative scientiic

investi-ation as *heno+eno,o-ica, Fior-i (1997) *in*ointed that the distinctive eatures o

*heno+eno,o-ica, research are to >>e+*,o (1) descri*tion (2) /ithin the attitude o the

*heno+eno,o-ica, reduction and (#) see the +ost invariant +eanin-s or a conte.t!@@ (*! 2#5)!

& distinctive reIuire+ent o *heno+eno,o-ica, research is or the researcher not to ado*t an

*osition on the correctness or a,sit o a *artici*ant@s c,ai+s re-ardin- the vie/s and

6ud-+ents intrinsic to his"her ,ie/or,d (&sh/orth1999=Fior-i 1997)!

heno+eno,o- is a hi-h, suita3,e a**roach to studin- hu+an e.*eriences /ith

techno,o- or a nu+3er o reasons! Deve,o*ed *recise, or the *ur*ose o studin- ,ived

e.*eriences o various hu+an *heno+ena descri3in- the +eanin- o e.*eriences /ithtechno,o- (e!-! inte-ratin- techno,o- into teachin- re-u,ar, *,ain- video -a+es)

/ou,d sIuare, it into the do+ain o *heno+eno,o-ica, research! &,so *heno+eno,o- is

the stud o ,ie/or,d (,e3ens/e,t) deined as >>/hat /e no/ 3est /hat is a,/as taen

or -ranted in a,, hu+an ,ie a,/as a+i,iar to us in its t*o,o- throu-h e.*erience@@

(usser, 1970a **! 12#124)! Techno,o- has 3eco+e a *ervasive as*ect 3oth o +odern

,ie -enera,, and o education s*eciica,, hence e.*eriences /ith techno,o-Jand even

e.*eriences o non$use o techno,o- or that +atterJare e+3edded in students@ and

teachers@ ,ie/or,ds! nvesti-atin- individua,s@ e.*eriences /ith esta3,ished techno,o-ies

that are sea+,ess, inte-rated into their dai, ,ives is es*ecia,, consistent /ith

*heno+eno,o-!& ri-orous *heno+eno,o-ica, stud shou,d coherent, co+3ine a *heno+eno,o-ica,

*hi,oso*hica, 3ac-round *heno+eno,o-ica, data co,,ection and ana,sis and a *he$

no+eno,o-ica, descri*tion o e.*erience as its out*ut (Fior-i 1997)! &dditiona,, *he$

no+eno,o-ica, research shou,d 3e 3ui,t on a /e,,$deined conce*t o e.*erience /hich

/i,, e,a3orate 3e,o/! Thereore *ro*ose that the *heno+eno,o-ica, conce*t o e.*eri$

ence shou,d 3eco+e a centra, o36ect o inIuir in educationa, techno,o- research ra+ed

3 a *heno+eno,o-ica, a**roach and usin- a *heno+eno,o-ica, +ethodo,o-= this /ou,d

constitute e*iste+o,o-ica, use o a +ethod (Frecha+er and oro$6un-3er- 2005) and

the *ro*er use o *heno+eno,o- (Fior-i 1997)! o/ever do not su--est that *he$

no+eno,o- or the *heno+eno,o-ica, conce*t o e.*erience are a *anacea or a,, research

issues in educationa, techno,o- or that *heno+eno,o- shou,d 3eco+e the do+inant or

e.c,usive a**roach to educationa, techno,o- research! nstead 3 hi-h,i-htin- the

2'res/e,, (2007) ;oustaas (1994) and %tars and Trinidad (2007) *rovide detai,ed descri*tions o ho/

*heno+eno,o- diers ro+ other s*eciic +ethodo,o-ies!

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i+*ortance o e.*eriences /ith techno,o- and the a**ro*riateness o *heno+eno,o- asa ra+e/or and +ethodo,o- to stud e.*eriences ai+ to i,,u+inate the *otentia, orstudin- e.*eriences /ith techno,o- and or uti,iin- the *heno+eno,o-ica, conce*t oe.*erience and +ethodo,o- to rea,ie this *otentia,!

%*eciica,, *heno+eno,o- as an a**roach to studin- e.*eriences can u,i,,i+*ortant unctions in educationa, techno,o- research 3 (1) ena3,in- the stud oe.*eriences /ith techno,o- in$de*th and in a +u,tiaceted and co+*rehensive +anner=

(2) *rovidin- a uniin- ra+e/or or a research a-enda on e.*eriences /ith techno,o-=

(#) *rovidin- a theoretica, and *hi,oso*hica, ra+e/or as /e,, as a consistent +ethod$

o,o- and +ethods= (4) *rovidin- c,ear -uide,ines on sa+*,e se,ection data co,,ectiondata ana,sis ethics and va,idit /hich /ou,d aci,itate its ado*tion in the ie,d= and (5)

-enera,, stren-thenin- the Iua,itative 3asis o educationa, techno,o- research! n the

o,,o/in- *a-es descri3e the *hi,oso*hica, 3ases o *heno+eno,o- and its a**,ication

to research!

heno+eno,o- as *hi,oso*hica, a**roach

n this section introduce *heno+eno,o- e.*,ain its *hi,oso*hica, under*innin-s ande,a3orate on the *heno+eno,o-ica, conce*t o e.*erience! heno+eno,o- ori-inated as a*hi,oso*hica, ana,sis +ethod ('res/e,,2007=Fior-i 1997= usser,19


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er+eneutic heno+eno,o- /hich e+*hasies inter*retation as o**osed to descri*tion(e!-! Fada+er 1997)!

These *heno+eno,o-ica, traditions var in their assu+*tions and e+*hases as /e,, as

+ethodo,o-ies or e+*irica, a**,ication! or the *ur*ose o this *a*erJto introduce the

*heno+eno,o-ica, a**roach to studin- e.*eriences /ith techno,o-J chose usser,@sori-ina, transcendenta, *heno+eno,o-! e,o/ descri3e detai,s o *heno+eno,o- as

research +ethodo,o- e,a3orate on the conce*t o e.*erience and e.*,ain +ethods o data

co,,ection *artici*ant se,ection and data ana,sis ro+ the vanta-e *oint o transcendenta,

*heno+eno,o-! /i,, hereater reer to the a**roach and theoretica, *ers*ective o

transcendenta, *heno+eno,o- as *heno+eno,o- or 3revit! heno+eno,o-ica, inter$vie/

/i,, 3e used to reer to a data co,,ection +ethod s*eciica,, desi-ned or *heno+$eno,o-ica,

inIuir and *heno+ena, ana,sis is used to reer to the data ana,sis +ethod!

usser,@s ideas /ere derived ro+ 'artesian dua,ist onto,o- o Rea,is+ and dea,is+

(usser, 1982)= he e+*hasied the essences o thin-s and ideas /hi,e acno/,ed-in- that

there e.ists a natura, or rea, /or,d 3eore our consciousness o it! Rea,is+ +aintains that

thin-s e.ist /ithout hu+ans@ consciousness o the+ constitutin- a /or,d o o36ects to 3e

discovered and *erceived! This su--ests that rea,it *recedes a**earance and that

a**earance is not a *rereIuisite or rea,it! dea,is+ on the other hand +aintains that the

e.terna, /or,d is not inde*endent o co-niant +inds! 'onscious su36ects and their o36ects

are se*arate et the interact= +eanin- is to 3e ound in this re,ationshi* (oce,+ans

1994)!

The *ur*oses o a *heno+eno,o-ica, stud are to understand and descri3e a -iven

*heno+enon in$de*th and arrive at the essence o hu+ans@ ,ived e.*eriences o that

*heno+enon! Essence reers to the condition or Iua,it o an e.*erience that is co++on oruniversa,= it is /hat +aes an e.*erience /hat it is and /ithout /hich an e.*erience

/ou,d not 3e /hat it is (usser, 19


10/24

49< %! 'i,esi

(Fior-i 19941997)! n other /ords the researcher is advised to en-a-e in >>de,i3erate naLMvete

N@@ (va,e 199>the u,,$,ed-ed e.*erience or act o consciousness in /hich

so+ethin- rea, is -iven to consciousness as /hat it -enuine, is@@ (oce,+ans 1994 *!

82)! Bhi,e +ost studies /ith the the+e o e.*erience use it in the sense o Er,e3nis the

research a-enda advocate /ou,d use *heno+eno,o- to stud e.*eriences /ith tech$no,o- in the sense o Erahrun-! i-ure 1 de*icts the conce*t o e.*erience in *he$

no+eno,o- inc,udin- its e,e+ents (rectan-,es re-u,ar te.t) and under,in- conce*ts

(ova,s ita,ic te.t)= e,a3orate on the conce*t and its e,e+ents 3e,o/!

The conce*t o rea,it in *heno+eno,o- is 3ased on the idea,$+ateria, dua,it= ever

e.*erience has a +ateria, and an idea, co+*onent! deas and thin-s are se*arate= ho/ever

the interact and +eanin-s derive ro+ their interre,ation! heno+eno,o-ica, inIuir is

concerned /ith the essences o ideas ho/ever the can on, 3e no/n throu-h conscious

e.*erience /hich has a +ateria, co+*onent!

Ever e.*erience consists o t/o interre,ated di+ensions: noesis and noe+a (usser,19


11/24


Experience

Realism Idealism

Material Ideal

Noema Noesis

Textures Structures

ESSENCE

i-! 1 The *heno+eno,o-ica, conce*t o e.*erience

'rott1998) indicatin- that the +ind intends to/ard an o36ect in the *rocess o e.*eri$

encin- (oce,+ans 1994)! ro+ a *heno+eno,o-ica, *ers*ective a,, e.*erience is

intentiona, e.*erience= consciousness is a,/as consciousness o an o36ect (one cannot 3e

conscious /ithout 3ein- conscious o so+ethin-) and the consciousness o an o36ect

reIuires a su36ect (oce,+ans 1994= ;oustaas 1994)! or e.a+*,e 'i,esi (2009)

e.*,ains that in her stud educationa, uses o co+*uters at nternet caeNs is the noe+a o

the e.*erience and usin- co+*uters educationa,, at nternet caeNs is the noesis o the

e.*erience= these t/o di+ensions are interre,ated neither can e.ist or 3e studied /ithout

the other!

ina,, ever e.*erience consists o te.tures (varin- outside a**earances) and

structures (/hat +i-ht account or or under,ie the te.tures)! Ever e.*erience is a

+aniestation o its essence! The essence o the e.*erience o a *heno+enon can 3e

investi-ated 3 o3servin- its +u,ti*,e +aniestations throu-h a *rocess o i+a-inative

variation (discussed in detai, 3e,o/) and can 3e descri3ed throu-h an investi-ation o the

structures under,in- the te.tures o that essence ocusin- on the co++ona,ities o the

nature o the e.*erience (;oustaas 1994)! or e.a+*,e in a stud o nternet chat

addiction a+on- oun- co,,e-e -raduates one *artici*ant +a s*end +ore ti+e chattin-

/ith stran-ers than he had intended so as to de,a a**,in- or 6o3s as a /a to co*e /ithhis ear o ai,ure on the 6o3 +aret! &nother *artici*ant +a turn to chatroo+s to

/ithdra/ ro+ her +arita, *ro3,e+s! The *articu,ar issues in each e.a+*,e /ou,d 3e

te.tures o these *artici*ants@ e.*eriences! oth scenarios /ou,d 3e e.a+*,es o usin-

chatroo+s as a diversion thereore the under,in- issue o diversion /ou,d 3e a structure

o *artici*ants@ e.*eriences! & detai,ed descri*tion o a,, shared structures across

123


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498 %! 'i,esi

*artici*ants /ou,d then constitute the essence o the e.*erience o the *heno+enon onternet chat addiction!

heno+eno,o- as research +ethodo,o-

To stud e.*eriences /ith techno,o- throu-h *heno+eno,o- and 3ased on the *he$

no+eno,o-ica, conce*t o e.*erience research +ethods such as *heno+eno,o-ica, inter$

vie/in- and *heno+ena, ana,sis are +ost suita3,e! artici*ant se,ection va,idit

considerations and ethics are a,so a+on- the i+*ortant e,e+ents o research desi-n in

*heno+eno,o- and contri3ute to the ri-or o a *heno+eno,o-ica, stud! e,o/ descri3e

the research +ethods and desi-n that constitute the +ethodo,o- o a *heno+eno,o-ica,

research stud!

artici*ant se,ection

& *recondition or studin- the essence o ,ived e.*erience is se,ectin- research *ar$

tici*ants /ho have si-niicant and +eanin-u, e.*eriences o the *heno+enon 3ein-

investi-ated (o,in-horne 1989)! Thereore criterion sa+*,in-Jse,ectin- individua,s

/ho u,i,, certain criteria as *artici*ants ('res/e,, 2007)Jis the +ost suita3,e +ethod or

*artici*ant se,ection or a *heno+eno,o-ica, stud! 'areu, deter+ination o criteria or

identiin- *otentia, *artici*ants /ith si-niicant e.*eriences o the *heno+enon is

necessar= contact visits are advised to 6ud-e /hether *otentia, *artici*ants Iua,i

accordin- to these *redeter+ined criteria to *artae in the stud (%eid+an 200


13/24


Data co,,ection throu-h *heno+eno,o-ica, intervie/in-

n *heno+eno,o-ica, research -enera,, data consist o descri*tions o ,ived$e.*erience

/hich can 3e co,,ected throu-h intervie/s o3servations or /ritten se,$descri*tions (van

;anen 1990)! o/ever dierent data sources and co,,ection +ethods are +ore consistent/ith certain traditions o *heno+eno,o- than others= in transcendenta, *heno+eno,o-

in$de*th intervie/in- is 3oth the +ost suita3,e and the +ost co++on +ethod to co,,ect

*ersona, e.*erience descri*tions (va,e199


14/24

500 %! 'i,esi

the +eanin- units across *artici*ants and to note /hich ones are *resent in each *artic$

i*ant@s data! The third ste* is the creation o individua, te.tura, descri*tions narratives

re*resentin- a *artici*ant@s descri*tion o his"her e.*eriences o the *heno+enon and

consistin- o the te.tures or *articu,ar a**earances o a +aniestation o the essence!

ndividua, te.tura, descri*tions are constituted 3 the *artici*ant@s ver3ati+ state+entsre*resentin- +eanin- units rearran-ed in narrative or+ /ith an necessar su**,e+en$

tar state+ents 3 the researcher inserted /ithin 3racets! Each state+ent 3 an individua,

e.*ressin- a +eanin- unitJeither shared /ith other *artici*ants or uniIue to that indi$

vidua,Jis inc,uded in his"her individua, te.tura, descri*tion!

+a-inative variation The ourth ste* o ana,sis consists o e,a3oratin- on the individua,

te.tura, descri*tions to arrive at the under,in- structures o the e.*erience asin- /hat cou,d

*ossi3, account or the e.*erience! t 3e-ins /ith readin- the te.tura, descri*tions severa,

ti+es so as to a**roach the e.*erience ro+ dierent *oints o vie/ var the+ and derive

*ossi3,e e.*,anations o /hat structures +i-ht under,ie the individua, +aniestations o

e.*eriences! dentiin- the essence o an e.*erience reIuires identiin- the co++on or

invariant +eanin-s across various +aniestations o the essence o the e.*erience! & u,,er

*icture o the essence can 3e -ained throu-h i+a-inative variation +eanin- >>varin- a

*heno+enon ree, in its *ossi3,e or+s and that /hich re+ains constant throu-h the dierent

variations is the essence o the *heno+enon@@ (va,e 199>ree *,a o anc@@

(;oustaas 1994 *! 98) to e.*,ore a,, *ossi3i,ities or structures! ;ain- co+*arisons

3et/een state+ents /ithin individua, te.tura, descri*tions and ori-ina, transcri*ts

/hether these *ossi3,e structures are consistent /ith the rest o the narrative shou,d 3econsidered and e,e+ents that contradict the data at ,ar-e shou,d 3e e,i+inated! Then

structures o the e.*erience that are su**orted 3 the rest o the te.t are co+3ined into a

consistent nar$rative or each *artici*ant in the researcher@s /ords! Transor+in- the

*artici*ants@ state+ents in everda ,an-ua-e to the researcher@s disci*,inar ter+ino,o-

and conce*ts -oes 3eond +ere trans,ation to >>intuitin- disci*,inar +eanin-s@@ (Fior-i

1994 1997)! Descri3in- the structures o the e.*erience and re,ectin- the researcher@s re$

*resentation o the *artici*ant@s o/n +eanin-s and descri*tions these narratives are ca,,ed

the indi$vidua, structura, descri*tions!

%nthesis The ith ste* consists o identiin- si+i,arities in the te.tures o *artici*ants@

e.*eriences! ;eanin- units *resent in the e.*eriences o a,, or +ost *artici*ants are

identiied and desi-nated as shared +eanin- units! 'onseIuent, individua, te.tura,

descri*tions are co+3ined into a sin-,e narrative a,on- the shared +eanin- units= this

uniied narrative is /ritten in the third *erson re*resentin- the -rou* as a /ho,e and ca,,ed

the co+*osite te.tura, descri*tion! n the si.th ste* essentia, structura, e,e+entsJstruc$

tures that under,ie the various +aniestations o e.*erience that are co++on across *ar$

tici*antsJare identiied! Then individua, structura, descri*tions are inte-rated a,on-

essentia, structura, e,e+ents to *roduce a sin-,e narrative re*resentin- the -rou* as a

/ho,e! This narrative e,a3oratin- on the co++on essentia, structures o the e.*erience isca,,ed the co+*osite structura, descri*tion! The ina, ste* o *heno+ena, ana,sis consists

o snthesiin- the co+*osite te.tura, descri*tion into the co+*osite structura, descri*tion

to create a -enera, descri*tion o the *heno+enon ca,,ed the te.tura,structura, snthesis!

This ina, narrative is an in$de*th descri*tion o e.*eriences o the *heno+enon and

re*resents the essence o the e.*erience o the *heno+enon!

123


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'onsiderations o va,idit in *heno+eno,o-ica, research

Ka,idit in Iua,itative research -enera,, reers to a stud@s ri-or to ensure that the indin-s

are a resu,t o the a**ro*riate i+*,e+entation o +ethods and that the research *roduces

va,ua3,e inor+ation 3ased on its e*iste+o,o- (F,esne 200


16/24

502 %! 'i,esi

n addition to *heno+eno,o-ica, va,idation -enera, ste*s to increase va,idit o Iua,$

itative research shou,d 3e a**,ied! or e.a+*,e it is i+*ortant to +aintain trans*arenc in

the re*ortin- o Iua,itative studies (&ER&200


17/24

& *heno+eno,o-ica, a**roach to e.*eriences /ith techno,o- 50#

education to*ics /as *ro+oted (o,ton 1979) and it has 3een used to stud e.*eriences in

educationa, research in such areas as hi-her education student deve,o*+ent (andre+an et

a,! 2007) adu,t ,earnin- (Rossiter 1999) teacher education (Freen/a,t 2008= %u+sion

2002) nurse education and +entorin- (o+ar et a,! 2008) and science education

(Oster-aard et a,! 2008)!

E.istin- *heno+eno,o-ica, ,iterature on e.*eriences /ith techno,o-

& revie/ o the ,iterature a,so revea,ed a s+a,, nu+3er o a**,ications o *heno+e$no,o-

in educationa, techno,o- research! or e.a+*,e o/ard (1994)investi-ated the irst$

ti+e co+*uter e.*erience o adu,ts= his in$de*th indin-s shed ,i-ht onto structura, as*ects

o this e.*erience inc,udin- ee,in-s en-a-e+ent se,$a/areness and attitudes! 'i,esi@s

(2009)stud o ado,escents@ e.*eriences o educationa, co+*uter use in inor+a, ,earnin-

environ+ents descri3es the essentia, e,e+ents o these e.*eriences and hi-h,i-hts

i+*,ications or ado,escent deve,o*+ent and inor+a, education *o,ic! Ke,etsianos and

;i,,er (2008) investi-ated the e.*eriences individua,s have /hen con$versin- /ith di-ita,

*eda-o-ica, a-ents! %i+i,ar, ;i,,er et a,! (2008) studied the e.*eriences o an educator

/ith *rovidin- h3rid distance education in an authentic anchor$3ased environ+ent!

&dditiona,, so+e *revious ,iterature contained e,e+ents o *heno+eno,o-= such

studies either /ere 3ased on -eneric Iua,itative +ethods (Farth/ait and Be,,er 2005=

ariui and Turner 2001) or co+3ined *heno+eno,o- /ith other +ethods (Rut,ed-e et

a,! 2007=Ti++er+an2000)! Bhi,e these studies have +ade i+*ortant contri3utions to the

stud o e.*eriences the are not e.a+*,es o *heno+eno,o-ica, research descri3ed herein the sense o e*iste+o,o-ica, use o +ethod (Frecha+er and oro$6un-3er- 2005)as

a coherent theoretica, ra+e/or and +ethodo,o-! ;oreover the do not Iua,i as *he$

no+eno,o-ica, research accordin- to the criteria set 3 Fior-i (1997)to distin-uish *he$

no+eno,o-ica, research ro+ other or+s o inIuir= in 3rie >>no /or can 3e

consideredP to 3e *heno+eno,o-ica, i so+e sense o the reduction is not articu,ated and

uti,ied@@ (Fior-i 1997*! 240)! Overa,, /hi,e the ,iterature in educationa, techno,o-

investi-atin- e.*eriences /ith techno,o- usin- a *heno+eno,o-ica, a**roach and

+ethodo,o- is s+a,, the e.istin- studies i,,ustrate the *ro+ise o a research a-enda on

e.*eriences /ith techno,o-!

uture research directions on e.*eriences /ith techno,o-

E.*eriences /ith techno,o- are an i+*ortant area o inIuir or educationa, techno,o-!

heno+eno,o- constitutes a suita3,e theoretica, ra+e/or and +ethodo,o- or this

area o research and has the *otentia, to address vita, research Iuestions in the ie,d! t can

3e inused into e.istin- areas o research at the core o educationa, techno,o- as /e,, as

o*enin- u* ne/ ,ines o inIuir! To i,,ustrate this *otentia, and the ruitu,ness o *he$

no+eno,o- or an arra o research areas in educationa, techno,o- hi-h,i-ht severa,

*ossi3,e research directions uti,iin- a *heno+eno,o-ica, a**roach! These areas /ere

identiied throu-h readin- recent revie/ artic,es in +a6or educationa, techno,o- 6ourna,s

that identiied areas needin- urther research in the ie,d as /e,, as se,ected research

artic,es that +ade reco++endations or uture research! &n i,,ustrative se,ection o those

areas in /hich *heno+eno,o- can +ae a contri3ution and address the needs o the ie,d

are hi-h,i-hted 3e,o/! This se,ection is not e.haustive ho/ever the reco++endations are

intended to e.e+*,i the contri3utions *heno+eno,o- can +ae in educationa,

123


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504 %! 'i,esi

techno,o- research to ins*ire researchers to *,an and conduct *heno+eno,o-ica, researchin other areas as /e,,!

Teachers@ e.*eriences o techno,o- ado*tion and inte-ration

ast research has esta3,ished the connection 3et/een teachers@ attitudes and 3e,ies a3out

techno,o- and teachin- and their *ractices o techno,o- inte-ration (Ert+er 2005=e/

and rush 2007= edersen and iu 200#) as /e,, as hi-h,i-htin- the i+*ortance o

understandin- >>/hat teachers e.*erience /hen the inte-rate techno,o- in their ,essons

(e!-! teachers@ an.ieties and stru--,es)@@ (e/ and rush 2007 *! 2#7)! This inc,udes a

need to 3etter understand ne/ teachers@ techno,o- e.*eriences and teachin- *ractices

(Tho+*son 2005)and the e.*eriences teachers have at dierent ,eve,s o techno,o-

ado*tion (Best et a,! 2007)! heno+eno,o-ica, studies o teachers@ e.*eriences o inte$

-ratin- techno,o- in their teachin- cou,d co+*,e+ent e.istin- research and contri3ute to

i,,in- these no/,ed-e -a*s! or e.a+*,e uture *heno+eno,o-ica, research cou,dinvesti-ate teachers@ e.*eriences in$de*th at each sta-e o techno,o- ado*tion there3

contri3utin- to our no/,ed-e o the sta-e theor o techno,o- inte-ration!

Essence o the e.*erience o eective techno,o- inte-ration

& /ea,th o educationa, techno,o- ,iterature has ocused on the inte-ration o techno,o-

into teachin- and ,earnin- et +ore research is needed to identi and deter+ine /hat

constitutes eective techno,o- inte-ration *ractice (%trud,er 200#= Tho+*son 2005)!

heno+eno,o-ica, research can co+*,e+ent the e.istin- ,iterature in addressin- this need=or e.a+*,e se,ectin- teachers /ho have successu,, inte-rated techno,o- and investi$

-atin- their (or their students@) ,ived e.*eriences o eective techno,o- inte-ration cou,d

he,* to identi the essence o the e.*erience o eective *ractice ro+ the vanta-e *oint

o the teachers (or ,earners) the+se,ves! &s a re+inder in *heno+eno,o- essence is

deined as the condition or Iua,it o an e.*erience that is co++on or universa,= it is /hat

+aes an e.*erience /hat it is and /ithout /hich an e.*erience /ou,d not 3e /hat it is

(usser, 19


19/24


a,on- /ith ne/ techno,o-ies in order to aci,itate urther inte-ration o these techno,o-iesand encoura-e e.*eri+entation /ith other ne/ techno,o-ies!

&do,escents and undesira3,e uses o co+*uters

&do,escents@ use o co+*uters and +edia is an area o increasin- interest 3ecause ado$

,escents s*end a si-niicant a+ount o their ree ti+e usin- these techno,o-ies (Ro3erts et

a,! 2004)! The ,ar-e, so,itar and unsu*ervised nature o these techno,o- e.*eriences

has raised concerns a3out ado,escents@ *otentia, o en-a-in- in undesira3,e unethica, and"

or unsae activities as /e,, as deve,o*+enta, and acade+ic conseIuences o those

activities (e!-! %u3rah+ana+ et a,! 20002001)! o/ever Iua,itative studies e.*,orin-

the ver e.*erience o e.cessive co+*uter use 3 ado,escents are scarce even thou-h *ast

research has studied this *heno+enon a+on- adu,ts (Rhein3er- and Tra+* 200


20/24

50< %! 'i,esi

research! ina,, to i,,ustrate the *ro+ise o this a**roach have hi-h,i-hted severa,*otentia, research areas in educationa, techno,o- that /ou,d 3eneit ro+ 3ui,din- on a*heno+eno,o-ica, conce*t o e.*erience and uti,iin- *heno+eno,o- as the theoretica,and +ethodo,o-ica, ra+e/or!

ecause *heno+eno,o- is concerned /ith uncoverin- and descri3in- the essence ohu+an e.*eriences it has the *otentia, to oer va,ua3,e insi-hts a3out the use o tech$

no,o- in teachin- and ,earnin-= its increased a**,ication to stud e.*eriences /ith

techno,o- has the *otentia, to 3oth e.*and e.istin- areas o research at the core o

educationa, techno,o- as /e,, as to he,* create ne/ ,ines o inIuir! n$de*th *heno+$

eno,o-ica, studies in ne/ research areas +a a,so -enerate ne/ constructs that can then 3e

studied usin- otherJIua,itative or IuantitativeJ+ethods! n su+ *heno+eno,o- ho,ds

+uch *otentia, or the ie,d! ',ear, the *ur*ose o this *a*er is not to ar-ue or *he$

no+eno,o- to 3eco+e the *redo+inant a**roach in the ie,d 3ut rather to contri3ute to

un,ocin- its *otentia, or research in educationa, techno,o- there3 contri3utin- to the

e.istin- diversit o ra+e/ors and +ethodo,o-ies in the ie,d!

&cno/,ed-+ents than Tho+as Frecha+er or his thorou-h revie/s o ear,ier drats o this artic,e= a+ a,so-rateu, to three anon+ous revie/ers o ETRQD or their eed3ac that he,*ed i+*rove the artic,e!

Reerences

&ER&! (200racetin-@@ in *heno+eno,o-: Renouncin- assu+*tions in hearin- a3out studentcheatin-! nternationa, Gourna, o ua,itative %tudies in Education 12('i,esi %! (2009)! Educationa, co+*uter use in ,eisure conte.ts: & *heno+eno,o-ica, stud o ado,escents@e.*eriences at nternet caes! &+erican Educationa, Research Gourna, 4


21/24


'rott ;! (199earnin- throu-h e.*erience@@! ritish Gourna, o Educationa, Techno,o-#


22/24

508 %! 'i,esi

o/ard D! (1994)! u+anco+*uter interactions: & *heno+eno,o-ica, e.a+ination o the adu,t irst$ti+eco+*uter e.*erience! nternationa, Gourna, o ua,itative %tudies in Education 7(1) ##49!

usser, E! (19

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