AP Biology Study Guide Chemistry of Life: 1. Define: Matter:

Element:

Compound:

Atomic mass:

Isotope:

Valence Electrons:

2. What are the four major elements in the human body? _______, ________, ________, ______ 3. The three subatomic particles are: ___________, __________, ___________ 4. When absorbing energy, can an electron stay in between energy levels? ____________ 5. There are several kinds of chemical reactions. The ones we know about are covalent bonds, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, and Van der Waals Interactions. Explain what they are and list them from strongest to weakest from the top up:

6. Chemical reactions make and break chemical bonds. Just remember that.

Water and the Fitness of the Environment: 1. Why are water molecules so polar?

2. How does the polarity of water create hydrogen bonding?

3. There are four kinds of emergent properties of water that contribute to life. They are: Cohesion, moderation of temperature, insulation of water by floating ice, and creating a solvent. Explain each of these properties:

4. What are hydrophobic and hydrophilic molecules?

5. Define: Acid-

Base-

6. With an increase of OH concentration in a solution, does the pH go up or down? 7. How about if there is an increase of the H concentration?

8. Buffers are needed to keep blood at a specific pH. If the pH level decreases, a buffer will cause what to happen (think in terms of adding a base or acid)?

Carbon and Molecular Diversity of Life: 1. What is organic chemistry? 2. Why can carbon have such a diverse amount of compounds? Hint: Think about bonds and shapes.

3. What are the six functional groups? Name the compounds for each group, an example, and some properties.

The Structure and function of Macromolecules 1. Define the following: Monomer:

Polymer:

Dehydration reaction:

Hydrolysis:

2. Name the monomers and polymers of sugars. Be sure to know what a glycosidic linkage is. Also, include the functions of carbohydrates, and talk about starch, glycogen, chitin, and cellulose. Make sure to add characteristics about each compound/what differentiates them.

3. What is a lipid?

4. Draw a triacyglycerol, or simply name the structure of it.

5. Why is the different between saturated and unsaturated fat? What are oils usually unsaturated fats while saturated fats are not?

6. What is the structure of a phospholipid?

7. Why are double bonds of carbon in the hydrophobic tails of phospholipids important for life?

8. What are steroids? Name one important steroid and why it is important for animal membranes.

*Important note, fats have around twice as much energy as carbohydrates. Around. 9. What are the monomer of a protein and the polymer of a protein?

10. Draw the structure of an amino acid

11. What is the bond between amino acids in proteins called?

12. Name the functions of a protein. (Some People Have Constipation After Eating Rice Soup)

13. What are the four levels of protein structure? Name each one, what it is (include all relevant details)

14. Think of sickle-cell. If one amino acid is wrong in the primary structure, what can happen to a protein?

15. What can denature a protein and what is the name of a protein that assists in the proper folding of another protein?

16. What are the two kinds of nucleic acids?

17. What is the monomer of a nucleic acid? Name the structure of one.

18. What is the difference between the structure of RNA and DNA?

19. What is the structure of DNA? (Include words like antiparallel, 5 -> 3 and sequences)

20. What kind of chemical bond joins the base pairs of DNA?

Animal Nutrition (Ch 41.2-41.4) 1. What are some essential amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals that are needed?

2. What are the four main stages of food processing and what happens in them?

3. List the main organs in the human digestive system and what happens in them.

A Tour of the Cell 1. Identify the two types of electrons, and the two kinds of electron microscopes and how they differ.

2. List some differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.

3. Why are cells so small? What advantage do they get by being small?

4. How many membranes does the nucleus have? What is in it?

5. What do ribosomes do?

6. What are the functions of the smooth ER?

7. What are the functions of the rough ER?

8. Proteins created from free ribosomes in the cytosol usually do what?

9. What does the golgi apparatus do and what does it look like?

10. What are lysosomes? What is phagocytosis, pinocytosis?

11. What do vacuoles do?

12. Why are some organelles called peroxisomes and what do they do?

13. What are the roles of the cytoskeleton?

14. There are microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments. What are the diameters of each one, the protein subunits, and their main functions?

15. What are the centrosomes and centrioles?

16. Draw a picture of cilia and flagella, list what they do and their patterns. Also, explain what causes the wavelike motion.

17. Explain some examples of what microfilaments do (think pseudopodia, muscle contractions, and cytoplasmic streaming).

18. What do intermediate filaments do?

19. What are cell walls of plants made of? List the layers

20. List some of the ingredients of the extracellular matrix of animal cells and what they do.

21. How do plant cells interact with other plant cells (what are the holes in their walls called)

22. What are the three kinds of junctions in animal cells and what are they for and what is their structure?

Membrane Structure and Function 1. What is the fluid mosaic model? Illustrate it if possible.

2. A membrane shows selective permeability. What does this mean? What kinds of compounds have the easiest time entering a membrane?

3. How does a cell allow compounds that cannot diffuse into a cell to enter?

4. List what happens to an animal and a plant cell when they are in a hypotonic solution, an isotonic, and a hypertonic one.

5. Compare and contrast active and passive transport.

6. Define exocytosis and endocytosis.

7. There are three forms of endocytosis. Phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor-mediated endocytosis. We have talked about the first two, so what does this third one?

An Introduction to Metabolism 1. Define: MetabolismCatabolic Pathways-

Anabolic Pathways-

2. What are the two laws of thermodynamics? What do they say?

*Organisms can decrease their entropy as long as they increase the universe s 3. What change in G is a spontaneous reaction? Is a spontaneous reaction anabolic or catabolic?

4. Is an exergonic or endergonic reaction a spontaneous one?

5. What are the 3 kinds of work a cell must do?

6. What is the structure of ATP?

7. With coupled reactions, how are endergonic and exergonic reactions paired to do work?

8. How does ATP allow something to do work?

9. How do enzymes speed up metabolic reactions?

10. Once at equilibrium, does adding an enzyme do anything?

11. What is an induced fit in an enzyme?

12. What are the effects of temperature and pH on enzymes?

13. Define: Cofactors-

Coenzyme-

Competitive inhibitor-

Noncompetitive inhibitors-

Allosteric regulation-

Cooperativity-

Feedback inhibition-

14. Let s say that ADP oscillates an enzyme to its active form and ATP stabilizes it to an unactive state. If there is a lot of ADP, ATP will start to form, with this increase of ATP, what will happen to the enzyme?

15. If there are multiple enzymes in a chain to produce a product, which enzyme in the chain will be inhibited? (First, last, etc.)

Cellular Respiration 1. What is aerobic and anaerobic respiration?

2. Name the three stages of aerobic respiration: _________, _____________, ________________

3. This is the beginning product in glycolysis: ____________. It will then split into two _______. Finally, it will end as two ___________. 2 ATPs are spent to carry glycolysis, and by the end, there is a net yield of ___ ATPs and ___ NADH+ s (the result of the reduction of NAD). ATP is created in glycolysis and the Krebb s cycle through ______________ phosphorylation.

4. The junction step between glycolysis and the Krebb s cycle results in _____ CO2 molecules being released and ___ NAD+ being reduced. Pyruvate is then turned into _____________. 5. The Krebb s cycle is also called the Citric Acid cycle. How many NADH s, FADH s, CO2, and ATP are released?

6. The Krebb cycle starts with a 2 carbon molecule, yet ends in a 4 carbon molecule that bonds with Acetyl CoA, describe how this happens.

7. Explain the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis. Be sure to include terms such as ATP Synthase and proton-motive-force. Use information about where the H+ molecules are stockpiled.

8. How many ATP s are created through oxidative phosphorylation? How about substrate level phosphorylation?

9. If there is no oxygen in an organism s system, it must do fermentation. Explain the two kinds of fermentation that we learned about. Include as much information as possible.

10. Where does glycolysis happen in the cell? 11. And where does the citric acid cycle happen? *Remember OIL RIG, oxidation is loss, reduction is gain. Photosynthesis 1. How does photosynthesis create food? In other words, what form of energy does photosynthesis take in and what form of energy is it then converted to?

2. Name the two stages of photosynthesis.

3. Why is a chloroplast green?

4. What are the wavelengths of visible light?

5. What are the two kinds of pigments in chloroplasts?

6. Explain how the light reactions work and what is released from them. Be sure to talk about the primary acceptor, NADP+ reductase, cyclic electron flow, and noncyclic electron flow.

7. Compare and contrast chemiosmosis in chloroplasts and mitochondria.

8. What enzyme is most important in the Calvin cycle? It is responsible for carbon fixation.

9. Draw the three phases of the Calvin cycle, attempt to describe what happens in them.

10. What are the products of the Calvin cycle? Remember, organic fuels are needed, and certain molecules needed to be regenerated for the light reactions.

11. What is photorespiration? Why is it wasteful?

12. What are two evolutionary adaptions to reduce photorespiration?

13. Compare and contrast the methods used in C4 and CAM plants to retain water. Remember that their Calvin cycle is the same, but that the carbon fixation phase is altered.

14. Do plants also have mitochondria?

Plant Structure, Growth, and Development 1. What are the three basic plant organs? __________, ___________, ____________ 2. What are the three basic plant tissues? ___________, __________, _____________ 3. What are some specific kinds of cells? Explain what kind of tissue they are located in.

4. What is meristem?

5. What is the difference between indeterminate and determinate growth?

6. What is primary growth?

7. What is secondary growth?

Transport in Vascular Plants SKIPPING FOR NOW The Cell Cycle 1. Define the following words: -Genome:

-Chromosomes:

-Somatic Cells:

-Gametes:

-Chromatin:

-Kinetochore:

2. What is the importance of mitosis resulting in genetically identical daughter cells?

3. What are the phases of the cell cycle?

4. What is the centrosome? It s important not to mix this up with the centromere.

5. List and describe what happens in each phase of mitosis.

6. After telophase, what is the final step for a cell to divide?

7. What is the main difference in cytokinesis between plant and animal cells?

The Molecular Basis of Inheritance 1. What does DNA do?

2. Which model of DNA replication is correct? The conservative, semiconservative, or dispersive model.

3. How did Meselson and Stahl discover their model? What did they use and what were the results of their experiments?

4. In DNA there is a leading strand and lagging strand, explain what they are.

5. The following are all enzymes used in DNA replication, explain what their role is: Helicase:

Single-strand binding protein:

Topoisomerase:

DNA Primase:

DNA Polymerase III:

DNA Polymerase I:

DNA Ligase:

6. What are Okazaki fragments?

7. Sometimes DNA is replicated incorrectly. What are some ways that these errors in replication are corrected?

8. What are telomeres? What enzyme lengthens telomeres?

9. What cells contain the enzyme needed to lengthen telomeres?