Virginia Review of Asian Studies

WOMEN AND CHILDREN LAST? BUDDHISM, CHILDREN, AND THE NAGA-KING’s DAUGHTER

JOHN M. THOMPSONCHRISTOPHER NEWPORT COLLEGE

HANNA MAUKROANOKE COLLEGE

VICTORIA KELLYCHRISTOPHER NEWPORT COLLEGE

MICAELA COOKCHRISTOPHER NEWPORT COLLEGE

MAGGIE MATTHEWSCHRISTOPHER NEWPORT COLLEGE

Children seem to pose many problems in Buddhism. The path to enlightenment by and large tends to be only open to adults, and most children lack the stamina for intense meditation training or doctrinal study. As a rule, children are not major actors in Buddhist stories or rites, yet stories of the historical Buddha as a child are very important on a popular level, and in East Asia, celebrations of the Buddha’s birth (referred to in Japan as Hanamatsuri, the “Flower Festival”) are marked by bathing statues of the Buddha as a child in scented water (Thompson, 141). Moreover, several legendary figures in Buddhist tradition are child prodigies, notably Huineng, the infamous “Sixth Patriarch” of Zen/Chan. Thus, Buddhist tradition seems decidedly ambivalent towards children.

In this sense, views of children are remarkably similar to Buddhist views of women. Is there some reason for this? Perhaps it comes down to the fact that historically in Buddhist societies, women and children were considered “minors,” not full participants in human society and ultimately under the control of their fathers and/or husbands. Regardless, the sheer complexity of this situation would seem to be beyond the capacity of any one scholar to address in a single article. In light of this, the four of us decided to try a more dialogical approach, combining several distinct perspectives in a collective effort to illuminate the diverse and often contradictory views of children and women in Buddhist tradition.

While our dialogue ranges across various forms of Buddhism, one text in particular lends itself to a discussion of women and children, the Saddharma puņdarīka Sūtra (“The Sūtra of the Lotus of the Wonderful Law”) or Lotus Sūtra (Lotus for short). The Lotus espouses all major Buddhist doctrines, has provided fodder for many thinkers, and is a source of much popular lore

60

Virginia Review of Asian Studies

and practice. It is especially famous for its inclusiveness, a point reflected in the vast array of characters inhabiting its verses -- thousands of monks, nuns, laymen and women, bodhisattvas, gods, titans, centaurs, demigods, monstrous birds, ogres, ghosts etc. The Lotus is also notable for its use of child imagery (it continually refers to devout Buddhists as “sons/daughters of Buddha” and features the famous parable of “The Burning House” in which sentient beings are compared to children) and the presence of noted female Buddhists such as the historical Buddha’s foster mother, Mahaprajapti, and his former wife, Yashodara.

Yet among this cosmic cast one character warrants special attention: an eight year-old daughter of the naga (dragon) king Sagara, who attains full Buddhahood almost instantaneously, much to the chagrin of Shariputra, the conservative disciple of the Buddha. Although this scene is exceedingly short (4 pages in English translation), and the princess herself speaks only three times, her abilities far surpass other characters’, earning her lavish praise from the Bodhisattva “Accumulated Wisdom” and the joyful reverence of the entire assembly. So striking is this passage that modern Lotus commentator Nikkyo Niwano claims it is the earliest call for equality between men and women in all of world literature, and that the scene demonstrate “the forthright mind and heart of a child” that we need for attaining true Awakening (Niwano 93-94). Other scholars, however, are not so sure, maintaining that the scene of the naga princess actually reinforces the denigration of women in the Lotus, and often pay scant attention to its implications regarding children. Regardless, scholars regard this as one of the pivotal scenes in the entire text, and what it says (and does not say) about women and children merits careful attention. Indeed, the Lotus is said to proclaim innumerable meanings, making it the perfect focus for contrary and contradictory readings.

Our dialogue begins with overview of diverse views of children in Buddhism, then turns to the Lotus in general and the scene of the Naga-king’s daughter in particular. Generally, it appears that Buddhist tradition espouses contradictory views of children. Children often symbolize the obstacles to attaining freedom, summed up most obviously in Siddhartha’s naming of his own son “Rahula,” (“fetter”). And yet Buddhist teachings also encourage children to care for their elders as part of their spiritual growth, and some Buddhist figures (notably the bodhisattva Jizo) have special concern for children. Some Buddhist teachers even suggest that children are perfect images of how devout Buddhists should be, going so far as to suggest that they, in fact, are Buddhas. When we turn from Buddhist tradition in general to the Lotus, however, things become even more complicated. The famous parable of the “Burning House” (found in Chapter 3) depicts all beings as the Buddha’s children and that the Buddha’s concern for us is like a loving father’s concern for his progeny. While rather comforting, the strain of paternalism here may be somewhat disconcerting for Buddhists who prefer a more mature approach to faith.

The scene of the naga-princess (from Chapter 12) poses even more challenges, especially when we consider the place of women. Certainly against the backdrop of Buddhism as a whole, we can see the case of the naga princess as an example of the Lotus’ proclamation of the universal potential of all sentient beings to attain enlightenment. In this light, this scene suggests that the naga princess demonstrates how the Lotus extends Buddhist teachings beyond earlier views, opening up possibilities of spiritual achievement for females (as well as children and non-human beings). And yet the Lotus seems to also speak from an opposing perspective,

61

Virginia Review of Asian Studies

underscoring the problematic and negative aspects of the naga princess example. When read in its larger context, the scene reveals how the Lotus relegates females to decidedly inferior positions vis-à-vis their male counterparts; the naga princess ultimately exemplifies the misogynistic currents within the text and Buddhist tradition in general. In true Buddhist fashion, however, when we look at the Lotus from another angle, it seems to steer a middle path between the two previous positions. In the end, maybe this scene neither explicitly affirms nor categorically denies the spiritual capacities of women, children and other beings. We conclude our dialogue with a number of specific questions that we hope will spur our readers to further critical thinking about Buddhism and what it teaches about women and children.

I. Children and Childhood in Buddhism: an Overview

Buddhism is a tradition that values celibacy and looks down upon the act of birth as it symbolizes reentry into the cycle of samsara, a path that all Buddhists seek to escape. Texts provide many examples of children being rejected in favor of the adults responsible for them. Most widely know is the Buddha’s abandonment of his own newborn son. According to one biography of the Buddha, after hearing that his wife had given birth, without even holding the newborn, Gautama named his baby “Rahula” meaning, “fetter”. It was just minutes into fatherhood that the Buddha stepped over the obstacle of his sleeping wife and son, leaving them behind to make his great departure.

The Vessantara Jataka tells the story of the Buddha’s former life in which a simple request results in the future Buddha willingly giving away his children to an evil Brahmin. The future Buddha’s belief and will to protect virtue was greater than the love for his own offspring. One Udana text illustrates an event very similar to that of the Buddha’s abandonment of his son. When the monk Sangamaji is publically approached by the wife and son he abandoned, he proceeds to reject them a second time (Sasson). Even when Sangamaji’s wife lays their son at his feet hoping to change her husband’s mind, he turns away (Sasson). Sangamaji receives the praise of the Buddha for his strength and his wife is scorned for her selfish behavior (Sasson).

For many female Buddhists, it takes the death of their children for them to hear the word of the Buddha and devote themselves to his Dharma. After her husband’s death, Patacara set out for her hometown with her two sons (Cole 301). When she came to a wide river, Patacara decided to take her sons across one at a time. After the elder son was safely on the far bank, Patacara began to swim back to fetch her younger son (Cole 301). Out of nowhere a hawk swooped down and ate one child while the other fell in the river and was carried away. After suffering the loss of her children, all obstacles had been cleared from her path so that Patacara could become a nun.

The Demon Hariti was mother to five hundred sons and in order to feed them, she preyed on the babies of the local townspeople (Cole 303). One day when Hariti returned home and could not find her favorite son, she was filled with sadness. She ripped off her clothing, let her hair loose, and crawled on her hands and knees (Cole 303). Overcome with grief, Hariti searched the whole world for her son. In desperation Hariti turned to the Buddha who returned her son and converted her Buddhism. Today, monks make offerings to Hariti with their leftovers so that she can feed her five hundred children while following the dharma (Cole 304).

62

Virginia Review of Asian Studies

Perhaps Buddhism does not place much value on childhood because one has to grow up before becoming enlightened. Despite these negative Buddhist perceptions of childhood, other texts show the devotion of children to their parents and to Buddhist tradition. One text tells the story of the monk Uttara who saves his mother from the fate of living as a hungry ghost. Twenty years after her death, Uttara becomes a monk and sets out to save his mother in order to repay her for giving birth to him and raising him (Sasson). As he sat under a tree reflecting upon his mother, a hungry ghost appeared to him begging to be freed of her fate. She pleaded that the monk quench her thirst and satisfy her hunger. Uttara made offerings to the monks and his mother was reborn near a lotus pond and had five hundred attendants to serve her (Sasson).

The Chinese version of the same story stresses the importance of filial piety and emphasizes that fact that sons owe their mothers a great debt for the milk and care that they provided. Mulian took pity upon his mother who was reborn as a hungry ghost and in order to ease her suffering, Mulian sent her a bowl of rice (Cole 308). As the mother began to scoop the rice into her mouth, it turned to coals before her eyes. Mulian wept from the sadness he felt for his mother and appealed to the Buddha for assistance. The Buddha told Mulian that his mother’s sins were rooted very deep and that one person alone could not redeem her (Cole 308). The Buddha advised that there was strength in numbers and that Mulian could rely on the power of multitudes of monks. Following the Buddha’s words, Mulian began a tradition known as the Ghost Festival. Every year on the fifteenth day of the seventh month, Buddhists give offerings to monks in order to honor their parents and ancestors, whether they are living or dead (Cole 309). The festival is most popular in Japan, where it is called Obon. To celebrate Obon, “families put fresh flowers and herbs on the family shrine to attract the spirits” of their ancestors (Erricker 33). Some people employ other methods to lure the spirits of their loved ones. Floating small candle lit boats on the water is a popular ritual and some communities gather around shared, outdoor fires (Erricker 33). The story of Mulian (also called Uttara and Maudgalyayana in other stories) and the devotion to his mother influenced the practice of Buddhism all over the world, while giving hope to individuals about the fate of their loved ones.

A different text, “A Song about the Riverbank of Sai” reveals the devotion of children to Buddhist tradition. The story tells of deceased children that entertain themselves by building little stupas out of rocks in order to honor the parents that they left behind in the realm of the living (Cole 327). These children are stuck in hell and are tortured daily by a demon simply because their parents did not fulfill ritual obligations (Cole 327). Yet, despite their suffering, the children continued to strive to be good Buddhists and dedicated themselves to their parents. Even in death these children maintained the faith that their little life gave them. The Bodhisattva Jizo, who is known for protecting the fate of dead children, swept in to save the young ones, offering them the love of a mother and father (Cole 327).

Jizo is important to understanding the child’s role in Buddhism because his own childhood is what led him to the Bodhisattva path. In Jizo’s previous life, he was a girl named “Bright Eyes” who wanted to save her deceased mother from hell (Cole 325). Bright Eyes never set out to gain enlightenment or escape from samsara; instead, she wanted to relieve the suffering of another (Cole 325). This young girl embodied her Buddha nature and set an example of what Buddhism truly represents.

63

Virginia Review of Asian Studies

As a rule, children in Buddhist societies are deeply devoted to their parents, but it is also important to note that Buddhist parents love their children. “The Parable of the Burning House” from Chapter 3 of the Lotus Sutra is the story of a wealthy father who used a form of Buddhist teaching to save the lives of his beloved sons. One day the father’s large house caught fire and began to burn down quickly. Knowing that his sons were in the house playing games and would not be alarmed by the fire, the father employed “skillful means” to lure his sons outside. Monks and teachers often use “skillful means” to provoke deeper understanding. This method of teaching involves unusual practices that can even be considered trickery or deceit. The father knew each son very well and used the knowledge of his son’s likes and dislikes to describe a lavishly decorated carriage to each son’s particular liking. With the promises of such wondrous gifts of glittering gold and rare jewels, the sons eagerly fled the house and were spared from the blaze (Lotus Sutra 112-114).

Although the carriages were not waiting outside for the sons, the father did not commit a falsehood because he saved the lives of his children. This story uses a father’s love for his children to illustrate a Buddhist teaching method, while also conveying a symbolic message. The father is a symbol of the Buddha, and the children are symbols of “ordinary people including both adults and children who are caught up in everyday business without an idea of suffering or liberation” (Nakagawa 38). Just as the sons in the story were unaware of the fire, ordinary people are unaware of what lies beyond desire and attachment. The story likens the Buddha to a nurturing father with the entire world as his offspring, with the ultimate lesson being that “the Buddha’s children are those who will be rescued by expedient means the Buddha will create” (Nakagawa 38).

Interpreting Gautama’s childhood is a vital key to understanding his transition to becoming the Buddha. His young life is a magnificent tale of growing up surrounded by riches in a palace. Filled with valuable symbols, his immaculate birth foreshadows the adult identity that he eventually claimed. The lives of all Buddhas of the past and the future are said to mirror each other. The Mahapadana Sutta lays out the rules that the birth of a Buddha must follow (Cole 291). Six months after a white elephant visited his mother in a dream, the Buddha was born from her side in a jewel-encrusted box (Cole 280). Upon being born, the Buddha was said to have taken three steps towards the east while proclaiming, “I am the chief of the world” (Cole 280). The glorification of the Buddha’s birth was meant to represent the importance of his life. Buddhism sometimes views the body as impure or dirty because bodies depend upon the senses that tie them to material objects. The Buddha’s birth did not involve any water, blood, or impurity; it was stainless (Cole 280). Contrasted with the births of sentient beings, this story of a holy birth enforces the Buddhist view that normal birth is a dirty and ugly process.

Very little is actually known about the childhood of the historic Buddha, however there are accounts of ‘almost nirvana moments’ where Gautama has enlightening thoughts. One such moment occurred when the future Buddha witnessed some laborers cutting hay in a field. As he watched, the child noticed that plants other than hay were growing in the field. The workers paid no mind to this. They took the hay that they needed but did not spare the other life that was around them. The suffering experienced by weeds in a field moved the child. This small thought from the mind of a small child planted a seed that grew until he was no longer a child. It

64

Virginia Review of Asian Studies

continued to grow as he witnessed the three sights, made his great departure, became an acetic, sat under a tree, and lived to teach others to see life in the way that he did.

In his book A Pebble for Your Pocket, Thich Nhat Hanh explains, “anybody can become a Buddha. We are all future Buddhas, capable of having deep understanding and a great ability to love and relieve the suffering of others” (Hanh 49). The path to enlightenment seeks to bring people back to a childlike innocence where emptiness is everything and our sense of “self” as something separate from others (and the world around us) does not exist. Children may be small, but their thoughts and actions are sincere and filled with meaning. They do not care about material objects or social conventions until adults indoctrinate them into the ways of the “real world.” They care about others and try in small ways to alleviate the suffering that they see before them. Children are examples to be followed; they are innocent, pure, and selfless. Children are Buddhas.

II. Good News for women – the example of the Naga-king’s daughter

Buddhism intriguingly seems to espouse very different views of children, depicting them both as hindrances along the path and potential Buddhas. But what about the place of gender in all this? To what extent does Buddhist tradition address issues of gender equality and denigration? Not surprisingly, as with children, so when it comes to gender, Buddhism is fraught with ambivalence. There is such a vast and growing body of scholarly literature on Buddhism and gender that for practical purposes it may be helpful at this point to narrow our discussion to one text, the Lotus Sutra. The Lotus has been and remains exceedingly popular throughout the Buddhist world and initially it seems to embrace all beings, including women and children. Yet when we read the text closely, we still run into problems. To put it bluntly, if the Lotus Sutra preaches universality, why does it contain so much ambiguity over the position of women?

Women have risen above prejudice in the social hierarchy in most societies to date. In particular, the position of women in Buddhist society has drastically changed. Many critics, though, rightly note the patriarchal character of traditional Buddhist cultures and interpret Buddhist holy texts such as the Lotus Sutra as blatantly derogating women. Although there is significant polyvocality concerning gender roles within the Lotus, evidence suggests it affirms the equality of men and women and may have contributed to the advancement of women in both ancient and modern Buddhist society.

The main source of this evidence is a scene from Chapter 12 of the Lotus Sutra featuring a young “girl,” the daughter of Sagara, the dragon king, in which this young naga princess turns into a Buddha. In this scene, the naga princess approaches Buddha and reveres him in verse, proclaiming that she too will one day become a Buddha. Shariputra, one of Shakyamuni Buddha’s foremost disciples, is outraged by her statement and exclaims, “ ‘You think that in no time at all you will attain the unexcelled way. This is hard to believe. Why? Because the body of a woman is filthy and impure, not a vessel for the Dharma…’ ” (Lotus Sutra 252). Upon hearing this, the princess hands Buddha a precious jewel (usually interpreted as a pearl), which he readily accepts. She uses Buddha’s immediate acceptance of the pearl as a means of comparison to how quickly she can achieve Buddhahood. The text then states, “the entire congregation saw the dragon girl instantly transformed into a male, take up bodhisattva practice,

65

Virginia Review of Asian Studies

and immediately go to the world named Spotless…sitting on a precious lotus blossom, she attained impartial, proper awakening…she proclaimed the wonderful Dharma to all living beings everywhere in the universe” (Lotus Sutra 253).

This is one of the most significant events in the Lotus Sutra because the naga princess, a young girl, was able to attain enlightenment. Even as a female and nonhuman, she demonstrated enough devotion and wisdom to achieve Buddhahood. The dragon king’s daughter may have had to transform into a male, but it seems that she retains her gender after attaining Buddhahood, since the text still refers to former naga princess as a “she.” This event clearly shows how the Lotus Sutra promotes women’s capability for enlightenment.

Lucinda Joy Peach, a scholar of Buddhism, comments on this scene in her essay, “Social Responsibility, Sex Change, and Salvation: Gender Justice in the Lotus Sutra.” She quotes Nancy Schuster, a contemporary Buddhist scholar, “…the old notion that a woman’s body disqualifies her from Buddhahood is wrong, for here is a Buddha-to-be (the Dragon-princess) who was born female…Bodhisattvahood is not inconsistent with having a female body; in fact, one can be reborn as a woman, as the Dragon-princess was, after having progressed very far on the path to Buddhahood” (Peach 444). Peach supports Schuster’s comment that gender transformation actually reflects a positive view of women. The naga princess successfully contradicts Shariputra’s assertion about the spiritual limitations of women, and demonstrates that there is nothing inherent about gender that prevents a woman from attaining enlightenment by becoming a man (Peach 445). Overall, this particular event in the Lotus Sutra opens up a path to enlightenment for women.

Miriam Levering, another scholar of Buddhism, addresses this event in her essay, “Is the Lotus Sutra ‘Good News’ for Women?” Levering suggests the possibility of the naga princess being far advanced along the bodhisattva path. She argues that high level bodhisattvas are “beyond gender” in that they are “able to choose gender at will” (Levering 480). In this way, the naga princess’ change of body could be a demonstration of her power as a bodhisattva, despite her female appearance. She is beyond the realm of gender distinction, and is able to obtain Buddhahood much more quickly than older male followers of Buddha such as Shariputra. The latter, by contrast, is so attached to his narrow (and rather misogynistic) monastic viewpoint that he doubts her abilities as a female. Levering concludes, “Thus, from the standpoint of that faith, it is good news for women” (Levering 488). Male and female living beings have equal opportunity to achieve enlightenment, although not necessarily by the same means or path.

Another contemporary scholar, Peggy Morgan, discusses ethics in the Lotus Sutra from on a more Western perspective. Morgan draws on Rita Gross’ work Buddhism After Patriarchy to highlight her argument that the Lotus Sutra has more or less established a positive position for women. Gross also stresses how bodhisattvas are often depicted with feminine (as well as masculine) qualities, a fact that suggests their true nature as enlightened beings is beyond sexuality, including any “essential” characteristics of either male or female (qtd. in Morgan 362). Morgan observes, “This affirms that the enlightened nature belongs to women as well as men, those in female as well as male forms” (Morgan 362).

66

Virginia Review of Asian Studies

In addition, affirmation of women’s capacity for awakening is often found in the work of famous devotees of the Lotus as well. Nichiren (1222-1282), a progressive Buddhist thinker and Japanese priest, supported the capacity of women to achieve enlightenment. He believed in the spiritual capacity of women and maintained that the overall view of women is significantly different in the Lotus Sutra than scriptural texts that predate the Lotus (Kurihara 97) . Nichiren states, “In pre-Lotus Sutra teachings, women are strongly despised. The Flower Garland Sutra states, ‘Women are messengers of hell who can destroy the seeds of Buddhahood. They may look like bodhisattvas, but at heart they are like yaksha demons.’ The Silver-Colored Woman Sutra says that, even if the eyes of the Buddhas of the three existences were to fall to the ground, no woman could ever attain Buddhahood” (qtd. in Kurihara 97). Clearly, these texts do not promote the view that women have the capacity to attain enlightenment, yet the naga princess’ transformation presents a different message. With good reason, Nichiren asserts that no sutra other than the Lotus Sutra predicts the potential of women to achieve Buddhahood.

Nichiren clearly advocates the enlightenment of women, and extols the universality of the Lotus as compared to other Buddhist and non-Buddhist texts. For example, he describes how in various ancient Chinese works women are depicted as fawning and crooked, and are identified as the cause of downfall for the nation and its people (Kurihara 97-98). Nichiren maintains that, “The other sutras only predict Buddhahood for bodhisattvas, but not for the two vehicles, and for men, but not for women,” and notes how no other sutra, other than the Lotus Sutra, predicts Buddhahood for women (Kurihara 97).

Nichiren further points out how the universality of the Lotus Sutra elevates the status of women. He claims, “Women are thus despised in both Buddhist and non-Buddhist scriptures. And yet, in the case of the Lotus Sutra, even though they neither read nor copy the text, women who receive and uphold it in body, mouth, and mind, and in particular chant Nam-myoho-renge-kyo with their mouths, will be able to attain Buddhahood readily…” (qtd. in Kurihara 99). So long as women practice and uphold the Lotus Sutra, they have just as much of an opportunity to achieve Buddhahood as men. Nichiren does state that having read sutras other than the Lotus Sutra, he does not have any desire to become a woman – a statement that truly underscores how serious the prejudice against women was prior to the Lotus Sutra. For Nichiren, however, the Lotus opened a new Buddhist perspective on women, eventually leading to their advancement in Buddhist society, culture, and religious traditions.

Buddha preaches the importance of universality throughout the Lotus Sutra by claiming that men, women, children, even nonhuman beings, have equal opportunity to receive its benefits. Diana Paul comments on the universality of the Lotus Sutra in her book, Women in Buddhism: images of the feminine in Mahayana tradition. Paul states, “In advocating universal salvation, the Lotus Sutra is more liberal in its view of women and is more positive in its treatment of the paths of salvation open to women” (Paul 113). The naga princess’ transformation is a pivotal example of one of the various paths to enlightenment available to women in the Lotus. The Lotus Sutra consistently stresses Buddha’s desire to provide all living beings with Dharma in order to save them from endless suffering (samsara), and guide them toward wisdom and understanding. Buddha reaches out to all living beings and preaches Dharma to all so that everyone has the opportunity to discover the Buddha Way (Lotus Sutra 160). Even the naga princess, a young female and nonhuman being, was able to take advantage

67

Virginia Review of Asian Studies

of this opportunity and attain Buddhahood. It is important to stress that Buddha does not discriminate based on gender, status, species, or age. By implication, Buddha preaches Dharma to women so that they, just as men, can become awakened.

Despite the accomplishments and advancements of women throughout the history of Buddhist culture, many scholars argue that the Lotus Sutra vilifies women. Indeed, at first glance, they appear to be right. However, upon further examination of the text, these scholars are wrong. Some scholars claim that Chapter 12, which describes the transformation of the naga princess into a male, contradicts her achievement of awakening because she achieves this feat only after becoming a man, suggesting the male body is a prerequisite for attaining Buddhahood. Nikkyo Niwano (1906-1999), one of the founders and first president of Rissho Kosei-kai, a Japanese Buddhist organization devoted to the Lotus, counters this argument by stating,

Women of today may feel dissatisfied that the dragon’s daughter was suddenly transformed into a male and then became a buddha. Such an expression was used merely because of the idea of women in ancient India. The sudden transformation of a woman into a male means nothing but the transcendence of the difference between male and female…Observed with the Buddha’s eyes, all living beings are equal. We must never misinterpret this” (Peach 445).

Niwano stresses here the universality, or the inclusion of all living beings, which is one of the major goals of Buddhist teaching in the Lotus Sutra. He argues that this gender transformation narrative shows how, despite the explicit physical differences between male and female, Buddha sees all living beings are seen as spiritual equals. In this manner, the Lotus Sutra promotes gender justice.

The Lotus Sutra includes diverse and contradictory views regarding women, however, textual evidence, primarily the dragon king’s daughter, suggests it affirms the equality of men and women because it contributed to the transitioning role of women from ancient to current Buddhist society. Moreover, faith and devotion in the Lotus Sutra are far more important than gender roles. Buddha preaches universality in the Lotus, thereby promoting the equality of men and women. The naga princess plays a critical role in this interpretation of the Lotus and provides a significant means of comparison to set the Lotus Sutra apart from other, traditional Buddhist and non-Buddhist texts.

III. The Dragon’s Daughter and Female Denigration in the Lotus

The Lotus Sutra has been called one of the religion’s most equitable scriptures. Unlike some major scriptures, such as Christianity’s Bible, the Lotus Sutra explicitly presents a doctrine that attempts to reconcile social inequalities such as gender- and class-based prejudice. However, in its attempt to resolve one of the most significant gender-based issues presented by Buddhism – whether or not a woman can attain ultimate enlightenment – the Lotus Sutra offers a paradoxical solution in the form of the story of the daughter of the dragon king Sagara: that a woman can ascend to Buddhahood, but only if she transforms into a man. This resolution, though seemingly favorable to women, actually cements the concept of female inferiority within Buddhist society.

68

Virginia Review of Asian Studies

In most religious texts, the subject of women and their status is discussed in great depth and detail; however, the Lotus Sutra has very little to say on the subject. The episode of the daughter of the dragon king is thus of paramount significance to the question of women and their place in Buddhism. Through its treatment of women, the Lotus Sutra presents the view that a female cannot achieve the ultimate form of enlightenment, and thus presents the woman as an inferior being spiritually.

The Lotus Sutra is an especially significant Buddhist text; as such, its presentation of the Buddhist woman is especially significant. As Dr. Lucinda Peach, a professor of philosophy and religion at American University, argues in her article, “Social Responsibility, Sex Change, and Salvation: Gender Justice in the Lotus Sutra”, the Lotus Sutra “has unquestionably had a significant influence in shaping attitudes about gender” (Peach 50). While the Lotus Sutra as a whole presents a positive image of women – relative, of course, to the texts of other major religions, and to the predominant gender prejudices of the time – some of the Buddha’s teachings “serve to denigrate the status of women, reinforce gender hierarchies of male domination, and obstruct social goals to end the oppression of women in both religious and secular spheres of life” (Peach 71). While the Buddha does acknowledge that a woman can achieve enlightenment, the method of her attainment is shown to be different than a man’s. In fact, the Lotus Sutra denies a woman – the daughter of the dragon king – Buddhahood until she transforms into a man, thereby eliminating any issue presented by her femaleness. The message is that the woman is not on equal spiritual footing as the man, at least within Buddhism. In its paradoxical answer to the question presented by the enlightenment of the daughter of the dragon king, the Lotus Sutra does not deny Buddhist women the privilege of enlightenment; instead, it provides them with a provision. In doing so, the Lotus Sutra fails in its attempts to reconcile gender-based inequality; instead, it reinforces the notion of female inferiority.

This notion of female inferiority, already prevalent in many societies, was cemented by a religious text of such paramount significance has inarguably had some impact on women, and continues to impact Buddhist societies today. In his article “Religious Life in Japan,” James Thayer Addison provides examples of where the Mahayana branch of Buddhism has deeply influenced Japanese culture, perhaps most obviously in the inveterate religious tolerance that plays such an important role in Japanese society (Addison 332). Any depiction of women presented in the Lotus Sutra has necessarily impacted Japanese society, not to mention any other society where Mahayana Buddhism has flourished.

Even though the Lotus Sutra is extremely concerned with the concept and processes of enlightenment, it fails to adequately address female enlightenment, implying indirectly that women are unlikely to attain enlightenment. Although it is an issue minimally explored in the text, Peach argues that, in the Lotus Sutra, “[gender] provides a basis for evaluating people’s capacity for realizing the Mahayana idea of full Buddhahood” (Peach 50). Through what it says – and, more significantly, through what is does not say – the Lotus Sutra suggests that a woman cannot ascend to the highest form of enlightenment (Buddhahood) without surrendering her identity as a female. Although the story of the daughter of the dragon king Sangara seems to suggest that a woman can attain enlightenment in the same way as a man can attain enlightenment, when one examines the story beneath its surface, a different message emerges.

69

Virginia Review of Asian Studies

The 8-year-old dragon princess of the story attains enlightenment with remarkable, almost unheard of speed; she “[had] been able to receive and embrace all the profound inner core treasures preached by the buddhas” (Lotus Sutra 251). In fact, the daughter of the dragon king manages to achieve an impossible amount of knowledge and understanding in an impossibly short time. It is this achievement that causes some of the Buddha’s followers to question whether or not her enlightenment is genuine. They doubt her not because of her age, nor even because she is not human, but merely because she is female.

Instead of receiving acclaim for her extraordinary achievement, the daughter of the dragon king must confront those who doubt her attainment. She materializes before the Buddha and his disciples following Accumulated Wisdom Bodhisattva’s assertion that “It is unbelievable that this girl, in an instant, can become truly enlightened” (Lotus Sutra 252), in order to prove herself. Even though the dragon princess “reverently [prostates] herself at the Buddha’s feet” and “[praises] him in verse” (Lotus Sutra 252), she is still faced with the criticism of the arhat Shariputra, who simply cannot accept that a woman can attain ultimate enlightenment. Shariputra’s biting comments reflect the traditional Indian perspective of women. More to the point, as an arhat (and hence inferior to bodhisattvas), he is still a powerful figure within Buddhism, and his doubts seem to reflect deeply seated Buddhist views. Thus Shariputra asks the dragon-girl, “How then could you, in a woman’s body, so quickly become a Buddha?” (Lotus Sutra 253). Shariputra is unmerciful in expressing his doubt; how could a woman ascend to Buddhahood when “the body of a woman is filthy and impure, not a vessel for the Dharma” (Lotus Sutra 252)? The disgruntled arhat further degrades women by reminding everyone present, including the Buddha and the daughter of the dragon king herself, of the five hindrances that face a woman: never becoming a king of a Brahma heaven, never becoming a wheel-turning saintly kind, and never having the body of a Buddha (Lotus Sutra 252-253). Through the brief and seemingly simple story of the daughter of the dragon king, the Lotus Sutra insinuates that a woman in her natural – that is, female – form cannot attain true enlightenment, that “it is necessary to have a male body in order to become a Buddha” (Peach 56). Once the daughter of the dragon king becomes a buddha – once she transforms into a man, of course – she is venerated by the once-doubtful Shariputra and Accumulated Wisdom Bodhisattva, and by the entire Buddhist sangha (Lotus Sutra 253).

While the story of the daughter of the dragon king is the best example of a direct confrontation of the question of female enlightenment within the Lotus Sutra, there are other incidents within the text that support the notion that the woman is an inferior spiritual being. Although the Buddha allows women to join the clergy, his initial hesitation to do so is a testament to the perceived inferiority of women within the parameters of the faith. As Dr. John S. Strong, a professor of religious studies at Bates College, emphasizes in his book The Experience of Buddhism: Sources and Interpretations, “…the community of nuns was…the last to be established by the Buddha, and…was done so with great reluctance” (Strong 63). The Buddha does eventually allow women to create a monastic Buddhist order, a decision that arguably elevates Buddhist woman; however, the fact that the Buddha was initially so opposed to the creation of an order of Buddhist nuns suggests that women are inherently unworthy of the same religious privileges as men.

70

Virginia Review of Asian Studies

In her article “One Plus One Makes Three: Buddhist Gender, Monasticism, and the Law of the Non-excluded Middle,” Janet Gyatso, a specialist in Buddhist studies, argues that the Buddha feared women, and the tainted influence they would have on the faith. Although the Buddha acknowledges that “women could indeed attain enlightenment…their presence in the order would render Buddhism vulnerable to quicker deterioration than it would have been without women in the order” (Gyatso 91).

While the issue of women joining the clergy is not raised within the Lotus Sutra, the effect of the Buddha’s decision to allow women to enter the monastic path is seen within the text. The Buddha’s aunt and foster mother, Mahaprajapati, and her group of six thousand nuns, are present at Eagle Peak, where they are mentioned as “gazing at the Tathagata in such a troubled way” because the Buddha has not mentioned any of them when assuring those present of their eventual supreme awakening. The Buddha then assures his foster mother and her order of nuns that they will all someday become “great Dharma [teachers],” and that his foster mother specifically will become a buddha named Seen with Joy by All the Living Tathagata, “one worthy of offerings…trainer of men…teacher of heavenly beings and people” (Lotus Sutra 256). However, while the Buddha’s assurances may seem positive, suggestions of female inequality still lurk beneath the surface of his celebrated announcement. Despite the fact that Mahaprajapati is his aunt, the Buddha waits to comfort her with assurances of her impending enlightenment until she confronts him. Even then, the Buddha is almost condescending in his response to her silent request for assurance. When he reminds her that he has already “announced that all shravakas generally are assured” (Lotus Sutra 256), the Buddha seems to be chastising her for not listening. Another issue presented by the Buddha’s assurance that the nuns would someday become enlightened is that they will only achieve supreme enlightenment in their future lives, suggesting that despite their obvious piety and obedience to the Buddha’s teachings, enlightenment is still out of their grasp. This is arguably because they are women, and therefore inherently flawed. It seems that within the Lotus Sutra, no woman can achieve enlightenment as a woman. Instead, she must transform into a man, or she must wait to be reborn as one.

The distinctive method by which the Buddha encourages Buddhist monks to preach to women solidifies the notion of a woman’s spiritual inferiority. Women are singled out as being different – and, arguably, more dangerous – than men, and, while the Buddha does grudgingly consent to sharing the Dharma with them, he cautions Buddhist monks to approach teaching the Dharma to women differently than they would preach the Dharma to men. The Buddha tells his disciples that a monk “should not talk with girls, unmarried women, or widows,” which creates a relatively small female audience to receive the Dharma. The Buddha goes on to states that a monk “should not display his teeth by smiling or allow his chest to be seen” (Lotus Sutra 162). That the Buddha considered it necessary to teach his monks to take special care in teaching the Dharma to women is evidence enough of some discrepancy between men and women in Buddhist societies. The Buddha’s emphasis on a monk not entering a house alone suggests that women are dangerous creatures, prone to seducing and corrupting men. While the Buddha also singles out the five categories of “unmanly men” as a group that requires a distinctive approach to preaching, he seems to speak more significantly about women, enforcing the idea that women are different from and inherently inferior to men. The singling out of women as a group needing special spiritual care and guidance may not seem especially significant; however, given the role

71

Virginia Review of Asian Studies

the Lotus Sutra played in the development of many societies, establishing women as not worthy of the same intimate spiritual guidance as men, undoubtedly impacted the relationship women had with Buddhism and with the Lotus Sutra.

Still, despite portrayals of women as inferior spiritual beings, the Lotus Sutra can duly be argued as one of the most “woman-friendly” of prominent Buddhist texts. It can also be argued that the Lotus Sutra encourages Buddhist societies to treat women and men equally. Negative depictions of women are abundant in some Buddhist texts; however, in the Lotus Sutra, there are no overtly negative depictions of women. Even Shariputra’s insults to the daughter of the dragon king are disregarded and forgiven once the dragon princess proves herself a buddha. Any negative depiction of women in the Lotus Sutra is subtle, rarely directly identifying women as inferior spiritual beings. Some may even read what the Lotus Sutra says – or what the Lotus Sutra does not say – about women as positive. In fact, even Peach admits that “when compared with gender images in the entire corpus of Buddhist texts…those in the Lotus Sutra rank fairly positively in terms of promoting gender justice” (Peach 71). While Peach’s admission may be significant when one considers the harsh admonition of the female in other Buddhist texts, it is true that the Lotus Sutra may be read as a text that supports the equal treatment of women in both spiritual and secular aspects of society. The prominent Japanese Buddhist sect Soka Gakkai states firmly in its article “The Enlightenment of Women” that “the fundamental point…arising from the Lotus Sutra is that each person has the innate potential and right to realize a state of life of the greatest happiness” (“The Enlightenment of Women”), which perhaps refers to the ascension to Buddhahood. It is arguable that, unless one is searching for examples of gender inequality, one can read the entire Lotus Sutra without encountering a single instance of the idea that women are spiritually inferior to men.

Historically, it is also the case that many Buddhist leaders have proclaimed that the Lotus Sutra encourages the equal treatment of women. Arguably the most famous Lotus Sutra devotee, Nichiren, stressed that “among the teachings of the Lotus Sutra, that of women attaining Buddhahood is foremost” (“The Enlightenment of Women”). Yet even Nichiren says that the Buddha “allowed women to become nuns and carry out monastic practice after establishing eight rules they should follow” (“The Enlightenment of Women”), further highlighting the ever-present Buddhist notion that women are not equal to men, and must be limited even in their religious pursuits by special rules. Of course it may be that gender-based inequality in the Lotus Sutra (and in Buddhism as a whole) can be attributed to the overall patriarchal nature of Indian society. As Robert Goldman argues in his article “Transsexualism, Gender, and Anxiety in Traditional India”, “the whole phenomenon [of gender-based inequality in the Lotus Sutra] appears to be deeply bound with a patriarchal culture’s ambivalent construction of women and their sexuality” (Goldman 377). If Goldman’s argument is correct, the Lotus Sutra is a projection of the predominant perception of women in ancient India rather than a reflection of the personal beliefs of the Buddha and his followers.

The Lotus Sutra is a text that supports the unequal treatment of women in both the spiritual and secular aspects of the Buddhist faith. Through marginalizing women, the Lotus Sutra creates something of a wall between women and the faith, barring them from true enlightenment – that is, the attaining of Buddhahood. While one can find only very few instances in the Lotus Sutra during which women are mentioned, those instances are often

72

Virginia Review of Asian Studies

utilized to highlight some difference between the two genders. Through the usage of male pronouns, the Lotus Sutra bars women from Buddhahood as women and from all of its benefits. In fact, the one specific instance during which a woman achieves the fullest form of enlightenment is facilitated, if not completely dependent upon, her gender transformation into a male. It is important to explore the Lotus Sutra from multiple angles, especially since it is so widely accepted as a text that promotes equality. As a whole, the Lotus actually espouses views that relegate women to a status that is inferior to men. This is an important point for understanding the development of gender roles in Buddhist societies.

IV. Between Yes and No -- The Naga Girl and as Fe/Male Buddha:Contemplating the Significance of Gender in Buddhism and the Lotus Sutra

Religions, on the whole, are very good at presenting their followers with mandates and restrictions on a vast number of topics. Yet when it comes to gender, nearly every religion seems to agree on the same basic idea: men are better than women. Whether in Christianity, Islam, or Buddhism, men are stronger, more powerful, more knowledgeable, more logical, and just generally more useful than weak, emotional, naïve women. Obviously, there is a clear gender bias running throughout human history. Patriarchy has been the norm in an androcentric past, especially the societies responsible for creating the major world religions. Even when religious texts “give women certain freedom of expression…there is often a considerable price paid for recognition by a given religious institution” (Paul ix). Scholars rarely agree on anything, but according to Diana Paul, a professor of Buddhism at Stanford University, all scholars “acknowledge…that traditional religious stories, images, and ideals absorbed by members of a culture are potent forces which can give power and dignity to women,” but more frequently, these forces “deprive women of even the ability to dream of higher aspirations and goals” (ix). Examining images of women and presentations of gender in the Lotus Sutra, particularly through the example of the Naga princess, allows us to explore Buddhist understandings of gender in light of the cross-cultural androcentric bias, and raises questions about whether Buddhism is truly as universal and egalitarian as many claim.

To understand the role of gender in Buddhism, the source of gender must first be understood. Many people think that the terms gender and sex are interchangeable and that they refer to the same thing: biological sex. In reality, though, gender is not a biological principle, but a social construct. As such, definitions of gender have the potential to differ from culture to culture, and are merely abstract ideas agreed upon by the greater part of society, not unchangeable concrete facts. The pervasive misconceptions of gender in our world, however, transcend cultural and societal boundaries to create the perception that gender is a uniform, unalterable truth.

Keeping the idea in mind that gender is a social construct, we can now focus on Buddhist constructions and representations of gender. Serinity Young, an anthropologist for the American Museum of Natural History and professor at Queens College, writes that the Buddhist model of gender is “fundamentally flawed because it [does] not distinguish between sexual characteristics (biology) and gender (social roles), but rather conflate[s] them” (183). Because Buddhists believe that “biology [is] destiny…a product of one’s karma,” they also effectively believe that a person’s social roles are tied directly to destiny as well (Young 183). Considering that

73

Virginia Review of Asian Studies

Buddhism sprang out of ancient Indian cultures, the connection of social roles to karma is not particularly surprising; the entire Indian caste system is based upon the idea that peoples’ actions in previous lives affect their current station and role in society. In this way, ancient Hindus made it impossible for people to change their station without going through the process of reincarnation first.

When studying Buddhism from a historical standpoint, however, it is important to remember that, like all religions, Buddhism has evolved over time, and thus its presentation of “gender roles and definitions [are] constantly changing” as well (Paul xiii). While the ancient Buddhist texts, including the Lotus Sutra, may not deviate significantly from the original cultural beliefs they are rooted in, everyone who reads such texts does not necessarily uphold every idea presented in them. Considering the fact that the Lotus in particular “still appeals to huge audiences” with its “dramatic and self-contained short stories, all proclaiming universal salvation,” it is definitely far better suited for the modern age than some of the older Buddhist writings (Paul 111). Much of the popularity of the Lotus Sutra derives from the common belief that the work is “the final manifestation of the Buddha’s teaching for all living beings, regardless of their differences in capabilities” (Paul 111). Paul’s use of the word capabilities here is particularly interesting in light of the traditional Buddhist view that women are not capable of attaining Buddhahood. According to Paul, the Lotus should support female Buddhas.

However, Lucida Joy Peach, professor of philosophy and religious studies at American University, reminds scholars “the way the [Lotus Sutra’s] statements have been received, especially considering normative gender roles, has undoubtedly varied in different places and times, given the multivocal and multivalent character of Buddhist scriptures” (438). Since the Lotus is not a wholly unified text written by a single author, or even at one time, contradictory ideas can, and do, exist almost side-by-side.

On this same thread, Paul remarks, “textual materials do not necessarily reflect the practical religion, the religion of the people at large” (xxiii-xxiv). Texts merely serve to embody and preserve the “role expectations for men and women…dictated by religious as well as political elites,” and over time, the potential “competing or alternative role options” not valued by the elite of society are lost (Paul xi). Also, the Lotus Sutra is not intended to be a literal text; readers should approach the stories in the sutras with an open, yet critical mind, and be prepared to search for the deeper meanings beyond the surface.

Women definitely appear in the Lotus Sutra, but this does not mean that women are powerful, or even equal to their male counterparts. Peach points out that women can be found throughout the Lotus in a wide variety of positions: “laity and monastics, bodhisattvas and shrāvakas, human and nonhuman, wealthy and poor, beautiful and ugly, devotees and non-Buddhists, diligent practitioners and lazy slackers, virtuous and virtueless” (438). On the whole, though, they are merely static background characters “relatively invisible throughout most of the text” (Peach 438). Men fulfill all of the roles of “Buddhas, bodhisattvas, monarchs, and so forth,” leaving women on the sidelines (Peach 438). When women do appear in the Lotus, they usually function in one of two ways: subserviently or powerfully.

Certainly the Lotus most often shows women as subordinate to men. In Buddhism, as in most patriarchal systems, there are clear “advantages of being born male rather than female…in

74

Virginia Review of Asian Studies

terms of worldly and spiritual benefits” (Young 183). Women are the “flawed sex” (Faure, “Power of Denial” 181). Not only are women disadvantaged and flawed, but they are also seen as “polluted” (Young 180). A woman is born with unavoidable “sins inherent to her sex” that impede her ability to “find salvation in Buddhist practice” (Faure, “Power of Denial” 181).

The idea that women are more of a hindrance on the path to enlightenment rather than ones well equipped for the journey is commonly found in Buddhist texts. In his book The Red Thread, Bernard Faure explains that Buddhists traditionally regard women as part of the “realm of darkness and impurity” due their “yin nature” (129). He also points out that “under Buddhist influence, feminine impurity came to be connected with transgression, as seen in the motif of the goddess banished from heaven” (Faure, “The Red Thread” 129). As such, there are very few female buddhas and bodhisattvas. Men, especially monks, seeking enlightenment must actively guard themselves against sexual temptation when they are around women, as though feminine sexuality is a contagious disease they must not catch. Instead, bodhisattvas should view “all things as empty, as they really are” (Lotus Sutra 262). However, if all things are truly empty, gender and sexuality should not play as large of a role as they do in the path to Buddhahood.

This same concept could easily be construed in such a way to flatter women and cast men as the weaker sex if the men were chastised for projecting their sexual desires onto innocent women and taking advantage of them. Instead, women are denied “access to sacred places and positions of spiritual power,” not only due to of male “fears of female pollution” or sexual distractions, but because if “women can weaken men’s power…then they can also weaken their masculinity, causing them to drift towards femininity” (Young 185). For a male to become feminine would be to potentially become one of the five kinds of “unmanly men,” and lose all status in the world, including the ability to follow the path to Buddhahood (Lotus Sutra 262).

Nevertheless, the story of the naga-girl, found in Chapter 12 of the Lotus Sutra, is one of the most frequently cited examples of an empowered female in the venerated role of bodhisattva. What is less frequently mentioned is that the naga-girl is the “daughter of the dragon king Sagara,” and therefore, not human (Lotus Sutra 251). In traditional Indian tales, nagas are described as a “species of serpent like beings with human faces but having lower extremities resembling snake” that are “viewed ambivalently as equally destructive and beneficial, but always as mysterious and alluring” by Buddhists (Paul 185). According to Buddhist lore, these highly intelligent creatures were “entrusted with the Buddha’s most precious teaching, the Prajnaparamita” (Paul 185). The naga-girl’s species could potentially be seen as grounds for her dismissal as an example of female empowerment.

However, the naga-girl’s path to enlightenment is not unavailable to the common human being. The naga-girl is a child, “just eight years old,” but “she is wise and has sharp faculties” and “has entered deeply into meditation and gained an understanding of all things” (Lotus Sutra 251). The Lotus does not portray her potential for enlightenment as being tied to the fantastical elements of her species; instead, it characterizes her by her mental agility and dedication to the bodhisattva path. The princess’s status as a daughter of the naga king merely allows the Lotus Sutra to present a Buddhist interpretation of gender in a highly symbolic manner.

75

Virginia Review of Asian Studies

In short, it is her virtuous personality, not her species, that enables the naga-girl to practice the bodhisattva way and attain enlightenment so quickly. She learns so quickly, in fact, that Shariputra, a major figure in the Lotus who frequently acts as the foil for the Buddha’s teachings, protests that the “body of a woman is filthy and impure, not a vessel for the Dharma,” as women were supposedly “unable to attain the five kinds of high status of Brahma, Indra, a great king, an emperor, or an irreversible Bodhisattva” (Lotus Sutra 252, Paul 186). However, the dragon girl simply ignores Shariputra’s objections, and calmly presents “a precious jewel” to the Buddha, which he accepts, and the “dragon girl instantly transform[s] into a male” (Lotus Sutra 253). Paul explains the significance of this scene by pointing out that every “Naga princess was believed to carry a priceless jewel on her head which male Nagas did not possess. Therefore, the female Naga’s jewel was associated with her sex” (186).

So when the naga-girl gives her precious jewel to the Buddha “as a sign of her commitment to the Buddha’s teaching, [she is] giving up her female sex to become a male” (Paul 186). Effectively, then, the princess “abandons her woman thoughts” in order to practice the Bodhisattva course and become a Buddha (Paul 186). She does achieve enlightenment, but “the transformation of sex from female to male is a prerequisite for the naga princess’ entrance to the path of Bodhisttavahood” (Paul 186). In a more philosophical sense, this gender bending refers to the differing “mental attitudes” associated with being male versus being female: “Being male in a mental attitude meant being unattached to sexuality and having a responsibility over one’s actions whereas being a female in Indian society did not entail such detachment and personal responsibility” (Paul 186). By changing her sex, the naga-girl’s actions gain a certain gravity they previously lacked, which forces naysayers like Shariputra to take her seriously.

The gender-bending example of the naga-girl can be viewed in distinctly different lights, depending on context and connotation. If a person approaches the story of the naga-girl looking for proof that Buddhism is a sexist religion, the sex change in the tale becomes not only a necessary step in the path to enlightenment, but it also seems to be a cure-all for the sins and shortcomings of women. Returning to the idea of female pollution, women should “wish to be freed from the impurities of the woman’s body” and the only cure for such impurities is seemingly to “acquire the beautiful and fresh body of a man” (Young 185).

Dissatisfaction arises from the Buddhist disposal of the female form; women are seen as flawed or hindered, while the male form is seen as a representation or “mark of spiritual attainment” (Peach). If all beings were truly equal, it would seem more just if all people who reach enlightenment either keep their original form (thus proving the abilities and importance of that form) or instead of switching genders, move into distinctly genderless state — becoming, as it were, an “it” or just “Buddha.” Gendering everything, even mythical or otherworldly beings, always manages to alienate someone, whether male or female.

However, the naga-girl example can also been seen to promote Mahayana Buddhism as

“an egalitarian religion, more supportive of women that either the earlier form of Buddhism or other religions,” as long as one is looking for positive examples of female empowerment (Paul xix). Miriam Levering, an emerita professor at the University of Tennessee, approaches the feminine representations in the Lotus with much optimism. As such, Levering reacts positively to the story of the naga-girl by adopting the view of the “great Lotus Sutra commentator T’ien-

76

Virginia Review of Asian Studies

t’ai Chih-i” that “this is not a story about a female who abandons her old body and takes a new body. Her realization occurs within her current body” (481, 482). This interpretation represents the equality of all beings and forms, in adherence with the teachings of emptiness. The very existence of this particularly positive analysis of the Lotus Sutra adds support to Paul’s claim that “texts preserved in the Buddhist canon reveal a wide spectrum of views” (xix).

Still, overall, the Lotus Sutra and Buddhism seem to perpetuate the patriarchy that pervades most societies around the world and throughout history. The Lotus Sutra may recognize the presence of women and even their potential to reach Buddhahood — which is the same as their potential to become a man — but it does not fully embrace the idea that women can be powerful and knowledgeable. By supplying examples that support the view that women are the weaker, flawed sex, Buddhist texts frequently fall right in line with the androcentrism of other major world religions, even if Buddhist practices do not always follow this same bias.

Nonetheless, because positive examples and encouraging practices can be found throughout Buddhism, and because the Buddhist texts lend themselves to different interpretations so easily, casting Buddhism as a wholly androcentric religion that has no place for women is not entirely fair. To be honest, finding one particular and consistent view of gender, among many other topics in Buddhism, is extremely difficult to do. Just as the story of the naga-girl can be manipulated to support either side of the gender bias debate, the widespread and polyvocal nature of Buddhist texts, both geographically and historically, encompasses such a vast breadth and depth of views that it allows, and almost requires, contradictory and subversive readings. When so many people are involved in the creation of a text such as the Lotus, differences of opinion and interpretation surface due to the very nature of humanity as a conglomeration of unique individuals rather than a homogenous mass.

This tendency is obvious today in the medium of the Internet. A search for a single piece of information brings back millions or even billions of results, which contradict each other left and right. This situation, though, still allows for a conversation about that topic to take place so individuals can draw their own conclusions from the presented information. Ultimately, Buddhist texts do preach universality and the availability of Buddhahood to every living thing while repeatedly denouncing the importance of gender in the ultimate scope. And yet, they still provide numerous examples of a prevalent androcentric bias. However, these texts do not have to be seen as the hypocritical foundation for the religion at all. Instead, Buddhist presentations of gender provide an opportunity to study the nature of religion and humanity on a massive scale, which allows for a far more universal contemplation of gender, if not necessarily an entirely egalitarian one.

V. Women and Children in Buddhism – Points for Thinking

This discussion on women and children in Buddhism raises numerous points for thinking, only a few of which can be addressed here. It bears keeping in mind that Buddhism’s origins as shramana (“striver”) movement calling for full-time pursuit of nirvana necessarily brings with it a rejection of traditional social values, including the importance of family. Traditionally in ancient India shramanas were overwhelmingly male, and generally spurned association with women and children as distractions from spiritual pursuits or reminders of the joys of lay life.

77

Virginia Review of Asian Studies

Undoubtedly at least some of the anti-woman (and family) rhetoric of early Buddhist texts is a tacit acknowledgment of the power women and children have even over world-denying ascetics.

However, Buddhism has never been just a movement for monastics (despite Western stereotypes), and the vast majority of Buddhists, both past and present, have been lay people with families and children. Indeed, as Buddhism has developed, it has become the norm in many Theravadin countries (Thailand, Myanmar, Laos) for boys to undergo temporary ordination as monks when they enter puberty. In addition, the very process of becoming a monk symbolically entails being reborn and thus becoming like a child – the head is shaved, one takes on a new name, and one is entrusted to the care of a preceptor who serves institutionally as one’s “father.” It is interesting to note that many Buddhists view monastic ordination (even of the temporary kind) as way of gaining merit for one’s family, and as good preparation for success in society (Strong, 246). Moreover, while in most Theravadin countries the order of nuns has died out, in East Asia (particularly China and Taiwan) nuns vastly outnumber monks, despite their institutionally inferior status). Furthermore, in almost all Buddhist communities it is women who tend to be most active in devotional activities and supporting the monastic sangha. These important sociological facts call for far more attention than they have received in the past.

The place of children in Buddhism varies greatly, depending upon context (and text). Is it possible, however, that there is something about a child, both symbolically and in actuality, that is particularly relevant for Buddhist cultivation? Perhaps a child reveals the fundamental conflict at the heart of humanity – our childlike wonder at life and joyful aspirations that hint at nirvana as well as our childish addiction to selfish desires that enmire us in samsara and inevitably lead to duhkkha.

The Lotus once more adds so much here, with its own images of women and children. Perhaps the example of the naga-girl is the clichéd “exception that proves the rule” in Buddhism. After all she is both a child and a female, yet her extraordinarily quick attainment of Buddhahood is really not due to either her age, gender (or species) so much as her innate abilities and talents. Here it seems that the main factor is “good karma” although non-Buddhistically we may wish to also attribute her feat to good timing and dumb luck. It is interesting to note, as well, that she remains personally anonymous, being named only in relation to her father and her species. All told, while the Lotus may present her as a model for our emulation, it is hard to resist the idea that she is actually one of the “Buddhist 1%.”

Other points arise as we continue to reflect critically on these topics. For instance, it is interesting to note that contemporary critical scholarship regarding women in Buddhism tends to be deeply informed by Western, postfeminist views of gender. Most of the time few of us question this fact but perhaps we should. Could it be that such critical questioning essentially operates from a view that assumes its view of gender should be the norm for evaluating all religions, past, present and future?

Various recent scholars of Buddhism (e.g. Young, Faure et al) stress the (seemingly) inherently “flawed” and “polluted” nature of women in Buddhism. Sticking with this perspective, then, it would seem that when it comes to Buddhism, Freud was right: “biology is destiny.” These are valid points when we broadly scan the history of Buddhism but what about

78

Virginia Review of Asian Studies

when focus on the Lotus? That this text is informed by and reflects the prevailing norms and prejudices of its context is undeniable. And yet, the text repeatedly proclaims that all beings will attain awakening. Thus, no one ultimately is stuck; all are destined for Buddhahood. So much for biology.

What can we finally say about Buddhist views of women and children? Perhaps nothing definitive other than that Buddhism is constantly undercutting itself. Maybe the best we can hope is that our bringing such issues to awareness can lead to more coherent resolution.

It might be helpful to consider some analogies with Christianity here. At the risk of engaging in a tu quoque argument, isn’t it the case that we find much the same ambivalence regarding women and children throughout Christianity as well? Thus, Jesus calls a child to him and then tells his disciples, “Truly, I say to you, unless you turn and become like children, you will never enter the kingdom of heaven. Whoever humbles himself like this child, he is the greatest in the kingdom of heaven.” (Matthew 18: 3-4, RSV). And yet we have Paul’s famous statement (ironically in the very midst of his “Hymn to Love”): “When I was a child, I spoke like a child, I thought like a child, I reasoned like a child; when I became a man I gave up childish ways.” (1 Corinthians 13: 11, RSV).

Turning to women, it is undeniable that most Biblical figures are male and that Christian history and institutions have been overwhelmingly patriarchal. Again, Paul says, “Let a woman learn in silence with all submissiveness. I permit no woman to teach or have authority over men; she is to keep silent. For Adam was formed first, then Eve; and Adam was no deceived, but the woman was deceived and became a transgressor.” (1 Timothy 2: 11-14). And yet there are significant women in Christian scripture (e.g. Sarah, Rebecca, Mary of Magdala), the first witnesses to Christ’s Resurrection were women (Mark 16: 1-6, 8a), and were among the first named converts outside of Judea (Acts 16: 14-15). Indeed, feminist theologians argue that when we read the Bible critically, it becomes very apparent that women had integral roles in Christianity from its very beginnings (Fiorenza). It seems these issues transcend historical, cultural, and religious boundaries.

Often it does seem that in Buddhism, men get first consideration, and women and children are last. For most of us today, this situation is deeply troubling. Venturing into Buddhist apologetics, though, it may be that the Bible holds yet another clue when Jesus admonishes his disciples, “But many that are first will be last, and the last first.” (Matthew 19: 30). Is it too much to suggest that in a contemporary Buddhist perspective, humanity’s ultimate Awakening will take place through women and children?

References

Cole, Alan. “Buddhism”. Children and Childhood in World Religions. Ed. Don S. Browning, Marcia J. Bunge. Piscataway, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 2009. Print.

79

Virginia Review of Asian Studies

Erricker, Clive, and Jane Erricker. Celebrate Buddhist Festivals. Chicago, Illinois: Reed Educational & Professional Publishing, 1997. Print.

Faure, Bernard. The Power of Denial: Buddhism, Purity, and Gender. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003. Print.

---. The Red Thread: Buddhist Approaches to Sexuality. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998. Print.

Fiorenza, Elisabeth Schüssler. In Memory of Her: A Feminist Theological Reconstruction of Christian Origins. New York: The Crossroad Publishing Company, 1990. Print.

Goldman, Robert. “Transexualism, Gender, and Anxiety in Traditional India.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 113, No. 3 (July-September 1993): 374-401. Print.

Hanh, Thich Nhat. A Pebble for Your Pocket. Berkeley, California: Plum Blossom Books, 2001. Print.

The Holy Bible, RSV.

Kurihara, Toshie. “A History of Women in Japanese Buddhism: Nichiren’s Perspectives on the Enlightenment of Women.” Journal of Oriental Studies (2003): 94-118. Google Scholar. Web. 25 Oct. 2011.

Levering, Miriam. “Is the Lotus Sutra ‘Good News’ for Women?” A Buddhist Kaleidoscope: Essays on the Lotus Sutra. Ed. Gene Reeves. Japan: Kōsei Publishing Co., 2002. 469-492. Print.

Morgan, Peggy. “Ethics and the Lotus Sutra.” A Buddhist Kaleidoscope: Essays on the Lotus Sutra. Ed. Gene Reeves. Japan: Kōsei Publishing Co., 2002. 351-366. Print.

Nakagawa, Yoshiharu. “The Child as Compassionate Bodhisattva and as Human Sufferer/Spiritual Seeker: Intertwined Buddhist Images.” Nurturing Child and Adolescent Spirituality: Perspectives From The World’s Religious Traditions. Ed. Karen Marie Yust. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, INC, 2006. Print.

Niwano, Nikkyo. A Guide to the Threefold Lotus Sutra. Translated by Eugene Langston. Tokyo:Kosei Publishing Company, 1981. Print.

Paul, Diana Y. Women in Buddhism: images of the feminine in Mahayana tradition. University of California Press, 1985. Google Book Search. Web. 17 October 2011.

Peach, Lucinda Joy. “Social Responsibility, Sex Change, and Salvation: Gender Justice in the Lotus Sutra.” A Buddhist Kaleidoscope: Essays on the Lotus Sutra. Ed. Gene Reeves. Japan: Kōsei Publishing Co., 2002. 437-468. Print.

80

Virginia Review of Asian Studies

Reeves, Gene, trans. The Lotus Sutra: A Contemporary Translation of a Buddhist Classic. Somerville, MA: Wisdom Publications, 2008. Print.

Sasson, Vanessa R. Little Buddhas: Children and Childhoods in Buddhist Texts and Traditions. Oxford University Press, (Not published yet). Print.

Soka Gakkai. “The Enlightenment of Women.” Available from http://www.sgi.org/buddhism/buddhist-concepts/the-enlightenment-of-women.html

Strong, John S., ed. The Experience of Buddhism: Sources and Interpretations. 2nd edition.Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, 2002. Print.

Thompson, John M. Buddhism. Volume 3 in Introduction to the World’s Major Religions, LeeW. Bailey, General Editor. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, Inc. 2006. Print.

Young, Serinity. Courtesans and Tantric Consorts: Sexualities in Buddhist Narrative, Iconography and Ritual. New York: Routledge, 2004. Print.

81