Child development

By C Settley

OUTCOMES

• - The role of the father

• - Discuss stranger anxiety during infancy

• - Discuss separation anxiety during infancy

• - Analyse the following aspect of the socialisation process during infancy

• - Parental influence

The role of the father• Child minding was often left to mothers• Fathers did not attend to the birth or take much notice of

the baby• Mothers need the support of her family and community

during pregnancy

• Having the support of the father is important

• In some cultures the father is not obliged to be involved in the birth

• But it recognised that when the father is supportive in an emotional way, there are many positive benefits

The role of the father• When the fathers feel part of the pregnancy and know

what to expect, they often feel a closer bond to the baby• Fatherhood project initiated by Human Sciences

Research Council in SA encourages men to nurture, protect and interact positively with their children

• From the time of conception the father’s support is valuable for both the mother and the infant. Even the knowledge that the father is thinking about the infant provides the mother some relief and allows her have mental time out

• Video- role of fathers

Emotions • Children’s cognitive and social

development contributes toward changes in their emotional experiences

• Children become more aware of their own emotions as well as those of others

• They learn to control their emotions

The most important emotional developments

• Happiness• Expressed through smiling and laughter• By the end of their second year, babies are able

to express themselves spontaneously• They will jump up and down, clap their hands,

run, laugh out loud and hug their loved ones to indicate their joy and excitement

The most important emotional developments

• Happiness• During the course of the socialisation process,

children are taught to control their emotions• Children learn that they can be spontaneous at a

birthday party, but learn that they should be controlled in church

The most important emotional developments

• Fear and anxiety

• Fear: caused by a specific object or situation• Anxiety: caused by vague feelings• Both fear and anxiety cause psychological and physical

distress• Separation anxiety: refers to specific reactions that a

child experiences, such as protest and despair, during anticipated or actual separation from the parent or care giver

Separation anxiety

• 3 phases: protest, despair, detachment phases• Protest phase: lasts for about 3 days, children cry a lot and search

for their parents

• Despair phase: increasing despair over the possibility that parents will not come back. Children’s activity levels drop, they cry less, they become restrained and tend to withdraw by showing little interest in their environment. Substitute caregivers then believe that children have adjusted to their new situations. In reality, they give up hope of their parents returning. Should the parents return during the first two

phases, children usually react positively.

Separation anxiety

• Detachment phase: children start showing interest in their environment again. Should parents return at this stage, they will most likely be rejected by the children. For instance, the child will turn his/her back on the parent(s), or refuse to greet the parent. However, after a few hours (or days), children will go through an ambivalent phase where children will cling to the parent at one moment and in the next moment be hostile towards the parent. Examples: divorce, hospitalisation, starting nursery school or day- care

Separation anxiety

• Young children cannot yet understand time, therefore they do not know when or even if you will ever come back

• Children at this stage are struggling between feelings of striking out on their own and yet wanting to stay safe by a parent or caregiver's side

• Although separation anxieties are normal among infants and toddlers, they are not appropriate for older children or adolescents and may represent symptoms of separation anxiety disorder.

Separation anxiety

• To reach the diagnostic threshold for this disorder, the anxiety or fear must cause distress or affect social, academic, or job functioning and must last at least 1 month

• Children with separation anxiety may cling to their parent and have difficulty falling asleep by themselves at night

• When separated, they may fear that their parent will be involved in an accident or in some other way be "lost" to the child forever. Their need to stay close to their parent or home may make it difficult for them to attend school or camp, stay at friends' houses, or be in a room by themselves. Fear of separation can lead to dizziness, nausea, or palpitations.

Causes of fear and anxiety• Videos: child anxiety and separation anxiety• The causes of fear and anxiety are numerous. Some are easily identifiable

while others are difficult to identify. There are many theories about what causes fear:

• Biologically: • - fear has a genetic basis• - there are also indications that specific emotions appear in accordance with

maturation of the central nervous system• - example fear appears from approximately six months of age, while other

emotions, such as guilt and pride emerge during the pre school years

Causes of fear and anxiety• Psychoanalytic approach:

• - according to this approach, the increase in fear during early childhood is associated with children’s fear of being injured and guilt feelings towards their parents

• - children’s fantasies are related to developmental conflicts

Causes of fear and anxiety• Learning theory:

• - states that fear is learnt

• - learning theorists say that environmental factors, as well as children’s own personal experiences could contribute to this

• - factors such as: violent television programmes or frightening images (monsters etc).

• - also being bitten by a dog previously could establish fear for dogs

Causes of fear and anxiety• Cognitive Viewpoint:

• - fear develops because of preschoolers’ intense fantasies and imaginations and their ability to distinguish between fantasy and reality.

Expected fears at certain age groupsAge Fear

0-6 months Loss of support; loud sounds

7-12 months Strangers; heights; sudden objects

1 year Separation from parents, toilet training

2 years Loud sounds(vacuum), animals, darkness

3 years Masks, the dark, animals

4 years Separation from parents, noise, the dark

5 years Animals, ‘bad people’, the dark

6 years Supernatural creatures, the dark, physical injury

7-8 years Supernatural creatures, thunder and lightning, being alone

9-12 years Tests and exams at school, school performance, physical injury

Teenager Social performance, sexualityFrom Morris & Kratochwill (1983)

Guidelines to decreasing fear and anxiety

• Children should be encouraged to talk about their fears

• The feared object or situation should be neutralised by associating it with something positive

• Children should see other people handling the object or situation that they fear, without fear. The child who fears dogs for example, should see someone play with a dog

• The child could gradually be brought into contact with the feared object or situation

• By explaining the feared situation, certain fears could be overcome. Eg thunder

Guidelines to decreasing fear and anxiety

• Situations that could cause fear, such as hospitalisation or starting nursery school, could become less fearful when the hospital or school is visited beforehand

• In the event of a divorce, the reasons should be explained to the child

• Until they are old enough to distinguish between fantasy and reality, children who have irrational fears of monsters and other fantasy creatures should not be allowed to watch too many television programmes or reading books that contain this kind of material

• Parents should provide a secure haven by dealing with their children’s fears in a sympathetic, patient and comforting manner

Stranger anxiety

• Refers to the fear some babies show in the presence of strangers

• Eg a baby suddenly crying without any traumatic event happening

• Generally occurs during 2nd half of 1st year• Reaches climax at 8-12 months and gradually

diminishes at 12-25 months• Not all babies at 6-12 months develop a stranger anxiety

Socialisation• Babies’ developmental abilities and skills that enable

them to move more freely and to explore environment.• Become increasingly more able to manipulate objects

and to solve problems in new ways.• During this period parents start to socialise with their

children• Socialisation refers to process in which child learns to

conform to moral standards, role expectations and requirements for acceptable behavior.

• E.g. not be noisy at table, not play with food, not jump up +down on bed, start to control excretion functions.

Socialisation• Socialization is a learning process that

begins shortly after birth.

• Early childhood is the period of the most intense and the most crucial socialization.

• It is then that we acquire language and learn the fundamentals of our culture.

• It is also when much of our personality takes shape.

Influence of parents on socialisation of their children

1. Through direct teaching , by showing them, e.g. , how to Eat and how to dress themselves.

2. Parents act as important role models through their interaction with their children.

- Parents who are loving, warm and responsive will have children who are warm and responsive toward others.

3. Parents control certain aspects of child’s life that could have an influence on their social development, such as neighborhood in which they live ,and which friend to visit, and when to visit.

3Types of techniques parents use to control child

1. Induction- includes reasoning , explaining and the setting of clear limits.

2. Power assertion- physical punishment , forceful commands and the removal of objects and privileges.

3. Love withdrawal- parent ignores the child and react coldly towards his/her behaviour.

• Induction (authoritative parenting style) leads to more acceptable behaviour in children.

• Assertion of power (authoritarian style) leads to aggressive behaviour in children.

• Withdrawal of love is never recommended.

• Most important stages in socialisation is the acquisit ion of toilet skil ls.

• Generally accepted that toilet training should begin before children have reached the necessary level of neuromuscular maturity.

• This level of development is usually not reached until child is 18months old.

• Toilet training before this age and before the necessary level of maturation has reached will subject the child to too much biological and psychological pressure.

• The later toilet training begins, the faster the child will learn the desired behaviour (20-24 months)

• The way parents deal with the process is far more important than the age at which training starts.

• Parents should make ensure their children experience the situation as a source of pride, as achievement of greater self-control and new skills, and not as a power struggle between them and their parents.

• During toilet training children often test their parents’ limits.

• A relaxed , supportive and accepting attitude – with sufficient positive reinforcement each time the child achieves success- is more likely to produce positive results

• Ideal age for complete control is 2½ - 3yrs.• Girls achieve faster than boys due to earlier

physiological maturation

References • http://www.aucklandtherapy.co.nz/Articles/FathersContribution.htm

• Louw, D.A, Van Ede, D.M.& Louw, A.E (1998). Human development. 2nd edition. Cape Town. Kagiso.

• Louw, D.A & Edwards, D.J.A (2008) Psychology: An introduction for students in South Africa. 2nd edition. Cape Town: Heinemann Higher and Further education.

• Middleton, L. Nicholson, G. & O’Neill, V. Juta’s Nursing Psychology. Applying Psychological concepts to Nursing Practice

• http://www.psychologytoday.com/conditions/separation-anxiety