ANTIMICROBIALPROPERTIES OF SPICES

Komal BhadoriaM. Sc. - Nutritional ScienceInstitute of Professional Studies

INDEX

1. Introduction2. Antimicrobial Effectiveness of Spices and Herbs3. List of some spices

a) Garlicb) Gingerc) Turmericd) Nutmeg and Macee) Clovef) Black Pepperg) Cuminh) Red Chillyi) Cardamom

4. Summary 5. References

INTRODUCTION

SpicesSpices are interlaced into the history of nations. The search for spiceshas made many travellers and navigators to make new routes intospice- producing nations.

Spices release aroma, has colour and it provides taste to foodand sometimes are also used to hide undesirable odours. The volatileoils from spices give the aroma and the oleoresins impart the taste.There is growing interest in India’s spices and thus are studied for theirtheoretical and practical aspects of the inner biosynthetic mechanismsof the active principles in spices.

A range of bioactive compounds in herbs and spices has beenstudied for cancer treating properties in animals, but the challenge stilllies in using this knowledge to be observed in humans using popularcuisines. Research on the structure activity relationships in spicecomponents plays a major role in the culinary, industrial andpharmacological fields.

INTRODUCTION

Antimicrobial Properties

An antimicrobial is an agent thatkills microorganisms or inhibitstheir growth. Antibacterial areused against bacteria andantifungal are used against fungi.For example, Clove bud oil hasvarious biological activities, suchas antibacterial, antifungal,antioxidant and insecticidalproperties. The high level ofeugenol present in the essentialoil imparts strong biological andantimicrobial activity(Raghavenra et al., 2006*).

ANTIMICROBIAL EFFECTIVENESS OF SPICES

Table 1: Relative Antimicrobial Effectiveness of spices

Spices and Herbs Inhibitory EffectCinnamon, cloves, mustard StrongAllspice, bay leaf, caraway, coriander, cumin, oregano, rosemary, sage, thyme Medium

Black pepper, red pepper, ginger Weak

Studies in the past confirm that the growth of both gram-positive and gram-negative foodborne bacteria, yeast and mold can be inhibited by garlic, onion,cinnamon, cloves, thyme, sage, and other spices. Effects of the presence of thesespices can be seen in food products such as pickles, bread, rice, and meatproducts. The fat, protein, water, and salt contents of food influence microbialresistance. Thus, it is observed that higher levels of spices are necessary toinhibit growth in food than in culture media (17). Table 1 describes the relative antimicrobial effectiveness of some spices. Table 2 is a list of various spices and their inhibitory effect on various

microorganisms.

Table 2: Inhibitory Effects of Spices and Herbs

Spices / Herb

Inhibitory Microorganisms Reference

GarlicSalmonella typhymurium, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus subtilis, mycotoxigenic Aspergillus, Candida albicans

(1, 2, 3, 4)

Onion Aspergillus flavis, Aspergillus parasiticus (5)

Cinnamon Mycotoxigenic Aspergillus, Aspergillus parasiticus (1, 6, 7)

Cloves Mycotoxigenic Aspergillus (1, 8)

Mustard Mycotoxigenic Aspergillus (1)

Allspice Mycotoxigenic Aspergillus (1, 8)

Oregano Mycotoxigenic Aspergillus, Salmonella spp., Vibrio parahaemolyticus

(1, 9, 10, 11)

Rosemary Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Vibrio parahaemolyticus (12)

Bay leaf Clostridium botulinum (13)

Sage Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Vibrio parahaemolyticus (14, 12)

Thyme Vibrio parahaemolyticus (9, 11)

GARLIC

Scientific Name: Allium sativumFamily Name: Alliaceae

Garlic features in the mythology, religion and culture of many nations.For example Arab legend has it that garlic grew from one of the devil’sfootprint, there are many references to this noble plant in bible too.Roman laborers and soldiers chewed on garlic, the soldiers did so beforebattle, especially when they anticipated hand to hand fighting.

Garlic is the perennial of the lily family, grows like a leek to the heightof 0.6m. Large quantities of garlic are grown in Spain, France, Egypt,Bulgaria, Hungry, USA, Mexico and Brazil.

Garlic is effectively used in cardiovascular diseases as regulator ofblood pressure and with dropper effects of it on glycaemia andcholesterol, against bacterial, viral, mycosis and parasitic infections.

Garlic is a wonderful plant having the properties of empoweringimmune system, anti-tumour and antioxidant. Garlic shows this effectthanks to >200 components it involves.

GARLIC

Antimicrobial Effect

Aydin et al. (2007) demonstrated that the chopped garlic added to rawmeatball, has a slowing-down effect on microbiological growth inground meat depending on the garlic concentration.

Garlic is effective both against influenza B and also herpes simplexviruses. Garlic consists of allicin being a fungistatic substance, hasproved itself against micro-organisms suchas Candida, Aspergillus and Cryptococci as an effective anti-fungalsubstance.

Garlic is said to purify the blood and lower blood pressure, aid digestionand prevent flatulence.

Garlic is considered to be beneficial in the treatment of diabetes and tolower cholesterol. Garlic juices are used in cough medicine and it helpsto elevate asthma.

The studies made on bacteria concerning garlic are not limited only withsocial originated infection factors and it is effective against micro-organisms, which are got from infections growing in patients lying inthe hospitals. It has been judged that garlic extracts can be used in theprevention of gastritis and stomach cancers.

GINGER

Scientific Name(s): Zingiber officinale RoscoeFamily Name: Zingiberaceae

• Ginger is one of the most extensively used spices because of its widerange of application. It is used fresh and in the preserved or dried form.

• The use of ginger in the culinary, non-culinary and medicinal fields isbased on the chemistry of volatile oil & non- volatile pungent principles.

• The oil yield in ginger is about 2–3% and the oil consists of 64%sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, 6% carbonyl compounds, 5% alcohols, 2%monoterpene hydrocarbons and 1% esters. The main compounds inginger are zingiberene (29.5%) and sesquiphellandrene (18.4%).

• The pungent compounds of ginger include gingerols, shogaols, paradolsand zingerone, which produce a ‘hot’ sensation in the mouth. Thecomposition of these constituents varies, based on maturity, genotypeand agroclimatic conditions.

GINGER

Antimicrobial Effect

• Ginger has proven anti-inflammatory and has anti-ulcer principles.• Ginger, a natural dietary component, has been known to have

antioxidant and anticarcinogenic properties.• Manju and Nalini (2005) demonstrated the chemopreventive efficacy of

ginger in colon cancer. They had investigated the effect of ginger on theinitiation and post-initiation stages of 1,2- dimethyl hydrazine (DMH)-induced colon carcinogenesis in male Wistar rats. The number oftumours, as well as the incidence of cancer, was decreased significantlyon treatment with ginger.

• Shukla and Singh (2006) attributed the anticancer properties to thepresence of pungent vallinoids, e.g. [6]-gingerol and [6]-paradol,shogaols, zingerone, etc.

TURMERIC

Scientific Name(s): Curcuma longa L.Family Name: Zingiberaceae.

• Turmeric has been attributed a number of medicinal properties in thetraditional system of medicine for treating several common ailments.

• It which belongs to a group of aromatic spices, had been used originallyas a food additive in curries to improve the storage condition,palatability and preservation of food. Turmeric is a key component ofcurries, curcumin being the principal ingredient.

• The medicinal properties of curcuminoids have been well researched.In particular, these compounds block several enzymes required for thegrowth of tumours and may therefore have a role to play in futurecancer treatments.

TURMERIC

Antimicrobial Effect

• Curcuminoids have also been shown to exhibit antimicrobial properties.• The antibacterial effects of alcoholic extract of turmeric, curcumin and

oil from turmeric have been studied by Banerjee and Nigam (1978) andBhavanishankar and Srinivasamurthy (1979). Extracts from turmeric, aswell as the active principles, the curcuminoids, were found to inhibit thegrowth of numerous Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, fungiand the intestinal parasite.

• The ethanol extract of turmeric has been reported to have anti-amoebicactivity.

• Curcumin also inhibits in vitro production of aflatoxins – toxinsproduced by the mould Aspergillus parasiticus, which may grow andcontaminate poorly preserved foods and is a potent biological agentcausing injury to the liver, often resulting in liver cancer.

NUTMEG & MACE

Scientific Name(s): Myristica fragrans HouttFamily Name: Myristicaceae

• Nutmeg belonging to the Myristicaceae family, has about 18 genera and300 species.

• Nutmeg and mace are the two major primary products of M. fragransand are considered commercially as spices. The constituents of nutmegcan be classified broadly into terpenoids, fatty acids, phenolic acids,lignans, neolignans and miscellaneous compounds.

• The oil content ranges from 3.9 to 16.5% in nutmeg, whereas in mace itvaries from 6.0 to 26.1%. The major constituents of the essential oil innutmeg and mace are sabinene and pinenes.

• The chief flavor-contributing components, namely myristicin andelemicin, are present in low concentrations. Myristicin is reported to be apotent hepatoprotective principle in nutmeg.

NUTMEG & MACE

Antimicrobial Effect

• Nutmeg oil showed strong antibacterial activity against 25 genera ofbacteria (Dorman and Deans, 2000; 2004).

• It exhibited potent activities against Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coliand Saccharomyces cerevisiae (De et al., 1999).

• The resorcinols, malabaricone B and malabaricone C, isolated frommace, exhibited strong antimicrobial activities against Staphylococcusaureus and Candida albicans.

• Methylation of reduction of these resourcinols resulted in diminishedactivity Ur-Rahman et al. (1999) reported the antifungal properties ofessential oil from nutmeg.

• Phenyl propanoids and 8-O-4′ neolignans isolated from mace exhibitedantifungal properties (Zacchino et al., 1997, 1999).

CLOVE

Scientific Name(s): Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merril. & Perry, syn.Eugenia aromaticum or E. caryophyllataFamily Name: Myrtaceae.

• Clove is one of the most ancient and valuable spices of the Orient.• The spice clove and its value-added products are used extensively for

flavoring food and confectionery.• Clove oil has many industrial and pharmacological applications.• Oil of clove is used extensively for flavoring all kinds of food products,

such as meats, sausages, baked goods, confectionery, candies, tablesauces, pickles, etc. Clove oil is used in medicine for its antibacterial,antiseptic and antibiotic properties.

• Most of the studies conducted so far pertain to the clove volatiles andvery little attention has been paid to the nonvolatile constituents.

CLOVE

Antimicrobial Effect

• Clove exhibits potent antimicrobial activity against Bacillus subtilis,Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (De et al., 1999).

• Essential oils from clove and eugenol show various degrees of inhibitionagainst Aspergillus niger, S. cerevisiae, Mycoderma sp., Lactobacillusacidophilus and B. cereus, as estimated by the paper disc agar diffusionmethod.

• Clove oil (1% v/w) inhibits Listeria monocytogenes in chickenfrankfurters (Mytle et al., 2006). It has excellent antimicrobial propertiesand is used in food preservation (Smith Palmer et al., 1998, 2001).

• The volatile oils of clove exhibited considerable inhibitory effects andantibacterial activity against several genera of bacteria, including animaland plant pathogens and food poisoning and spoilage bacteria

BLACK PEPPER

Scientific Name(s): Piper nigrumFamily Name: Piperaceae

• Black pepper is cultivated for its fruit, which is usually dried and used asa spice and seasoning.

• The therapeutic properties of black pepper oil include analgesic,antiseptic, antispasmodic, antitoxic, aphrodisiac, diaphoretic, digestive,diuretic, febrifuge, laxative, rubefacient and tonic.

• Dried, ground pepper, and its variants, one of the most common spices inEuropean cuisine, having been known and prized since antiquity for bothits flavour and its use as a medicine

BLACK PEPPER

Antimicrobial Effect

• The volatile oil of pepper has been shown to have antimicrobial activity.• Black pepper has many medicinal properties like it is used to treat

vertigo, asthma, chronic indigestion, arthritic disorders among others.• As per a research on antibacterial activity of black pepper with special

reference to its mode of action on bacteria, the extracts of black pepperwere evaluated for antibacterial activity by disc diffusion method. Theminimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was determined by tubedilution method and mode of action was studied on membrane leakage ofUV260 and UV 280 absorbing material, it was found that black pepperaltered the membrane permeability resulting the leakage of the UV260and UV280 absorbing material. The result shows that black pepper havegood antibacterial activity, but when compared to Gram negativebacteria, Gram positive bacteria are more susceptible to the extracts.

CUMIN

Scientific Name(s): Cuminum cyminumFamily Name: Umbelifers

Cumin (or Jeerah) is of the family Apiaceae, has been used as a spice sinceancient times and is native to the eastern Mediterranean, extending to EastIndia.

• Cumin is a very good source of iron and manganese.• Eight of the 18 amino acids identified in cumin seeds are essential

amino acids, the limiting amino acid being tryptophan.• Cumin oil is obtained usually by steam distillation of the milled spice;

hydrodiffusion gives a higher yield.• Solvent free microwave extraction (SFME) is the most efficient

extraction system reported to date. The essential oil of cumin consists ofhydrocarbons, aldehydes and ketones, alcohols and ethers. The essentialoil content of the cumin seed ranges from 2.3 to 5%, of which 40–65%is cuminaldehyde.

CUMINAntimicrobial Effect

• The essential oil of cumin exhibits strong antimicrobial activity againstEscherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Listeria monocytogenes.Complete death time on exposure to cumin oil was 20, 180 and 90 minfor E. coli, S. aureus and L. monocytogenes, respectively (Gachkar et al.,2007).

• Lawrence (1992) reported that cumin oil showed fungitoxic, fungicidal,antibacterial and larvicidal activity due to the cuminaldehyde content.The undiluted oil also has a distinct phytotoxic effect on mammals, butnot due to the cuminaldehyde content.

• Among the 60 constituents of the cumin oil identified by GC, GC-MSand olfactometry as essential volatiles, cuminaldehyde (36%), b-pinene(19.3%), p-cymene (18.4%) and γ-terpinene (15.3%) are the principalcomponents showing high antimicrobial activity against the mould A.niger, the Gram-positive bacteria, Bacillus subtilis and S. epidermidis, aswell as the yeasts, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida albicans(Jirovetz et al., 2005).

RED CHILLY

Scientific Name(s): Capsicum annuamFamily Name: Solanaceae

• It is estimated that world production of chillies is about 2.5 milliontonnes. India tops the list, with about one million t from 8.28 millionhectare and paprika accounts for one-third of the total worldconsumption of chilly (red pepper).

• It is valued principally for the brilliant red colour it gives to palefoods and also for its delicate aroma.

• Paprika and paprika oleoresin are used currently in a wideassortment of foods, drugs and cosmetics, as well as for improvingthe feather colour of flamingoes in zoos.

• The colour of chilly powder is due to the presence of red-pigmentedcarotenoids.

RED CHILLY

Antioxidant and Antibacterial Effect

• Capsaicin rich chilly pepper is a strong natural anti-bacterial, anti-diabetic, analgesic and anti-cancer agent.

• It is the main ingredient in many analgesic creams, ointment and gels thatseek to provide temporary relief against variety of pains.

• In addition to strong antibacterial, anti-inflammatory and analgesicproperties , chilly peppers boast an incredible nutritional value; providing76.4mg of vitamin C/100g. Vitamin C is a powerful antibacterial andantioxidant.

• Chilly peppers are the richest in Vitamin A of all spices.• Research is underway to determine the potential for the application of

chili pepper extracts in the food industry in place of artificialpreservatives. As new antibiotic-resistant food borne pathogens emerge,the discovery of natural antimicrobials in chili peppers will be invaluableto food scientists.

SMALL CARDAMOM

Scientific Name(s): Elettaria cardamomumFamily Name: Zingiberaceae

• Small cardamom, known as the ‘queen of spices’, which belongs to thefamily of Zingiberaceae, is a rich spice obtained from the seeds of aperennial plant, Elettaria cardamomum Maton.

• It is one of the highly prized spices of the world and is the third mostexpensive spice after saffron and vanilla.

• Cardamom is used as an aromatic, carminative and stimulant.• The seeds have a warm, slightly pungent aromatic flavour. It is used

mainly as a flavouring agent in tea and food preparations.• Cardamom oil is a precious ingredient in food preparations, perfumery,

health foods, medicine and beverages.• It is also used internally for indigestion, nausea, vomiting and pulmonary

disease with copious phlegm and also as a laxative to prevent stomachpain and griping, as well as flatulence.

SMALL CARDAMOM

Antimicrobial Effect

• Extract of cardamom seed displays a variable degree of antimicrobialactivity on different microorganisms.

• Assays indicate that cardamom seed has inhibitory activity onMycobacterium smegmatis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcusaureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Micrococcus luteus and Candidaalbicans (Agaoglu et al., 2005). However, no inhibitory activity wasobserved against Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

• The antimicrobial effect of the oil was tested against nine bacterialstrains, one fungus and one yeast results in cardamom oil was 28.9% aseffective as phenol, with minimal inhibitory concentration of 0.7 mg/ml(Badei et al., 1991a,b; Kubo et al., 1991).

SUMMARY

Although the antimicrobial activity of some spices and herbsis documented, the normal amounts added to foods for flavoris not sufficient to completely inhibit microbial growth.

The antimicrobial activity varies widely, depending on thetype of spice or herb, test medium, and microorganism. Forthese reasons, spice antimicrobials should not be consideredas a primary preservative method (6).

However, the addition of herbs and spices can be expected toaid in preserving foods held at refrigeration temperatures, atwhich the multiplication of microorganisms is slow.

continued...

Microorganisms differ in their resistance to a given spice or herb. Bacteria are more resistant than fungi. The effect on spores may be different than that on vegetative cells. Gram-negative bacteria are more resistant than gram-positive bacteria. The effect of a spice or herb may be inhibitory or germicidal. Spices and herbs may serve as substrates for microbial growth and toxin

production. Amounts of spices and herbs added to foods are generally too low to

prevent spoilage by microorganisms. Active components of spices at low concentrations may interact

synergistically with other factors (NaCl, acids, preservatives) to increasepreservative effect.

Nutrients present in spices may stimulate growth and/or biochemicalactivities of microorganisms. Thus, food product safety and shelf lifedepend in some part on the type, quantity, and character of spices andherbs added to the products.

REFERENCES* Raghavenra, H., Diwakr, B.T., Lokesh, B.R. and Naidu, K.A. (2006) Eugenol the active principle from cloves inhibits 5-lipoxygenase activity and leukotriene-C4 in human PMNL cells. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids 74, 23–27.

1. Azzouz, M. A. and Bullerman, L. R. 1982. Comparative antimycotic effects of selected herbs and spices, plant components and commercial antifungal agents. J. Food Protect. 45:1248-1301.

2. Dankert, J., Tromp, Th. F. J., Devries, H. and Klasen, H. J. 1979. Antimicrobial activity of crude juices of Allium ascalonicum, Allium cepa and Allium sativum. Zb. Bkr. Hyg., I. Abt. Orig. A245:229-239.

3. Johnson, M. G., and Vaught, R. H. 1969. Death of Salmonella typhimurium and Escherichia coli in the presence of freshly reconstituted dehydrated garlic and onion. Appl. Microbiol. 17:903-905.

4. Powers, E. M., Layer, R., and Masuoka, Y. 1975. Microbiology of processed spices. J. Milk Food Technol. 38:683-687.

5. Sharma, A., Tewari, G. M., Shrikhande, A. J., Padwal-Desai, S. R., and Bandyopadhyay, C. 1979. Inhibition aflatoxin producing fungi by onion extracts. J. Food Sci. 44:1545-1547.

6. Bullerman, L. B. 1974. Inhibition of aflatoxin production by cinnamon. J. Food Sci. 39:1163-1165.7. Bullerman, L. B., Lieu, F. Y., and Seier, S. A. 1977. Inhibition of growth and aflatoxin production by cinnamon and

clove oils, cinnamic aldehyde and eugenol. J. Food Science. 42:1107-1109, 1116.8. Hitokoko, H., Morozumi, S., Wauke, T., Sakai, S., and Kurata, H. 1980. Inhibitory effects of spices on growth and

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activity of selected natural spices and herbs. J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem. 64(4):955-960/12. Shelef, L. A., Naglik, O. A., and Bogen, D. W. 1980. Sensitivity of some common food-borne bacteria to the spices

sage, rosemary, and allspice. J. Food Sci. 45(4):1045-1044.13. Huhtanen, C. N. 1980. Inhibition of Clostridium botulinum by spice extracts and aliphatic alcohols. J. Food Protect

. 43:195-196, 200.14. Shelef, L. A., Jyothi, E. K., and Bulgarelli, M. 1984. Effect of sage on growth of enteropathogenic and spoilage

bacteria in sage containing broths and foods. J. Food Sci. 737-740, 809.

REFERENCESGarlic

Ali Aydin, Kamil Bostan, Mehmet Emin Erkan, and Bariş Bingöl. Journal of Medicinal Food. May 2007, 10(1): 203-207. doi:10.1089/jmf.2005.066.

Ginger

Manju, V. and Nalini, N. (2005) Chemopreventive efficacy of ginger, a naturally occurring anticarcinogen during the initiation, post-initiation stages of 1,2-dimethylhydrazine induced colon cancer. Clinica Chimica Acta 358(1–2), 60–67.

Shukla, Y. and Singh, M. (2006) Cancer preventive properties of ginger: a brief review. Food and Chemical Toxicology 45(5), 683–690.

Turmeric

Banerjee, A. and Nigam, S.S. (1978) Antimicrobial efficacy of the essential oil of Curcuma longa. Indian Journal of Medical Research 68, 864.

Bhavani Shankar, T.N. and Srinivasamurthy, V. (1979) Effect of turmeric fractions on the growth of some intestinal and pathogenic bacteria in vitro. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology 17, 1363–1366.

Nutmeg & Mace

Dorman, H.J.D. and Deans, S.J. (2000) Antimicrobial agents from plants:antibacterial activity of plant volatile oils. Journal of Applied Microbiology 88, 308–315.

Dorman, H.J.D. and Deans, S.J. (2004) Chemical composition, antimicrobial and in vitro antioxidant properties of Monardacitriodora var. citriodora, Myristica fragrans, Origanum vulgare ssp. hirsutum, Pelargonium species and Thymus zygis oils. Journal of Essential Oil Research 16, 145–150.

Ur-Rahman, M.I., Choudhary, A., Farooq, A., Ahmed, M.Z., Iqbal, B. and Demirici, F. (1999) Antifungal activities and essential oil constituents of some spices from Pakistan. Third International Electronic Conference on Synthetic Organic Chemistry (ECSOC-3), September 1–30, 1999, 10 pp.

Zacchino, S.A., Rodriguez, G., Pezzenati, G. and Orellana, G. (1997) In vitro evaluation of antifungal properties of 8-O-4’-neolignans. Journal of Natural Products 60, 659–662.

Zacchino, S.A., Lopez, S.N. and Pezzenati, G.D. (1999) In vitro evaluation of antifungal properties of phenylpropanoids and related compounds acting against dermatophytes. Journal of Natural Products 62, 1353–1357.

Clove

De, M., De, A.K. and Banerjee, A.B. (1999) Antimicrobial screening of some Indian Spices. Phytotherapy Research 13(7), 616–618.

Smith Palmer, A., Stewart, J. and Fyfe, L. (1998) Antimicrobial properties of plant essential oils and essence against five important food born pathogens. Letters in Applied Microbiology 26, 118–122.

Black Pepper

Karsha and Lakshmi on antibacterial activity of black pepper with special reference to its mode of action on bacteria

Cumin

Gachkar, L., Davood, Y., Mohammad, B.R., Masood, T., Shakiba, A.A. and Iraj, R. (2007) Chemical and biological characteristics of Cuminum cyminum and Rosmarinus officinalis essential oils. Food Chemistry 102(3), 898–904.

Lawrence, B.M. (1992) Progress in essential oils. Perfumer and Flavourist 17(4), 42–44.

Jirovetz, L., Buchbauer, G., Stoyanova, A.S., Georgiev, E.V. and Damianova, S.T. (2005) Composition, quality control and antimicrobial activity of the essential oil of cumin (Cuminumcyminum L.) seeds from Bulgaria that had been stored for up to 36 years. Flavour and Fragrance Journal 21(1), 186–191.

Small Cardamom

Agaoglu, S., Dostbil, N. and Alemdar, S. (2005) Antimicrobial effect of seed extract of cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton). YYU Veteriner Fakültesi Dergisi 16(2), 99–101.

Badei, A.Z.M., Morsi, H.H.H. and El-Akel, A.T.M. (1991b) Chemical composition and antioxidant properties of cardamom essential oil. Bulletin of the Faculty of Agriculture University of Cairo 42(1), 199–215.

THANK YOU

Komal BhadoriaSemester – IV, M. Sc. - Nutritional Science