ANTHROPOLOGY EXAM 1 REVIEW GUIDE + NOTES:I: THE NATURE OF PREHISTORY

A) HISTORY & PREHISTORYB) METHODS FOR STUDYING PREHISTORYC) ARCHAEOLOGY, PREHISTORY, & ANTHROPOLOGY

A) HISTORY & PREHISTORY Prehistory & history are concerned w/ similar topics Both are interested in delimiting cultural sequences of the past & clarifying their

importance to mankind. Differences between History & Prehistory

- History: periods where events are chronicled. (write about themselves or other people)

- Prehistory: deals with societies before writing, societies whose writing hasn’t been translated, societies whose documents are rare (Minoan Linear B E truscan script), & where recording systems are selective (Incan Quipus)

When does Prehistory End?- Its variable- In the Old World (Near East & China) prehistory ends about 3500 BC- In Africa, Oceania, & New World, prehistory ends in the 16th-17th century- IMPORTANT: means we need different methods to study prehistory

5 Approaches to Studying Prehistory:1. Archaeology2. Ethrohistory3. Historical Linguistics4. Comparative Ethnography & Ethnology5. Bio anthropology

1. Archaeological Evidence- Uses non-perishable evidence- Past can be reconstructed because:

1) culture is patterned in terms of behavior2) material remains are also patterned3) Archaeologists work from the material patterns to reconstruct the

patterned behavior that produced them.- Excavation provides specific information about house form & size of past

societies- Ceremonial architecture provides insight into social rituals- Public architecture provides insight into social & political rank- Archaeology uses ancient art

2. Historic & Ethnohistoric Documents - Descriptions of preliterate people- These often are the only accounts of indigenous societies before contact- Accuracy varies with the source & inaccuracy may be intentional- Once educated, many natives often write their own histories

3. Historical Linguistics- Trace relations between groups based on language similarities - Similarities can indicate past migrations- Differences can indicate separation in time because language changes over

time.

- Uses loan words to reconstruct contact- Lexicon can provide info on environment- Can look for mythical animals that don’t exist

4. Comparative Ethnography & Ethnoarchaeology - This is the study of cultures today & their application to the past- Look at the contemporary societies for insights about past societies- Uses contemporary behavior as an analogy of testable proposition about the

past- Ethnoarchaeology examines the way physical remains relate to behavior

5. Bioanthropology - Examines health, nutrition, & disease of ancient populations- Looks at DNA & chemical composition of bone- Burial practices can illustrate wealth & status- Modern blood distributions can show migration

Archeology is the most used research technique-not the most precise or fastest & cheapest

It’s the most used because…- It is not time bound- Not restricted by types of data available- The best reconstruction of the past is one that uses all 5 approaches

Why is Prehistoric Archaeology taught in Anthropology departments?1) Prehistory in N. America developed out of concern for the New World indigenous

groups2) Main concern was with understanding the organization & development of

societies - Can’t rely on literature as in the Classical World

Study of prehistory in anthropology is concerned with the study of culture- Culture : refers to the learned reactions, beliefs, habits, technology, forms of

organization, & values of behaviors that allow humans to survive in social groups.

Components of culture:- Culture is the primary mechanism of adaptation- Any culture is a success if it survives over time

Culture is an information system- Culture is learned!- Culture consists of: technology, organization, ideology

People live & adapt to their environments in societies- Society : an internally integrated body of individuals who interact in subsistence,

social & political activities.B) METHODS FOR STUDYING PREHISTORY

What aspects of Prehistoric Culture can be reconstructed?- Subsistence- Social Structure- Economic Systems- Political Interaction- Religious Organizations & Ideology

Subsistence Adaptations: 1. What did people eat & how was it procured?2. What technology did they have?3. How was work organized?4. How specialized was the work?

Social Structure:

1. What were the main social units?2. Family size & composition?3. Did sodalities exist? (sodality is a special interest group)4. Village composition?

Economic Systems: 1. Few societies produce all the commodities they need.2. Reciprocal household to household trade.3. Redistribution, Market exchange

Political Interaction: 1. Formal Offices or Central Authority?2. Formal means of coercion?3. What is the size of the population & how is it organized?

Religious Organizations & Ideology: 1. What is the role of religion in the organization of society?2. What is the world view?

How Are Things Measured in Archaeology?- We need to differentiate between description & inference- We describe & measure things in archaeology

1. Locationo Placement of artifacts in horizontal & vertical space.o Law of Superposition: relative location of artifacts in undisturbed

context is a result of their chronological historyo This permits inferring temporal relationships

2. Contexto The relationship between artifacts in the setting where they’re foundo Features are contexts of special importanceo 2 Types of Context -> primary & secondary associationso Law of Association: objects found in primary context in most cases

things were used at the same time.3. Physical Form

o Shape/stylistic informationo Form can be influenced by:

- available raw material- technology used- function- ideational constraits

4. Physical Conditiono Preservationo Condition used to interpret function

Inferences About Time:- Look at: artifact form (shape)- Artifact condition (wear)- Artifact association (assemblage)

C) ARCHAEOLOGY, PREHISTORY, & ANTHROPOLOGY Prehistorians are interested in 2 Questions:

1. How was ancient society organized?- This is a synchronic question2. Why did cultures change?- This is a diachronic question

Prehistorians examine both these questions using Periods & Stages: Cultural Classification:

- Egalitarian Societies (2 Types)- Ranked Societies (Cheifdoms)- State Societies (like ours today)

Egalitarian Societies: Main features (equal is key):- As many positions of prestige & leadership as there are capable people- Power based on personal abilities- Have ways to diminish ego so everyone’s talents can be recognized- 2 Types:

1. Egalitarian Bandso 30-100 personso Hunting & Gatheringo Lack permanent headmen (no permanent leaders)o Marry outside the group (no marriages inside because small population

-> family ties to close -> incest which = problems)2. Egalitarian Tribes

o Have social mechanisms for groups to stay together longero Includes hunting/gathering & food producerso More sedentary

Ranked Societies:- Ranked societies are societies with fewer positions of power & prestige than

people capable of filling them.- 5,000-100,000 persons in size- More formal means of mediating disputes- Cheifdoms: positions of prestige are ranked, rank is inherited, & integration

through kinship links Archaic State Societies:

- Organization through non-kinship means- Institution with exclusionary right to power- Territorial in structure- Social classes- Greater internal complexity- Often > 100,000 persons in size- Frequently have permanent leaders- Have economic complexity- Market Systems

II: LATE UPPER PALEOLITHIC: 40,000-10,000 BC:A) EnvironmentB) ChronologyC) PopulationD) Technology (food, clothing, shelter)E) SubstanceF) Settlement PatternsG) Social OrganizationH) Ideology (portable art, cave art)I) Pleistocene Extinctions

The Upper Paleolithic:- The period of fully modern humans- Hunting & Gathering primary adaptation- Populations during this time are spread out over the world

o Traveled to New World via Alaskan Bridge

- The key to getting to the New World was how much snow there was- The needle was important

o Sewn clothes to help with the cold environment Pleistocene Environment:

- Glaciers at the top of Europe & Asiao These glacial zones were above the ancient cities

- Upper Paleolithic is known as the Ice Age- Glaciers lowered sea levels & produced new dry land

o Determine dropage of sea level via Pleistocene coral - Northern Europe was under ice- Central Europe was tundra- SW Europe was a warm forest belt- SE Europe was dry steppes- Faunal Resources:

o Wooly Mammoth *These animals decreased o Pleistocene Bison & Horse in size due to Hunting/ Losso Reindeer of Grasslandso Wooly Rhinoceroso Muskoxo Irish Elk

Origins Of Upper Paleolithic Human Populations:- Human Populations in West Europe via migration from Africa- Early Populations had dark skin color

4 Upper Paleolithic Cultural Traditions in Europe:1. Magdalenian (18,000-10,000 BP) 2. Solutrean (22,000-18,000 BP) 3. Gravettian (29,000-22,000 BP) Timeline4. Aurignacion (40,000-30,000 BP)

Aurignacion - Earliest stone tool tradition- First Portable art (flutes, music, jewelry)

Gravettian- Small stone blades- Earliest cave art- First aspects of trade- Seasonal festival encampments

Solutrean- Peak of glaciation- Fine laurel leaf projectile points- Learned how to modify stone (change chemistry of stone -> fire)

Magdalenian - Peak of cave art- Skillful bone & antler working- Glaciers are retreating -> grassland animal fauna are becoming scarce- 80% of cave art dates back to 12,000-15,000 BP

Population: General Features:- Light population density- Lived in groups of 30-100 people- Mortality rates are high

Upper Paleolithic Technology:- UP stone tool technology used flint blades (parallel sided flakes)

- Blades for bone tool manufacture- Blades were an increase in efficiency- Stone tools

o Burinso Backed bladeso Tanged pointso Kniveso Bone & Antler tools

o Pinso Bone & ivory bodkinso Needles w/ eyes

o Barbed spear pointso Fish hookso Detachable harpoonso Shaft straightenerso Carved batons & adornments

- Appearance of spear throwers- Appearance of the boomerang- Bow & arrow at the end of the period

Upper Paleolithic Subsistence Patterns:- Subsistence based on Hunting & Gathering- Specialization in diet during UP- New Hunting Skills Introduced:

o Jump Kill -> driving animals off cliffso Surround Kill -> driving animals into a dead end/trap

- Aquatic Resources also exploited:o Fish found in some cave paintingso Mussel shells found in sites

No evidence for Animal Domestication:- Horse domestication suggested from cave paintings- Selective raising of young possible

Upper Paleolithic Clothing:- All clothing made from hides (no lice on them)- Needle used to stich hides- Clothes were decorated with small beads/shells

Caves & rock shelters used for shelter in Southern France- Rock Shelters show repeated use over time- Caves are abundant & dry- Screens used to close entrance against cold- Permeant shelters made of animal bone- Semi-subterranean tent-like structures used

First Settlement Patterns:- Settlement Patterns during the UP include:

o Seasonal Migration (hunting large herd animals)o Year-Round Sedentism (mammoth hunting)

- Groups exploiting year round species were sedentaryo Difference between 2 strategies is the degree of specializationo Sedentism has ramifications

1. Higher Fertility -> less movementSedentism = high movement -> so low fertility

2. Sedentism -> lots of storage

Group Social Organization:- Groups were organized as Egalitarian groups- Structured in loose tribes with microband & macroband residence patterns- Macroband camps are group sites- Microband-Macroband relations yearly subsistence & social activities

Macroband

Microband Microband- Microband groups have less art & artifacts than Macroband camps- Tied to large group hunts

Mortuary Treatment:- Difference in status found in burials- Sungir, Russia has elaborate burials- 2 children had 10,000 beads on their clothing- Elaborate male burial with evidence for fitted clothing: cap, tunic, moccasins,

trousers, & 2,600 beads- Mortuary Treatment Indicates:

1. Concern for status of dead in afterlife2. Concern with spirits of the dead causing problems for the living3. It’s not just hygienic removal of a dead body

Tribal Organizations Linked to Reproduction:- Need a group of 475 to avoid inbreeding problems- In Tundra areas, ceremonial meetings needed to bring people together- Why Prince Charles? -> small populations = more mutations

Tribal Organizations Provided A Larger Survival Network For Small Hunting Groups:- Evidence for tribal organization: Large meeting sites- Meetings provided:

o Social Interactiono Information Exchangeo Ritual Activityo Opportunities for large communal huntso Resource Exchangeo Mate Selection

Tribal Organization & Exchange Networks:- Evidence in trade goods- Bands linked through exchange partnership- Long distance exchange: exotic stone, shell, amber- Evidence for Ritual Craft Production

Exotic Stone for Lithic Tools:- Most flaked stone within 20 km of UP sites- Some exotic materials come from 100-400 km away

Exotic Shell Moved Longer Distances From Shore- Ukraine sites contain shells only found in the Mediterranean- Represents trade of 600-800 km

Amber Moves Further Than Shell- Amber from the Baltic Sea found in UP sites in Southern Europe- This represents trade of 600-800 km

Ritual Craft Production:- Evidence in rich portable art assemblages- Venus & animal carvings are a dimension of RCP

Venus Female Representations (2-4 inches tall):- Carved- Modeled from clay & bone- Believed to have fertility & ritual associations

Specialized Production of Ceramic Venuses at Dolni Vestonice I & Pavlov:- Sites located in Czechoslovakia- Date to 26,000 BP

Over 6,750 Fragments of Portable Art Found at Dolni Vestonice I:- 3,500 additional fragments found at Pavlov I (venus)

Dolni Vestonice I & Pavlov:- Production consist of venus & animal figures & circular clay pellets- Recovery

o 707 animalso 14 venuseso >2000 pellets (may be used in divination ritualso 40 slabs & spheres

Special Production Facilities:- Venus figurines fired in special kiln structures- Kilns located in 2 buildings 80 m upslope from residential structures

Kiln 1 Was Located Inside A Structure:- Contained 2,300 frags- Ceramics made from loess

Kiln 2:- Kiln is 1 m x 60 cm & is horseshoe shaped & surrounded by a loess wall

Production Goals???:- Production exceeds internal use- Probably for export or ritual use- Finished pieces were exported- Fragmented pieces may be for ritual performance -> intentional breakage

Upper Paleolithic Ideology:- Concern for the spirit of the individual evident in burial practices- Rich ritual life evident in cave art & ritual - 2 categories of UP Art:

1. Portable Art 2 types Engravings & Venus Carvings2. Cave Art Cave Bear Art

Engravings Mostly Embellish Bone & Antler Tools:- Individual animals & scenes found- Rock Art Carvings

Venus Figurines:- France to South Russia- A few inches tall & usually carved in ivory or stone- Emphasis on pregnant females with prominent breast & buttocks- Steatopygia may have been present during the UP- Faces never usually portrayed- May not have wanted life-like representation to avoid spirit capture- Over 20,000 km these are distributed

3 Theories For What Venuses Represent: - Theory 1. Venus as Fertility Representations

o Focuses on the mystery of female transformationo Emphasis on ideal & not realismo Weight gain idealized because its critical in fetal development

- Theory 2. Venus as Self-Representationo Emphasis on fertility of selfo Represent self-portraits by womeno Disproportions a result of foreshadowing

- Theory 3. Tactile Hypothesiso Many figurines perforated & worn as pendants or amuletso Exaggerated anatomy could be physical features prayed for o Amulets may have been for protection during pregnancy

Conclusions:- All theories agree fertility is important- These mobile societies produce lean bodies- Fatness would be desirable to promote ovulation

Cave art is concentrated in Europe: (This is the area of high UP population density) Paintings found deep in caves (floor, walls, & roof) Areas with paintings are never very accessible Some are around corners & intended to surprise Cave art occurs as paintings, bas-relief, & engravings Can also model it in clay Natural shape may suggest the figure Human hands are popular:

- Many have missing fingers- Paint colors are usually red or black- Leroi-Gourhan believes UP cave art changed over time- He proposes 4 stages:

o Stage 1. 30,000-23,000 BP, Geometric Paintingso Stage 2. 23,000-17,000 BP, Simple Silhouetteso Stage 3. 17,000-13,000 BP, Era of Polychrome Paintings (greater

depictions of movement)o Stage 4. 13,000-8,000 BP, Naturalistic Proportions

Interpretations:- Cave art part of systematic cult activity- Paintings are functional, not aesthetic- Superposition common

3 Theories for UP Cave Paintings: 1. Sympathetic Hunting Magic2. Sexual Duality3. Identity Ritual & Group Initiation

1. Sympathetic Hunting Magic: - Animals w/ darts- Group herd scenes- Lascaux Hunting Scene. Magic may be implied to predict the outcome of a hunt

2. Sexual Duality: - Different figures represent male & female duality- Based on patterning within caves

3. Identity Ritual & Group Initiation: - Paintings designed to pass along information- Shamans represented

Pech-Merle Paintings Modified over time Ritual Behavior Associated With Paintings:

- Paintings at Le Tuc’d Audoubert have footprints associated with paintings- 6 children in 2 rows- Suggests an initiation ritual

Ritual Behavior at Niaux, France:- 500 footprints found 3000 ft beyond paintings- Footprints of adolescents 13-15 years old- Fragments of flutes with footprints

Initiation Rites Common in Many Societies: - Formalities changes in status of individuals- Occurs at birth, marriage, & death- Male initiation often associated with trials- Female initiation focus on passing on information

End Of Pleistocene:- Animals disappear gradually- Big herd animals disappear as tundra is replaced by forest- Did human play a part in megafauna extinctions?- Post-Pleistocene extinctions are a combination of natural & man-induced change

III: THE EPI-PALEOLITHIC PERIOD: (12,000-9,250 BP or 10,000-7,250 BC): 2 Major Changes:

1. Disappearance of mega-fauna2. Northward Shift of climatic zones

Humans adapted by broadening environmental exploitation Subsistence diversification was a major feature of the Epi-Paleolithic:

- Continued exploration of grasslands- Broadened Forest Adaptation

Coastal Adaptation: increased fishing & shellfish collection (boats are discovered during this time)- Include Epi-Paleolithic Riverine fish weir- Ground stone tool technology appears

Ground stone tools reflect intensive plant collecting 7 processing Epi-Paleolithic Technology:

- Micro-blade or Microlith Industries- Blades set in wood to form composite tool in a diversity of forms

Adaptation During The EP involved 3 Subsistence Processes: 1. Specialization2. Diversification3. Intensification

Specialization: - Focus: obtain maximum caloric return for least amount of energy- Results in focusing on a narrow spectrum of resources

Diversification: - Focus: obtain predictable caloric return- Results in broadening the spectrum of resources exploited- Diversification seen in Magdalenian coastal adaptation

Intensification: - Focus: manipulate the environment to increase the scale & predictability of

caloric capture- It is intentional & a response to multiple conditions

- Hunters & gatherers manipulate the environment using fire (Australian aborigines)

The Important Issue Is That Plant Communities Respond Differently To Manipulation By Humans:- Some have become more productive- This can attract humans to specialize in them- This brings us to the threshold of food production & domestication

Process of Food Production:

Specialized UP Hunters Diversified EP Hunters & Gatherers

Specialized Intensifiers Intensifying EP Hunters& Cultivators among & Gatherers

Others

Epi-Paleolithic To Neolithic: (after 7,250 BC): - EP: Initial food production & cultivation of grasses- Intensive Hunting & gathering to agriculture & pastoralism in the Neolithic

(Tibetan tribal sheep herders) Cultivation & Domestication:

- Cultivation: is the intensification process of planting & collecting seeds- Domestication is the intentional selective breeding of plants & animals

Plant Domestication Resulted In More & Larger Seeds:- Prepackaging of seeds into harvesting units (corn & husk)

Plant Domestication Resulted In The Loss Of Some Wild Characteristics:- Food production resulted in more sedentary communities (wheat)

Eli-Paleolithic Was A Period Of The Food Production Revolution:- Food production occurred in 7 regions around the world at the end of the

Pleistocene The 4 Important Characteristics of Food Production & Domestication:

1. Food Production was Purposeful: o It was not “discovered”o It was not accidentalo It was purposeful & involved intentional activities

2. Food Production was a Systematic Change: o Food Production fits well in a Hunter & Gatherer strategy for 4 reasons:1. FP of plants always starts with intensive collecting of wild form2. Cultivation of wild plants fit well into micro/macroband social organization3. Less productive activities abandoned in favor of more productive one4. Involves shifts in food collection strategies in relation to new food production

strategies3. Food Production Results in Changes In Social Organization:

o More time can be spent in the macroband camp4. Demographic Consequences of Food Production:

o Domestication increases the carrying capacity of the lando Less space requiredo Population grew & pressure emerged

Immaculate Theories Of Plant Domestication & Food Production:

1. Immaculate Discoveryo Idea: seeds got into the trasho People saw the growth & started cultivatingo Error: assumes had to discover plant growth

2. Religious First Fruits Theoryo Idea: early religions sacrificed special items to their godso Error: faulty correlation, early temple fields, supported priests

3. Cuisine/Population Fitness Modelo Idea: changes in cuisine focused on cultigenso The “Beer Theory”o Error: doesn’t account for original cultivation of grain o Accounts for intensification after human cultivation

4. Sedentism & Population Pressureo Plant domestication a response to intensive collectingo Sedentism the result of collecting storable grainso Question: What is found in the Near East where plant domestication took

place? The Epi-Paleolithic Period In The Near East:

- Fertile Crescent region is where early domestication took place- Main Questions:

1. Where did food production occur?2. What was the Epi-Paleolithic like in SW Asia?

- Much of the research has focused on where intensive research & collection gave rise to cultivation:1. Oasis Areas2. Fertile River Valleys3. Upland Regions (actual areas where FP took Place)

Results Of Research:- Oasis Regions & Fertile River Valleys:

o Does not have early occupationo Early cultivated plants do not occur in either of these areas

- Wild forerunners of cultivated plants found in the Upland Zagros Mountains of eastern Turkey

- Zagros mountains have a seasonal rainy season Zagros Mountains During The Epi-Paleolithic:

- Heavily settled- Intensification collecting- Experimenting led to cultivation

3 Grasses Are Important For Domestication:1. Wild Einkorn: is restricted to the Zagros Mountains2. Wild Barley: is widely distributed from the Zagros down through the Levant3. Wild Emmer: is restricted to Syria & the area around the Levant Hills

Legumes (lentils) also exploited in the EP Wild peas are distributed in the same area Sheep & goats were important early animals domesticates Change in domesticated goat horns Pigs & Cattle are not important early domesticates Epi-Paleolithic Found In Fertile Crescent:

1. Zagros Mountains2. Levant

o 4 Sites:

1. Mureybit2. AbuHureyra3. Karim Shanidar4. Zawi Chem Shanidar

o Time Period In Zagros Mountains: 1. 11,000-9,000 BC2. 9,000-8,200 BC

Zawi Chem & Karim Shanidar: (11,000-9,000 BC):- Hunting & Gathering was main adaptation- Groups moved over a small home range- Hunting covered a wide spectrum of animals

o 90% are sheep, goats, cattle, & pigs- Collecting wild grain & barley & einkorn

Zawi Chem & Karim Shanidar: (9,000-8,200 BC):- Zawi Chem has round semi-subterranean structures- Hunting & Gathering continues- Possible sheep domestication begins (selective eating)- Wild barley & einkorn being exploited still

Abu Hureyra: An EP site in N Syria:- 2 Occupations:

1. Epi-Paleolithic: 9,000-8,000 BC2. PPN Pre-Pottery Neolithic: 8,200-6,00 BC

Abu Hureyra: Specialized Intensifiers During EP:- Plant & animal domestication during PPN Pre-Pottery Neolithic- Located at upper reaches of Syria- Abu Hureyra is located between a fertile flood plain (collecting) & a grassy

steppe (hunting) Abu Hureyra: 9,000-8,000 BC:

- Community size: 200-300 persons- Large settlement covered 11.5 ha (28 acres)

Subsistence: Specialized Intensifiers:- Intensive hunting of wild animals- Intensive collection of cultivation of wild grasses/pulses- Hunting: gazelle represents 80% of the total meat in their diet- Conclusion: coordinated hunting of gazelles migrating north after birthing from

April-May Hunting Used Specialized Enclosures Called Desert Kites: Ground stone artifacts at Abu Hureyra indicate involvement in nut & grass

processing- Wild einkorn was a primary plant source- Barley was also found

PPN Abu Hureyra: 8,000-6,000 BC:- Gazelle hunting declined to 20% of total bone- Goat & sheep increase to 80%- Animal husbandry adopted after hunting was no longer viable- Represents food production after specialized intensification was no longer

possible Epi-Paleolithic Sites Rely On Intensive Plant Collecting:

- 3 Characteristics of EP Sites:1. Sedentary populations2. Communities of 200-300 people3. Intensive Collecting of grass environments

- Question: Could intensive collecting productive support large populations or was cultivation necessary?

- Experiments have measured productivity of wild einkorn collection:o 1 kg/hour by hando 1.2 kg/hour by sickle

- Ripens differentially by elevation Einkorn Productivity Calculation:

- Work 12 hours a day x 1.2 kg/hour = 14.4 kgs/day- Family of 5 have 3 workers

o 14.4 kgs x 3 = 43.2 kgs/day- Collection over 3 weeks:

o 43.2 kgs/day x 21 days = 907.2 kgs- How Important Is This?

o Family of 5 requires only 1000 kg of grain for the yearo Need only 23 days to collect a year’s worth of food!

Intensive Collection vs Cultivation?:- Intensive collecting was important- Was cultivation practiced during the Epi-Paleolithic?- Suggested by large Sedentary Communities- The Question: How to identify cultivation?- Seed size doesn’t help

Identify cultivation from the natural distribution of plants & where they occur in archaeological times

Mureybet, Syria: (9,000-8,000 BC):- Sedentary community with semi-subterranean houses- Mureybet is 150 km outside the natural Eikorn distribution

2 Alternatives: 1. People traveled 150 km to collect Eikorn2. Eikorn was cultivated around the site- Human manipulation changes the genotypes through manipulation of the

phenotype- Yearly collection recovered more seeds with poor dispersal mechanisms

Have incidental changes of the genotype through changes in the phenotype ever been historically documented in grain?- Yes, Rye was originally a weed in wheat- The 1st possibly genetically altered plant was rye- Found at Abu Hurerya & dates to around 9,000-8,600 BC

The Era Of Domestication: - The Pre-Pottery Neolithic (PPN) -> (8,200-6,000 BC)

The Era Of Domestication Is Complicated For 3 Reasons:1. Cultural Development over the wide area2. Variation in how people adapted to opportunities3. Development proceeds at different rates in different places- Reduced to 2 periods:

o PPN Pre-Pottery Neolithico PPN Pottery Neolithic

Pre-Pottery Neolithic:- Good evidence for domestication

o Intensive collecting & cultivating of wild plantso Best evidence for domestication in change in rachis

- True sedentary villages occur

o Sedentary villages before domesticateso They’re year round settlements

PPN Major Features:- Rectangular houses appear- Large villages appear

o Mega-villages of 20-30 acreso Populations: 1000-1500 people

Most Large Villages At The End Of PPN (6000 BC):- Regional population relocation- Special ritual buildings

Important New Technology:- Copper metallurgy appears- Ceramics begin

Ritual Developments:- Skull cult

Egalitarian Tribes Appear:- Evidence for social cohesion

Trade Is Important:- Craft production for exchange

2 Paths To Domestication:1. Plant collection with Animals2. Adding Domesticated Plants after Animals are Domesticated- Sequence of Development:

o Settled Villages (9,000-8,000 BC)o Domestication (8,500-7,000 BC)o Introduction Of Pottery (7,000-6,250 BC)

Nine PPN Archaeological Sites:- Eastern Zagros Mountains

o Ali Kosho Ganji Darcho Anatoliao Cayonu Tepsei

- Levanto Beidhao Nevalicono Jerichoo Gobekli Tepeo Ain Ghazal

Ali Kosh Economy:- Collected wild seeds & legumes- Herdsmen at 7,250 BC- Focus on goats with some sheep

Long distance exchange of obsidian, copper, shell, & lapis lazuli Ganj Darch has the earliest pottery at 7,000 BC Beidha Was A Well Known Village:

1. Looks like it has a building at the middle of the community2. Has the earliest commencement around it (wall around village)

Several houses have evidence for bone tool production Natu Fian Jericho is an impressive site during the PPN:

- Is a big oasis- 8,000 BC Jericho is a large sedentary village

- Jericho covered 4 hectares & contained 500 persons- PPN houses are mud-brick structure with cisterns for storing water- PPN Jericho involved in long distance trade- Has Large Walls; circular towers were constructed onto the list- Wall indicates community conformation

Little Evidence For Genetically Altered Plants:- Cultivated wild grains- Emmer & Barley at Levant sites- Evidence for cultivation is indirect from the size of the community

The Ain Ghazal Is A Large Sedentary Village:- Mud sculptures found in houses- Ain Ghazal was 1 of the largest PPN Mega-sites in the southern Levant- Size: 35-40 acres- Population: 1,323 people