Foreign relations of Bangladesh

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The foreign relations of People's Republic of Bangladesh share the Bangladeshi government's policies in its external relations with the international community. The country pursues a moderate foreign policy that places heavy reliance on multinational diplomacy, especially at the United Nations and World Trade Organization (WTO). Since independence in 1971, the country has stressed its principle of friendship towards all, malice towards none in dictating its diplomacy. As a member of the Non-Aligned Movement, Bangladesh has tended to not take sides with major powers. Since the end of the Cold War, the country has pursued better relations with regional neighbors. Inspired by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's vision for a Switzerland of the East, the Bangladesh government has begun to translate the ideal into a foreign policy that pursues regional economic integration in South Asia and aims to establish Bangladesh as a regional hub of transit trade in Asia.Participation in multilateral organizationsCommonwealth of Nations-Bangladesh,which was part of British India until 1947, joined the Commonwealth of Nations in 1972 after its establishment as an independent nation in 1971.[1] It has actively participated in the Heads of Government conferences that take place bi-annually.United Nations-Bangladesh was admitted to the United Nations in 1974[2] and was elected to a Security Council term in 1978-1980[3] and again for a 2000-2002 term. Foreign Minister Choudhury served as president of the 41st UN General Assembly in 1986. In recent years, Bangladesh has played a significant role in international peacekeeping activities. Nearly 10,000 Bangladeshi military personnel are deployed overseas on peacekeeping operations, making it a large contributor to the UN peacekeeping forces. Under UN auspices, Bangladeshi troops have served or are serving in Somalia, Rwanda, Mozambique, Kuwait, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Haiti, and units are currently serving in Kuwait and East Timor. Bangladesh responded quickly to U.S. President Bill Clinton's 1994 request for troops and police for the multinational force for Haiti and provided the largest non-U.S. contingent. As of December 2012, Bangladesh is the largest provider of UN peacekeepers.Non-Aligned Movement

Main article: Non-Aligned MovementBangladesh was selected to provide the next chairman of NAM at the summit scheduled for Dhaka 2001, however it was later decided to host the summit at an alternative venue. As a member of the Non-aligned Movement Bangladesh never took any position in line with big powers. However it parted with its principle by voting at the United Nations against North Korea, under pressure from Japan, in December 2008.

Organisation of Islamic Cooperation-In 1974, then Prime minister Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, lead a Bangladeshi delegation team consisting Kamal Hossain, Enayet Karim, Ataur Rahman Khan, Taher Uddin Thakur, Tofail Ahmed and Shah Azizur Rahman under him,[4] to the international meeting of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC, now the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation) held in Lahore. Following this participation Bangladesh was admitted as a member of OIC. In 1977, President Ziaur Rahman amended the Constitution of Bangladesh, including a clause stating that " the state shall endeavour to consolidate, preserve and strengthen fraternal relations among Muslim countries based on Islamic solidarity ".[5] Since then, an explicit goal of Bangladeshi foreign policy has been to seek close relations with other Islamic states. In 1980, President Ziaur Rahman was included in a 3 member "Al-Quds" summit committee to attend the summit at Morocco.[6] In 1983, Bangladesh hosted in capital Dacca the foreign ministers meeting of the OIC. At the OIC headquarters at Jeddah, Bangladesh is represented in the capacity of one of the Director Generals.South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation-The government also pursued the expansion of cooperation among the nations of South Asia, bringing the processan initiative of former President Ziaur Rahmanthrough its earliest, most tentative stages to the formal inauguration of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) at a summit gathering of South Asian leaders in Dhaka in December 1985. Bangladesh has served in the chairmanship of SAARC and has participated in a wide range of ongoing SAARC regional activitiesCentre on Integrated Rural Development for Asia and the Pacific-An intergovernmental and autonomous organisation, the organisation consists of fifteen members:- Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Fiji, India, Iran, Indonesia, Laos, Myanmar, Malaysia, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam. The area of cooperation is primarily focused on agriculture, regional relations and the development of the region.Bay of Bengal Initiative for MultiSectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation-An international organisation which includes South Asian and Southeast Asian nations. The member nations of this group are: Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Bhutan and Nepal. The organisation focuses on regional economy, regional development and trade & investment.Developing 8 Countries-Bangladesh along with the seven other nations are all original members and no plans for expansions have been made. The Developing 8 is an economic development alliance consisting of Muslim majority states which focuses in multiple areas which are rural development, science and technology, banking, agriculture, humanitarian development, energy, environment, health and finance. On May 14, 2006 in Bali, Indonesia, Bangladesh was the only nation not to sign a preferential trade agreement.Asia Pacific Trade Agreement-In 2005, Bangladesh signed the APTA agreement which would enable it to reduce trade gaps between itself and other nations such as China, South Korea and its neighbour India. Another aspect of the agreement is to be given duty-free access to its products.[7]World Trade Organization-Bangladesh is an active member of the World Trade Organization (WTO). Bangladesh has a permanent mission in Geneva to look after matters relating to multi-lateral trading system under the WTO regime since mid-1990s.World Customs Organization-Bangladesh is an active member of the World Customs Organization (WCO). Bangladesh has a permanent representative to WCO which has its headquarters in Brussels.

Like Minded Group-Bangladesh have formed an alliance with nineteen other developing countries to vote as a bloc in organisations such as the WTO and the United NationsOther-Bangladesh is currently chairman of the Developing 8 Countries. The government has participated in numerous international conferences, especially those dealing with population, food, development, and women's issues. In 1982-83, Bangladesh played a constructive role as chairman of the "Group of 77", an informal association encompassing most of the world's developing nations. It has taken a leading role in the "Group of 48" developing countries. Bangladesh also participates in these international organizations: ARF, AsDB, BIMSTEC, CP, FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICCt (signatory), ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO, ITU, ITUC, MIGA, MINURSO, MONUC, SACEP, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNMEE, UNMIL, UNMIS, UNOCI, UNOMIG, UNWTO, UPU, WCL, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO, OPCW.Bilateral relations-Bangladesh have established official diplomatic relations with most of the members of United Nations as well as some non-UN members like Palestine. Relations with these nations are largely cordial except for some bilateral disputes with India, Pakistan and Burma. Bangladesh puts deep emphasize on relations with China and the United States as China is the largest military supplier to Bangladesh while United States is one of the largest export markets for Bangladeshi products. In recent years, the relations with Russia also became influential because of the Russian loan and technical assistance on military modernization and the first ever nuclear power plant project of Bangladesh. The bilateral relations of Bangladesh are mainly based on trade activities. However, with certain countries, the relations expand to other areas such as military cooperation, cultural exchange etc.AsiaSouth AsiaBangladesh maintains friendly relations with Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, and Sri Lanka and strongly opposed the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. Bangladesh and Nepal recently agreed to facilitate land transit between the two countries.

CountryCountry (Official Name)Formal Relations BeganNotes

AfghanistanIslamic Republic of AfghanistanSee Afghanistan-Bangladesh relations

Ties between Afghanistan and Bangladesh goes back before the emergence of their modern political borders sharing historical, cultural and trade relations. In 1971, the Kingdom of Afghanistan was one of the first Muslim countries to recognize the independence of Bangladesh, along with Turkey, Malaysia and Indonesia. They share similar views on international issues such as combating terrorism and increased regional cooperation. A Bangladeshi NGO, BRAC is a part of the reconstruction effort in Afghanistan particularly in microfinance and in 2007 the Afghan ambassador to Bangladesh, Ahmed Karim Nawabi had stated that Afghanistan is interested in recruiting manpower from Bangladesh.[8]

PakistanIslamic Republic of PakistanSee Bangladesh-Pakistan relations

The Bangladesh-Pakistan relationship is yet to be at a level that may be called warm. However since full diplomatic relations were implemented in January 1976, it has shown improvement in bilateral relations concerning commerce, culture and trade and making reconciliatory agreements.

Landmarks in their reconciliation are:

An August 1973 agreement between Bangladesh and Pakistan on the repatriation of numerous individuals, including 90,000 Pakistani prisoners of war stranded in Bangladesh as a result of the 1971 conflict;

A February 1974 accord by Bangladesh and Pakistan on mutual diplomatic recognition, followed more than 2 years later by establishment of formal diplomatic relations on January 18, 1976

The organization by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) of an airlift that moved almost 250,000 Bengalis from Pakistan to Bangladesh, and non-Bengalis from Bangladesh to Pakistan; and

Exchanges of high-level visits, including a visit by Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto to Bangladesh in 1989 and visits by Prime Minister Khaleda Zia to Pakistan in 1992 and in 1995.

Issues need resolving:

Division of assets from the pre-1971 period[citation needed] Repatriation of 250,000 ethnic Biharis known as "Stranded Pakistanis"

Possibly the most important and most sensitive issue is the Question of Pakistan's apology for the genocide in 1971 which has led to the breakdown of numerous talks between the two.[citation needed]

Sri LankaDemocratic Socialist Republic of Sri LankaSee Bangladesh Sri Lanka relations

Relations are historically tied together even beyond the sub-continent's colonisation by the British. Sri Lanka's first King (to be mentioned in the ancient Pali chronicles) was alleged to have ancestors from the Vanga Kingdom which occupied an area now known as Bangladesh. Bangladesh's Buddhist minority gifted Sri Lanka with a few strands of hair said to have belonged to Buddha as a sign of goodwill. It is a worshipped object on Poya Day, a Buddhist public holiday in Sri Lanka.[26]In August 2008, both Heads of States discussed the implementation of new air links in hope of increasing trade, investment and stronger cultural links. Sri Lanka's current investments have been in Bangladesh's garment and banking sector and expect to diversify into different areas. Bangladesh also hosts a number of Sri Lankan medical students and cricket as a form of friendly communications between their people.[27]There has been discussion to increase bilateral relations, cooperation between the two navies and sending Sri Lankan Naval personal to study in Bangladesh.[28]

MalaysiaMalaysiaSee Bangladesh-Malaysia relations

Malaysia was one of the first Muslim states along with Indonesia to recognise Bangladesh and since then the two have seen a rapid growth of cooperation between them. Malaysia offers economic and technical assistance, trade and investment while Bangladesh offers a cheap labour workforce for areas such as construction.

Malaysia is the largest ASEAN investor in Bangladesh and Malaysian companies have invested $1.3 billion in 59 projects in 2007 in areas such as telecommunications, textiles and financial sector. However the trade balance is overwhelmingly in Malaysia's favour, during the 2006-07 fiscal year, exports were a mere $16.9 million compared to $384.16 million in imports. Trading between the two nations are increasing especially in pharmaceutical exports with a number businesses are calling for a Free Trade Agreement to balance out the trade deficit.

Many Malaysian companies have shown keen interest to participate in infrastructure projects here such as power generation, sea port development, waste disposal system, construction of roads and highways as well as in the service sector such as education and healthcare. Malaysia said will continue to contribute positive efforts to promote and expand bilateral relations with Bangladesh, particularly in trade and investment. Pending projects like the Dhaka-Chittagong highway, worth $1.2 billion, power generation, port development etc. would be completed.

Malaysia and Bangladesh recently agreed to signing a Memorandum of Understanding in a tackle against money laundering from Bangladesh to Malaysia. The signatories are the financial intelligence units of the central banks from both nations with one aspect of the deal being that any Bangladeshi comes under suspicion they will gain information from Malaysia freely.[31]Bangladesh and Malaysia are also members of Developing 8, OIC, the Commonwealth of Nations, Like Minded Group and Non-Aligned Movement show that the two have similar views on regional and international issues.

Issue of labor force administration in Malaysia has somewhat strained the bilateral ties temporarily. In 2007 Malaysia banned imports of Bangladeshi workers into the country after hundreds of them were stranded at an airport because their employers failed to collect them. There were demonstrations in Kuala Lumpur by Bangladeshi workers demanding payments and better conditions. This created a crisis in the bilateral ties but issue has been resolved with the interference of the governments. The government had placed a similar restriction in 1999 but lifted the ban in 2011 by approving an initial intake of 300,000 workers.[32]

BurmaRepublic of the Union of MyanmarSee BangladeshBurma relations

Bilateral ties with Myanmar are good, despite occasional border strains and an influx of more than 270,000 Muslim refugees (known as "Rohingya") from predominantly Buddhist Burma. As a result of bilateral discussions, and with the cooperation and assistance of the UNHCR, most of the Rohingya refugees have now returned to Burma[citation needed]. As of 2000, about 22,000 refugees remain in camps in southern Bangladesh.

At the 2008 ASEAN Regional forum summit in Singapore, Bangladesh and Myanmar have pledged to solve their maritime boundary disputes as quickly as possible especially that a UN deadline in claiming maritime territories will expire in three years time.[33]Both countries discussed the possibility of linking the two countries together in an attempt to boost their trade and commerce relations. The estimate to complete the 25km highway is three years and at the cost of $20 million. Another aspect of this plan is to connect the highway to the Asian Superhighway which would connect the two countries to China.[34]

PhilippinesRepublic of the PhilippinesSee Bangladesh-Philippines relations

Bangladesh and the Philippines have had a very close and friendly relations since the birth of Bangladesh. The Philippines supported the liberation of Bangladesh and recognized it on February 24, 1972. The Philippine Ambassador to the United Nations spoke in favor of the nation during its liberation struggle and also during Bangladeshs admission to the United Nations in 1974.

SingaporeRepublic of SingaporeSee Bangladesh-Singapore relations

The two nations are founders of the Asian Union. A sizable number of Bangladeshi migrant workers are currently working in labor-intensive jobs in Singapore.

East AsiaCountryCountry (Official Name)Formal Relations BeganNotes

JapanJapanSee Bangladesh-Japan relations and Bangladeshis in Japan

Bangladeshi-Japanese relations were established in February 1972.[35] Japan is Bangladesh's 11th-largest export market; imports from Bangladesh make up 26% of all Japanese imports from the least developed countries, second only to those from Cambodia. Common imports from Bangladesh to Japan include leather goods, ready-made garments, and shrimp.[36] By 2004, Japan had become Bangladesh's fourth-largest source of foreign direct investment, behind the United States, United Kingdom, and Malaysia. Japan's political goals in its relationship with Bangladesh include gaining support for their bid to join the United Nations Security Council, and securing markets for their finished goods. Japan is a significant source of development aid to Bangladesh.[37]

ChinaPeople's Republic of ChinaSee BangladeshPeople's Republic of China relations

Early relations with the People's Republic of China were cold due to the rare use of China's veto at the United Nations Security Council to block Bangladesh's accession to the United Nations. Lately however China has made efforts to improve relations with many of its neighbors. Trade with China reached a record level in 2006 of $3.2 billion under the auspices of the Asia-Pacific Trade Agreement (AFTA). The trade balance between the two countries are in China's favour. China has also officially agreed to helping Bangladesh on developing their nuclear power plant. Bangladesh has also signed the Apsco convention with six other nations to form a pact with China on space exploration.[42]

Central AsiaCountryCountry (Official Name)Formal Relations BeganNotes

Western Asia (Middle East)

Main article: Bangladeshis in the Middle EastDuring the Bangladesh Liberation War, the majority of conservative Arab nations were against Bangladeshi liberation because India- a non-Muslim nation was supporting break up of a Muslim country (Pakistan). Although interestingly enough non-Arab Muslim nations such as Indonesia and Turkey established relations quickly. In the present, Bangladesh maintains relations to the Middle East through many areas such as commerce, history, military and most importantly religious ties which enabled the two to cooperate more easily then compared to their Western or Far Eastern partners. Bangladesh supplies over 1 million guest workers to Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Kuwait and other Gulf countries. In turn most of Bangladesh's oil is imported from this region.[44] Islamic countries and charities provide economic aid usually to advance the Islamic agenda, including funding mosques and madrassas.

During the Yom Kippur War, Bangladesh supported the Arabs and Palestinians and sent a medical team and relief supply which was appreciated. In return they enabled Bangladesh to become a member of NAM at the Algiers Summit in 1973 and pressured Pakistan into recognising Bangladesh in order to get Mujib to go to the 1974 OIC Summit in Lahore, as he stated that was his only condition.

Bangladesh also took active part in trying to broker a ceasefire between Iran and Iraq during their eight-year war as a member of the United Nations Security Council and participating in the UNIIMOG mission which they became Acting Head of in the last few years before withdrawal. It later helped them to be elected into the OIC Peace Committee.

Bangladesh strongly opposed the Israeli bombardment of South Lebanon which killed approximately 1,191 civilians and described it as "State Terrorism" and a double standard conflict going into detail that a non-western nation would have been labelled a terrorist and a western nation would have never been deemed a terrorist.[45] They also temporarily contributed to the peacekeeping effort after the 2006 Lebanon War by sending in battalions of infantry. [46]CountryCountry (Official Name)Formal Relations BeganNotes

BahrainKingdom of BahrainSee Bahrain-Bangladesh relations

IraqRepublic of IraqSee Bangladesh-Iraq relations

Iraq became the first Arab nation to recognise the independence of Bangladesh.[47] Bangladesh and Iraq have missions located in Baghdad and Dhaka, although Iraq closed theirs down after the Iraq War began[48] but has expressed interest in reopening since 2011.[49]Bangladesh and Iraq's ties are primarily based on common faith but there has not been much progression into areas such as trade and investment. Between 1980 and 1986, Iraq sent five officers to study in Bangladesh's military academy in Dhaka.[50] The only notable visit between the two nations was Saddam Hussein's visit to Bangladesh in 1988. The height of Bangladesh-Iraq relations was during the 1980s due to Bangladesh's role in trying to call for a ceasefire between Iraq and Iran during their war and was a part of UNIIMOG. Relations quickly deteriorated after Iraq invaded Kuwait sparking the Gulf War and a huge rise in oil prices. Bangladesh responded to the UN resolution demanding Iraq withdraw by the deadline or face military action. Bangladesh's other reasons for participation was because of the Bangladeshi community in Kuwait who some work on oil rigs and Kuwait is Bangladesh's oil supplier. Compared to Iraq's relation to its neighbours and the West, their relations with Bangladesh were considered satisfactory and this was displayed by deploying two engineer battalions rather than infantries to directly engage Iraqi troops.

Relations between Baghdad and Dhaka would later improve after the US invasion of Iraq in 2003 when Bangladesh declined to send troops to Iraq despite America's persistence and stating that the UN should have had a primary role in solving the matter before the war.[51]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Bangladesh" \l "cite_note-52" [52] Currently they want a complete withdrawal from Iraq and has expressed support for reconstruction efforts. The public in Bangladesh have repeatedly held large demonstrations against the war.[53]

IranIslamic Republic of IranSee Bangladesh-Iran relations

Immediately after the independence of Bangladesh, many non-Arab nations quickly recognised the new country. However, due to the strong pro-US attitude of the Shah and helping to transport weapons to West Pakistan during the Bangladesh Liberation War. Iran, however, established diplomatic relations with independent Bangladesh in early 1972. A turning point in relations was during the Iraq-Iran War when Bangladesh as a UN Security Council member tried to broker a ceasefire between the nations and settle their disputes with dialogue. Eventually, Bangladesh would participate in UNIIMOG mission to observe that agreements such as a ceasefire had been honoured.

This article is outdated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (December 2013)In 1995, Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani became the first President of Iran to visit Bangladesh. The current president, Hassan Rouhani is looking to strengthen relations with countries in South Asia such as Bangladesh by increasing Iranian investment like building oil refineries. In return, Bangladesh is supporting Iran's rights to its Nuclear Program for Peaceful Purposes. In 2006, both countries signed a preferential trade accord which removes non-tariff barriers, hoping to take it further to a free trade agreement[54] and in 2007, Bangladesh has requested Iranian assistance on building its nuclear power plant and to import raw fish.[55]Both countries are members of Developing 8 Countries, OIC, Like Minded Group. They have generally similar views on world issues especially on the occupation of Palestine.

PalestinePalestineSee Bangladesh-Palestine relations

Relations between Bangladesh and Palestine are considered to be warm and cordial as Bangladesh advocates for an independent Palestinian state and an end to 'Israeli' occupation. Bangladesh is one of the 135 countries to recognise Palestine as a state since the Palestinian Declaration of Independence on November 15, 1988. The first high-level meeting between the two was in 1974 at the second OIC summit in Lahore, Pakistan between Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and Yasser Arafat. Since then there have been high level contact such as Yasser Arafat's visits in 1981 and 1987 who was warmly received by both former presidents Ziaur Rahman and Hossain Mohammad Ershad with favourable media coverage. Later when democracy returned to Bangladesh, Arafat was also received warmly by Prime Ministers Khaleda Zia[56] and Sheikh Hasina. There is a wide public support for an independent Palestine as the Government had reported in 1987 that 8,000 had volunteered for the PLO although there had never been any official moves to send weapons or personnel.[57] However, it has been reported that some Bangladeshis have travelled to Lebanon to join Palestinian battles against Israel. Since the 1980s, under IMET (International Military Education and Training) there have been development of military ties between the PLO and Bangladesh with the former attending one year courses at the Bangladesh Military Academy near Chittagong.[58] Palestine are represented in Bangladesh by the Embassy of the State of Palestine that has been established in Dhaka. Bangladesh also provided material help to establish the diplomatic mission.[59]

Saudi ArabiaKingdom of Saudi ArabiaSee Bangladesh-Saudi Arabia relations

Early relations between Riyadh and Dhaka where somewhat dormant owing to the former capital's country's close bond with Bangladesh's historical provider, Pakistan. From mid-1970s onward Bangladesh was seeking closer ties with oil rich Arab states such as Saudi Arabia. After the 1982 coup by Ershad, he visited Riyadh to meet with the King. Nine months later a ten member delegation of the Saudi military arrived in Bangladesh to discuss possible military ties and inspect its facilities. There was a rumour persisting amongst the press that the Saudis were considering to station a division of the Bangladesh army in the Kingdom (15,000 personnel). It was reported as a proposal by Ziaur Rahman although both governments deny this, the rumour continued into Ershad's rule.[58] Since 1981, Saudi Arabia has sent 77 officers to the Defense Services Command & Staff College in Dhaka, which is the college's largest number of overseas graduates from a single nation.[60]Bangladesh is seeking to increase economic ties with Saudi Arabia in order to reduce the trade deficit currently in the Kingdom's favour. One of their proposals is to export ceramics, leather and pharmaceutical products to the Kingdom as they are already doing with the western nations.[61]

AfricaBangladesh's presence in Africa is mostly due to their large contribution to the peacekeeping forces present around the continent such as Liberia, Sierra Leone, Ivory Coast, Sudan (Darfur) and Somalia. Bangladesh can foster ties based on its history such as nations in Southeast Africa where there is a South Asian population (whose ancestors immigrated there during the British Empire). In countries such as Ivory Coast and Sierra Leone, Bangladeshi peacekeepers have been honoured. In Sierra Leone, Bengali have been declared a state language.[62] It is currently trying to increase ties with the southern economic bloc in Southern Africa with nations such as Zimbabwe.[63]CountryCountry (Official Name)Formal Relations BeganNotes

South AfricaRepublic of South AfricaSee Bangladesh-South Africa relations

Relations began during the inauguration of Nelson Mandela in 1994, and full diplomatic relations were implemented on 10 September 1994.

Due to the brutality and the White Supremacist ideology of the Apartheid regime, relations between South Africa and Bangladesh were non-existent until the collapse of white minority rule and Nelson Mandela's rise to power. There is a number of Bangladeshis which make up the South Asian community in South Africa and immigration still continues, although it has temporarily halted due to attacks against foreign workers.

Bangladesh exports its raw materials such as leather, finished jute and also garments and textiles. South Africa exports to Bangladesh are iron ore, steel, aluminium, infrastructure projects and machinery and equipment for railways.

CountryCountry (Official Name)Formal Relations BeganNotes

AustraliaCommonwealth of AustraliaSee Australia-Bangladesh relations

Australia and Bangladesh enjoy good relations since Australia was the first western nation and the fourth in the world to recognise Bangladesh opening its embassy in Dhaka in 1972. There is also a Bangladeshi community present in the country.

EuropeEuropean countries, particularly from Scandinavia, provide significant economic assistance to Bangladesh.

European UnionMain article: Bangladesh-European Union relations

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh" \o "Bangladesh"

INCLUDEPICTURE "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg.png" \* MERGEFORMATINET

Bangladesh's relations with the European Union and its member states remained a priority area in the foreign policy context. A number of achievements were made in the economic field during that brief period. At present EU is the top export destination of Bangladesh's products (48% of the total product). The International Jute Study Groupwhich comprises the EU, Bangladesh, and Indiais established in Dhaka. Bangladesh successfully participated in World Apparel Fair, European Seafood Exposition, Bangladesh Trade Show in Moscow and Kiev.

CountryCountry (Official Name)Formal Relations BeganNotes

DenmarkKingdom of DenmarkSee Bangladesh-Denmark relations

Denmark have an embassy in Dhaka. Bangladesh is represented through its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden. Bangladesh has been part of the Danish development assistance since its independence in 1971. Danish development helps Bangladesh with transport, water transport, agriculture, fisheries and rural development.

Denmark supports Human Rights and Civil Society in Bangladesh. In 1975, an agreement on boat building and mechanization was signed. In 1978, both countries signed an agreement on a fish marketing scheme.

FranceFrench RepublicSee Bangladesh-France relations

France and Bangladesh share an amicable relationship. In 1991, France cancelled Bangladesh's public debt (FRF 598M) as a gesture of goodwill. Trade between the two remains in Bangladesh's favour with France being its fourth biggest customer in 2005 (5.9% of Bangladeshi exports). France has many direct investments in the country such as the Lafarge cement plant[74] in Chatak and has recently shown interest in aiding Bangladesh with the development of a nuclear power plant for civilian purposes.

GermanyFederal Republic of GermanySee Bangladesh-Germanyrelations

After the independence of Bangladesh in 1971, East Germany was the third country in the world, and the first country in Europe, to officially recognise Bangladesh in 1972.[75] Bangladesh also warmly greeted German reunification. As an economic power as well as an important member of the European Union (EU), Germany is a reliable partner of Bangladesh in development cooperation. Since independence, German churches and numerous non-governmental organisations (NGOs) made tremendous efforts to promote the social and economic development of Bangladesh. German assistance to Bangladesh is received in the form of development efforts, trade and cultural cooperation. Both countries have a long and successful bilateral relationship on most international issues. Germany always emphasises the democratic characteristics, governance issues and development process of Bangladesh.

After establishment of diplomatic relations, the bilateral relations between the two countries began to grow steadily. Between the start of development cooperation in 1972 and the end of 2005, Bangladesh received approximately 2.3 billion in commitments from Germany as part of bilateral financial and technical cooperation, in addition of the funds provided by the German churches and NGOs. At an intergovernmental negotiation in 2005, Bangladesh received 14 million in new commitments from Germany. Since 1978, all German funds provided as part of government level cooperation have been in the form of non-repayable grants.

Bangladesh is a priority partner country of German Development Cooperation (GTZ). By an agreement between both the government adopted in May 2004, the activities of the GTZ focus on three priority areas such as healthcare including family planning, economic reform and development of the market system through promotion of private sector, especially small and medium enterprises (SMEs), and renewable energies. Among the other ongoing projects the promotion of legal and social empowerment of women in Bangladesh is also to be mentioned. The sustainable economic development programme of GTZ in Bangladesh contributes to the competitiveness of the ready-made garments (RMG) sector, as well as other export-oriented sectors like silk, leather and jute.

In trade with Germany, Bangladesh has for years recorded a large surplus. Germany is the second largest export market of Bangladesh after the US. Bangladesh exports in Germany in 2006 amounted to 1.56 billion as compared with Bangladesh imports in the same period of only 305 million. About 94% of the exports from Bangladesh to Germany are RMGs and Bangladesh imports mainly comprising machinery, chemical and electrical goods, and medicines. A German-Bangladeshi investment promotion and protection agreement has been in force since 1986 and a bilateral double taxation accord since 1993. So far German direct investments in Bangladesh are almost 60 million. The Bangladesh-German Chamber of Commerce and Industry (BGCCI) acts as a business platform and mediator between both the countries.

The cultural relationship of both the countries is very strong. The cultural cooperation between them is mainly channeled through the Goethe Institute that work on developing the cultural ties between both the countries by sponsoring local and German cultural activities. Bangladesh has traditional and historical connection with Germany. There is a century-old exchange between German and Bengali people. German interest in the culture of Bengal dates back to the visits to Germany by the Bengali national poet and Nobel laureate for literature Rabindranath Tagore in the 1920s and 1930s. Many Bangladeshi intellectuals take a keen and informed interest in German literature, art, architecture and philosophy. In Bangladesh Goethe Institute is the main meeting place for all those interested in Germany.

Goethe-Institute Dhaka with headquarters in Munich offers a broad variety of cultural events to present the German culture in Bangladesh through its main activities by film-workshops, film-presentations, seminars and lectures on socio-political subjects as well as on aspects on contemporary arts, theatre performances, and exhibitions of German and Bangladeshi artists.

Bangladesh has traditional and historical connection with Germany, and both the countries enjoy closest ties. There are increasing contracts amongst German and Bangladeshi artists, primarily in the fine arts, photography/film and theatre. Bangladeshi artists have been able to exhibit in German galleries and museums. A number of visual artists from Bangladesh have also made Germany their new home. Germany continues to promote the restoration of historical monuments, archaeological research and the unique legacy of the Bengali catamarans. Since 1981, a cooperation agreement has been in place between Radio Bangladesh and Deutsche Welle (DW).

The bilateral commercial and trade interests of both the countries are continuing, although there is considerable scope for greater engagement. Bilateral relations got some momentum by several high level visits, contracts, and political and economic dialogue. In December 2000, the then head of the government of Bangladesh officially visited Germany. In February 2004, a German nine-member parliamentary delegation also visited Bangladesh.

Both Germany and Bangladesh share common views on various international issues and work together in the UN and in other international forum. They have maintained and developed close and friendly relations in a wide range of field. The two countries are harmonized together by their commitment to various sectors mutually agreed upon, which is expected to be strengthened further in future.

GreeceHellenic RepublicSee Bangladesh-Greece relations

ItalyItalian RepublicSee BangladeshItaly relations

Relations between two countries have been wonderful. Bangladesh is a huge import market for Italy. Italy has an embassy in Dhaka. Bangladesh has an Embassy in Rome. Relations have been warm. Italy is one of the biggest export partner of Bangladesh.

United KingdomUnited Kingdom of Great Britain & Northern Ireland (UK)See BangladeshUnited Kingdom relations and British Bangladeshi

The ties between Britain and Bangladesh date back to the British Raj. During the Bangladesh Liberation War Britain offered shelter to diplomats and people who escaped the conflict. The government, politicians and the media were also critical of the atrocities and shown empathy for the Mukti Bahini. On February 4, 1972 Britain recognised Bangladesh, this eventually led to recognition from other European and Commonwealth nations and Bangladesh's induction into the Commonwealth on April 18, 1972. Britain holds the largest Bangladeshi diaspora in the western world, now numbered at around 500,000, most of them can trace their ties to the region of Sylhet. Britain also holds the largest open air Asian festival in Europe called Baishakhi Mela, a Bangladeshi event held in London.

There has been numerous delegation visits since Foreign Secretary Sir Alec Douglas-Home visited Bangladesh in June 1972. The first visit by a prime minister was James Callaghan in 1978. Other prime ministers who had visited Bangladesh are John Major in a 3-day visit between 1012 January 1997 and Tony Blair in 2002. Presidents and Prime Ministers of Bangladesh such as Sheikh Mujib, Ziaur Rahman and Fakhruddin Ahmed have visited the UK.

In March 2008, Fakhruddin Ahmed had visited Number 10 to discuss increasing British investment and cooperation in defence and trade, especially on counter-terrorism and duty-free access for LDCs.[77] Britain is the largest foreign investor in Bangladesh and the third biggest export destination for Bangladeshi goods after USA and Germany.

At the 7th ISS Asia Security Summit (also known as Shangri-La Dialogue) in Singapore, Bangladesh's Foreign advisor Iftekhar Ahmed Chowdhury met with UK's Defence Minister Des Browne at the sidelines to discuss security and defense relations between the two countries. Browne says he hoped that Bangladesh's modernising values can reach the Bangladeshi diaspora in the UK.[78]

North AmericaCountryCountry (Official Name)Formal Relations BeganNotes

CanadaCanadaSee Bangladesh-Canada Relation and Bangladeshi Canadian

Relations between the two countries are positive and there are approximately 24,595 Canadians of Bangladeshi origin living in Canada.

United StatesUnited States of America4 April 1972See Bangladesh-United States relations and Bangladeshi American

The United States is an aid donor to Bangladesh. It provides assistance during natural calamities. In the post 9/11 scenario, American policy-makers expressed support for moderation in Bangladesh. The US State Department voiced support for free elections before 2008 ends. Approximately 150,000 citizens are of Bangladeshi origin with the majority in professional jobs.

Bangladesh has an embassy in Washington, DC and has consulates-general in Los Angeles and New York City.[81] United States has an embassy in Dhaka.[82]

South AmericaCountryCountry (Official Name)Formal Relations BeganNotes

ArgentinaArgentine RepublicSee ArgentinaBangladesh relations

BrazilFederative Republic of BrazilSee Bangladesh-Brazil relations

Bangladesh's only embassy in South America is located in Brazil. Trade is the primary part of their relations exporting raw materials such as metals from its open mines and importing pharmaceutical products from Bangladesh.[citation needed]

Disputes - international

India

6.5km of the border between India and Bangladesh remains to be demarcated.

Ongoing discussions with Bangladesh to exchange 162 minuscule enclaves between the two.

Maritime boundary dispute.

Pakistan

Pre-1971 resource distribution.

Relocating Bihari Paksitanis who are left behind since 1971.

Apologizing for 1971 massacre.

Syrian Civil War

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"War in Syria" redirects here. For other wars in Syria, see Syrian War (disambiguation).

The Syrian Civil War (Arabic: ) also (Arabic: The Syrian Crisis), also known as the Syrian Uprising, is an ongoing armed conflict taking place in Syria. The unrest began in the early spring of 2011 within the context of Arab Spring protests, with nationwide protests against President Bashar al-Assad's government, whose forces responded with violent crackdowns. The conflict gradually morphed from prominent protests to an armed rebellion after months of military sieges.[67]The armed opposition consists of various groups that were formed during the course of the conflict, primarily the Free Syrian Army, which was the first to take up arms in 2011, and the Islamic Front formed in 2013. In 2013, Hezbollah entered the war in support of the Syrian army.[68]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" \l "cite_note-AlNusraDaraa-69" [69] In the east, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), a jihadist militant group originating from Iraq, made rapid military gains in both Syria and Iraq, eventually conflicting with the other rebels. In July 2014, ISIL controlled a third of Syria's territory and most of its oil and gas production, thus establishing itself as the major opposition force.[70]By July 2013, the Syrian government was in control of approximately 3040% of the country's territory and 60% of the Syrian population.[71] A United Nations report in late 2012 described the conflict as being "overtly sectarian in nature", between mostly Alawite government forces, militias and other Shia groups[72] fighting largely against Sunni-dominated rebel groups,[73]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" \l "cite_note-UNSectarian-74" [74] although both opposition and government forces have denied it.[75]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" \l "cite_note-76" [76] Due to foreign involvement this conflict has been called a proxy war.[77]As of January 2015 the death toll had risen above 220,000.[78] International organizations have accused the Syrian government, ISIS and other opposition forces of severe human rights violations, with many massacres occurring.[79]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" \l "cite_note-80" [80]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" \l "cite_note-theguardian.com-81" [81]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" \l "cite_note-UN-20120524-82" [82]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" \l "cite_note-83" [83] Chemical weapons have been used many times during the conflict as well.[84] The Syrian government is reportedly responsible for the majority of civilian casualties, often through bombings.[79]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" \l "cite_note-theguardian.com-81" [81]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" \l "cite_note-85" [85] In addition, tens of thousands of protesters and activists have been imprisoned and there are reports of torture in state prisons.[86]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" \l "cite_note-87" [87]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" \l "cite_note-88" [88]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" \l "cite_note-89" [89]The severity of the humanitarian disaster in Syria has been outlined by the UN and many international organizations. More than 6.5 million Syrians have been displaced, approaching 4 million Syrians have fled the country to countries such as Turkey, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq, and Egypt and become refugees, and millions more have been left in poor living conditions with shortages of food and drinking water. Additionally, in the territories controlled by the government, the population has to suffer many hardships: from severe scarcity of electricity, to a critical economic situation (e.g. the prices have skyrocketed due to the collapse of the Syrian pound, leading, as well, to a critical rise in unemployment), to control of the population movements through security checkpoints. The latter is also utilized by the regime to arrest, execute or torture to death whoever is deemed sympathizer of the opposition groups or is planning to leave the country in order not to join the regime's army.[90] At the end of August 2014, 35,000 refugees were awaiting registration, while estimates of several hundred thousand more were not included in official figures as they were unregistered.

Syrian Civil War

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"War in Syria" redirects here. For other wars in Syria, see Syrian War (disambiguation).

The Syrian Civil War (Arabic: ) also (Arabic: The Syrian Crisis), also known as the Syrian Uprising, is an ongoing armed conflict taking place in Syria. The unrest began in the early spring of 2011 within the context of Arab Spring protests, with nationwide protests against President Bashar al-Assad's government, whose forces responded with violent crackdowns. The conflict gradually morphed from prominent protests to an armed rebellion after months of military sieges.[67]The armed opposition consists of various groups that were formed during the course of the conflict, primarily the Free Syrian Army, which was the first to take up arms in 2011, and the Islamic Front formed in 2013. In 2013, Hezbollah entered the war in support of the Syrian army.[68]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" \l "cite_note-AlNusraDaraa-69" [69] In the east, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), a jihadist militant group originating from Iraq, made rapid military gains in both Syria and Iraq, eventually conflicting with the other rebels. In July 2014, ISIL controlled a third of Syria's territory and most of its oil and gas production, thus establishing itself as the major opposition force.[70]By July 2013, the Syrian government was in control of approximately 3040% of the country's territory and 60% of the Syrian population.[71] A United Nations report in late 2012 described the conflict as being "overtly sectarian in nature", between mostly Alawite government forces, militias and other Shia groups[72] fighting largely against Sunni-dominated rebel groups,[73]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" \l "cite_note-UNSectarian-74" [74] although both opposition and government forces have denied it.[75]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" \l "cite_note-76" [76] Due to foreign involvement this conflict has been called a proxy war.[77]As of January 2015 the death toll had risen above 220,000.[78] International organizations have accused the Syrian government, ISIS and other opposition forces of severe human rights violations, with many massacres occurring.[79]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" \l "cite_note-80" [80]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" \l "cite_note-theguardian.com-81" [81]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" \l "cite_note-UN-20120524-82" [82]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" \l "cite_note-83" [83] Chemical weapons have been used many times during the conflict as well.[84] The Syrian government is reportedly responsible for the majority of civilian casualties, often through bombings.[79]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" \l "cite_note-theguardian.com-81" [81]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" \l "cite_note-85" [85] In addition, tens of thousands of protesters and activists have been imprisoned and there are reports of torture in state prisons.[86]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" \l "cite_note-87" [87]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" \l "cite_note-88" [88]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" \l "cite_note-89" [89]The severity of the humanitarian disaster in Syria has been outlined by the UN and many international organizations. More than 6.5 million Syrians have been displaced, approaching 4 million Syrians have fled the country to countries such as Turkey, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq, and Egypt and become refugees, and millions more have been left in poor living conditions with shortages of food and drinking water. Additionally, in the territories controlled by the government, the population has to suffer many hardships: from severe scarcity of electricity, to a critical economic situation (e.g. the prices have skyrocketed due to the collapse of the Syrian pound, leading, as well, to a critical rise in unemployment), to control of the population movements through security checkpoints. The latter is also utilized by the regime to arrest, execute or torture to death whoever is deemed sympathizer of the opposition groups or is planning to leave the country in order not to join the regime's army.[90] At the end of August 2014, 35,000 refugees were awaiting registration, while estimates of several hundred thousand more were not included in official figures as they were unregistered.

Wall Street

The New York Stock Exchange on Wall Street, the world's largest stock exchange per total market capitalization of its listed companies.[1]Wall Street is a 0.7-mile-long (1.1km) street running eight blocks, roughly northwest to southeast, from Broadway to South Street on the East River in Lower Manhattan in the Financial District of New York City.[2] Over time, the term has become a metonym for the financial markets of the United States as a whole, the American financial sector (even if financial firms are not physically located there), or signifying New York-based financial interests.[3] Anchored by Wall Street, New York City has been called both the most economically powerful city and the leading financial center of the world,[4]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wall_Street" \l "cite_note-WorldEconomicAndFinancialSuperCenter-5" [5]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wall_Street" \l "cite_note-6" [6]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wall_Street" \l "cite_note-7" [7]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wall_Street" \l "cite_note-8" [8] and the city is home to the world's two largest stock exchanges by total market capitalization, the New York Stock Exchange and NASDAQ.[9]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wall_Street" \l "cite_note-NYSEhighestcap-1" [1] Several other major exchanges have or had headquarters in the Wall Street area, including the New York Mercantile Exchange, the New York Board of Trade, and the former American Stock Exchange.

Tariff- A tariff is a tax on imports or exports (an international trade tariff). In other languages and very occasionally in English, "tariff" or its equivalent may also be used to describe any list of prices (electrical tariff, etc.).

A value-added tax (VAT) or also General Sales tax (GST) is a form of consumption tax. From the perspective of the buyer, it is a tax on the purchase price. From that of the seller, it is a tax only on the value added to a product, material, or service, from an accounting point of view, by this stage of its manufacture or distribution. The manufacturer remits to the government the difference between these two amounts, and retains the rest for themselves to offset the taxes they had previously paid on the inputs.The purpose of VAT is to generate tax revenues to the government similar to the corporate income tax or the personal income tax.The value added to a product by or with a business is the sale price charged to its customer, minus the cost of materials and other taxable inputs. A VAT is like a sales tax in that ultimately only the end consumer is taxed. It differs from the sales tax in that, with the latter, the tax is collected and remitted to the government only once, at the point of purchase by the end consumer. With the VAT, collections, remittances to the government, and credits for taxes already paid occur each time a business in the supply chain purchases products.

SAARC Preferential Trading Arrangement (SAPTA)

In December 1991, the Sixth Summit held in Colombo approved the establishment of an Inter-Governmental Group (IGG) to formulate an agreement to establish a SAARC Preferential Trading Arrangement (SAPTA) by 1997. Given the consensus within SAARC, the Agreement on SAPTAwas signed on 11 April 1993 and entered into force on 7 December 1995 well in advance of the date stipulated by the Colombo Summit. The Agreement reflected the desire of the Member States to promote and sustain mutual trade and economic cooperation within the SAARC region through the exchange of concessions.

South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation

The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) is an economic and geopolitical organisation of eight countries that are primarily located in South Asia.[12] The SAARC Secretariat is based in Kathmandu, Nepal.[13] The combined economy of SAARC is the 3rd largest in the world in the terms of GDP(PPP) after the United States and China and 5th largest in the terms of nominal GDP. SAARC nations comprise 3% of the world's area and contain 21% (around 1.7 billion) of the world's total population and around 9.12% of Global economy as of 2015. India makes up over 70% of the area and population among these eight nations. All non-Indian member states except Afghanistan share borders with India but only two other members, Pakistan and Afghanistan, have a border with each other. During 2005-10, the average GDP growth rate of SAARC stood at an impressive 8.8% p.a., but it slowed to 6.5% in 2011 largely because of economic slowdown in India, which accounts for nearly 80% of SAARC's economy.But Driven by a strong expansion in India, coupled with favorable oil prices,from the last quarter of 2014 South Asia become the fastest-growing region in the world[14].The idea of regional political and economical cooperation in South Asia was first raised in 2 May 1980 by Bangladesh President Ziaur Rahman and the first summit was held in Dhaka on 8 December 1985, when the organisation was established by the governments of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.[15]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asian_Association_for_Regional_Cooperation" \l "cite_note-SAARC_Summit_press.2C_1st_Summit-16" [16] Since then the organisation has expanded by accepting one new full member, Afghanistan,[17] and several observer members.[15]The SAARC policies aim to promote welfare economics, collective self-reliance among the countries of South Asia, and to accelerate socio-cultural development in the region.[18] The SAARC has developed external relations by establishing permanent diplomatic relations with the EU, the UN (as an observer), and other multilateral entities.[18] The official meetings of the leaders of each nation are held annually whilst the foreign ministers meet twice annually.[18] The 18th SAARC Summit was held in Kathmandu from 2627 November 2014.

Order of precedence

An order of precedence is a sequential hierarchy of nominal importance of items. Most often it is used in the context of people by many organizations and governments, for very formal and state occasions, especially where diplomats are present. It can also be used in the context of decorations, medals and awards. Historically, the order of precedence had a more widespread use, especially in court and aristocratic life.

One's position in an order of precedence is not necessarily an indication of functional importance, but rather an indication of ceremonial or historical relevance; for instance, it may dictate where dignitaries are seated at formal dinners. The term is occasionally used to mean the order of succession to determine who replaces the head of state in the event he or she is removed from office or incapacitated.

What follows are the general orders of precedence for different countries for state purposes, such as diplomatic dinners, and are made under the assumption that such functions are held in the capital. When they are held in another city or region, local officials such as governors would be much higher up the order. There may also be more specific and local orders of precedence, for particular occasions or within particular institutions. Universities and the professions often have their own rules of precedence applying locally, based (for example) on university or professional rank, each rank then being ordered within itself on the basis of seniority (i.e. date of attaining that rank). Within an institution the officials of that institution are likely to rank much higher in the order than in a general order of precedence - the chancellor or president of a university may well precede anyone except a head of state for example. The same might be true for a mayor in his own city.

The Commonwealth of Nations, commonly known as the Commonwealth (formerly the British Commonwealth),[1] is an intergovernmental organisation of 53 member states[2] that were mostly territories of the former British Empire. The Commonwealth operates by intergovernmental consensus of the member states, organised through the Commonwealth Secretariat, and non-governmental organisations, organised through the Commonwealth Foundation.[3]The Commonwealth dates back to the mid 20th century with the decolonisation of the British Empire through increased self-governance of its territories. It was formally constituted by the London Declaration in 1949, which established the member states as "free and equal".[4] The symbol of this free association is Queen Elizabeth II who is the Head of the Commonwealth. The Queen is also the monarch of 16 members of the Commonwealth, known as Commonwealth realms. The other members of the Commonwealth have different persons as head of state: 32 members are republics and five members are monarchies with a different monarch.Member states have no legal obligation to one another. Instead, they are united by language, history, culture, and their shared values of democracy, human rights, and the rule of law.[3] These values are enshrined in the Commonwealth Charter and promoted by the quadrennial Commonwealth Games. On 3 October 2013, after 48 years of membership, Gambia became the most recent nation to withdraw from the Commonwealth.The Commonwealth covers more than 29,958,050km2 (11,566,870sqmi), almost a quarter of the world land area, and spans all the continents. With an estimated population of 2.328 billion, near a third of the world population,[7] the Commonwealth in 2014 produced a nominal gross domestic product (GDP) of $10.45 trillion, representing 17% of the gross world product when measured in purchasing power parity (PPP) and 14% of the gross world product when measured nominally.

The Group of Seven (G7, formerly G8) is a governmental forum of leading advanced economies in the world. It was originally formed by six leading industrial countries and subsequently extended with two additional members, one of which, Russia, is suspended.[1]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8" \l "cite_note-deljpn-2" [2]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8" \l "cite_note-3" [3]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8" \l "cite_note-4" [4] Since 2014, the G8 in effect comprises seven nations and the European Union as the eighth member.

The forum originated with a 1975 summit hosted by France that brought together representatives of six governments: France, West Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States, thus leading to the name Group of Six or G6. The summit became known as the Group of Seven or G7 in 1976 with the addition of Canada. The G7 is composed of the seven wealthiest developed countries on earth (by national net wealth or by GDP[5]), and it remained active even during the period of the G8. Russia was added to the group from 1998 to 2014, which then became known as the G8. The European Union was represented within the G8 since the 1980s but could not host or chair summits.[6] The 40th summit was the first time the European Union was able to host and chair a summit."G8" can refer to the member states in aggregate or to the annual summit meeting of the G8 heads of government. The former term, G6, is now frequently applied to the six most populous countries within the European Union. G8 ministers also meet throughout the year, such as the G7 finance ministers (who meet four times a year), G8 foreign ministers, or G8 environment ministers.Collectively, in 2012 the G8 nations composed 50.1 percent of 2012 global nominal GDP and 40.9 percent of global GDP (PPP). Each calendar year the responsibility of hosting the G8 is rotated through the member states in the following order: France, United States, United Kingdom, Russia, Germany, Japan, Italy, and Canada. The holder of the presidency sets the agenda, hosts the summit for that year, and determines which ministerial meetings will take place. Both France and the United Kingdom have expressed a desire to expand the group to include five developing countries, referred to as the Outreach Five (O5) or the Plus Five: Brazil (7th country in the world by nominal GDP,[5]) People's Republic of China (2nd country in the world by GDP,[5]) India (10th country in the world by GDP,[7]) Mexico, and South Africa. These countries have participated as guests in meetings that are sometimes called G8+5.With the G-20 major economies growing in stature since the 2008 Washington summit, world leaders from the group announced at their Pittsburgh summit on September 25, 2009, that the group would replace the G8 as the main economic council of wealthy nations.[8]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8" \l "cite_note-9" [9] Today, G8 meetings are held with the purpose of discussing global issues such as economic growth, crisis management, global security, energy, and terrorism without the governments of the developing nations, who have their own major forum (BRICS).[10]On March 24, 2014, the original G7 nations voted to, in effect, suspend Russia from the organization in response to the country's annexation of Crimea;[11]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8" \l "cite_note-12" [12]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8" \l "cite_note-13" [13] however, it was made clear that the suspension was temporary.[14] Later on, the Italian Foreign Affairs minister Federica Mogherini and other Italian authorities,[15]

HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8" \l "cite_note-16" [16] along with the EastWest Institute board member Wolfgang Ischinger,[17] suggested that Russia may restore its membership in the group, adding that the return to the G8 format depends on Moscow and on Russian actions.

The 6 Points:

The six points are noted as being: 1.The constitution should provide for a Federation of Pakistan in its true sense based on the parliamentary form of government with supremacy of a Legislature directly elected on the basis of universal adult franchise. 2.The federal government should deal with only two subjects: Defence and Foreign Affairs, and all other residual subjects should be vested in the federating states. 3.Two separate, but freely convertible currencies for two wings should be introduced; or if this is not feasible, there should be one currency for the whole country, but effective constitutional provisions should be introduced to stop the flight of capital from East to West Pakistan. Furthermore, a separate Banking Reserve should be established and separate fiscal and monetary policy be adopted for East Pakistan. 4.The power of taxation and revenue collection should be vested in the federating units and the federal centre would have no such power. The federation would be entitled to a share in the state taxes to meet its expenditures. 5.There should be two separate accounts for the foreign exchange earnings of the two wings; the foreign exchange requirements of the federal government should be met by the two wings equally or in a ratio to be fixed; indigenous products should move free of duty between the two wings, and the constitution should empower the units to establish trade links with foreign countries. 6.East Pakistan should have a separate militia or paramilitary force.

The Indemnity Act of Bangladesh was formulated to give immunity from legal action to the persons involved in the assassination of president Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. The assassination took place on August 15, 1975[1] As the parliament was not in session, the Act was promulgated on September 26, 1975, in the form of an Ordinance by president Khondaker Mostaq Ahmad, a close political associate of Sheikh Mujib and a cabinet Minister, who was made the president of the country following the killing of Sheikh Mujib. It was titled Indemnity Ordinance 1975, being Ordinance No. 50 of 1975. Later it was ratified by the Bangladesh Parliament in due course, when the parliament was constituted in 1979, and became an Act, that is, a formal statute, following the ratification. By dint of the 5th amendment to the constitution brought about in 9 July 1979, the Indeminity Act became enshrined in the Constitution of Bangladesh. After Awami League formed government with Sheikh Hasina Wazed, the daughter of Sheikh Mujib, as Prime Minister of Bangladesh, the Parliament scrapped the Indemnity Act on 12 November 1996.[2] This paved the way for the trial of the killers Sheikh Mujib. On February, 2010 the 5th amendment to the constitution was declared illegal by the High Court of Bangladesh. [3]HistoryThe university has a history that started in 1858 when Dhaka Brahma School was founded in 1858 by Dinanath Sen, Prabhaticharan Roy, Anathbandhu Mallik and Brajasundar Kaitra. The name Jagannath school was given by Kishorilal Chowdhury, the Zamindar of Baliati in Manikganj, who took over the school in 1872 and renamed it after his father. In 1884, it was raised to a second grade college. Law was one of the first courses introduced. A common management committee administered the school and college until 1887, when the school section was separated to form the independent Kishore Jubilee School. It is now known as K L Jubilee School. The administration of the college was transferred to a board of trustees in 1907. In the following year, it became a first grade college.

The college started with 48 students and in five years, the roll raised to 396. In 1910, Raja Manmath Roy Chowdhury, the zamindar of Santosh, Tangail, affiliated the Pramath-Manmath College of Tangail with Jagannath College. With the establishment of University of Dhaka in 1921, it stopped admission to degree courses and was renamed Jagannath Intermediate College. This status was changed after 28 years in 1949, when it reopened degree classes. The college was taken over by the government in 1968.

Jagannath College opened honours and masters programmes in 1975. That year the government once again took over the college and upgraded it into a postgraduate college. In 1982, the college closed its programmes at intermediate level. The college introduced evening shifts in 1992.

It was transformed into Jagannath University in 2005 by passing a bill named Jagannath University Act-2005 in the national parliament.

How the US Helped Create Al Qaeda and ISIS

by GARIKAI CHENGU

Much like Al Qaeda, the Islamic State (ISIS) is made-in-the-USA, an instrument of terror designed to divide and conquer the oil-rich Middle East and to counter Irans growing influence in the region.

The fact that the United States has a long and torrid history of backing terrorist groups will surprise only those who watch the news and ignore history.

The CIA first aligned itself with extremist Islam during the Cold War era. Back then, America saw the world in rather simple terms: on one side, the Soviet Union and Third World nationalism, which America regarded as a Soviet tool; on the other side, Western nations and militant political Islam, which America considered an ally in the struggle against the Soviet Union.

The director of the National Security Agency under Ronald Reagan, General William Odom recently remarked, by any measure the U.S. has long used terrorism. In 1978-79 the Senate was trying to pass a law against international terrorism in every version they produced, the lawyers said the U.S. would be in violation.

During the 1970s the CIA used the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt as a barrier, both to thwart Soviet expansion and prevent the spread of Marxist ideology among the Arab masses. The United States also openly supported Sarekat Islam against Sukarno in Indonesia, and supported the Jamaat-e-Islami terror group against Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto in Pakistan. Last but certainly not least, there is Al Qaeda.

Lest we forget, the CIA gave birth to Osama Bin Laden and breastfed his organization during the 1980s. Former British Foreign Secretary, Robin Cook, told the House of Commons that Al Qaeda was unquestionably a product of Western intelligence agencies. Mr. Cook explained that Al Qaeda, which literally means an abbreviation of the database in Arabic, was originally the computer database of the thousands of Islamist extremists, who were trained by the CIA and funded by the Saudis, in order to defeat the Russians in Afghanistan.

Americas relationship with Al Qaeda has always been a love-hate affair. Depending on whether a particular Al Qaeda terrorist group in a given region furthers American interests or not, the U.S. State Department either funds or aggressively targets that terrorist group. Even as American foreign policy makers claim to oppose Muslim extremism, they knowingly foment it as a weapon of foreign policy.

The Islamic State is its latest weapon that, much like Al Qaeda, is certainly backfiring. ISIS recently rose to international prominence after its thugs began beheading American journalists. Now the terrorist group controls an area the size of the United Kingdom.

In order to understand why the Islamic State has grown and flourished so quickly, one has to take a look at the organizations American-backed roots. The 2003 American invasion and occupation of Iraq created the pre-conditions for radical Sunni groups, like ISIS, to take root. America, rather unwisely, destroyed Saddam Husseins secular state machinery and replaced it with a predominantly Shiite administration. The U.S. occupation caused vast unemployment in Sunni areas, by rejecting socialism and closing down factories in the naive hope that the magical hand of the free market would create jobs. Under the new U.S.-backed Shiite regime, working class Sunnis lost hundreds of thousands of jobs. Unlike the white Afrikaners in South Africa, who were allowed to keep their wealth after regime change, upper class Sunnis were systematically dispossessed of their assets and lost their political influence. Rather than promoting religious integration and unity, American policy in Iraq exacerbated sectarian divisions and created a fertile breading ground for Sunni discontent, from which Al Qaeda in Iraq took root.

The Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) used to have a different name: Al Qaeda in Iraq. After 2010 the group rebranded and refocused its efforts on Syria.

There are essentially three wars being waged in Syria: one between the government and the rebels, another between Iran and Saudi Arabia, and yet another between America and Russia. It is this third, neo-Cold War battle that made U.S. foreign policy makers decide to take the risk of arming Islamist rebels in Syria, because Syrian President, Bashar al-Assad, is a key Russian ally. Rather embarrassingly, many of these Syrian rebels have now turned out to be ISIS thugs, who are openly brandishing American-made M16 Assault rifles.

Americas Middle East policy revolves around oil and Israel. The invasion of Iraq has partially satisfied Washingtons thirst for oil, but ongoing air strikes in Syria and economic sanctions on Iran have everything to do with Israel. The goal is to deprive Israels neighboring enemies, Lebanons Hezbollah and Palestines Hamas, of crucial Syrian and Iranian support.

ISIS is not merely an instrument of terror used by America to topple the Syrian government; it is also used to put pressure on Iran.

The last time Iran invaded another nation was in 1738. Since independence in 1776, the U.S. has been engaged in over 53 military invasions and expeditions. Despite what the Western medias war cries would have you believe, Iran is clearly not the threat to regional security, Washington is. An Intelligence Report published in 2012, endorsed by all sixteen U.S. intelligence agencies, confirms that Iran ended its nuclear weapons program in 2003. Truth is, any Iranian nuclear ambition, real or imagined, is as a result of American hostility towards Iran, and not the other way around. America is using ISIS in three ways: to attack its enemies in the Middle East, to serve as a pretext for U.S. military intervention abroad, and at home to foment a manufactured domestic threat, used to justify the unprecedented expansion of invasive domestic surveillance.

By rapidly increasing both government secrecy and surveillance, Mr. Obamas government is increasing its power to watch its citizens, while diminishing its citizens power to watch their government. Terrorism is an excuse to justify mass surveillance, in preparation for mass revolt.

The so-called War on Terror should be seen for what it really is: a pretext for maintaining a dangerously oversized U.S. military. The two most powerful groups in the U.S. foreign policy establishment are the Israel lobby, which directs U.S. Middle East policy, and the Military-Industrial-Complex, which profits from the former groups actions. Since George W. Bush declared the War on Terror in October 2001, it has cost the American taxpayer approximately 6.6 trillion dollars and thousands of fallen sons and daughters; but, the wars have also raked in billions of dollars for Washingtons military elite.

In fact, more than seventy American companies and individuals have won up to $27 billion in contracts for work in postwar Iraq and Afghanistan over the last three years, according to a recent study by the Center for Public Integrity. According to the study, nearly 75 per cent of these private companies had employees or board members, who either served in, or had close ties to, the executive branch of the Republican and Democratic administrations, members of Congress, or the highest levels of the military.

In 1997, a U.S. Department of Defense report stated, the data show a strong correlation between U.S. involvement abroad and an increase in terrorist attacks against the U.S. Truth is, the only way America can win the War On Terror is if it stops giving terrorists the motivation and the resources to attack America. Terrorism is the symptom; American imperialism in the Middle East is the cancer. Put simply, the War on Terror is terrorism; only, it is conducted on a much larger scale by people with jets and missiles.

Garikai Chengu is a research scholar at Harvard University.