nnualReport

q

Contents

Introduction Uby the Executive Director, James P. Grant 1

UNICEF 1981-1982: a review 3Highlights of the year's programme co-operation, includingtrends and key events, illustrated by specific programme profilesfrom different countries.

Progress in primary health care 5Profile: "Docs he think he's a doctor?"

(SOUTH YEMEN) •...-...., , . . 6Profile: "A kind of silence" (NEPAL) 8

Child Nutrition 9Profile: "Good and lawful food" (INDONESIA) 10Profile: "On breastfeeding* side" (BRAZIL) , , . 11

Water and sanitation 12Profile: "Pump maintenance by postcard" (INDIA) 13

Reaching children and women of the urban poor 14Profile: "Starting the ball rolling" (INDIA) 15

Formal and non-formal education 17Profile: "Sunrise at Endeber'1 (ETHIOPIA) 18Profile: "They know all the songs"

(DOMINICAN REPUBLIC) 19Women's activities 22Appropriate technology , . . . . . , . 23 - ^Emergency relief and rehabilitation 24 ^ J

Profile: "Re-opening among the ruins" (CHAD) 25 '""Map: UNICEF in action: programme commitments

in the developing world 20

The 1982 session of the Executive Board 27A summary of the decisions taken at the J9S2 session ofUNICEF's Executive Board on the future directwns in keyprogramme areas.

UNICEF's finances: income, commitments,and expenditure 1981-82 31

Chart: UNICEF income 1977-82 31Map: 1981 governmental contributions 32Table: 1981 non-govcrnmcntal contributions 34Chart: UNICEF income, by source 34Chart: UNICEF expenditures 1977-82 35Chart: UNICEF expenditures on programmes

by sector 1977-81 36

What UNICEF is and does 37An overview of UNICEF's philosophy, policies, methodsof programme co-operation, and supporting activities.

0

Introduction

? the Executive Director, JamesP. Grant

In the year covered by this AnnualReport UNICEF has been hard at wortpromoting basic services for childrenand their families in need in 111 coun-tries around the world. There are someeasy ways to measure what UNICEFachieves: last year, for example, morethan 300,000 institutions and centresreceived UNICEF equipment andsupplies; nearly 900,000 national per-sonnel received training or orientationwith UNICEF stipends; nearly 20million people benefited from waterand excreta disposal systems installedwith UNICEF assistance. These kindsof measurable results arc what the newSecretary-General of the United Na-tions, Mr. Javier Perez de Cuellar,meant when he said in his statement toour Executive Board on May 21, 1982:ivFor many millions of people,UNICEF is the first and possibly theonly hand of the United Nationswhich reaches directly into their cverv-daylives"

\ \ e yearly enumeration of the peo-ple and institutions we have touchedrepresents UNICEF's continuing real-ity. But in 1981 this reality was all themore remarkable in that this was a yearm which UNICEPs Executive B6ardhad to meet on three separate occa-sions to address the concurrent chal-lenges of emergency situations andbudget constraints.' We were com-pelled, several times, to reduce and re-vise the levels of authorized pro-gramme spending, feeling—as didgovernments of developing and indus-trialized countries alike—the full forceof global economic recession.

These difficulties notwithstanding,UNICEF's income for 1981 (Kam-puchea aside) rose by 10 per cent inreal terms over 1980, allowing pro-gramme expenditures to increase inreal terms by some six per cent. Here,too, is a reality of UNICEF: the factthat even in the most difficult times,people and governments are preparedto support UNICEF—and even to in-crease their support—because theyW y two truths about us: first, thatm Objects of UNICEF's attention arethose people—and essentially, thosechildren—who most need help, es-pecially in difficult times; and second.

that UNICEF will put donors' moneyto its best possible use.

There can be no argument aboutour protection of the first of thesetruths. But the second truth containsan ongoing challenge, which it is ourbusiness to live up to as yet anotherpart of our reality. It is the'business ofour Executive Board whenever itmeets; it is the business of UNICEF'ssecretariat throughout the year. Ob-taining a high level of benefit for chil-dren from each dollar investedthrough UNICEF, and raising thatlevel even higher, is a full-time concernfor all of us. We have intensified oursearch for ways to increase effective-ness and efficiency throughout ourorganization in order to maximize theapplication of our resources to theneeds of children.

Much of the past year's administra-tive activity could be characterized as"adjusting to reduced expectations",as was the case for most governmentsand, indeed, for most peopleUNICEF in 1981 "lost" some $40million in anticipated value of pledgedcontributions and its working re-serves, due to changes in exchangerates, and to the fact that several pro-jections of income did not materializeat the levels we had anticipated. Thisprevented us from expanding our ca-pacity in certain areas; it also requiredus to defer certain programmingcommitments.

Fortunately, subsequent develop-ments have allowed us to restore manyof the reductions, and prospects forthe net restoration of many othersseem good. The countries affected by

James P. Grant, UNICEF's ExecutiveDirector, visiting Nobel Laureate Mother

Teresa at the Sbishu Bhavan children'shome in Calcutta. Together they publicly

appealed for support for breastfeeding andbetter child nutrition.

tivencss of their deployment. Yet it is aquestion not of possibilities, but pri-orities, a matter of choice in whichboth reason and emotion arguoiprchildren. That is an argument v \UNICEF and its colleagues in Na-tional Committees for UNICEF andNGOs independently around theworld are determined to assert inevery forum open to us.

I would characterize the past year asone in which UNICEF, once again,proved its mettle. It was a year inwhich UNICEF staff, National Com-mittees for UNICEF, UNICEF con-tributors — both individuals anddonor governments, confronted witha situation of special need, provedboth compassionate and resourceful.In the midst of so much adversity, thecontinuing reality of UNICEF's effec-tiveness enabled us to weather thestorm and intensify our efforts onbehalf of children.

rather than decrease as had been pre-dicted only two years ago. And thesame FAO report which tells us howrelatively inexpensive it could be to re-duce hunger also reports that, on cur-rent trends, the number of hungry andmalnourished—mostly children andmothers—will increase by about 150million people by the end of the nextdecade.

these reductions have themselves re-sponded well to the adjustments re-quired of them. I am confident thatthe adjustments we were compelled tomake have now laid a healthy founda-tion for steady advance in the years

The adjustments which were re-quired in the past year would have hadfar more severe consequences tor chil-dren had it not been for the extraordi-nary response of donor countries toour difficult circumstances. Pledgesfor 1982 contributions to general re-sources exceed estimates by some $32million. In addition, several donorshave indicated the intention of con-tributing significantly to ""noted" pro-jects for about half of those countrieswhose programme plans funded bygeneral resources were reduced.UNICEF is deeply grateful to thosegovernments which have stepped for-ward so helpfully in this crisis.

Since UNICEF is a partnership ofgovernments and people working withgovernments and people, it would be aglaring omission if I failed to take notealso of the support which we have en-joyed in the past year from the non-governmental sector: our NationalCommittees for UNICEF, otherNGOs, and the public at large.

In previous years we have noted en-couraging trends and forecasts, such asthe statement by the World Bank thatinvestment in children can be amongthe best investments that any countrycan make. We hailed the incorporationof social development concerns withinthe International Development Strat-egy for the 1980s and beyond. Othersources have described how relativelyinexpensive successful attacks on hu-manity's more tragic "people prob-lems" could be. The World HealthOrganization tells us that merely $2.5billion could save the lives of two tothree million children through immu-nization; the Food and AgricultureOrganization reports that to bridgethe caloric gap the additional foodproduction needed is "almost minis-cule"; and the World Food Counciltells us that with an additional $4 bil-lion a year over the next 15 years itwould be possible to break the back oflarge-scale hunger and malnutrition.

But there have also been other pro-jections. The World Bank and aUnited Nations study now predictthat the number of people living inabsolute poverty is likely to increasethroughout this decade and the next.

Providing a safety netThese projections are the arithmetic ofsqualor and human degradation; theyarc about the conditions in which somany people live. Not for a generationhave expectations of world develop-ment, and hopes for an end to life-denying mass poverty, been at such alow ebb. The conviction growing sorapidly since the tragedy of World WarII—of which the establishment ofUNICEF was a part—that the bless-ings of this earth ought to be extendedto all its inhabitants is under chal-lenge. Ironically, the determination tomake that conviction a living reality—at least to provide a "safety net," toprotect the most vulnerable of theworld's children and their mothers—isincreasingly under challenge at thevery time that the means to accom-plish this are relatively ready to hand.

Devoting an additional amountequivalent to ten per cent or less of theexpenditures on arms to waging warfor human decency—a war which isnow being lost in many countries—could not only save the lives of mil-lions of children, but also give dignityand purpose to the lives of a billionmore. And we must fight this war onpoverty now because, if we fail, whathappens in future decades will com-pound and multiply that failure for fu-ture generations.

We cannot allow the largest genera-tion of children ever to occupy theearth to grow up malnourished, un-healthy and uneducated in order tobecome the parents of another genera-tion of malnourished, unhealthy anduneducated and more numerous chil-dren. Instead we must accord our chil-dren—and their future children—thepriority that the)' deserve.

A significant improvement in thelives of children by the end of this cen-tury will certainly require a significantincrease in resources and in the cftec-

1/U&James P. GrantExecutive Director

\

UNICEF1981-1982: a review

crease their assistance to other coun-tries. There was thus a levelling outin the scale of foreign aid contribu-tions, especially for projects in socialservices, a sector which is tradition-ally regarded as economically non-productive.

Third, and most important, theworldwide recession not only reducedthe resources available for governmentprogrammes which chiefly benefit thepoor, but it became even harder forthe poor to support themselves. Em-ployment opportunities, whether inindustry or agriculture, decreased al-most everywhere. As the earningpower of the poor declined, so did thestate of health and nutrition of themost vulnerable groups, the youngchildren and pregnant and nursingmothers who, predictably, were themost severely affected.

For the developing countries as awhole, there was an actual fall in realper capita income in 1981 for the firsttime since the 1950's. The food situa-tion remained precarious, particularlyin sub-Saharan Africa. Reports fromUNICEF field offices indicated thatthe general economic situation inmany countries, especially the poorest,critically worsened.

Besides all this, in a handful ofcountries, as had been the case for anumber of years, man-made or naturalemergencies threatened the very sur-vival of millions of children.

From UNICEF's point of view, theencouraging trend in 1981-1982 wasthe adoption of new approaches bymany developing countries thatshould establish programmes for chil-dren on a firmer foundation in theyears to come.

The 111 countries with whichUNICEF co-operated in 1981 had achild population (0-15) of about 1.3billion. UNICEFs programme expen-diture in 1981 was $218.3 million, aconsiderable sum, perhaps, but oneonly amounting to about $0.23 foreach of these children: clearly notenough to make much difference ifdisbursed merely as budgetary assis-tance. The real test of UNICEF's ac-tivities was the extent to which theycould selectively support initiativeswhich might have an impact on childwelfare proportionately higher than

^%1^C^%%t^=Z^"-"^^-

UNICEFs work in 1981-82 was car-ried out against a background ofglobal recession that had severe reper-cussions on the well-being of childrenin the developing countries—so muchso that in reporting to the May 1982session of die executive board, JamesP. Grant, UNICEF's Executive Direc-tor, felt obliged to note that: "the con-dition of the world's poorest childrenis almost certainly worse in manycountries than a year ago."

At the same time, the wider adop-tion of a basic services strategy in na-tional programmes for children andwomen, based on popular participa-tion and the development of resourceswithin poor rural and urban commu-nities themselves, gave grounds for en-couragement over the longer term.Indeed, the very difficulties most

Witrics experienced in financingtional "top-down" development

efforts may have hastened theacceptance of this approach.

Impact of the RecessionThe global recession—the deepestsince the Great Depression of the193(Ts—had three prime conse-quences for disadvantaged childrenand mothers.

First, government resources for so-cial services were reduced. Even in thericher countries there were cuts in sup-port to nutrition, health care, and edu-cation. In the poorer countries therecession's effects were much more se-vere: there were drastic reductions inforeign exchange for vital drugs andmedical supplies; it was frequently im-possible to provide spare parts' andfuel for public works such as watersupply and sanitation; transport anddistribution systems were impaired,and in some cases even crippled.

Second, while the richer countrieswere cutting their own social servicesbudgets, they were less willing to in-

ticipatory planning models. In someinstances help was provided in thetraining of community members to di-agnose and analyze their problemsand to design measures to deal v*tothem. UNICEF also co-operate 1the training of government officials inparticipatory methods: support wasgiven to participatory research inLatin America, community projectmanagement and development inEthiopia, and co-operative planningfor basic services in the Philippines.

UNICEFs own resources did notincrease significantly in 1981. Theworld-wide recession had its cftect onvoluntary government contributions,which arc UNICEFs mainstay, and ex-change rate fluctuations nullified someactual increases in foreign currencycontributions. Expenditures on pro-grammes and budgetary supportremained at about $265 millionexcluding Kampuchea relief, thoughon the average this $265 million wentabout 10 per cent farther in real termsin the recipient countries owing to thesharp run-up of the dollar. About 55per cent of country programme expen-ditures went to 63 "least developedand small countries.

Support for basic child health re-mained the largest category oi ^gramme expenditure, with water Wsanitation a close second. Support forbasic services—health, water and sani-tation, and education—were found invirtually every country programme,while applied nutrition and non-formal education played a role inabout four out of every five countryprogrammes. About two-thirds orUNICEFs actual assistance was in theform of supplies and equipment and athird in the form of training grants,project personnel, and local costs.

The following sections of this chap-ter describe in brief the progresswhich took place in the principal areasof UNICEFs co-operation in the ex-pansion of basic sen-ices. None ofmese should be regarded as competein itself. The needs of children and otthe communities in which they arcborn and brought up are so closely in-terrelated that genuine progress in onesector is impossible without progressin others. In certain cases the assign-ment of a given programme to oneparticular sector is arbitrarily decidedaccording to the sectoral governnQJministry through which co-operaMis extended.

Commission on Child Welfare whichwill serve as a forum for formulatingpolicies of benefit to children.

In the Republic of Korea, the KoreaDevelopment Institute and the^Eco-nomic Planning Board, with UNICESassistance, developed a strategy torvoung human resource developmentfor the next decade. The country s fourprevious development plans hadfocussed almost exclusively on indus-trial development.

In a number of countries successor

their actual cost implies.To do this, UNICEF actively en-

couraged initiatives within developingcountries to develop a "basic servicesstrategy for meeting children s needsBasic services are what every childmust enjoy, in terms of health care, nu-trition, water supply, and education, tosurvive and develop as a productivehuman being. The strategy tor basicservices sees a better life tor children mpoor rural and urban communities asstemming from activities undertaken

=5=S=;3=;t:a=-organizations to the national commis-sions formed for International Year otthe Child (IYC), 1979, contributed tonational policies affecting chidrcn. InThailand, for example, the IYC^Com-mission's "Study of Thai Children:National Policy and Perspective Planfor Child Development" was used bythe Government in formulating usfifth five-vear plan. In Sri Lanka theIYC Commission has been convertedinto an official National Children sSecretariat which has been instrumen-tal in establishing a national children s

In several parts of the world inIndonesia, Pakistan and Zimbabwe

streng^n local councils. UNICEFco-operated with a number ot coun-tries in the study of local communityparticipation and in working out par-

within the communities themselves.The role of "outside" assistance is tohelp the community identity children sneeds and problems, and to help themmeet as many needs as possible ontheir own, while at the same timestrengthening supporting technicaland administrative infrastructures.

To work, a strategy for basic servicesdepends on three general pre-condi-tions: a government policy that giveshigh priority to the basic needs of end-dren and mothers; a willingness on thepart of the government to accept a de-gree of decentralization in projectplanning and implementation; and agenuine commitment to popular par-ticipation in development. In 1981considerable progress was seen in all ot

In the Sudan, a presidential decreeof June 1981 established a National

Progress in primary health careing their health. In Madagascar, villagehealth committees selected 1,500 vil-lagers for training as village health as-sistants in 1981. Villagers in Zambiaarc giving enthusiastic support to theircommunity health workers throughpayment in cash or in kind. Nicaragualaunched its PHC programme in 1981with strong popular support.

^ : major cause of high child and in-ltiiir mortality and morbidity is mal-nutrition linked with diarrhoealdiseases and infections. Around 90 percent of young child deaths in die de-veloping world could be prevented byimmunization, prenatal and child care,clean water supply, environmental san-itation and the nutritional and healtheducation of mothers.

Co-operation in maternal and childhealth services continues to beUNICEF's largest field of activity. In1981, UNICEF expenditures onhealth programmes in 107 countrieswere more than $47 million.

Since 1975, working with WHO,UNICEF has promoted primaryhealth care (PHC) services in die de-veloping countries as a means of ex-tending basic health services nation-wide. PHC uses health workerschosen by the community for curative,preventive and promotional tasks.These health workers are trained to di-agnose and treat some four-fifths ofchildren's ailments, and to refer prob-Jgms outside their competence to^ J t h centres and hospitals.

shifting resources from expenditureon hospitals and prestige institutionsto the training of front-line healthworkers.

An essential dimension is added tothe health system when communitiesare encouraged to be active in improv-

In Central African Republic, a village level health worker transports his medical "kit"from place to place and holds his considtations where people have no difficulty in finding him.

PHC gains supportThe PHC approach has gained a fairlywide degree of support, although itsacceptance and application has beenan uneven and gradual process. To de-velop the PHC approach, the first ac-tion taken by countries, with supportfrom WHO' UNICEF and other or-ganizations, has been to convene na-tional workshops and exchanges ofexperience with other countries.

PHC can be fully realized onlythrough policy direction and resourceallocation at the highest level of gov-ernment. In 1981 Ethiopia laid thefoundations for an intersectoral na-tional health development network,along the lines recommended byWHO and UNICEF. In Nigeria, anintersectoral national health councildecided that the conventional healthservices will be transformed along thelines of the PHC approach. In Srit—Jhka, a national health council,chaired by the Prime Minister, hasbeen established and some initial stepshave been taken in the direction of

SOUTH YEMENDoes he think he's a doctor?

equipment or the ivory towers ofteaching hospitals. We can treatthem in tents, in very simple healthunits. That is primary health care.1'

recommended by WHO andUNICEF. Dr. Amin Nasher, Dep-uty Minister of Health, puts it in anutshell: "Before independence, itwas health services for the minor-ity—those in the towns. Theobjective of our new primary healthcare services is to save people on thespot and then, if necessary, referthem up the line when they are in abetter position to be moved "Malaria, pneumonia, infantile diar-rhoea: "You can train anybody whocan read and write and handle a fewitems of medicine to diagnose andtreat these at an early stage. Ourpriority is to save the 80 to 95 percent of the population, not the oneor two per cent. All the infectiousdiseases, the diseases of malnutri-tion, these are still killing thousandsevery year. And we can treat themwithout sophisticated medical

Salch Hamshaly is a "health guide"in the village of Mareeb in theRepublic of Yemen—SouthYemen—one of the poorest Arabcountries in the world. In the nar-row fields along the wadi—orseasonal stream—where he lives, heearns his family's keep growingcrops like maize and tomatoes.

Three years ago his baby daugh-ter died of a simple complaint:diarrhoea. Saleh Hamshaly waselected by his community to betheir health guide, and receivedthree weeks training at the nearesthealth centre. Now he can save thechildren of others. When he wascalled away from his farming oneday last year to help a baby girlsuffering from severe diarrhoea, forexample, Saleh gave the mother asachet of salts and sugar andshowed her how to administer itdissolved in a litre of boiled waterto counter dehydration. The bab/slife was saved.

Saleh Hamshaly is not paid forhis primary health care work. Hedocs it voluntarily. When he firstwent around with his bag contain-ing first aid materials, anti-malariadrugs and other medicines, the vil-lagers used to laugh at him: "Doeshe think he's a doctor with threeweek's training?" they said. He re-plied, uI 'm not a doctor: I'm just ahealth guide, but I can be useful toyou" And useful he has been, en-couraging members of thecommunity to burn their rubbishto deny breeding places to flies, todig into the hillside for clean water,and to use the government's referralservices for critically-ill infantsrather than lose them fatalisticallyas was done in the old days. Thesimple preventive measures pro-moted by Salch Hamshaly are thetrue value of this function: thenumber of patients in Mareeb need-ing outside treatment went downfrom 100 a month to fewer than 20in the first year he was on the job.

The Democratic Republic ofYemen was one of the first countriesto enthusiastically adopt the pri-mary health care approach ICEF9173/Annstrong

Health ministries are approachingPHC with varying degrees of under-standing. Even when they are stronglycommitted to the approach, tremen-

I^^JS difficulties arise in reorienting\..jnvcntional systems. Doctors andnurses must be convinced of PHC'svalidity, and many need to developnew skills and attitudes for workingwith the community. The functions ofexisting health centres and districthospitals need to be redefined so thatthey can become principally referralcentres—a task of reorientation requir-ing enormous time and effort.

Paradoxically, present economic cir-cumstances favour an accelerated ac-ceptance of PHC. There is no doubtthat PHC is the best health systembargain. If applied correctly, it canstem the vast flow of preventable ill-nesses now inundating health centresand hospitals at a comparatively lowper capita cost. But the saving doesnot mean reduction in overall expendi-tures on health: a major PHC objec-tive is to reach the millions of peopleoutside existing health structures,which will inevitably mean a rise inoverall expenditures.

In Nepal a young boy with a hearing and speech impairment feels for himself how histeadier uses his muscles to make certain sounds.

Most developing countries havelong been dependent for their suppliesof essential drugs on internationalcompanies, sold under trade names ata handsome profit. UNICEF andWHO have been helping countriesproduce their own essential drugs, orwhere this is impracticable, to com-pound them from imported ingre-dients. This has yielded great savingsto the financially hard-pressed healthservices.

Immunization anddisease control

While emphasizing the primary healthcare approach in its country program-ming activities, UNICEF continuedto support health efforts of vital im-portance to children independently ofwhether they had yet been integratedinto a genuine PHC framework.UNICEF strongly supported WHO'Sexpanded programme of immuniza-tion as well as a major diarrhoea! dis-ease control programme, and effortsto make developing countries moreself sufficient in die supply of essentialdrugs. Vaccination against DPT, polioand measles (still a major killer in de-veloping countries) spearheaded theimmunization programme—with em-phasis on the problem of maintainingthe "cold chain" for live virus vaccinessuch as measles, that must be kept atlow temperatures, and "appropriatetechnology".

UNICEF supported the diarrhoealcontrol programme by providing mil-lions of packages of an oral glucose-saline rehydration mixture and byhelping countries set up dieir own fa-cilities for formulating and distribut-ing the mixture. In Bangladesh, thework is being done by local women'sgroups.

CHILD HEALTH:In 1981 UNICEF

co-operated in chiJd healthprogrammes in 107 countries:46 in Africa, 24 in theAmericas, 29 in Asia and 8 inthe Eastern Mediterraneanregion, including Turkey;provided grants for training,orientation and refreshercourses for 286,900 healthworkers—doctors, nurses,public health workers,medical assistants, midwivesand traditional birthattendants;

provided technical suppliesand equipment for 43,000health centres of variouskinds—especially rural healthcentres and subcentres;supplied medicines andvaccines against tuberculosis,diphtheria, tetanus, typhoid,measles, polio and otherdiseases.

Childhood disabilities

World-wide, it is estimated, one childin ten is born with or acquires a se-rious impairment. 1981 was the Inter-national Year of Disabled Persons.UNICEF worked closely with theIYDP Secretariat and with Rehabilita-tion International and other non-gov-ernmental organizations to promotebetter programme co-operation fordisabled children, particularly withinthe framework of primary health care.

The great percentage of childhooddisabilities in the developing world arepreventable; they result from inade-quate nutrition, problems duringpregnancy and birth, infections, dis-eases and accidents. UNICEF's chiefemphasis has therefore been on thepreventive side, particularly on immu-

e

Good and lawful food INDONESIA

3used by the Religion Departmentin its involvement—along withHealth, Agriculture, and the FamilyPlanning Board—in the integratedUPGK scheme.

Islamic leaders arc trained in nu-trition and family welfare workthrough special learning groups setup in each sub-district. Around 20participants take part in a series oftwo-hour sessions over a period ofaround five weeks; and the courseseventually will include all the re-ligious leaders in each area. Theparticipants are taught to recognizeprevailing nutritional problems andto play a leadership role in theircommunities, helping people over-come these problems. Oncetraining is completed, the religiousleaders meet periodically to discusstheir experiences and work outways in which they can improvetheir work.

Not all Islamic leaders arc pre-achers like Buchori Muslim.Among those with whom hetrained was a husband and wife * yteam, Mr. and Mrs. Jaswar, whoboth carry the title Haji becausethey have made the pilgrimage toMecca.

How successful are they? Dr.Aida Adi Subagio, Head of Nutri-tion in the Health Office inBandung, thinks they arc very suc-cessful as motivators, particularlyamong families who have pre-viously failed to join in nutritionprogrammes. Buchori Muslim saysthat coverage of the baby weighingprogramme in his area has in-creased by 60 per cent, and. theJaswars proudly report that in theirvillage 90 per cent of prc-schoolchildren arc now weighed regularly.

In the Al-hadits, it is related thatthe Prophet once said: "Muslimsare like a body of which the organssupport each other. If a part is inpain, it is felt by the others as well."Today in Indonesia, Islamic leadersare calling on the people to main-tain good nutrition, not only asindividuals, but also as a commonresponsibility. Through this, it issaid, they are obeying the will of Allah.

tein-encrgy malnutrition. Anestimated 100,000 young childrengo blind each year because of vi-tamin A deficiency; and nutritionalanaemia affects 30 per cent ofschool children and 70 per cent ofpregnant women.

In a religious culture like Indo-nesia's, where about 90 per cent ofthe people arc Moslems, religiousleaders play an important role inactivities requiring community par-ticipation. For leading thepromotion of better nutrition theyare ideal: the Indonesian word fornutrition, gizi, is derived from theArabic word in the Qur'w^idzi,meaning food. A UNICEF-financcd study conducted by well-known Moslem scholars found nu-merous references to nutrition inthe Holy Qur'an and in the Al-Hadits, the discourses of theProphet as related to his disciples.These were published in a hand-book, "Islamic Views aboutNutrition", which is now being

At Al-Amin Mosque, in the villageof Sadang Serang in Bandung,Indonesia, a 30-year-old Islamicpreacher called Buchori Muslim ad-dresses 200 women who havegathered for their Qur'an recitalclasses. He talks about the moraland physical needs of the family,referring to a verse in the Qur'an:"When you leave this world do notleave behind children morally andphysically deficient." He quotes an-other verse: "Eat all the things Godhas provided for you that are lawfuland good—halcdan tbayyibak".Then he stresses the importance ofmothers monitoring their children'snutritional status through monthlyweighing under the government'sFamily Nutrition ImprovementProgramme, known throughoutthe country by its Indonesianacronym, UPGK.

Malnutrition is one of Indo-nesia's gravest problems. Ofchildren under five, 30 per centsurfer from various degrees of pro-

age group could be met through re-distribution of less than five per centof the total household food supplies.The best approach to better nutritionf^this vulnerable group, it was con-* Jed, is through the health sector,particularly through primary health

To cope wfth malnutrition amongchildren over three, among pregnantand nursing mothers, and amongfamilies in which there is an overallshortage of food, it will be necessaryas well to concentrate on die produc-tion side, through community andfamily food production and, wherenecessary, supplementary food dis-tribution programmes using nationalfood surpluses and international foodaid. Here the health sector must workwith others such as agriculture andeducation.

On breastfeedinffs side BRAZIL

For several years Brazilian healthofficials had been alarmed by a pre-cipitous decline in breastfeeding.Almost universal in the 1960s,breastfeeding by the end of die 70shad plummeted. Even in the rela-tively underdeveloped northeast,in Pernambuco, the number ofmothers breastfeeding for morethan four weeks had dropped to12 per cent. In the country asa whole, termination of breast-feeding usually occurs within 15days to two months. One majorcause was rapid urbanization—Brazil is now two-thirds urban—and its powerful impact on thetraditional extended family struc-ture. The effect was aggravated bypractices entrenched in the healthservices.

Then in 1980, the Governmentlaunched a nationwide programme,led by Dr. Waldyr Arcoverde, Min-ister of Health, to inform andconvince mothers, health workersand policy makers of the benefits ofbreastfeeding. Breastfeeding^ par-ticular importance among low-income families lacking clean water,

proper housing and an adequatediet was emphasized.

Scientific ammunition was nothard to come by Studies in SaoPaulo, Ribeirao Preto and Recifeestablished that 96 per cent of in-fant deaths were among babiesbreastfed for less than six months.Babies exclusively breastfed ac-counted for only four per cent ofthe mortality rate.

In 1981-82 the programmemoved into high gear, with widecoverage by tv, radio and the press.Equally important was the workwith health professionals, trainingthem to play, through prc- andpost-natal counselling, a more sup-portive role. Modification ofhospital practices to establish im-mediate breastfeeding as the normand to make arrangements for itscontinuation to be as convenient aspossible—by "rooming in", for ex-ample—has been an important partof the programme.

Ultimately, of course, thestrength of the mother's convic-tions are a vital determinant. Butthere arc numerous factors that canneutralize even high levels of mater-nal motivation: family andcommunity support, and for theworking mother, job security, andthe availability of creches. Themother's own nutritional status isalso an important consideration.Brazil's campaign is addressing allthese problems. As one UNICEFofficial noted: "Such a programmemust be comprehensive or it is nota programme,"

The forces now ranged on theside of breastfeeding are impres-sive: four ministries; three majorpublic sector organizations; healthand social welfare departments inall of Brazil's states and territories;medical societies; religious agen-cies; and a growing battalion oflegislators and officials. This year,on the anniversary of the pro-gramme's launching, the country'sleading manufacturer of infant foodannounced that it would abide bythe internationally adopted "Ge-neva Code" on the marketing ofbreast-milk substitutes.

BreastfeedingIf any particular aspect of the nutri-tional problem received special atten-tion from UNICEF in 1981/82, it wasthe question of breastfeeding.

|̂ *fe]ICEF continues to give high pri-.ry to the promotion of breastfeed-

ing as a means of improving and evensaving the lives of children. In somecountries die decline in breastfeedinghas continued.

Early in 1982 UNICEF issued de-tailed policy and programme direc-tives to all its field offices on the pro-motion of breastfeeding and improvedweaning food practices. These were in-corporated in ongoing programmes inmany countries, including the Philip-pines, the Republic of Korea, and SriLanka. In Thailand the promotion ofbreastfeeding is a major element in theprimary health care programme.

Many UNICEF offices were activein advocacy and promotion for breast-feeding. In India a series of UNICEFpublications on breastfeeding andyoung child nutrition were sent to allthe country's medical and health in-stitutions and practitioners. In thePhilippines the Nursing Mothers As-sociation has actively promotedbreastfeeding with UNICEF support,and a slide set "Mothers Milk is Best"

T eing produced with UNICEF sup-port. An Arabic kit on breastfeedinghas been widely circulated in die Arabworld, and media have co-operated

Alimento completeProtepao contradoencas

Limpo e prontoAmor e carinho

"The complete foodProtection against illnessClean and quickLove and caring,"The message emus from a flip-charton the values of breastfeeding whichforms part of Brazil's infant nutri-tion campaign.

tions govern people's attitudes to-wards the use of water, and moreparticularly the use of sanitation facili-ties. Intense health education, especial-ly in schools, can make a great deal ofdifference, especially if a liberal supplyof water has first been provided so thatit is possible to keep these facilities

Great difficulties remain with com-munal latrines used in schools, healthcentres or marketplaces. These oftenfall rapidly into misuse and neglect.The problem is not insoluablehowever. One approach that hasworked is to install washing facilitiesalong with latrines. In northern Indiavoluntary organizations provide com-munal latrine and shower facilities tora small fee. This fee provides the userwith a piece of soap and helps pay forthe services of latrine-bathhouse atten-dants. These neatly maintained facili-ties are gaining great popularity inotherwise undeserved communities.

Ideally, water supply and sanitationshould be closely integrated with pri-mary health care, nutrition, familyfood production and community de-velopment. UNICEF is workingclosely with government and admin-istrative institutions at all levels toachieve this. It takes time to achievethe desired integration, since govern-ment services tend to function sec-torally, but there are beginning to bearc promising results. •

Reaching children andwomen of the urban poor

which rural life normally provides, ur-ban children arc particularly vulnera-ble. Survival in the city requires cashto a much greater extent than in ruralareas, and incomes in the informal sec-tor, which most of the urban poor de-pend on, have been sharply reduced inthese times of world economic rcces-

UNICEF began to focus its atten-tion on the specific needs of childrenin urban slums and shanty towns in1971. Relatively slow progress wasmade however until, through a processof trial and error, methods could beworked out with governmentswhereby basic services in urban areascould be provided at an acceptablecost. From the beginning, these meth-ods incorporated the principle of max-imum community participation. By .1977 UNICEF was collaborating onurban programmes in seven countries,and by 1982 in 43 countries.

In 1981 UNICEF carried out a re-view of urban basic services, based oninformation solicited from 70 coumtries and detailed case studies frofwnine countries: Brazil, Ecuador, Ethi-opia, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Mex-ico, Peru and Sri Lanka.

Since most developing countries arcpredominantly rural, and it is in thecountryside that most of the disadvan-taged low-income populations are tobe found, there has been a tendencyfor many years to give a lower priorityto the problems of the urban poor.But urban problems no longer affect aproportionately low number oi chil-dren and women in developing coun-tries. Already, two-thirds of the annualpopulation increase in the third worldtakes place in urban areas; by the year2000 the proportion will be four-

Although much attention has beenfocussed on migration from the ruralareas, the new city dwellers actually ac-count for only 39 per cent of urbanpopulation growth; 61 per cent of theincrease is accounted for by childrenborn in urban areas. The developingworld's urban population is expectedto increase from 840 million in 1975to 2.1 billion by the year 2000.

Children and women in poor urbancommunities are the most susceptibleto the ill-effects of living in crowdedand insanitary conditions. Malnutri-tion levels can be very high, and in theabsence of family support systems

-i WATER AND SANITATION:In 1981 UNICEF

2,858 other systems such asspring protection, rain watercollection and watertreatment plants;

benefited some 17.7 millionpersons (40 per cent of themchildren) from its rural watersupply systems;

completed 166,418 excretadisposal installationsbenefiting some 2,219,100people.

» co-operated in programmesto supply safe water andimproved sanitation in 94countries: 43 in Africa, 19 inthe Americas, 26 in Asia and6 in the EasternMediterranean region;

» completed approximately70,404 water supply systems,including 64,595 open/dugwells with handpumps, 2,201piped systems, with 750motor-driven pumps and

Starting the ball rotting INDIA

x Tucked away from the great humanebb and flow of Hyderabad's mainthoroughfares in a corner of theold city is a modest white-washedhouse, the headquarters of awomen's co-operative, the ShriManila Griha Udyog Lijjat Papad(Registered). The neighbourhoodis by no means grand, but neitheris it one of those neglected cornersof the city's landscape where theinhabitants have a hard time evenmaintaining a foothold.

The lease on this house, there-fore, reflects the hard-won commer-cial standing of the co-operative,whose members make and marketpapads, the delicate thin and crispypancakes well-known to anydevotee of Indian cuisine.

The co-operative was startedin 1974 at the suggestion of theproject officer for the urban com-munity development (UCD)programme run by Hyderabad'smunicipal corporation and assistedby UNICEF since 1976. The leaderis Mrs. Java Prcada, wife of a localteacher, who was originally themoving force of the women's groupor mainla mantled. "We wanted todo something to earn some money.But the wages in this area were verylow, only Rs. 1.50 a day (US 19cents).'1 Training was provided for

faya Preada and live of her mahilamandnl sisters—as she calls them—at the parent enterprise in Bombay,with expenses paid by the UCDproject.

The Lijjat Papad co-operativenow has 150 women members inHyderabad, and a turnover ofaround Rs. 80,000 (US$10,000)a month. For Java Preada and hersisters, this represents big businessindeed. Mrs. Preada receives a sal-ary of Rs. 1,000 per month, andthe co-operative also employs twoclerk/accountants, two men to mixthe papad dough, and four womenwho pack the finished papads intoplastic packets and put in the labels.There are two salesmen who camtheir living on commission, and aswell as renting the white-washedhouse, the co-operative owns twovehicles, a van and a three-wheeler,for which the loans have been fullypaid off.

The working day begins at 6 a.m.when the women members cometo the house to collect the freshly-mixed dough, flavoured withspices. The dough is given out inone kilo bags, and a woman willtake between three and eight bags,although a few really energeticmembers take as many as 13. Eachmember has at home two roundmetal rolling plates of standard size,and A wooden rolling pin, pur-chased from the co-operative for afew rupees. She kneads the doughcarefully, and forms it into a tube.Then with a piece of string shecuts off exactly the right amountof dough for a small, or a larger,papad, and places it in the sun todry. According to Java Prcada:"The rolling is very easy if thekneading is done properly. Some-times they hold competitions, andsome women can roll half a kiloof papads easily within 15 minutes."The members' earnings are Rs. 1.25per kilo.

Java Prcada is pleased that theco-operative has been able toexpand its membership. "When anew sister joins, she spends her firstfour days here at the house, learn-

ing all about the co-operative andseeing the dough being made, thewomen coming, the packing, theweighing. Then she is trained insomeone's household, alongsidea woman already in the scheme, andtaught the knack of rolling to theright texture and thinness." Qualitycontrol is important and womenwho bring papads that are brokenor too thick arc not paid the milamount. They take die piles of sun-baked pancakes into the co-opera-tive the following day, when theyonce again collect their dough.

To begin with, the HyderabadLijjat Papad co-operative struggledhard to make a profit, and memberswere discouraged by the lack ofinterest from storekeepers. But nowtheir product is well-recognizedand widely sold. Their loan capital,provided by the parent enterprise inBombay, is paid off, and out of thesale price of each packet (Rs. 4.50for 400 grams, Rs. 2.40 tor 200grams) they retain a proportion tobuild up their own capital. "We arenot wage-earners here," says JavaPreada proudly. "We arc proprie-tors. We are not at the mercy ofanybody. We are not at the charityof anyone. We work hard, and weearn good money."

The Lijjat Papad enterprise is oneof the many small-scale ventureshelped to get off its feet by theurban community developmentproject in Hyderabad. It is some-thing of a show-piece perhaps: notevery laundry business, tailoringclass, or cardboard box-makinggroup yet shows the "good money"of Java Preada and her sisters. Theyno longer need the visits of theUCD project staff and social work-ers, except for friendship and well-deserved attention. It is to helpthose more marginal members andgroups of the city's population,seemingly becalmed in backwatersrather than part of its economicmainstream, that the UCD workersnow bend their efforts. Even abackwater contains energy; the taskis to release it. Then in these places,too, such ventures can have their dav.

Children and women in poor urban areas, such as this one in an Indonesian city, arevery susceptible to the ill-effects of living in crowded and insanitary conditions.Lessons learned

• All programmes reported in thecase studies were characterized by astrong community approach, re-cognizing the potential of low-in-come families to solve their ownproblems. Formal services playedan important supportive role, butthey were systematically linked withcommunity efforts.

• Services and facilities can reach thepoorest families. In Addis Ababa,Ethiopia, there were famine condi-tions in some areas of the city in1978. UNICEFs first collaborationwas through an emergency feedingprogramme. With support from in-ternational voluntary organiza-tions, this programme was ex-tended to include nutrition educa-tion, pre-school centres for 29,000children, and self-help projects, in-cluding poultry and market-gar-dening run by urban dwellersassociations.

• The urban basic services approachresponds to community problems.UNICEF has been assisting theDepartment of Social Welfare ofRio dc Janeiro, Brazil, to establish abasic services programme in thecity's largest favela. In response tocommunity-articulated needs, threedemonstration projects were se-lected: a community motivationand education project; a sanitationproject; and community schools.There was a high degree of com-munity participation in all aspectsof the work involved, includingselection of persons to work on theprojects, development of workplans, and division of labour.

• The basic services approach enablesservices to be better understoodand utilized by communities. InHyderabad, India, the urban com-munity development fUCD) proj-ect proceeded on the assumptionthat a low-income neighbourhoodshould ask for outside help onlyafter it had exhausted its own re-sources. Project staff recognizedpeople's right to identify their ownneeds and to be fully involved inmeeting them. The UCD projecthas encompassed a whole range ofactivities from neighbourhood andhousing improvements, to day-care,health and water supply servicesand income-generating for women.(See profile on page 15.) This same

projects; and government decisions toreplicate them more widely, often withonly their own resources.

UNICEF aid to urban projects haglargely taken the form of support fdjthe mobilization of communities inthe identification of their own prob-lems and the organization of their ownand external resources to solve thoseproblems. Where community servicesand mini-enterprises have been set up,UNICEF has assisted with the provi-sion of supplies and equipment forschools, day-care, and women's cen-tres, and cash grants for self-help ac-tivities. Actual up-grading of slumareas through site-and-scrvice housingschemes, provision of access roads andthe larger physical inputs, have con-ventionally been provided by govern-ment agencies with the help of loansand grants, the World Bank being thelargest external source of support.UNICEFs task has been to focus onthe social aspects of the developmentof poor urban areas as part of, or insome cases separate from, the upgrad-ing of housing and the physical en-vironment.

Following the presentation of theurban services review to the 1982 ses-sion of the Executive Board, decisKMjwere taken as to new levels o r^UNICEF emphasis in its urban ser-vices assistance. •

approach is now being used in pro-grammes in 14 other urban areas.

• Services and facilities are bettermaintained when the community isdirectly responsible. In Colombo,Sri Lanka, where the environmentaland community development proj-ect in crowded low-income areas isbeing carried out through locallyelected councils, there has beenmarked improvement in environ-mental conditions, maintenance ofstand-pipes and communitylatrines.

• The per capita lower cost of urbanservices integral to this approachalso permits broader coverage. Thecase study from Guayaquil, Ec-uador, suggested that theUNICEF-supported programmecost about one quarter the amountof conventional alternatives. An in-tegrated programme for childrenand their families in low-incomeareas of Lima, Peru—including pri-mary health care, environmentalsanitation, nutrition, pre-school ed-ucation, and income-generating ac-tivities for women-—costs approx-imately $2.80 per person per year.

Perhaps the clearest indication ofthe effectiveness of the urban basicservices approach which UNICEFhas promoted has been the degree ofcommunity acceptance of the various

II

Formal and non-formal icfocat^ n developing countries, only four^children out often complete primary

education. Enrollment for girls ismarkedly lower than for boys and illit-eracy among women is still propor-tionately very high. Co-operation informal primary education is a continu-ing UNICEF concern, but co-opera-tion ID schooling is being increasinglydovetailed with non-formal educationprogrammes, particularly for womenand girls, in such fields as health edu-cation, nutrition, child care, and in-come-earning skills. There is increas-ing recognition of the link betweentemale literacy and the use of healthand social service amenities and its im-pact on infant mortality, fertility andchild nutrition and child health.'

Policy guidelines given by the Ex-ecutive Board of UNICEF have putemphasis on expanding learning op-portunities for out-of-school childrenqualitative rcorientation of primaryschools, literacy and post-literacy ac-tivities in conjunction with provisionstor other basic services and the cxpio-

Cration of new solutions for the careand development of the young child—

- all within the framework of a com-prehensive approach to meeting theneeds of children

In 1981 UNICEF co-operated with96 countries in the field of formal edu-cation, including primary teachertraining in 76 countries, and with 87countries in non-formal education.While formal education accounted forabout three-quarters of the S32.3 mil-Jon «i UNICEF aid to education in1VB1, commitments for future yearsapproved by the 1981 Board gave aslightly higher proportion to non-for-mal than to formal education than inprevious years. In a number of coun-tries with which UNICEF co-oper-ated m 1981, considerable progresswas made in non-formal approaches.In Haiti, the Department of Com-rnumty Development runs a networkpt ramdy education centres emphasiz-ing health and nutrition education and

?TMTrAncmCntal s a n i t « i o n . Here

UNICEF supports the training ofwomen and family education agents.Zimbabwe has a well-developed sys-tem or non-formal education forwomen including child care, healthand nutrition. In Sri Lanka an Interna-tional Vear of the Child project, now

being made to bring schooling even tothose tnfar-ftung rural neighbourhoods

taken over by the Society for RuralReconstruction, shows how youngchildren can serve as change agents inthe community. It is basically a childcare project, in which the buildings arebuilt by the community through self-help; parents make cash contributionsand mothers provide midday meals.Children are asked to carry basichealth messages back to their parentsand discussions with parents revealthat the child-to-parent message trans-mission works.

During 1981 UNICEF continuedto support national efforts to reformand reorient primary education. InViet Nam, 1981 was the first year of aneducational reform programme de-signed to relate curricula to the futureneeds of children. Community re-sources were used for educational im-provement, and for the preparation oftextbooks, particularly for minoritygroups; teachers were trained to workin small multigrade schools, and thechildren's environment was used as alearning resource.

There is encouraging progress inimproving pre-school education inseveral countries. In the DominicanRepublic, for example, the pre-schooleducation project launched in 1979 by

c&6c& EDUCATION:In 198] UNICEF

» co-operated in primary andnon-formal education'in102 countries: 46 in Africa,22 in the Americas, 26 in Asiaand 8 in the EasternMediterranean region,including lurkev;

» provided stipends forrefresher training of some65,100 teachers including37,500 primary-schoolteachers;

» helped to equip more than68,600 primary schools, andteacher-training institutionsand 1,900 vocational trainingcentres with teaching aids,including maps, globes,science kits, blackboards,desks, reference books andaudio-visual materials;

> assisted many countries toprepare textbooks locally byftinding printing units,bookbinding and paper.

d

ETHIOPIASunrise at Endeber

family. When all three of her littlegirls got chicken-pox, she had nochoice but to drop out of thecourse. She hopes to try again nextsummer.

UNICEF is helping the nationalliteracy drive with the preparationof reading materials for the newly-literate.

A basic education project, alsoassisted by UNICEF, has been car-ried out mainly in resettlementvillages in the southern region ofBale. Farmers' associations are en-couraged to undertake various self-help and community developmentactivities, which include strong lit-eracy and adult educationcomponents. These approaches,small-scale, fitted to the situation ofparticular communities, lack thesimplicity, visibility and force of acampaign. But the struggle for edu-cation in Ethiopia is a slow, hardroute on which the literacy cam-paign itself is just the first staging

not much has changed. Attendingthe course every morning for sev-eral months was a heavy burden.Her baking suffered and she haddifficulty caring for her children.She completed the course throughdetermined perserverance, but shehas no time or energy to go to thelocal reading room to find the writ-ten material which might containinformation useful for helping herimprove her family's life. Of thethree, Ethiopia Asfaw drew themost benefit from the class. Shecompleted the course withoutproblem and joined a follow-upcourse. Now she borrows bookletsfrom the town reading room andhas even set up a rudimentary-book-keeping system for her littlebeer-making business. And likemothers everywhere, complainsthat her sons, in Addis, do notwrite to her often enough.

Martha Gizaw's story was sad.Her husband fell ill and she had towork extra hours to provide for the

It is June 1981. In the small townof Endebcr, southwest of AddisAbaba, 21 women and five men arcattending the early morning shiftof the literacy class, from 6 to8 a.m. The volunteer instructor is a17-year-old student from the localhigh school. He has received a oneweek orientation course from theEthiopian Adult EducationDepartment and is equipped witha wall chart of printed Amhartccharacters, some booklets, and twoboxes of chalk.

Tayetch Hailc Gabriel, 35,mother of eight, is an earnest stu-dent at the morning session atEndebcr. She supplements her day-labourer husband's meagre earn-ings by selling injera (a pancake-like flat bread) which bringsabout 25 cents extra income a dayEthiopia Asfaw, 46 and mother ofthree grown children, is anothermember of the class. Her husbandhas a small tailoring shop and sheearns a little extra by selling home-brewed beer. Twenty-four-year-oldMartha Gizaw is another class-mate. She has three little girls,aged one, three and four, and alsobakes injera to supplement thesmall irregular earnings of her hus-band, a casual labourer.

The early morning literacy classin Endebcr is part of a nationalliteracy drive launched by theEthiopian Government in 1979.Every year, from June to Septem-ber, hundreds of thousands ofyoung students and other volun-teers conduct literacy classes inschools, community centres andprivate homes. By the end of 1981,some 10 million people, of whomdie majority were women, had par-ticipated and the country's literacyrate had risen from 13 per cent in1974 to 35 per cent.

The campaign's success is only abeginning, though: maintainingpeople's literacy and helping themuse this new skill to improve theirdaily lives is still a challenge.

A return visit to Endeber in early1982 revealed some of the diffi-culties. For Tayetch Hcile Gabriel

They know all the songs DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

their level of education, their dis-position for work with children,and their ability to mobilize others.The next step was the training ofthe pre-school promotores, whichtook place within the communitiesof the project areas, often withparents sitting in on the sessions.Today, homes of community mem-bers, existing community centres,refurbished sheds or thatched en-closures serve as pre-school centres.Parents have prepared play areas,constructed kitchens, and assistedin the preparation of meals. FeMaria Rosario, Director of the pre-school department, recalls thatwhen she and her team paid unan-nounced visits to villages in theearly days of the project, they foundentire communities at work on thecentres. On one occasion, when thepromotore was ill, they found hisbrother taking over: he knew all thesongs and routine for the day.

Since the project began in 1979,original projections for extendingthe service have been surpassed. Atthe end of 1981, nearly 20,000 chil-dren were recorded as "directbeneficiaries". In this amazinglyshort time, moreover, all the sup-porting structures were developed:surveys, curricula, methodologicalguidelines, and training aids. Thepre-school centres have become vi-tal services in the "multi-sectoral11

approach as well. It is now com-paratively easy to immunize thechildren in the south-west and tomonitor their health and nutri-tional status. It is known, forexample, which homes have no san-itary facilities, for it is one of thejobs of'thepromotores to record suchdata. The project has made com-munity members begin to feelpositive towards change, preparingthem to respond to other develop-ment challenges.

When UNICEF's commitmentto the project ends this year, theGovernment will absorb all con-tinuing costs not provided by thecommunities themselves. Such apattern of dearly-defined and duly-followed co-operation is itself nosmall part of this success story.

6 ICEF 9179/BUck

Except for the intrusion of hur-ricanes, life in die southwesternregion of the Dominican Republicmight seem from the outside as if ithad been monotonously repetitiousfor generations. People still eke outa meagre living from the unyieldingsoil, or travel miles to seek work inthe towns or on large plantations.Yet unfolding in this region is a pre-school education and nutrition pro-gramme that is remarkablysuccessful. Launched in 1979 by theDominican Government, withUNICEF co-operation, the pro-gramme has, within two years,reached 30 per cent of the childrenaged three to six and is running wellahead of schedule.

In 1977 the Government beganto discuss with UNICEF on assis-tance to a multi-sectoral regionalproject covering health, sanitation,nutrition and pre-school education.The southwest region was selectedbecause of its high rates of infantmortality, childhood malnutrition

and communicable diseases. More-over, 72 per cent of childrendropped out of school beforefinishing sixth grade, the highestdrop-out rate being in the first twoyears. As project plans were workedout they came to centre on non-formal pre-school education as theentry point for other communitybased services. It was a happychoice; community response wasenthusiastic.

Previously only very limited pre-school facilities had been availablein the Republic, and the Govern-ment's first step was to create a pre-school department in the Ministryof Education. Field supervisors metwith community residents to dis-cuss the problems of youngchildren, and in communitieswhich showed keenest interest, ar-rangements were worked out forselecting community promotionworkers or promotores.

The promotores were chosen byopen ballot, taking into account©

UNICEF in action: programme com*

^^wyjrogrammccorHs^giicnts shown on this map arcrfG^Tbr multiycar periods, aslSflidicated. Those commit-

ments approved at the 19t J&ecutivc Board sessionarc indicated in colour. Comntejpcms shown arcexclusively those from UNICEMJgcnera] resources.

Altogether, UNtCEF co-opcrkes in programmes in112 countries: 46 in Africa; 19 iniAsia; 28 in LatinAmerica and the Caribbean; 8 iiithe Eastern Mediter-ranean; 11 in Oceania. This list of countries does notinclude three Caribbean countries (British VirginIslands, Montserrat and Turks antf.Caicos Islands).

1980-82: $250,000JAMAICA1978-81: 5600,000

1982-Hft- S5.114OOODOMINICAN REPUBLIC1979-82:51,750,000

ST. KITTS-NEVIS-ANGUIL.LA1979-81: $39,000ANTIGUA1980-82: 545,000DOMINICAIOK2-S5. S83.OO0ST. LUCIA1980-82: $110,000BARBADOS1979-81: $129,000ST. VINCENT1980-82: $100,000

- GRENADA1979-81: 578,000

TUNISIA _1978-82: Sl.500,000MOROCCO1981-85: S7,612,000

:•<'.<

MAURITANIA T1982-86: 51,995.000 £

CAPE VERDEI482.R5 $252.1)0(1GUATEMALA

1983-86: S2.S18,OIIt)HONDURAS1979-83:51.500,000EL SALVADOR1979-82: $1,400,000NICARAGUA1981-83: $600,000COSTA RICA1980-82: 5105,000PANAMA

SENEGAL:1981-84: 5700,000GAMBIA1980-83: 5400,000GUINEA-BISSALIPK2-84- S19.V000GUINEA1979-83:54,940,000SIERRA LEONE1982-S5:Sl,427.0<»)LIBERIA19R2-K4: SI.I80.000UPPER VOLTA1981-83: $787,000IVORY COASTl983-8R:S2.006.miIJGHANA1983-85: 52.4fl3.0UU

1982 S4- SiSSfvOOOBENIN1981-83: 51,931,000

1979-82: 5520,000COLOMBIA1980-83: 57,100,000ECUADOR1980-83: $1,797,000GUYANA1981-84: $544,000SURINAM1975-79: 5130,000

1982-85:3.1,000,000

1981-84: $218,000PARAGUAY1982-84: S6o5.0IH)

low-income developing countries where UNICESaccords a high priority for programme expenditureleast-developed countries, countries inspecial circumstances, and small countries with anat-risk child population {62 countries).middle-income developing countries, whichreceive the normal level of UNICEF co-operation{38 countries).high-income developing countries, which receiveadvisory and technical services rather than pro-gramming support from UNICEF (12 countries).

rv

20

nmitments in the developing world

AFGHANISTAN1978-82

$19,366,000

SYRIAN ARABREPUBLIC

Sl.-kiO.nnn REPUBLIC OF KOREA1982-80: $2,716,01)0

BURMAWK2-X6. 527,000.(100BANGLADESH982-85: 550.000,000

LAO PEOPLE'SDEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC1982-8h: $4,25fi,()00THAILAND982-86: S14.74O.000

PHILIPPINES1980-83: $11,8^,650KAMPUCHEA.1981-82: 54,375,000VIETNAM1983-86: S27.t42.000MALAYSIA1983-84; Sl.062,0001

PAPU A NEW GUINEA1982-84. S193.M0

DEM-YEMEN \1981-83: Sl,363.00dlDJIBOUTI \1981-82: 5154,000SOMALIA l

1981-82:52,450,000

/UGANDA1981-82: 56,729,000

iqS2-84:.S6,125.ll0nRWANDA1980-82:52,352,000

SEYCHELLES1980-82: $160,000COMOROS19H2-X4- 5189.000MALAWI1981-84: 52,906,000MAURITIUS1979-81: 5527,000ZIMBABWE1981-82:52,708,000MOZAMBIQUE1981-84: 53,990.000SWAZILAND1981-83: 5385,000LESOTHOHW2-HS SL2O3.OO0BOTSWANA1981-83: 5600,000

*\ PACIFIC ISLANDS"

5277,000

AGRSCAR

Va "Includes Cook islands,Fiji, Kiribati. Niuc. Samoa,Solomon Islands, Tokdau,Tonga, Tbvalu and Vanuatu

u

ZAMBIA 1981-84: 51,281,000CONGO 1981-82: $175,000SAO TOME AND PRINCIPE 1981-84. 5192,000U N i y g REPUBLIC OF CAMEROON IV82-85: S 1,722,000EQU.'.ORIALGUINEA 1980-81: 5200,000 **CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC 1981-83: 51,817,000-

This map is drawn according to Peters' Projection | Sda not express any opinion of the United Nations. \and the boundaries da not

Women's activitiesWithin the recent past, UNICEF'spolicy towards women in developingsocieties has undergone an importantevolution. Recognizing the increasingnumbers of women who arc heads ofhouseholds in the poorer parts of theworld, and the vital economic rolewhich women play in many societies,UNICEF's policy is now to co-operatein national services in which womenare viewed in their multiple roles: asmothers, home managers, producers,providers for the family, and com-munity leaders. In the past, pro-grammes based on the participation ofthe community have often in effectdrawn exclusively on the participationof men, even where the users andbeneficiaries of new services weremainly women. Experience has shownthat the participation of women in theidentification of problems and as fullpartners in die decision-making pro-cess at community level can have a sig-nificant impact on the quality of lifefor children and families.

Women are also given special atten-tion by UNICEF in their critical andoften undersupportcd role as mothers.Recognizing that mothers have theprimary responsibility for the nurture,well-being, and in many cases the edu-cation, of their children, UNICEF'sinital involvement in efforts forwomen focusscd on pregnant andnursing mothers, and support wentchiefly to the expansion of maternaland child health services. Later thiswas extended to activities connectedwith education and literacy, betterhome management, improved child-rearing, the relief of daily drudgerythrough village technology, leadershiptraining, and the development of in-come-earning skills. Support towomen's activities, including diat inrelated fields such as preschool, makesup a large part of the category ofUNICEF co-operation described bud-getarily as "social welfare services forchildren", amounting to $17.6 millionin 1981. Other support is budgctarilyhidden in the health, water supply andeducation categories.

Since the extensive reviews carriedout in UNICEF field offices during1979 and the establishment of newguidelines for programmes benefittingwomen at die 1980 Executive Boardsession, UNICEF has given more em-phasis to income-generating activities,

particularly in urban areas. It has be-come clear that the poverty-strickenliving conditions in slums and shantytowns make children particularly vul-nerable to infection; and that whenwomen arc able to supplement thefamily income, they tend to use theirearnings to improve their domestic en-vironment in ways that directly im-prove their children's well-being andtheir school-going opportunities.Women thus add to the family's self-reliance and self-respect, improvingtheir own status in the process.

UNICEF's increased involvement in"area development" programmes—programmes which are concentratedin specific geographic, admin-istratively self-contained areas—hasoffered an excellent opportunity tosupport women's multiple roles inhealth, education and economic ac-tivity. Programmes such as the one atRatnagiri in Maharashtra, India, aretackling a number of interrelatedproblems. Ratnagiri is an area wherewomen and children comprise 77 percent of the population, the menfolk

having migrated to Bombay in sea^of work. The project began win,-'..workshop attended by village pan-cbayats (councils), women's organiza-tions and district administrators.Using basic data and case histories col-lected in a cluster of villages, the work-shop drew up a programme based on"core" activities, among which in-come-generating activities for womenwere high on the list. In many coun-tries, activities involving women tendto be developed in isolation fromother development programmes,which reinforces the exclusion ofwomen from the mainstream of de-velopment. Since die launch of the In-ternational Decade for Women in1975, an important aspect ofUNICEF's co-operation in women'sactivities has been the advocacy andstrengthening of institutional struc-tures which can help to rectify this im-balance. Government ministries orcommissions for women in Ethiopia,Indonesia, Thailand and Zimbabwehave been supported with staff, train-ing, or resources for research activity.

m Appropriate technologySOCIAL SERVICES:In 1981 UNICEF

and agricultural wastes for their cook-ing fires.

One of the most promising sourcesof domestic energy is biogas—meth-ane gas produced by the fermentationof dung and other wastes. The residuecan be used as fertilizer. UNICEF iscurrently assisting with biogas proj-ects in three countries: India, Peru andTurkey. The largest of these is in Tur-key, a country that experiences severewinters and where a low-cost source ofenergy for heating rural homes couldcontribute greatly to reducing die tollof broncho-pneumonia among youngchildren. Q

The concept of "appropriate technol-ogy" gained currency in the early andmid 1970s as an antidote to the pre-vailing practice of basing economicdevelopment projects on importedtechnology. This had often turned outto be inappropriate both because of itsdesign and its high installation andmaintenance costs. For about eightyears UNICEF has been concernedwith the promotion of appropriatetechnology at village level, in particu-lar the use of low-cost devices man-ufactured from locally availablematerials using local skills, which helprelieve women's domestic burdens andallow them to make improvements intheir family life-style. UNICEF's in-volvement in appropriate technologyhas therefore been focusscd on the so-cial rather than the economic aspectsof life, including water supply, foodconservation and storage, and energyand fuel saving.

UNICEF has prompted considera-ble exchange of ideas and designsamong different developing countriesand regions. For example, low-cost ce-ment water jars for storing run-off rainwater from roofs, first developed inThailand, have now come into wideuse in eastern Africa, where a type oftraditional woven basket is used as thearmature. Sturdy handpumps de-veloped in India, Bangladesh andUganda have been widely introducedinto other countries. Simple improvedcooking stoves developed in West Af-rica and India, which can cut the con-sumption of firewood by more thanhalf, arc being introduced to othercountries.

As part of its basic services strategy,UNICEF has been responding to in-creased government requests for ap-propriate technology assistance.

One major emphasis of the UNConference on New and RenewableSources of Energy, held in Nairobi inAugust 1981, was the firewood crisisnow facing most developing countries.The problem of obtaining adequatefuel for domestic purposes in ruralareas is sometimes referred to as "theother energy crisis"; but in terms ofthe numbers of persons affected, it isthe major energy crisis. Women andchildren in poor communities spend alarge part of the day collectingbranches, twigs, leaves, animal dung

rco-operated in social servicescor children in 92 countries:40 in Africa, 26 in theAmericas, 18 in Asia and 8 inthe Eastern Mediterraneanregion, including Turkey;

» supplied equipment to morethan 17,800 child welfare andday-care centres, 3,400 youthcentres and dubs and 7,400women's centres;

» provided stipends to morethan 18,400 women and girlsfor training in child care,homecrafts, food preservationand income-earning skills;

» provided stipends to trainsome 34,200 local leaders tohelp organize activities in theirown villages and communities;

* provided equipment andsupplies to 400 traininginstitutions for social workers,and training stipends for5,600 child welfare workers.

In most parts ofAfrica, most of thecultivation of foodis carried out bywomen. In Liberia,a women's co-opera-tive venture growscabbages, to providenutritious greens fortheir children andproduce to sell in themarket.

The traditional method of cooking inmany parts of the rural third world iso?i a fire built between three stones(above). Concern about desertifica-tion in West Africa has encouraged thepromotion of'fitel-saving closed stoves,such as the Ban ok Suuf—sand andclay—model (below).

%%

Emergency relief and rehabilitationpie. But while the country has stag^wremarkable recovery, reconstruct J .still has a long way to go. The 1981-82monsoon was uneven: there wereHoods in some parts of the country,drought in others. FAO and WFP mis-sions estimated the country's food def-icit for 1982 would be in the range of278,000 metric tons. At a meeting ofdonor governments in February 1982,contributions were pledged towardfood aid for vulnerable groups andseed rice for the next.

had been re-opened. The diligence ofthe Khmer farmers, supported by ex-ternal assistance, increased the1980-81 monsoon harvest to morethan double the previous year's, thusmaking it possible to reduce theamount of food aid in 1981.

At the end of December 1981, whenUNICEF withdrew from its leadagency role, the co-ordinating func-tion within the UN system, for theprovision of relief supplies to the re-fugees still encamped along the Thaiborder was assumed by the WorldFood Programme (WFP). Within Kam-puchea, UNICEF continued toprovide a legal umbrella for WFP andFAO activities.

One of the most important resultsof the relief operation was the rebirthof hope among the Kampuchcan pco-

Kampuchean operation

UNICEF ended its key role as leadagency of the United Nations systemin the humanitarian assistance pro-gramme for the Kampuchean peopleon December 31, 1981. The assistanceprogramme, in which other major UNorganizations, the International Com-mittee of the Red Cross and manynon-governmental organizations par-ticipated, provided some $634 millionin assistance between October 1979and December 1981, and was one ofthe most massive and complex reliefefforts ever mounted. UNICEF's ownexpenditures on Kampuchean reliefwithin the overall programmeamounted to $49 million in 1980 and$22.7 million in 1981.

When the programme began in Oc-tober 1979, the most elemental func-tioning of Kampuchea's village societywas in jeopardy; most of the popula-tion was on the move and an estimated650,000 sick and hungry people hadfled to the Thai border. The pro-gramme provided food, shelter, water,health care, basic education and otherservices to the refugees encampedalong the border and in the holdingcentres run by the Office of the UNHigh Commissioner for Refugees(UNHCR); as well as many thou-sands of Thai villagers living near theborder and dislocated by the refugeeinflux. Inside Kampuchea, the pro-gramme saved many lives and helpedavert large scale hunger. It includedthe distribution of 300,000 metrictons of food aid as well as thousandsof tons of rice seed, fertilizers andpesticides. Key logistical support in-cluded the supply of motor vehiclesand river transport, handling equip-ment, and fuel. Medical supplies, anda modest level of school equipmentand supplies were provided for therehabilitation of primary educationservices.

The programme was very successfulin helping to restore the basic condi-tions of survival for the Khmer people.By the end of 1981, two-thirds ofthose who had fled to the border withThailand had returned to their vil-lages, where near normal conditionshad been restored. More than 6,000schools and 1,000 clinics and hospitals

African emergenciesThe other main theatre of emergencyassistance in 1981/82 was Africa.There were dangerous signs that food

Child victims of turmoil and drought in southeast Ethiopia receive a meal of cooked nuuzeat the Sheik Sherif shelter for displaced persons.

Re-opening among the ruins CHAD

£ "I have lots of ideas; we just don'thave the means." Mrs. JeanneAhmed, Deputy Director of Chad'sSocial Affairs Department gesturedtoward some pitted walls, all thatremain of the social welfare centre,the Centre de Repos, where she hasworked for 20 years. With acessation in Chad's second civil warin January 1981, refugees—mostlywomen and children—who hadcrossed the river from Ndjamena,the capital, to Kousscri, in northernCameroon, returned to find littlebut ruins. Mrs. Ahmed insisted thatthe Centre dc Repos should re-open; the women of the areaneeded its help. And re-open it did,in November 1982, in two tentsand a lean-to.

All corners of the centre'sgrounds bustle with activity. At7:30 in the morning, JeanneAhmed gathers the women in thelean-to for a lesson in hygiene andnutrition. Then babies are weighed,with those found to bemalnourished becoming eligible fora full meal six times a week.Cooking is done under a tree whichprovides a little shade. A healthsection operates under a tent everyday, treating children and mothersfor common ailments and givingvaccinations and anti-malariadrugs. Six such centres have nowbeen opened in Ndjamena, manystaffed with workers trained in theold refugee camp across die river.All are doing similar work.

A programme close to JeanneAhmed's heart—and one givenpriority in all the centres—is thepromotion of income-generatingactivities for women. As a result ofthe outbreaks of fighting, womenoften found themselves faced withhaving to raise families alone, theirhusbands missing or dead. The firstmeasure each centre took was tocreate a kitchen garden. JeanneAhmed is proud of that garden inher centres. Its first aim was togrow vegetables to supplement thechildren's meals and for the womento take home, but in the first twomonths the women made a profit of

about $107 from sales on the localmarket, which they set aside.

UNICEF has made provision forthe reconstruction of all ofNdjamena's welfare centres and forothers outside the capital. Given allthe uncertainties of the Chadian

situation, this is one of the soundestpossible investments, for thewomen of Ndjamena have made aconcerted effort and demonstratedtheir determination to improve thesituation of themselves and theirfamilies.

ICEF 9066/Murrav-Lw

4

I

through July.

I•

3

26

The 1982 session of the Executive Board

UNICEF's main session of the Executive Boardmet i?i May 1982 in a climate of globalrecession and concern for mothers andchildren.

22 per cent in real terms over 1981.Smaller increases are foreseen through1985, with growth of real income (ad-justed for inflation) running at aboutone per cent annually. UNICEF ac-cordingly will focus its efforts on themost disadvantaged children, par-ticularly in the poorest countries. Inorder to maximize the effect of theseefforts, UNICEF will promote low-cost but effective interventions in suchareas as infant and child feeding, childimmunization, provision of essentialdrugs, diarrhoea] disease control,women's functional literacy and theeducation of girls. UNICEF will con-tinue to promote the provision ofclean water as a critical entry point forbasic services, and the provision ofsanitation facilities. There will be in-creased emphasis on the disseminationof child welfare messages through themass media.

In terms of expenditure, the me-dium term plan foresees the largestincreases in basic child health andwater supply and sanitation which,taken together, will continue to ac-count for well over half of UNICEF'sassistance. Staffing policy will remaintightly constrained, with no overallgrowth at Headquarters and the Of-fice for Europe in Geneva and onlymodest growth in core posts in the

ICEF91H0/Mcra

The UNICEF Executive Board, in itsMay 1982 session, chaired by DraganMatcljak of Yugoslavia, approved inprinciple new or extended multi-yearsupport totalling $479 million to pro-grammes for children in 43 of the 112countries with which UNICEF co-op-erates. This total includes $227 mil-lion in commitments from UNICEF'sgeneral resources and $252 millionin projects that the Board considersworthy of support if additional con-tributions for specific purposes arcforthcoming. At a special sessionin October 1981 the Board approveda two-year budget of $171 millionfor administrative and programme-support services at Headquarters andin UNICEF's 131 field offices aroundthe world.

In major policy decisions, the Boarddecided to expand support for basic

^grvices programmes for the rapidlyf^-owing numbers of children in urban

areas of the developing countries; tolaunch a new attack on childhood mal-nutrition in a number of countries.

mostly in Africa, in collaboration withthe World Health Organization; andto continue extending UNICEF's co-operation within countries to inter-mediate and local levels, where basicservices programmes arc actually im-plemented.

Medium termworkplanIn the face of persistent global eco-nomic recession, the effects of whichbear hardest on the children of poorfamilies in the developing countries—while at the same time reducing theflow of development assistance—theboard adopted a medium-term work-plan, 1981-85, designed to maximizethe impact of UNICEF's assistance.The generous response of donors toUNICEF's appeal for support raisedUNICEF's anticipated income for1982 to $385 million, an increase of

Urban basic servicesThe urban strategy for the 1980s ap-proved by the Board is a broad-basedintegrated approach to the problemsof urban children through communityparticipation. The situation hasreached a critical point: for the firsttime in history, urban populationgrowth in the developing world ex-ceeds rural population growth in abso-lute terms. In the next twenty years thenumber of urban children in develop-ing countries will almost double, from

non-governmental organizationsshould be increased, the Board alsoagreed, both within countries and be-tween countries. ^—.

were still relatively small. Nationalgovernments and the whole interna-tional community, as well as UNICEFitself, should spare no efforts to findincreased resources for such pro-grammes.

The fact that the urban basic ser-vices approach offers a viable low-costalternative to traditional sectoral ap-proaches was noted as "most encour-aging" as was .the spread of this ideathrough "advocacy by doing". TheBoard accordingly recommended thatthe urban basic services strategy, withits community-based emphasis, shouldbe continued and supported in addi-tional countries. UNICEF shouldsupport incorporation of the urbanbasic services approach into projects otwhich the main concern was improv-ing the physical environment of acommunity,'such as slum upgrading,or the provision of water and sanita-tion, or post-disaster settlements.UNICEFs task in these projectsshould continue to be to promotecommunity involvement and the sys-tematic linking of social with physicaldevelopment.

Opportunities for exchange of expe-riences in urban basic services amongresponsible officials, professionals and

369 million to 666 million, and largenumbers of these children will live atthe margins of existence, lacking thesimplest, most basic services whichmight allow them a reasonable chanceof breaking out of the cycle of povertyand developing their own potential.

UNICEF's basic services strategyfor the urban poor places special em-phasis on childhood malnutrition; thesituation of women; pre-school andday-care services; responsible parent-hood and family planning; abandonedand disabled children; and the provi-sion of adequate water supply and san-itation. UNICEF is presently co-operating with 43 countries in urbanprogrammes, and the Board's actionopens the way for more extensive co-operation.

In the debate several delegates em-phasized that increased assistance tothe urban poor should not be at theexpense of programmes for the ruralpoor. At the same time, as otherspointed out, the amounts UNICEFwas devoting to urban programmes

Hunger andmalnutrition

The Board approved a major initiativeunder which UNICEF will collabo-rate with WHO to help reduce hungerand malnutrition among children andmothers. The Italian Government willcontribute $100 million to the five-year joint programme (1982-86). Otthis $85 million will be spent onhealth and nutrition programmes in atleast 15 countries and S15 million willgo to essential drugs for hard-pressedAfrican countries.

The undertaking comes at a time orgrowing need. It is estimated that ofthe 17 million children who died in1981, at least half died from malnutri-tion and associated causes.

The WHO/UNICEF support isbased on an integrated approach re-cognizing that malnutrition resultsfrom a number of factors, of whicjg.

An integrated approach to malnutritionis required: lack of food is only one factor.In an Indian village, the numtionalvalue of green leafy vegetables is ex-plained to mothers.

lack of food is but one. It stresses ac-tivities within the health sector, in-cluding prevention and early treat-ment of debilitating diseases, control

J^diarrhoea, promotion of breasttced-ijig, better weaning practices, and nu-trition education. The effort includesprovision of essential drugs, better en-vironmental health, increased house-hold food production, and provisionof food on a selective basis to theneediest communities.

Within the health sector, the coreactivities to be emphasized, besidesthe protection and promotion ofbreastfeeding, will include—duringthe weaning period—appropriatecomplementary feeding based on localfoods; monitoring the weight growthof children through their first threeyears; and the treatment and re-habilitation of malnourished children,at home in most cases but in referralcentres where necessary. Where re-quired, there will be distribution ofiron-folatc preparations to combatanaemia in young women, and dis-tribution of vitamin-A capsules toyoung children. Better care for preg-nant and nursing women, includingimproved diets, is also stressed.

#WHO and UNICEF will workth other international organizations

and national institutions to developeffective methods to improve foodavailability for nutritional needs atfamily level and other means by whichnutritional improvement may bestimulated. These include rural, agri-cultural and area development; irriga-tion schemes; urban programmes;dissemination of information throughthe mass media; formal and non-formal education; and the multifariousprogrammes carried out through non-governmental channels.

In the Jiffbt againstmalnutrition* coreactivities in thehealth sector needto be emphasized.At a health centrein rural Tanzania,a UNICEF-proivdedbaby scale is usedto weigh a child:weight records arean essential gaugeof a child's nutri-tional development.

tempt to serve larger proportions oftheir populations. UNICEFs activitiesat sub-national level are carried out inagreement, and close collaboration,with national governments.

The Board noted with approvalUNICEFs increasing co-operationwith the non-governmental sector toreach under served families and chil-dren. As well as the traditional volun-tary organizations, this sector includesuniversities, development institutesand semi-autonomous authorities.The non-governmental sector includesmany of the most effective channelsfor promoting community involve-ment in programmes to improve thecondition of children and mothers,and many programmes initiated byvoluntary organizations lend them-selves to replication by government.This is particularly so when die organ-izations are rooted in the local culture,have close and long-standing com-

munity connections, and are experi-enced in organizing people at thegrass-roots level.

The Board felt that there should begreater use of national staff in sub-national offices and noted the need forgreat flexibility in the approach to thiscomplex and sensitive issue. Co-opera-tion at these levels, it was observed,"requires close understanding of localtraditions and cultural patterns,"Co-operation at the

local levelThe Board noted with approval thecontinuing effort to strengthenUNICEFs field operations at the locallevel. New country offices have beenopened in small countries previouslyserved by area offices, and in largecountries sub-national offices have

|^%en opened at intermediate and localrcvel. Support to intermediate and lo-cal institutions becomes particularlyimportant as more governments at-

Other programmeissues

Other main programme issues dis-cussed by the Board included primaryhealth care; increased co-operationwith NGOs, other United Nationsorganizations, and bilateral aid pro-grammes; more systematic monitor-

Chairman Dn&an Mateljak (right).inS and evaluation of UNICEF's co-operation; the needs of abandonedchildren; and programmes benefitingwomen. On primary health care, theBoard felt that while UNICEF hadmade commendable efforts to pro-mote primary health care, it shouldincrease its efforts and assist Govern-ments, particularly in die training orhealth personnel, to adopt alternativesystems for the delivery of health careto neglected areas.

Disarmament messageThe Board appealed to the UN Gen-eral Assembly to take whatever steps itcould to ensure a reduction in arma-ments "so that a part of the savings canbe channelled through national ormultinational programmes towardmeeting the minimum requirementsof children everywhere—adequate nu-trition, safe water, primary health careand suitable education."

The appeal was the subject of a mes-sage adopted by consensus, to thesecond special session on disarmamentat United Nations Headquarters, 7June to 9 July. The Board, recallingthat it had sent a message to the hrstspecial session on disarmament in1978 noted that "the waste ot techni-cal, financial, human and natural re-sources for armaments to thedetriment of solving urgent social andeconomic problems, particularly in thedeveloping countries, appears intol-erable against the background ot hard-ships and suffering of children in mostdeveloping countries."

Officers of the Board for 1982-83

Chairman (ExecutiveBoard):H. E. Mr. Hugo Schclrema (Netherlands!

Chairman (Programme-Committee):Mrs. Serlatlrevi-al (India)

Chairman (Committee on Administrationand Finance): Mr. Francois Nordmann(Switzerland)

First Vice-Chairman:

Dr. Haydcc Martinez dc Osono (\OKZUCUQ, J

Second Vice-Chairman: " * -Mr. Mihaly Simai (Hungary)

Third Vice-Chairman:H. E. Mr. Amara Essy (Ivory Coast)

fourth Vice-Chairman:Dr. Basharat Jazbi (Pakistan)

Secretary-General'sstatementUnited Nations Secretary-GeneralJavier Perez dc Cucfllar, addressing theBoard on the final day of its session,said the plight of children and motherswhom UNICEF serves continues togrow more acute each day. He askedgovernments to contribute generouslyon behalf of UNICEFs efforts. "Ourtangible support for UNICEFs workis the only measure of our true deter-mination'that children should sufferno more," the Secretary-General saidadding: "For many millions of people,UNICEF is the first and perhaps theonlv hand of the United Nationswhich reaches directly into their every-day lives." O

%Z#&%7&"«MadagascarMexicoNepalNetherlandsNorwayPakistanPanamaSomaliaSwazilandSwedenSwitzerlandThailand

Union of SovietSocialist Republics

United Arab EmiratesUnited Kingdom of

Great Britain andNorthern Ireland

United Statesof America

Upper VottaVenezuelaYugoslavia

AlgeriaAustriaBahrainBangladeshBarbadosBelgiumBotswana

CanadaCentral African

Republic

German DemocraticRepublic

Germany, federalRepublic ofHungary

Ivory Coast

meat has been involved in trainingactivities over the past two decades,including outreach programmes oftraining for paramedical personneland the training of medical per-sonnel in community medicine,and has pioneered an innovativeprogramme in community healthin the countries of the English-speaking Caribbean. The Depart-ment has also developed the tirstcommunity health aid trainingprogramme in these countries.The award will help support theDepartment's continued activitiesin these fields.

Maurice PateMemorial Award

Every year the Maurice PateMemorial award, established tocommemorate UNICEFs first Ex-ecutive Director, is given to a train-ing institution in a developingcountry that has done outstandingwork to further programmes torchildren and mothers. The Boardmade the 1982 award ($15,000) tothe University of the West Indiesfor its Department of Social andPreventive Medicine. The Depart-

ZJNICEF's finances: income, commitments, and

appeal for funds, has suggested a totalincome in 1982 will reach an esti-mated $385 million.

Income from governments and in-tergovernmental organizations ac-counted for 77 per cent of UNICEF'stotal income of 1981, with non-gov-ernmental income accounting for 23

per cent. The pie charts on page 34show the division between govern-mental and non-governmental incomefor the years 1977 and 1981. The mapon pages 32-33 shows individual gov-ernment contributions by country for1981 along with a list of non-govern-mental contributions by country.

IncomeUNICEFs income comes as voluntarycontributions from governments andindividuals. The latter includes fund-raising campaigns by National Com-mittees for UNICES the sale of greet-ing cards, and individual donations.

Income in 1981 came to S291 mil-lion. This included $23 million for thefinal year of the special Kampucheanrelief operation. Exclusive of Kam-puchean relief, income was $268 mil-lion, representing a small increase overthe comparable figure of $259 millionfor 1980, and considerably lower thanprojected. However an exceptional re-sponse by many donors to a special

$385mContributions forgeneral resourcesUNICEFs income is divided betweencontributions for general resourcesand contributions for specific pur-poses. General resources arc the fundsavailable to the organization to fulfillassistance commitments to countryprogrammes approved by the Execu-tive Board and to meet budgetary andprogramme support expenditures.General resources include contribu-tions from more than 150 govern-ments, the net income from theGreeting Cards Operation, funds con-tributed by rhe public, and otherincome.

Generalresources

Specificpurposes

Contributions forspecific purposesFor some years UNICEF has appealedto governments and n on-governmen-tal organizations for contributions tolong-term projects for whichUNICEF resources arc insufficient,and for relief and rehabilitation inemergency situations. In the period1977-1981, about 28 per cent ofUNICEF's total income was contrib-uted for specific purposes.

Projects funded by specific-purposecontributions are prepared in the sameway as those funded from generalresources. Most are in countriesclassified by the United Nations as"least developed'1 or "most seriouslyaffected".

UNICEF income for the years1977-1981 and projected incomefor 1982 is shown in the bar charton page 31 divided between generalresources and specific purposes.

1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 (est.)

U N I C E F InCOHlC 1 9 7 7 - 8 2 (inmUUonsof US doUars)

(in thousands of US dollars)

Contributions to UNICEF's general resources are shown at right;additional contributions for specific purposesare shown in colour, at left.

OCEANIAAustralia•146.2 2,801.0

New Zealand62.1 598.3

NORTH AMERICA

W?A* 8'3*8"4

United States of Americahj?).l 35,972.7

LATINAMERICA

Antigua

Argentina103.4

Bahamas f #The World on the Azimuthal Equidistant Projection

centered at New York City.

Malaysia-5.0 364.9Maldives

Germany, FederalRepublic of1.M5.H ...4,856.7

Holy Sec

Hungary

Iceland

Ireland

Kuwait

Lesotho

Libyan ArabJamahiriya 75.0Madagascar

Malawi

Grenada

Guatemala

Guyana

Mongolia

Pakistan

4.S49.K ...4,832.7

Liechtenstein

Luxembourg

Monaco

NetherlandsH--15.4 ...8,130.0

Lebanon»,iyo.9 21.7

Mauritania

Mauritius

Morocco

Nigeria

Rwanda

Honduras

Jamaica

Mexico

Montserrat

Philippines

Republic of Korea

Singapore

Norway4.8i5,S ..12,420.8

Poland

Portugal

Romania

San Marino

Saudi Arabia1.000.0

Syrian Arab Republic

Seychelles

Somalia

Swaziland

Tunisia

Panama

Paraguay

Saint Lucia

Sri Lanka

Indonesia

3.68U.U ...6,191.2Hong Kong

Thailand

Viet Nam

EUROPEAustria

B.S.S.R.

Belgium3 5u 880.0

Bulgaria

Czechoslovakia

Denmark*>8«" 5,136.7

EuropeanEconomicCommunity

Sweden3,634 h ..24,299.7

Switzerland2,305.3 ...3,507.4

Ukrainian S.S.R.

United Kingdom

x*> .... n , O 20 .aYugoslavia

United ArabEmirates

United Republicof Cameroon

United Republicof Tanzania

Zambia

Saint Vincent andthe Grenadines

St. Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla 0.8

Trinidad & Tobago

Venezuela

Finland-"I -" 2,098.8

GermanDemocraticRepublic

MIDDLE EAST

,V^*b Gulf Fund\ 22,000.0Bahrain

Democratic Yemen

AFRICA

Ethiopia

Gambia

Guinea-Bissau

Ivory Coast

Botswana

Congo

Djibouti

British VirginIslands 0.3

Dominica

Dominican Republic

EcuadorColombia

1981 non-governmental contributions (in US dollars)

proceeds from greeting card sa le s^

Nigeria 42.460Norway > ->-,.-.. 958,500Pakistan •.. 74,450Panama 18,350Paraguay , . . . , , 35,900Peru .,..->.,; 107,300Philippines.« * 36,700Poland 489,400Portugal 40,900Romania , . 27,000Saudi Arabia 79,600Senegal 21,300Singapore 17,100Spain 1,342,000Sri Lanka 13,450Sweden 1,038.000Switzerland 3,566,500Thailand 45,400Trinidad&Tobago 10,450Turkey 96,150Uganda 38,150United Arab Emirates . . . . 14,600United Kingdom of

Great Britain andNorthern Ireland 638,650

Countries where non-governmental contributions exceeded $10,000 (figures include

Germany, FederalRepublic of....

GuatemalaGuyanaHungaryIceland

Indonesia

Ivory Coast

LebanonLuxembourg . . .MalaysiaMexicoMonacoMoroccoMozambique . . .NetherlandsNew Zealand.,,

Algeria 243,500Angola 21,200Argentina 283,100

775,000999,450

Belgium 1,529,650

9,212,500

275,500

364,950

199,1001,040,000

4,881,300

4,317,300

Australia.

Bangladesh.

23,0001,960,500

Bolivia.

BulgariaCanada 7,184.900

344,300158,600

710,500

ColombiaCosta Rica

CzechoslovakiaDenmarkDominican Republic . . . .Ecuador

El SalvadorEthiopiaFinland 3,107.450France 9,506,850German Democratic

Republic 62,500

UNICEF Income 1981

$223mTotal income from governments

and intergovernmentalorganizations

1977

Total income from governmentsand intergovernmental

organizations

15% Specific purposes

29% N»n-&o w n i m c n t a J 23%"iy7° income

56% General resources 59%

Total income$291mTotal income

$164m

are usually approved for several years,matching where possible the period ofa country's current development plan,to support long-term efforts to im-prove the condition of children. Themap on pages 20-21 shows existingprogramme commitments from gen-eral resources for each of the 112 coun-tries currently assisted by UNICEE

assistance and for the budget. Thepace of expenditure on a countryprogramme is based on requirements,as these result from programme imple-mentation by national agencies con-

In 1981, UNICEFs total expendi-ture for programmes came to $293million, including S70 million in cashassistance for training costs and otherlocal expenses, $149 million in supplyassistance, and $74 million in pro-gramme support and administrationat field level.

The bar chart on this page showsexpenditures on programme assistancefor 1977-1981 and projected expendi-

Uruted Republic ofTanzania 33,900

United States ofAmerica .,.,...,,^....r..... 11.344,000

Uruguay „, 147,600Venezuela 80,000Yugoslavia , . , . . , . 234,700Zambia 26,300

Contributions under$10,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194,850

TOTAL... . . . . . . , 69,718,000

Less costs ofGreeting CardOperation*. 15,342,550

Net available forUNICEF assistance . . . . 54,375,450

Expenditures

The Executive Director authorizesexpenditures to fulfill commitmentsapproved by the Board for programme

UNICEF Expenditures (In millions of US dollars)

Cash assistance

$322m$314mSupply assistance

•Costs of producing cards, brochures,freight, overhead.

Pledging ConferenceAs a result of pledges at the UnitedNations Pledging Conference forDevelopment Activities in November1981 and announced later, UNICEF'sincome for general resources in 1982was expected to total $275 million.Some of the larger increases pledged,in percentage terms based on nationalcurrency, were Italy 100%; France64%; Australia 46%; Netherlands42%; Finland 35%; Japan 32%; Nor-way 29%; Denmark 18%; Austria17%; United States of America 15%;Switzerland 14%; Canada 10%; andSweden 8%.

Commitments

CThe use of UNICEF resources is de-cided by the Executive Board throughits approval of commitments for pro-gramme co-operation and for budgetsupport. Programme commitments 1981

(projected)

35

Expenditure on Programmes by Sector

Health*

Supply

1977. Total Expenditure$106.0 million

Nutrition

1981. Total Expenditure$218.0 millionServices for

Children

Formal &Non-formalEducation

Planning &

Support Services

mergency jg^L

Family planning component is included in basic health

1977 turcs for 1982. The bar and pic chartson this page show programme expen-ditures by sector from 1977-1981, byamount and by proportion respec-

Liquidity provisionUNICEF works with countries to pre-pare programmes so that commit-ments can be approved by theExecutive Board some two or threevears in advance of major expenditureson these programmes. UNICEF docsnot hold resources to cover the cost ofthese commitments, but depends onfuture income to cover expendituresfrom general resources. The organiza-tion does, however, maintain a liqui-dity provision to cover temporaryimbalances between income receivedand spent, as well as to absorb dif-ferences between income and expendi-ture estimates. The present liquiditypolicy is to hold a cash balance suffcdent' to cover at least one montl^commitments from general resource;at the lowest point of the contribu-tions cycle.

&&& —

Itfn 8%

1981

What UNICEF is and does

ticular sectoral investment such ashealth or education. A large measureof public support is essential for therealization of UNICEFs objectivesbecause of the high level of nationaland international priority UNICEFtries to secure on behalf of children.For this reason, UNICEF places greatimportance in its relationships withthe National Committees forUNICEF and with non-governmentalorganizations.

Jrigins and currentmandateThe United Nations InternationalChildren's Emergency Fund was cre-ated on 1] December 1946 by theGeneral Assembly of the United Na-tions during its first session. In its firstyears, the Fund's resources werelargely devoted to meeting the emer-gency needs of children in post-warEurope and China for food, drugs andclothing. In December 1950, the Gen-eral Assembly changed the Fund'smandate to emphasize programmes oflong-range benefit to children of de-veloping countries. In October 1953,the General Assembly decided thatUNICEF should continue this workindefinitely and its name was changedto United Nations Children's Fund,although the well-known acronym"UNICEF" was retained.

In 1976, the General Assembly pro-claimed 1979 as the International Yearof the Child (IYC) and designated

IUNICEF as the lead agency of thelinked Nations system responsible foro-ordinating support for the Year's

activities, mainly undertaken at na-tional level. In 1979, at the end of theYear, the General Assembly madeUNICEF lead agency of the' UnitedNations system for IYC follow-up.UNICEF thus took on a respon-sibility for drawing attention to needsand problems common to children inboth developing and industrializedcountries. Although this extendedUNICEF's area of concern, it did notdiminish the Fund's over-riding pre-occupation with die problems of chil-dren in developing countries.

Combining humanitarian and de-velopment objectives, UNICEF co-operates with developing countries intheir efforts to protect their childrenand to enable them to fulfill their po-tential. This co-operation takes placewithin the context of national de-velopment efforts.Its ultimate goal isto enable every child to enjoy the basicrights set out in the International Dec-laration of the Rights of the Child.

UNICEF is unique among the or-nizations of the United Nations sys-

tem in having a concern for aparticular age-group rather than a par-

OrganizationUNICEF is an integral part of the

United Nations but it has a semi-au-tonomous status, with its own govern-ing body, the Executive Board, and itsown secretariat. The Board, estab-lishes UNICEF's policies, reviewsprogrammes and commits funds forprojects and the work of the organiza-tion. To assist it in its work the~Board

d In 1950, UNICEF's mandate was changed in order that the lomj-nrm metis of womenand children m the developing countries could be emphasized. A Masai mother in southernKenya with her firstborn baby.

UNICEF co-operates with develop-ing countries in several ways. It assistsin the planning and extension of ser-vices benefiting children, and in theexchange of experience between coun^tries. It provides funds to strengthc ;the training and orientation of na-tional personnel, and it delivers tech-nical supplies, equipment and otheraid for extending services.

Co-operation is extended to pro-grammes through a number of sec-toral ministries, such as health,education, social services, agricultureand those ministries or other au-thorities responsible for rural develop-ment, community development, andwater supply and sanitation.

However, in communities theseproblems are usually not perceived orexperienced by sector, and technicalsupport is often needed from severalministries. The problem of child mal-nutrition, for example, is usually acombined problem of poverty, inade-quate health services, and food short-ages; it may also stem from lack ofbirth spacing and clean water and san-itation, or from dietary ignorance.Efforts in any one sector may fail ifcorresponding efforts in others arcnot made simultaneously. UNICEFtherefore recommends a multiscctor

relations with donor governments,National Committees for UNICEF,and non-governmental organizations.These staff were provided for in 1981under the administrative services bud-get. In 1982-83 these services arcbeing provided under a unified bien-nial budget.

has a Programme Committee and aCommittee on Administration and Fi-nance. The Board has a regular mainannual session and its reports arc re-viewed by the Economic and SocialCouncil and the General Assembly.

From 1957 to 1982 the Board had a30-nation membership, 10 membersbeing elected each year for a three-yearterm by the UN Economic and SocialCouncil. Following agreementreached at a special Board session inApril 1982, membership has been en-larged to 41 countries — also to beelected by rotation for three-yearsterms — to include nine membersfrom Africa, nine from Asia, six fromLatin America, 12 from Western Eu-rope and other areas, and four fromEastern Europe. The 41st seat will ro-tate among these regional groups.

The Executive Director, who is re-sponsible for the administration ofUNICEF, is appointed by the UnitedNations Secretary-General in con-sultation with the Board.

UNICEF field offices are the keyoperational units for advocacy, advice,programming and logistics. Under theoverall responsibility of the UNICEFRepresentative, programme officersassist relevant ministries and institu-tions with the preparation and imple-mentation of programmes in whichUNICEF is co-operating. In 1982UNICEF maintained 39 field officesserving 112 countries, with 609 pro-fessional and 1,253 clerical and othergeneral service posts. Additional pro-gramme staff undertake procurementin New York, Geneva, and Copen-hagen where UNICEF maintains apacking and assembly centre. Thesestaff and office facilities were providedfor in 1981 under UNICEF's pro-gramme support budget.

In 1982, 199 professional and 322general staff were maintained in NewYork and Geneva, for service of theExecutive Board, policy developmentand direction, financial and personnelmanagement, audit, information, and

UNICEF co-operationwith developingcountriesUNICEF co-operates in programmesin a country only in consultation withthe government. The actual admin-istration of a programme is under-taken by the government, and is theresponsibility of die government, orof organizations designated by it.

The problems of children require aflexible, country-by-country ap-proach. No one formula appliesequally in countries at different levelsof development, with cultural, geo-graphical and economic diversities,and widely varying adinistrativc struc-tures. UNICEF seeks to adjust thepattern of its co-operation to corre-spond to national and sub-nationalvariations.

Problems in theircommunities are rarely perceived

or experienced by people as belonging to aparticular sector. Women bring their children

to a class in Chad, and learn about health,nutrition, and child care simultaneously.

approach encompassing both thetechnical and the social elements ofprogrammes.

increased when a combination of finan-cial resources, and of technical andoperating skills, is applied to their de-sign and implementation. This systemof relationships helps UNICEF avoidspreading its co-operation too thinlyamong different sectoral concerns indeveloping countries. In certain coun-tries, UNICEF's contribution towardsdealing with a particular problem maybe small in money terms, but catalyticin effect, providing a nucleus of prepa-ration for larger-scale co-operationwhereby an approach may be testedand proven before substantial invest-ments arc made by other organiza-tions with far greater resources.

Within the United Nations system,collaboration ranges from the sharingof expertise at the country level in de-veloping programmes which requirean interdisciplinary approach, to sys-tematic exchanges between organiza-tions on policies and relevantexperience. These exchanges occurboth through the machinery of theAdministrative Committee on Co-or-dination (ACC), and through periodic-al tcr-secretariat meetings held withother United Nations organizationssuch as the World Bank, the UnitedNations Development Programme(UNDP), the Food and AgricultureOrganization (FAO) and the UnitedNations Educational, Scientific andCultural Organization (UNESCO).Agencies also discuss common con-cerns through the Consultative Com-mittee on Policies and Programmesfor Children, the successor to the in-reragency advisory group establishedduring the International Year of theChild (IYC) 1979.

UNICEF's policies for co-operationin country programmes benefit fromthe technical advice of specializedagencies of the United Nations suchas the World Health Organization(WHO), FAO, UNESCO, and theInternational Labour Organization(ILO). At the country level, UNICEFdoes not duplicate services availablefrom the specialized agencies, butworks with them to support pro-grammes, particularly where minis-tries such as health and education areinvolved, with which the relevant spe-cialized agency has relations. In addi-tion, the specialized agencies fromtime to time collaborate withUNICEF in preparing joint reportson particular programme areas. Inparticular there is a Joint UNICEF/WHO Committee on Health Policy

Criteria forco-operationUNICEF is primarily concerned withthe long-term priority problems ofchildren. It tries to encourage govern-ments to undertake a regular review ofthe situation of their children and toinclude a national policy for childrenin their comprehensive development

UNICEF's criteria in working withgovernments on development of na-tional services include the following:• as a fundamental objective, the

strengthening the country's capac-ity to deal progressively with theneeds and problems of its children;

• priority to strengthening servicesbenefiting children in low-incomeor other deprived groups, aimingeventually at universal rural and ur-ban coverage;

• support for innovative and "pre-in-vestment" projects in order to testmethods that may subsequently beused on a large scale;

• emphasis on the use of national orregional expertise;

• the strengthening and extension ofin-country efforts to train andprovide orientation for personnelinvolved in services benefitingchildren;

• evaluating continuing costs to thecountry as carefully as those toUNICEF;

• viewing the cost of UNICEF co-operation benefits to children (di-rect or indirect), irrespective of anyadditional benefits to other agegroups;

• giving relatively more support toprogrammes benefiting children inthe least developed and other low-income countries.

cBasic servicesCommunity participation is the keyelement of the "basic services strategy5'advocated by UNICEF. This strategy,evolved through experience in manycountries with differing economic andpolitical systems, is an alternative torelying on the slow spread of conven-tional health, education and social ser-vices to meet the urgent needs ofchildren and mothers.

The approach perceives social andeconomic improvement in low-in-come rural and urban communities asheavily dependent on the involvementand participation of the communitiesthemselves.

The role of government, non-gov-ernment organizations and externalco-operation is, first, to stimulate as-sessment by the community of its chil-dren's needs and its agreement toparticipate in meeting some of them;second, to strengthen the technical

' r s i d administrative infrastructuretrough which family and communityefforts can be supported; third toprovide through this infrastructurecash supplies and training oppor-tunities which match the community'scapacity to absorb them.

An essential feature of the approachis the selection by the community ofone or more of its members to serve ascommunity workers after brief practi-cal training, repeated and extendedthrough refresher courses. Theseworkers are then on hand to deal withcommunity needs and can refer prob-lems beyond their competence or re-sources to the relevant services at thenext level of the system. To supportthe community workers, the pe-ripheral and intermediate-level gov-ernment services often have to bestrengthened, particularly with para-professionals.

Given enough support from outsidethe community, a great deal can bedone within it to improve serviceswhich affect the well-being of chil-' en. By mobilizing hitherto unused>mpctence within the community,

this can be done at recurrent costswhich the country and the communitycan afford.

Relations within theUnited Nations Systemand with other agenciesUNICEF is part of a system of co-operative relationships among thevarious organizations of the UnitedNations system. It also works with bi-lateral aid agencies and non-govern-mental organizations, recognizing thatthe impact of programmes intended tobenefit children can be substantially

f-OChildren in developing countries takepart in performing household chores frmn anearly age. A little Somali girl brings waterfrom the well.

(TCHP) which advises on policies ofco-operation in health programmesand undertakes periodic reviews.

UNICEF representatives in the fieldwork with the UNDP Resident Rep-resentatives, most of whom arc desig-nated by the Secretary-General asResident Co-ordinators for opera-tional activities. Although UNICEF isnot an executing agency of UNDP, itexchanges information with all theagencies involved in UNDP countryprogramme exercises.

UNICEF co-operates in countryprogrammes together with otherfunding agencies of the United Na-tions system, such as the World Bank,the United Nations Fund for Popula-tion Activities (UNFPA), and theWorld Food Programme (WFP). Italso works with regional developmentbanks and regional economic and so-cial commissions on policies and pro-grammes benefiting children. In-creasingly, UNICEF has soughtcollaboration with bilateral agencies atfield level to channel more of their re-sources into programmes whichUNICEF cannot fund by itself.

In the case of emergencies,UNICEF works with the Office ofthe United Nations Disaster ReliefCoordinator (UNDRO), the UnitedNations High Commissioner for Re-fugees (UNHCR), and other agenciesof the United Nations system such asthe World Food Programme, theLeague of Red Cross Societies andthe International Committee of theRed Cross.

As a result of the International Yearof the Child (IYC), many nongovern-mental organizations expanded theiractivities, fund-raising and advocacyefforts, on behalf of children. Amongthem were some organizations not tra-ditionally concerned with children.UNICEF is continuing to foster theserelationships providing information,and encouraging joint programmes onissues affecting children in developingand industrialized countries, betweenNGOs, governments and UNICEF.

National Committeesfor UNICEFThe National Committees forUNICEF, normally organized in in-dustrialized countries, play an impor-tant role in helping to generate abetter understanding of the needs ofchildren in developing countries andof the work of UNICEF. The C o n y ^mittees of which there are now 33, ar,concerned with increasing financialsupport tor UNICEF, either indirectlythrough advocacy, education and in-formation, or directly through the saleof greeting cards and other fund-rais-ing activities.

In 1981, UNICEF received $34.5million collected under the auspices ofthe National Committees. Also, in1981, S18.4 million in net income wasreceived from the Greeting Card Op-eration for which die committees werethe main sales agents. The increasingactivism of National Committees hasbrought notable results, particularly infund-raising, promotional and infor-mational activities, and developmenteducation. A number of committeeshave been instrumental in drawingwide public attention to emergencysituations affecting children as well asto the "silent emergencies" confront-ing the children of the developingcountries year-in, year-out. In recentyears, there has been a closer relation-ship between National Committeesand UNICEFs field operations, W I t M )committee members from a number o f vcountries undertaking collective studytours to the field to enhance theirknowledge of the needs of children in

National and local non-governmen-tal organizations are also playing anincreasingly important role inUNlCEF's programme co-operationin developing countries in the light orUNlCEF's emphasis on communityparticipation in basic services. ManyNGOs have a flexibility and a freedomto respond to neglected problems, orhave a presence in remote and de-prived areas where little or no otherservice infrastructure yet exists. SuchNGOs can act as vital links betweenthe community and government au-thorities and unlike UNICEF canwork directly with local communitiesto help them mobilize their own re-sources and plan basic services. In cer-tain situations, NGOs are designatedbv governments to carry out part ofthe programmes with which UNICEFis co-operating. Through innovativeprojects, NGOs can experiment withmodels for development co-operationwhich UNICEF and others can subse-quently adapt in other areas or under-take on a wider scale.

Non-governmental organizationsalso provide UNICEF with informa-tion, opinion and recommendations infields where they have special compe-tence, and in some cases undertakestudies on behalf of, or in co-opera-tion with, UNICEF. Following onesuch special study on childhood dis-ability undertaken by RehabilitationInternational, an ongoing partnershiphas been developed between the twoorganizations to reinforce mutual

Relations withnon-governmentalorganizationsUNICEF has always worked closelywith the voluntary sector. Over theyear UNICEF has developed closeworking relationships with interna-tional non-governmental organiza-tions (NGOs) whose work bears onthe situation of children. Many ofthese organizations (professional, de-velopment assistance, service, re-ligious, business, trade and labourorganizations) have become impor-tant supporters of UNICEF, bothby providing a channel for advocacyon behalf of children, and by theirparticipation in fund-raising and inprogrammes.

the developing countries. An impor-tant function of the committees is ad-vocacy with their own governmentsfor increased assistance to meet these

income (excluding contributions forKampuchean relief).

For many years, ten countries ac-counted for almost 90 per cent of gov-ernment contributions. Disturbed bythis imbalance, the United NationsGeneral Assembly has called for amore equitable distribution of govern-ments1 voluntary contributions. Sim-ilarly, the Executive Board appealed toall governments, especially those thatwere not contributing to UNICEF inrelation to their financial capacity, toincrease their contributions.

Individuals and organizations arealso essential sources of UNICEF's in-come, accounting for about 16 percent in 1981. As what is often de-scribed as the "people to people" armof the United Nations, UNICEF en-joys a unique relationship with privateorganizations and the general publicthroughout the world. Public supportis manifested not only through greet-ing card sales, but through individualcontributions, the proceeds from ben-efit events ranging from concerts tofootball matches, grants from oganiza-tions and institutions, and collectionsby school children. Often these fund-raising efforts are sponsored bvNational Committees for UNICEF. '

Despite die modest volume of its fi-nancial resources, UNICEF is one ofthe largest sources of co-operation innational sen-ices and programmesbenefiting children. Fund-raising forUNICEF is part of a larger objectiveof encouraging the greater deploy-ment of resources for services benefit-ing children.

UNICEFs fund-raising strategyaims at meeting the financial projec-tions in its medium-term work plan byactively working to increase contribu-tions from its traditional major donorswhile developing support from otherpotential sources.

For 1981 the newly created ArabGulf Programme for United NationsDevelopment Organizations {AG-FUND) pledged $22 million towardUNICEFs general resources. Themoving force behind AGFUND is itspresident, UNICEFs Special EnvovH.R.H. Prince Talal Bin Abdul AzizAl Saud of Saudi Arabia. •

The following documentsand publications provideadditional informationabout the needs of childrenand the work of UNICEF:

An overview of UNICEF policies, organizationand working methods—CEJ-JLS*(E/ICEF/670/Rev. 1)

Report of the Executive Director, 1982—C,E,KR,S.* (E/ICEF/690), including:Introduction; National polio- developmentsand peoples participation; Highlightsofl981 activities; Emergency relief andrehabilitation and External relations.

Report of the Executive Board on its 1982session—C,E.F,R,S* [E/1CEF/695)

UNICEF programme co-operation atintermediate and local levels—C E FR S*(E/ICEWL.1439.1 ' " '

Urban basic services: reaching awnen andchildren if the urban /wr—C,E,F,R S*(E/ICEF/L.1440); A summary of ninecase studies—C,E.F,R,S» (E/ICEF/L.1440Add. li

Joim WHO/UNICEF support fir theimprovement ofmitniion: proposed five-tearprogramme of work, MV2-Stf-CE.FR S*(E/ICEF/L.1441)

Maintenance of community water supply andenvironmental sanitation facilities—C,E,F,R,S* (E/ICEF/L.1442)

Medium-term work plan, 1981-1985—C,E,F,R,S* (FVICEF/691)

Kampuchean emergency relief operations—C,E,F,R,S* (E/TCEF/L.1449)

Progress report on UNICEF co-opmuionwith African countries in special situations—C,E,F,R,S- (E/1CEF/L.1450)

Proposals for supplementary funding, vol. P _ E *

Financial report and statements for the yearended 31 December 19S1—C.E F R S*(E/ICEF7AB/L.239)

LesCarnets de I'EnfuncetAssignmentChildren, a quarterly review publishedby UNICEF—E,H,*

UNICEF News, published quarterlyby UNICEF—E,F,G.S*

Facts about UNICEF, 1982-1983 (leaflet)—

Ideas Forum, published four times a year-E,F*

State of the World's Children report and presskit, published annually by UNICEF—

UNICEF Films, .i catalogue of films thatUNICEF has produced or co-produced

UNICEF Catalogue of Information materials,revised annually—E,F,S*

L

Greeting CardsUNICEF's world famous greetingcards and calendars are a significantsource of income for the organiza-tion's activities on behalf of children.The designs are contributed withoutpayment by artists of distinctionaround the world and by leading mu-seums. The collaboration of thousandsof volunteers, working under the aus-pices of National Committees forUNICEF or other NGOs, plays a vitalrole in the success of the annual salescampaigns around the world—cam-paigns which give both the volunteersand the general public an opportunityto support personally the work ofUNICEF.

During the season ending 30 April1981, 117 million cards, 478,000 cal-endars, 347,000 packs of stationeryand other related items were sold in132 countries. Net income to

/*VICEF was 518.4 million, reprc-- -^PS a 7-0 per cent increase over theprevious year's $17.1 million.

Funding

In 1981 UNICEF received a total ofUSS291 million, including $268 mil-lion for regular operations and S23million for the special Kampucheanrelief operation.

All of UNICEFs income comesrrom voluntary contributions—fromgovernments, from organizations, andfrom individuals. Most contributionsare for UNICEFs general resources,or they may be for supplementary pro-jects "noted" by the Board for supportas resources become available, or foremergency relief and rehabilitationoperations.

Although most resources comefrom governments, UNICEF is not a"membership" organization with an"assessed" budget; it cannot chargegovernments a share of its expenses. In

1 135 governments of both indus-trialized and developing countries vol-untarily contributed to UNICEF,providing about 75 per cent of its total

•Documents and publications arc availablefrom the UNICEF offices listed overleaf inthe languages indicated: A/Arabic, C/Chincse,E/English, F/Frcnch, R/Russian, S/Spanish.

wPolish Q>mmitKC of Go-opcrationwith UNICEF

ul. Mokotowska, 39PL—00551 Warsaw

Ibrtugucsc Commincc for ITRua Almeida e Sousa No. 11P-Lisbon

Romanian National Committeefor UNICEF

6-8, Strada OncstiR—7000 Bucharest 1

National Commission forUNICEF of San Marino

do Scgrctaria di Stato per gli Affari EstcriSM-47031 Sm Marino

Spanish Committee tor UNItTEFMauricio Lcgendrc, 36Apartado 12021E—Madrid 16

Swedish Committee for UNICEFSkolgrand, 2Box 151 15S—104 65 Stockholm

Swiss Committee tbr UNICEFWcrdstrassc 36CH—8021 Zurich 1

Tunisian Committee fi»r UNTCEFLc Colys^cEscalicr B—Bureau 158TN—Thais

Turkish National Committeefor UNICEF

Ataturk But, No 223/5TR— Kavakfiderc-Ankara

Czechoslovak Committeefor Cooperation with UNICEF

Dirccteur dc ITnstitut dc la mfdccioecxpcrimentalc CSAVU nemocnice 2CS-128 08 Prague 2

Danish ('.oinmincc for UNICEFBillcdvcj, 8FrihavncnDK—2100 Copenhagen

Further information aboutUNICEF and its work may

UNTCEF HeadquartersUnited Nations, New York 10017

UNICEF Office for EuropeInformation DivisionPalais des Nations, CH 121L Geneva 10,Switzerland

UNICEF Office for North AfricaB.P, 660, AlgerGare, Algeria

UNICEF Regional Office for East AfricaP.O. Box 44145, Nairobi, Kenya

UNICEF Regional Office for Wen Africa04—P.O. Box 443, Abidjan 04Ivory Coast

UNICEF Regional Office for the AmericasCalk 76 No. 10-02, Bogota, Colombia

UNICEF Regional Office for East Asiaand Pakistan

P.O. Box 2-154, Bangkok, Thailand

UNICEF Regional Office for the EasternMediterranean

P.O. Box 5902, Beirut, Ixbanon

UNICEF Regional Office for South Central

73 Lodi Estate, New Delhi 110003, India

UNICEP Office for Australia andNew Zealand

P.O. Box 4045, G.RO., Sydney, Australia

UNICEF Office for Tokyoc/o United NationsInformation Centre, 22nd flnorShin Aoyama Building Nishikan1-1, Minami—Auyama 1-ChomcMinaru-Ku Tokyo 107

German CommitteeSteinfeldcr Gassc 9D—5000 Cologne 1

Finnish Committee for UNICEFPicni Rootxrrtinkaru 11SF—00130 Helsinki 13

French Committee for UNICEF35, rue Felicicn-DavidF— 75781 Paris Cedes 16

National Committee for UNICEFof the German Democratic Republic

Warschauer Smtsse 5DDR—1034 Berlin

Hellenic National Committeetor UNICEF

Xenias Street 1GR—Athens 611

Hungarian NationalCommittee for UNICEF

Bclgrid Rakpart, 24H—1056 Budapest

Irish National Committeefor UNICEF

4, St. Andrew StreetIRL-Dublin 2

Israel National Committeefor UNICEF

P.O. Box 3489II.—Jerusalem

Italian Committee for UNICEFPiazza Marconi1-00184 Rome

Japan Association for UNICEF, Inc.1-2, Azabudai 3-Chumc. Minatii-Ku

Luxembourg Committeetor UNICEF

99, Route d'ArtonL- Luxembourg

Netherlands Committeefor L'NICEF

Bankastraat, 128Postbus 85857NL—2508 CNVGravcnbagc

New Zealand NationalCommittee for UNICER Inc.

5-7, Willeston Street. G P.O B«x 122NZ—Wtlltngton 1

Norwegian Committee ftjr UNICEFOlafRyesPlassBN—O^io5

United KingdomCommittee for UNICEF

46-48 Osnaburgh SrrcciGB—London NW1 3PU

United StatesCommittee for UNICEF

331 East 38th StreetUSA—New York, NT. 10016

Yugoslav National Committeefor UNICEF

Lcnjinov Bulevar No. 2, SIV IYU-U070 Novi Belgrade

Information may also be obtainedfrom the following Committeesfor UNICEF 1

UNtC# (Wrnmc of XuamHaugh Street

AUS-Sydncy N.S.W 2000

Austrian Committee for UNICEFVienna Intcrrriitioiial Centre(UNO-City)22 Wagramer Strassc 9A-1400 Vienna

tions Associationof Cyprus,

Sub-Commincc for UNICEF14, Makarios III A -̂cnuc, 2nd floorMitsis Kldg., No. 2, Office No. 5P.O. Bos 1508CY—Nicosia

UNICEF in IcelandStoragcrdi, 30IS—108 Reykjavik

Alliance of Red Cross and RedCrescent Sucicties/sojuzObshdu-stv Krasnogo Kresu iKrasnogo Potumcstarsa I,ChcrcmLishkinskii Procetl, 5$U—Moscow 117036

Belgian Committee for UNICEFcJosephII-Boitc91040 Brussels

Bulgarian National Committeefcr UNICEF

do Ministry of Public Health5, Lenin PlaceBG—Sb6a

Canadian UNICEF Committee443, Mount Pleasant RtiadCDN—Toronto, Ontario M4S 2L8