ANNALS OF ART, CULTURE & HUMANITIESsrsshodhsansthan.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/1.-AACH... ·...

S.R.S.D. Memorial Shiksha Shodh Sansthan, Agra, India

About the Author

Abstract

Key Words% Bhand Pather, Folklore, Kashmir, Subversion, Survival.

Introduction

Our cultural values and beliefs are manifested through our lifestyle. Our life style and

moral values represent our social ethos. The importance of culture lies in its close association

with the ways of thinking and living. Understanding the cultural values of a society can be

feasible by looking at the interplay of various symbolic arts and artefacts through which

individuals in a community engage with their lived experiences.

ANNALS OF ART, CULTURE & HUMANITIES

A Peer Reviewed Refereed Research Journal

ONLINE ISSN-2455-5843 Volume II, Issue II, August 2017, pp. 01-13

www.srsshodhsansthan.org

From Subversion to Survival: A Study of Kashmir’s Folk Theatre

Arif Nisar

Research Scholar

Department of English, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi

The valley of Kashmir is a place which has been fertile in cultivating different patterns of culture

through different artistic forms. Kashmir, in fact presents prosperity for study of historicity, folklore and

anthropology. A part of this rich and diverse culture is Bhand Pather- Kashmir’s traditional and

indigenous folk theatre. Bhand Pather forms an integral part of Kashmiri culture and art. This art form

is rich in its own history. Kashmiri folk theatre since long times back serves to reflect the lives of

common masses with an experimentation of everyday life. Bhand Pather, which used to articulate

resistance and discontent, is struggling to survive within the present conflicting situations. While looking

at the historical roots of Bhand Pather, the paper would also locate its routes, which would be an

answer to the question, how this art is relegated to the margins of obscurity?

The author after completing his M.Phil (in English studies) from Department of English, Jamia

Millia Islamia, New Delhi, is currently pursuing his Ph.D on Kashmiri folklore from the same

department. For M.Phil programme, the dissertation was titled A Study of Bhand Pather: A Cultural

Phenomenon, a subversive and a Dying Art Form. For his Ph.D the author is collectively looking at

folklore of Kashmir including other folklore forms, which for a long time have been thoroughly

unattended in present day scholarship.

AACH, Vol. II, Issue II, August 2017 ONLINE ISSN-2455-5843

From Subversion to Survival… 2 | P a g e

These lived experiences turn into folkloristic materials both material as well as spiritual

which are studied and looked upon through the discipline of folkloristics. The folkloristic

materials hold the social and cultural significance to any society through different endorsed

symbols, being transmitted, from distant past to the present social setup. These folkloristics

materials are the main vibrant cultural agents through which one can easily discern one‟s culture

and identity through consciousness and persistence. Therefore, the study of these folkloristics

materials i.e. folklore introduces us to cultures that we appreciate through an understanding of

traditional folk art forms. Without an understanding of folkloristic materials from diverse

cultures, people live with many delusions which create stereotypes. Folklore basically is oriented

to study the cultures in depth. In the world of technology and media, folklore makes us

understand the meaning and order of things present in a culture.

Within the debates of challenges and methodologies, the discipline of folklore conjures to

be study of people who have marginally being labelled as folk that is to say people who are

marginalised as illiterate and subaltern. The present paper does not venture into the debates and

challenges that folklore as a discipline has faced rather it creates an endeavour to study Kashmiri

folk theatre as an art of the subaltern and illiterate group within Kashmiri society. Moreover, the

focus would be given to trace the changing contours and paradigm shift of Kashmiri folk theatre,

which is thoroughly ignored and pushed to shades of obscurity within the cultural space and, in

academics as well.

From Roots to Routes

The valley of Kashmir is a place which has been fertile in cultivating different patterns of

culture through different artistic forms and genres. Kashmir, in fact presents prosperity for study

of historicity, folklore and anthropology. A part of this rich and diverse culture is Bhand Pather-

Kashmir‟s traditional and indigenous folk theatre. Folklore, in context of Kashmir, is one among

the cardinal resources available to understand the nature of Kashmiri society. Given Kashmir‟s

long oral traditions and its various indigenous performing arts and artefacts, the folklore of

Kashmir is immensely rich. Sadly, apart from the European scholastic initiative, no other

scholarship has paved its way to reach the folk treasure of Kashmir. Therefore, a lamentable gap

is observed for a long period of time in the native (regional) scholarship, especially in academic

institutions.



Kashmiri folklore therefore lacks the institutional support throughout its development. A

scarcity is observed in collecting the original folklore, at the same time the significance of

folklore is never highlighted at academic level. After a long lamentable gap, Kashmiri folklore is

now paving its way to bigger audience, but an objective study of Kashmiri folklore is still left

unattended.

Locating the origin of any folk form would bring in many fallacies, as Alan Dundes

observes that it is not an easy task to find the origin of folklore. In his own words, “since origins

are almost unknown despite the centuries of speculative historical reconstruction efforts”

(Dundes 181). Bringing in the notions of Alan Dundes it can be argued that it will be always an

intricacy for a researcher to situate the evolutionary and originating point of Kashmir folk

theatre. Bhand Pather including other folk art forms has undergone through the challenges of

identity and alienation. Bhands according to The World Encyclopaedia of Contemporary Theatre

are the traditional folk entertainers found in India, Bangladesh, Pakistan and Nepal. The Bhands

are associated with Muslim community, which has lost all its traditional notions of folk

entertainment. One would hardly find the exact dates of roots about Bhand Pather, but the

mention of various references in many historical books and manuscripts lead us to the fact that

Kashmir had rich tradition of folk arts with a strong religious sanctity. Ramesh Tamiri

maintaining these notions writes that, “Music, dance and drama have remained part of the social

life of Kashmir‟s since time immemorial, this had strong religious sanction. Dances and dramas

used to be performed in temples during religious festivals and at the Royal court” (32). It can be

argued here, that this theatre must have been there from the very beginning of religious activities.

From historical perspective, this relationship is not seen as a matter of heritage only but

an association of shared experience is sought from its ritualistic modes. While reaching to the

historical perspective, it is substantiated that Bhand Pather essentially is a socio-cultural activity

that has evolved from ancient religious rituals. Growing out of religious rituals, thereby Bhand

Pather forms a multifarious web reflecting different aspects of political, social and economic

life. Going by the belief that Bhand Pather in the past, functioned as a representation of religious

beliefs; it is then a complex exploration to locate its origin from the inter-religious associations

throughout the shifting times in Kashmir. This would not be an inference to link it to particular

religion, rather what seems to be appropriate is to locate a unique site to discern its true nature.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepal



The conventional and ritualistic values of Bhand communities gave permanence to this folk art

by presenting either the mythological themes or relevant social subjects.

The changes, of course, are important for any art to grow and evolve, but it is very

essential to understand paradigm shift of indigenous folk arts. However the changes from its

indigenous form have not paved a platform for this theatre form to evolve and develop rather,

they have limited its vitality to limited audience. Bhand Pather has evolved as an artistic

expression of everyday life in Kashmir. Indeed Bhand Pather has “dramatised historyi” of

Kashmir but the mainstream narratives, especially the written word, from the Vale have pushed

this folk theatre form to the margins. Within these debates of mainstream discourse, the Bhand

patrons fear that, this art form might become a topic for history books only. Indeed, this folk

theatre form has evolved across the history of Kashmir with different changes to reflect the

different social circumstances at different times. The result of these changes has narrowed its

pertinence. For example, the social significance of this art form lies in the ritualistic modes that

represent all social relations. Looking at the present position of Bhand Pather, the traditional and

ritualistic notions are considered less important compared to the present modes of entertainment

only, where its position has been reduced to a simple act buffoonery or clownery. The apparent

changes of bringing Bhand Pather from the traditional approach of performances from open

fields to the small screens have limited its vitality and vibrancy. “They were loved in the local

circles for bringing to fore the sufferings of people,” says Arshad, “But they no longer can do

that, for they have been made dependent on the government instead of the common people, who

gave them a share of their crop as a token of their love”(Bhand Diplomacy).

Now, the orientation is centred towards modern fashions, which in the first place has

narrowed down the actor-spectator relationships. Secondly, Bhand Pather which used to enjoy

the open-field performance is pushed to small screens where an absence of actor-spectator

communication is observed. It has now the mute spectators or no spectators at all. Whatever

Bhand performances we have now preserved through small screen, documentaries, it can be

argued here, have no spectators at all. Spectators have had to be the active participants and

commentators throughout the performances and they are immediate critics to relate the symbolic

with the social reality that they have been part of.



Lastly, this theatre form existed initially as indigenous and independent but with the

passage of time it has been taken under government policies, this could be said that such changes

has limited its strength to explore the social reality with much emancipation.

An Activity and Art of Subversion

Jisha Menon in an interview with Frontline stated the relationship of indigenous folk art

forms and their political orientation in different contexts.

Indigenous theatre offers its own array of dramatic tools to grapple with the

asymmetries of class, caste and power. For instance, several folk forms have used

theatre to mock and ridicule those who subjugate. For instance, Jatra of Bengal,

Tamasha of Maharashtra, Burrakatha of Andhra Pradesh and Bhand Pather of

Kashmir are forms that use humour to mock and ridicule those in power. These

folk forms reveal the subversive power of comedy, its ability to question and de-

naturalise figures of authority. (Menon)

Certainly, Jisha Menon‟s observation holds true to Kashmir‟s folk theatre. In the history

of existence of theatre in Kashmir, if one looks at the tradition of Bhand performances, one

realises that these performances have been addressing issues of common masses that are central

to Kashmiri society and have been raising voice for social consciousness and change. To

understand the nature of any society it is pertinent to see the patterns of experienced and lived

world around reflected through the culture and art forms. These cultural forms in a society have

the power to confer and question the social and political institutions. In order to understand the

true historical nature of Kashmir‟s culture and artistic life, one can explore the conventions folk

arts and traditions that manifest the actual facets of social life of Kashmir. Julie Hakim Azzam in

The Alien Within: Postcolonial Gothic and the Politics of Home has talked about the praxis of

folk theatre of Kashmir in Rushdie‟s Shalimar the Clown. She remarks:

Balwant Gargi writes that the Bhand Pather “mirrors social evils” such as “the

cunning money lender, the dowry system, the corrupt police, ... [and] haughty

officials. . . . Some plays are about legendary heroes and gallant lovers. But it is

the incisive satire that characterizes” the form. Clowns play the most important



role in the Bhand Pather as they are “the preservers of this tradition.” Clowns,

also called jesters. (Azzam 198)

Both historically as well as culturally, one of the main purposes of Bhand Pather

along with other social awareness was to bring the changes from an individual-consciousness

into group consciousness. It has always attempted to bring forth the struggle of marginalised

classes of society at different levels of oppression. Intentionally or unintentionally, the Bhand

performers used this art form to fight against different forms of social injustices. Subsequently

in the contemporary theatrical realm, we observe the theatre practitioners like Bertolt Brecht

and Augusto Boal relating the real life to theatre and subsequently to politics of our times.

These theatre practitioners have opened up the limited notions of conventional theatre, by

relating it to the political life. These modern attributions of modern day theatre have

undoubtedly opened up the new possibilities of folk and regional theatres. Shafi Shauq who

writes about Bhand Pather has rightly observed:

Bandhi Paethir is and has been a powerful medium of social transformation and

has the potential of being a medium of mass education in times to come. In the

past, it has been the most popular and effective strategy of revolt against various

social evils and exploitation, and in the contemporary complex world when

mankind is beset by numerous hazards like over population, AIDS, pollution,

noise, joblessness, and terror, we hope that the Bandhi Paethir becomes a popular

form of street theatre to bring out attitudinal education among the masses. It has

the power to involve artists as well as the audiences in a participatory hermeneutic

activity. Seen against the elitist forms of art and literature, a Bandhi Paethir

counteracts appropriation and privacy of meaning by setting up a dialogical

relation between identification and distance. (Shauq)

Indeed the sufferings and miseries of common people cannot be shared through passive

modes of writing only. There is no doubt that performances at common level be it street theatre

or Forum Theatreii, share the feelings of common masses by actively engaging with spectators.

Spectators take part directly or indirectly to convey their problems by conveying the messages to

others, in order to make them aware of their own problems. In earlier times, since most people in

Kashmir were illiterate, they were not equipped with proper mediums of expression through



which they could have shared their problems. Bhand Pather served as an effective oral medium

for conveying their problems to the public. This is how Bhand performances and other folk art

forms like Ladi Shah iii

provided a voice to the spectators, enabling and empowering them to

share their views and ideas. It is indeed through the direct engagement of audience or spectators

that they used to convey the grief and sorrow directly. Shafi Shauq writes that, “It is an open

stage drama in which sometimes the spectators also partake” (Shauq 165). It can be argued here,

that these notions of Bhand Pather can be found identical with the theatrical notions of Augusto

Boal. The 20th

century Brazilian playwright Augsto Boal, whose theatrical notions went

reactionary, for he introduced a theatre against the conventional theatre which renders all the

power to actors only. His theatre is the theatre of pedagogy, a voice to the downtrodden and

oppressed section of society. One can draw a parallel between Theatre of the Oppressed and folk

theatre of Kashmir. Bhand Pather is not essentially meant to be performed at playhouses with

walled stage; it can be performed anywhere and everywhere, like the Theatre of the Oppressed.

The paradigms that it possesses make it the theatre for the oppressed and Theatre of the

Oppressed at the same time, as we can relate it to the Boalian theatrical notions whose approach

to call a theatre as oppressed is appropriate until, it is at people‟s service. Bhand Pather like

Theatre of the Oppressed is a distinctive theatre practice that aims at teaching the common

people that „everyday life is nothing but a self-contained theatre‟.

Going by the historical references, Javaid Iqbal Bhat‟ s view renders a backdrop of

Bhand Pather with specific purpose to withstand against any form of oppression at tough times

in Kashmir. With the limited resources available to them, the folk artists have given expression

through spectacle to the sufferings of the peasants. Maintaining distance from the centres of

power, they could vent their anger against the oppressive rulers through comic satire. The

political masters were not the only targets of satire but it was also creatively directed at their

local collaborators, a Munshi for example, or a Daroga. Very rich in rustic humour and satire,

produced from their costumes, body movements, and the linguistic turns and twists, these

performers have been described by Walter Lawrence, as “remover of sorrows” (Bhat 51).

The traditional theatre of Kashmir could not retain its indigenous characteristics that

might be the reason why this art form has not been taken up by most of the writers with much

integration. Though it has not retained an independent status in the cultural domain of Kashmir,



the promising features of this art form are still noteworthy. It has been used as a medium to

reflect the social, political, religious and economic predicament of different times. Any form of

subjugation and social austerity has been presented in symbolic expressions through spectacle.

Moreover, Bhand Pather did not only present the cultural and social life of Kashmir but at the

same time it portrayed Kashmir‟s tough times such as the conflicts, epidemics and struggles that

have been given visual representation in the performances. Perhaps the history books might have

missed some aspects of Kashmir‟s society but Bhand Pather has always been there, dramatising

the political, social and religious life through spectacle.

Take for example any form of Pather like Dard Pather, the performance aims at

portraying the oppression of Kashmiri‟s under the Dards, which is say the Afghan rule in

Kashmir. In this Pather, the action begins by showing the king‟s oppression on the common

masses. The king is an outsider, a foreign ruler, whose oppression on local peasantry is

extremely unbearable. The performance shows how the local peasantry turns against the

womaniser King‟s oppression. Moreover, the performance portrays the love of Kashmiri‟s for

their native language and land too. The Bhand performances always attempt to raise the

consciousness of the oppressed people to speak up and assert themselves. Bhand Pather as an

important form of Kashmiri folklore will never be adequately comprehended unless it is studied

within the debates of subversion throughout the different trajectories of time and history. Bhand

Pather which used to reflect the lives of common masses with an experimentation of everyday

life presents people‟s incredulous, tyrannical and catastrophic times faced in the times of non-

native ruler-ship from time and again has become a victim of non-existence. The performative

mode of Bhand Pather has dramatised different historical dilemmas of Kashmir‟s history.

Though the Bhand plays have descended orally, but they considerably present different scenarios

of Kashmir‟s past. With the rise of political conflict in the later years of 1980s, almost all art

forms in the valley have suffered, and it holds true to Bhand-Pather as well. The long conflict

and its adverse effects on art and theatre forms since decades of conflict have raised a

consciousness among people who now often tend to scrutinize this art form as an „Oppressed

Art‟ form. Apart from dramatising the socio-cultural history of Kashmir‟s past, Bhand Pather

has been acting a symbolic artefact for Kashmir‟s syncretic tradition. With the coming of

nationalist debates the Bhand performers try to incorporate the ethnic themes to their

performances. The performances somehow managed to spread discontent among the audience



against considering the dilemma of conflict. Indeed, Bhand performances were used as conscious

political instruments in highlighting the concurrent situations within the valley.

The very famous Dard Pather and Raaze Pather shows the excessive oppression and

tyranny of Afghan rule and another important Pather about English colonisers i.e. Angrez Pather

raises public awareness about the oppression of the British occupation in Kashmir. According to

Farooq Fayaz, these performances used to reflect the oppression in every period of turmoil in

Kashmir from old times, he mentions about the Kashmir‟s Karkota dynasty that, “During the

period of political crisis which followed the fall of Karkota rule in Kashmir, Pathers began to

reflect in a symbolic manner the court intrigues, religious conservatism, social rigidity, feudal

exploitation of Damaras and bureaucratic vandalism of official cadre known as Kayasthas” (115-

16). Bakerwal Pather- the Pather about Bakerwals/nomads bears a close likeness to Dard Pather

where the local Bakerwals are exploited in the hands of merchants. In addition, the ignorance of

the language spoken by the merchants helps them to loot the Bakerwals. The element of

oppression in all forms of Bhand Pather is present with a mixture of social significance. In fact,

all the Pathers have the themes and messages that deal with oppression and social injustice in

Kashmiri society. The performances thus bear a close relationship to the true picture of the

society and aim at the social changes at the same time. Any form of Pather highlights the evil,

corruption, misery, mischief, and all the shortcomings in socio–political order. All these notions

bear closeness to the Theatre of the Oppressed. It would not be inappropriate to call Kashmiri

folk theatre a theatre of the oppressed as it holds nearness and likeness to the Theatre of the

Oppressed.

Conclusion: From Subversion to Survival

Bhand Pather has struggled to survive from the historical dilemmas to the political and

turbulent times of conflict within Kashmir Valley. Within these existential crises, Bhand Pather

did not evolve and develop its boundaries across the nations. The question „Why and how this art

form has almost disappeared prior to and during the years of conflict‟, still haunts the Bhand

communities and theatre patrons. Ramesh Tamiri has mentioned in his book Painting and

Theatre in Kashmir that Kashmir has remained destitute in art during medieval period. In the

foreword of this book, Ratan Parimoo observes that Tamiri “has made a significant observation

that Kashmiri society for the most part of the medieval period remained devoid of any



developments within performing arts, although the dance forms of Hafiza and Bhand Jashan

survived”(xi). Dr. Tamiri‟s references to surviving arts shows how the, Bhand Jashan i.e. Bhand

Pather, has struggled for survival. Bhand Pather has thus struggled for its existence along the

different trajectories of turbulent times. Although, most of the performers of Bhand Pather are

not „intellectual‟ but their performances orient instructions to common people. They are common

people, who are given very sarcastic names such as Bhands, Kasibs. These names imply as

someone who is „illiterate‟, whose social status is very low, and they are treated as mere street

exhibitionists or fools. People are forgetting the role of Bhands and their performances whose

efforts have preserved the distinct nature of the Kashmiri culture and language i.e. bestowing it

with a privileged identity throughout the history.

The word Pather in Kashmir‟s context connotes resistance; it is used to convince the

people who do not agree. Bhand Pather as an art form has repeated its conviction regarding

social calamites from time to time with no reservations. It has crossed and touched upon every

form of oppression. Earlier Bhand Pather was a celebrated tradition with satire and mockery on

the social and political institutions. Since the period of turmoil and turbulence started in

Kashmir, Bhand artists have changed their story-lines in their performances. As an art form, it

has depicted the resistance by criticising the regime, whether it is the Indian occupation and the

paramilitary forces or the 1947 rule of Dogra‟s and Dards. This art form which once used to

articulate resistance and discontent trough subversion is pushed to shades of obscurity and

oblivion.

Arup Kumar Sen highlights about the decadence of Bhand Pather “The 1990s was the

decade of "disappearances" in Kashmir and the Bhands and their plays disappeared as well. The

intense violence of the 1990s left no space for folk theatre (82)”. These existing conditions of

conflict, since decades, within Kashmir valley have shattered the commitment to memory and

history about the lost, neglected and dying art forms. The entire structure of social, religious and

cultural life suffered a disruption since the years of conflict. Besides the political and social life,

the valley has witnessed the cultural disintegration too. The cultural art forms have received a

great setback during the long years of conflict and Bhand Pather is one of the living examples of

such intimidation. However, some perceptible attempts have been made to revive these dying

folk art forms, but they (art forms) hardly would find the wings again. This is to suggest that



even the art forms that have some presence, are still in a state of oblivion. Kashmir, the land of

prosperity and synchronization has become the land of terror, where everything is buried under

the weight of „conflict‟. This artistic form as a whole has suffered major setback and has failed to

revive its past glory. The conflict, which is the result of Indo-Pak nationalistic engagements, has

repressed the social and cultural life of Kashmir. Both militancy as well as the paramilitary

forces are the two main bodies silencing the Kashmir‟s artistic life. This silence has been noticed

in Kashmir‟s folk arts including Bhand Pather as well. The artistic life of Kashmir, which is

known for its inquisitive past glory, is shoved towards shades of obscurity. The hostility and

mounting of tension thus have its impact on artistic life of Kashmir. M.K. Raina observes this

silence to Bhand Pather:

With the rise of terrorism in this region came violence and killing. The militants

issued new dictates regarding how to behave and what to wear. The first casualty

was of terrorism was cultural space. Musical instruments were broken and folk

singers and musicians were beaten up. The folk theatre of Bhands was attacked;

its members tried by terrorists and told not to perform any of their traditional

plays or songs, etc, since all this was considered un-Islamic. Hence, for nearly ten

years nobody performed; marriage that used to be community affairs became drab

and boring without any singing and dancing. The same happened to Bhand

Pather- the folk play. It was not performed for almost a decade (286).

It can be argued here from the above observation that, within the existing conditions of

disturbance, the existing art forms are in a state of extinction. The survival of art forms has

remained a challenge for Kashmir in present times. The question of identity and alienation has

become main concern for these art forms. A victim of such concern is Bhand Pather.

The theatre patrons have found it difficult to retain the originality of Bhand Pather and

they started practising it with modern sensibilities and also gave it a new shape. In order to

restrain the decline of this folk art form contemporary theatre persons like M.K.Raina and others

started adopting the modern techniques and thematic concerns to give it life again. To revive this

art form, many theatre companies were invited to perform for the public. Theatre companies such

as Elfred Theatre Company of Bombay and Parsi Theatre Company were introduced to Jammu

and Kashmir. Later Kashmir‟s own theatre productions came into existence, among these



Kashmir Theatres Ltd, Maharaja Drama Company, Saraswati Drama Club, Ram Natak

Company, and Amateur Drama Company were popular. Amateur drama club was engaged with

staging not only Kashmiri plays but also the Urdu dramas. Later the educational institutions such

as S.P. College started taking interest in dramatic arts. Apart from the support of the

Government, the common masses have also shown considerable interest in theatre activities.

People, who were unfamiliar with the folk theatre that was once the indigenous theatre in itself,

have received its popularity as forms of drama. It can be argued here that, the Kashmiri

indigenous folk theatre i.e. Bhand Pather that exist in the form of performances have taken the

dramatic shape, even without performance. Such manifestations within this folk art realm have

pulled its indigenous status from collective work to the individual interest of writing dramas.

Although these changes from traditional notions to the modern connotations have somehow

helped this art form to survive but at the same time it has lost its aesthetic imagination and direct

manifestations.

Notes i See “Bhand Pather: History Dramatised” Farooq, Fayaz. Kashmir Folklore: A Study in

Historical Perspective. Srinagar : Gulshan Publishers, 2008.

ii Forum theatre is the novel idea of introducing the theatre practice, introduced by the theatre

practitioner Augusto Boal in his Theatre of the Oppressed. It is a form of education for the

people to change their world. In this form of theatre practice, the actors or audience members

could stop a performance to show how people are being oppressed. The audience or the

spectators get a chance to suggest different actions for the actors to carry out on-stage in an

attempt to change the outcome of what they were seeing. By doing so sometimes the spectators

get on stage to perform with the actors, so they become spect-actors.

iii Ladi Shah is an old oral art that has been preserved by recounting the stories from village to

village. The purpose of this art is primarily to mock in a humorous tone. The people engaged

with this art form are like street performers, who are uneducated. Ladishah‟s are though

uneducated people but the stories they narrate form home to home, are the historical narratives of

Kashmir.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_practitioner

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augusto_Boal

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_of_the_Oppressed



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