STUDIESINETHICSANDECONOMICS

SeriesEditor

SamuelGregg,ActonInstitute

AdvisoryBoard

MichaelNovak,AmericanEnterpriseInstitute,UnitedStatesEdwardYounkins,WheelingJesuitUniversity,UnitedStates

ManfredSpeier,UniversityofOsnabrück,GermanyJean-YvesNaudet,UniversityAix-Marseilles,FranceMaximilianTorres,UniversityofNavarre,Spain

RodgerCharles,S.J.,UniversityofOxford,EnglandDougBandow,CatoInstitute,UnitedStates

LeonardLiggio,GeorgeMasonUniversity,UnitedStates

Economicsasadisciplinecannotbedetachedfromahistoricalbackgroundthatwas,itisincreasinglyrecognized,religiousinnature.AdamFergusonandAdamSmithdrewontheworkofsixteenth-andseventeenth-centurySpanishtheologians,whostrovetounderstandtheprocessofexchangeandtradeinordertobetteraddressthemoraldilemmastheysawarisingfromthespreadofcommerceintheNewWorld.Afteralongperiodinwhicheconomicsbecamedetachedfromtheologyandethics,manyeconomistsandtheologiansnowseethebenefitofstudyingeconomicrealitiesintheirfullcultural,oftenreligious,context.Thisnewseries,StudiesinEthicsandEconomics,providesaninternationalforumforexploringthedifficulttheologicalandeconomicquestionsthatariseinthepursuitofthisobjective.

TitlesintheSeries

IntelligenceasaPrincipleofPublicEconomy/Delpensierocomeprincipiod’economiapublica,byCarloCattaneo

AndWhyNot?MoralityandBusiness,byFrançoisMichelin

FaithandLiberty:TheEconomicThoughtoftheLateScholastics,byAlejandroA.Chafuen

LEXINGTONBOOKS

PublishedintheUnitedStatesofAmericabyLexingtonBooksAMemberoftheRowman&LittlefieldPublishingGroup4501ForbesBoulevard,Suite200,Lanham,Maryland20706

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Copyright@2003byActonInstitute

Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,ortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recording,orotherwise,withoutthepriorpermissionofthepublisher.

BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationInformationAvailable

LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData

Michelin,François.

[Etpourquoipas?English]

Andwhynot?:moralityandbusiness/FrançoisMichelin;aninterviewwithIvanLevaïandYvesMessarovitch;translatedbyMarcSebancp.cm.

Includesindex.

9780739152041

1.PneuMichelin(Firm)2.Michelin,François—Interviews.3.Executives—France—Interviews.4.Socialresponsibilityofbusiness—France.5.Internationaleconomicrelations.I.Levaï,Ivan.II.Messarovitch,Yves.III.Title.

HD9161.5.T574P645132003338.0944’092—dc21

2002043445

PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica

ThepaperusedinthispublicationmeetstheminimumrequirementsofAmericanNationalStandardforInformationSciences—PermanenceofPaperforPrintedLibraryMaterials,ANSI/NISOZ39.48–1992.

Tomywife,Bernadette,andtoourchildren.

TableofContents

STUDIESINETHICSANDECONOMICSTitlePageCopyrightPageDedication

FOREWORDFOREWORDPREFACE1-TheFactory2-CapitalismandResponsibility3-FranceandGlobalization4-NotEnoughEconomicThinking5-TheBoss—TheMan6-AndWhyNot?POSTSCRIPTINDEXABOUTTHEAUTHORS

FOREWORD

Manymenandwomenoffaithnotonlyunderstandthecreativegeniusofthefreeenterprisesystem,buttheyalsoliveit.Inthisway,theyengagetheirvocationasanentrepreneurinawaythatisilluminatedbyanawarenessofthegrandeurthatliesbeyondthislifeandthatalsogivesultimatemeaningtothepresent.

Thesubjectofthisbookisindeedoneofthoseindividuals.Forseveraldecades,FrançoisMichelinhasexercisedthecreativityofhismindtoseewhatothershavenotseenandtogowhereothershaveyettotread.Intheworldofbusiness,hehasbeenanexplorerintotheunknown,withthegiftofinsightintctherealpotentialthatliesdormantwithintheworldthatGodhascreated.ThemoralandmaterialflourishingthathasresultedfromMichelin’slifelongquestisindeedastounding.Notonlyhasittransformedtheworldoftheautomobileindustry,butMichelin’sworkhasalsohelpedtoallowordinarymenandwomertoknowandtoseethattheyarepartofacomplexyetfruitfulprocessthatliftsothersoutofpovertyandallowshumanitytoexpandtothehorizonsofitspossibilities.

Atfirstglance,FrançoisMichelinwouldnotcausesuchloftythoughtstoariseinone’smind.Inmanysenses,Michelinisasimpleman.Hispersonaltastesarequietandunassuming,andintermsofappearance,thereislittletodistinguishhimfrommanyofhisfellowFrenchmen.Lackingthedesiretocourtattentionfromthepress,Michelinisquitesimplyratherunfazedbythetrappingsofwealth.

Whatemerges,however,fromthisseriesofinterviewsisamanwhohasthoroughlyintegratedhisprofessionasabusinessleaderwithanappreciationofthehighmoraldemandsofhisoccupation.Moreover,Michelinisnotafraidtoplacehisthoughtandworkinthecontextofphilosophicalandtheologicalreflection.Asbecomesclear,Michelinhasclearlyembracedasetofprinciples.Atthesametime,heallowshismindtorangeacrosstheintellectuallandscapeandtoaskquestionsthatmanyincontemporaryFrance,indeed,muchoftheWest,wouldprefertoignore.Why,heasks,dothosewithentrepreneurialability

constantlyfindthemselvesundulyrestrainedbytheStateaswellasbycollectivistavatarsfromEurope’spast?Andwhy,Michelinwonders,dosomanypoliticiansandintellectualsstillthinkindiscreditedMarxistcategorieswhenitcomestothinkingaboutthenatureofeconomiclife?

AsMichelinexplorestheseandotherquestionsthroughaprocessofrespectfulbutpointeddialoguewithhisinterlocutors,whatemergesisaconvictionisthatmanis,asapopeoncefamouslyputit,man’sgifttoman.Intheindividualperson,Michelinseesabeingdesignedtotransformbothhimselfandtheworldfromwhattheyareintowhattheyoughttobe.Apartfromsin,thegreatestobstacletosuchtransformationis,inMichelin’sview,thoseideologiesthatrelyuponvisionsofmanasmereconsumersofgoodsaswellasuponmythsaboutfreeenterprisethathavelittletodowithrealityandowemoretothenovelsofCharlesDickens.

Intheologicalterms,thereaderwillsoondiscernthatMichelinismakingaparticularappealintheseinterviewsfortheChristianChurchtocomprehendthecreativityanddynamismoftheentrepreneurandthefreeenterprisesystem,insteadofsimplyunthinkinglyjoiningthechorusofcondemnationthatprivateenterpriseregularlyencounters.Michelinisclearlyamanofspiritualitythat,forhim,isasnaturalastheprocessbywhichhisbusinessturnsrawelementsoftheearthintoproductsthattrulyservethehumanperson.Heis,however,troubledbythefactthatmanywhosharehisbeliefinGoddonotsharetheseinsightsintothereligiousdimensionofentrepreneurialactivity.

Beingahumbleman,Michelinbelievesindiscussingthesethoughtsinarespectfulwaywithothers:WitnesshisaccountofhiswillingnesstoengageinadialoguewithaMarxisttradeunionist.Michelinalsoevidentlybelievesthatmanyofhisfellowbelievers,perhapsespeciallytheologiansandclergy,needtoreflectanewuponthatpartofthetruththatistobefoundintherealmofeconomicsandtointegrateitintotheirongoingsearchforunderstandingofman’splaceinthecosmos.

Hence,asreadersjointhisdialoguewithMichelinandhisinterlocutorsassilentparticipants,theywouldbewell-advisedtokeepinmindthatthisisamanwhoisultimatelyconcernedwithhigherthings,butwhoseestheirmeaningmaderealintheapparentlyordinaryhappeningsofeverydaybusinesslife.Hereinliesthebeautyofthistext.Itallowsthatwhichis,insomerespects,beyondhumancomprehensiontobecomemanifesttothehumanmind.Whiletheymaymaintainsomeelementsofamystery,weshouldrememberthatmysteriesarenotthingsthatarecompletelyimpenetrabletomanbut,rather,

realitiesintowhichmanhassomeinsightwithoutenjoyingcompleteunderstanding.Intheseinterviews,FrançoisMichelinhelpstherelationshipbetweentheterrestrialandthetranscendenttobecomemoreapparentand,thus,rendersaservicetoall.

—SirJohnTempleton

October28,2002

FOREWORD

FrançoisMichelin—AGentlemanFrançoisMichelinisamostunlikelytopexecutive.“Heisarealgentleman!”maintainshisneighborMichelCharasse,aformerministerunderFrançoisMitterandbutnowmayorofPuy-Guillaume1andaSocialistsenatorfromPuydeDôme.2

FrançoisMichelinisindeedarealgentleman.AllyouhavetodoisstepoutwithhimtotheofficeshehasinClermontandBreteuilAvenueinParis,ortooneofhisfactories,tomeasuretherespectthatthisgentlemancommandsquitenaturallyandunaffectedlywhenhecrossespathswithasecretary,anengineer,oraworker.Thebossandhisemployeegreetoneanother,lookingeachotherclearlyintheeyeinaspiritofmutualesteem,withoutanyhintofphoniness,justthewayitmusthavehappenedinyesteryearbetweenpeoplelivinginthesamevillage.

Evenatseventy-twoyearsofage,Mr.François,aspeoplecallhimasatokenoftheiresteem,isafinefigureofaman.Withfrank,livelyeyesandwhitehair,hislongstridesandthedistinctwayhebowshisheadinthoughtarereminiscentofJacquesTatiinhisroleasMr.Hulot.3

Howdidthetwoofusmakecontactwiththisman,whoissoverydiscreet?Foroneofus,itwasaradioprogramthatprecipitatedthefirstmeeting,whilefortheotheritwasLeFigaro.4

Aravenousconsumerofinterestingpersonalities,inasmuchashewasseeingthemattherateofoneadayaspartofhis“ExplainYourself”radioprogramonEurope1,IvanLevaïtookitintohisheadonemorningtoinviteontohisshowthemostreserved,theleastmedia-orientedofFrenchtopexecutives,namely,FrançoisMichelin.

“Thatwastwentyyearsago.Apoliterequestwasmadetothechairman’soffice.ThenitwasagreedthatweshouldhaveapreliminarymeetingatBreteuilAvenueinParis.AndthereIhadmyfirstsurprise.Iwasusheredintoavery

Spartanoffice.Theshadowyfiguresthatpassedbytheofficenowandagainglidedalongnoiselesslyandunobtrusivelyinthecorridor—thesortofthingyouwouldfullyexpecttheRedGuideinspectorstodo,whoaresoimportantandyetsodiscreet.5TimewentbyandIwaited.Therewasnothingonthewallstocatchaperson’seye.Theywereaneutral,soothingcolorthatremindedmeofanoldcloister.Adoorswungopensoundlessly.

FrançoisMichelinloomedprodigiouslynear.Ihadneverseenhim—noteveninphotographs,andthereIwas,quiteabashedbythesheersimplicityofthegiant.Iwasstruckbyhisairofauthoritynolessthanbyhiseasygoodnature.

“Wellthen,”hesaidtome,“soyouwanttointerviewme?”

“Ah...yes...sure,Iwouldreallyliketo.Itisforamorningprogramontheradio,aboutsixorsevenminuteslong.”

Iwasallsettogivehimthenamesofjustafewofthefamouspeoplewhohadbeeninvitedtotheradiostationinthepasttoparticipateinthisshow,whenheinterruptedme.

“Then,sinceyouwanttoquestionmeinpublic,surelyyouwillnotmindifIstartbyinterviewingyouhere,inprivate?”Iagreedtothis,ofcourse,andhestarted:

“Tellmeaboutyourlife,yourchildhood,andyourplans.Whatmeaningdoyougivetoyourlife?AndtellmerightoffthebatifyoubelieveinGod.Ifyoudonotbelieveinhim,tellmewhy.Iwouldbeinterestedtoknowthereason.IamkeentotalktopeoplewhodonotthinkthewayIdo.Ifindthatitteachesmealotofthings.Wheretheydrawtheirstrengthfrom.Whatrealitytheybasetheirliveson.Infact,formethereisnoseriousconflictbetweenscienceandreligion,sincetheybothtaketheirpointofdeparturefromreality.Iwouldnotsaythesamethingaboutmaterialism.Iseeitasasourceofbickeringantagonismandstrife.Besides,itdoesnotanswerthequestionofwhathappensafterdeath.”

Hadhepunchedmeinthestomach,Icouldnothavebeenmoredumbfounded.Neverhadanythinglikethishappenedtome...notinmydealingswithFrenchorforeignpresidentsandchairmen,norwiththeeccentrics(therearesome)tobefoundinpubliclifeorartisticcircles.Neverhadthetablesbeensoutterlyturned,transformingthehuntedintothehunterinthehiddenconfinesofhisownoffice.AndI,tobesure,hadthequiterareexperienceofmeetingagentlemanpreoccupiedwiththethingsofthisworldandwithpeoplebutnotexclusivelyso.Theelementofsurprise,moreover,reachedafurtherclimax

when,attheendofalong,averylongconversation,morephilosophicalthaneconomicorpolitical,ItookmyleaveofFrançoisMichelin,afterhehadpromisedtomakeanappointmentwithmeforaradiobroadcastinthefollowingterms:

“Areyouinahurrytointerviewme?Doyouthinkyouarecapableofwaitingseveralmonthsorevenyears?”

“Yes,sir,Iam.”

AswehadtalkedagreatdealaboutGodandalittlebitabouttheephemeral,fly-by-nightnatureofthemedia,Ithought,though,thatIwasentitledtoprofferacautionaryremark:

“However,letusbecareful,youandI.Imagineifmylittlemorningbroadcastweretobecanceledandcametoanend.Imagine,too,ifGodcalledusbacktohisbosom,youandme,beforewehadthechancetohaveourinterview.Thatwouldbearealshame.”

Fifteenyearslater,inthespringof1993,FrançoisMichelinkepthiswordandgaveaninterviewonavarietyoftopicsto“TheEntrepreneurialWay,”aprogrambroadcastonFranceInter.6Thisinterviewattractedarecordaudienceandelicitedcountlesstestimonialsofapprovalfromthelisteners,whoappreciatedtheirdiscoveryofaFrenchtopexecutivewhospokewiththatsameairofsimplicityandtruththatGastonBachelardconveysinhiswritings.7

“Youwereabletowait,”hesaidtome.“Yousee,patienceisalwaysrewarded.IpromisedyouthatIwouldcometoexplainmyselfontheradiowhenIwasconvincedthatitwouldbeworthwhiletomaketheeffort.”

Ofallthepeoplewhoholdloftyandimportantpositionsinourcountry,Idonotknowanyonewhowouldbelikelytoresistthetemptationofanopenmicrophoneashedid,evenpushingitawayandkeepingitatarm’slengthallthatlongwhile!

BetweenFrançoisMichelin’spromiseofaninterviewanditsrealization,Ihadoccasiontorunintohimafewtimesinthemostunlikelyplaces.Forexample,Iranintohimoneyear,onBastilleDay(July14),attheElysèePalaceunderFrançoisMitterand,whentheparliamentaryRightandalltheheadsofmajorcompanieswereofficiallyrefusingtohaveanythingtodowiththeinvitationextendedtothembytheheadofState.Withhistypicallylongstrides,FrançoisMichelinmadehiswayacrossthelawninthefull,blazinglightofdaywithscarcelyawordaboutthecurrentstateoftheeconomy,ashepassedpeople—

peoplewhorecognizedhimandexpressedtheirastonishmentathispresencethereinwhisperedtonesofsurprise.

“Iamacitizenoftherepublic,”heexclaimed,“Iwasinvited,andsoIcame!”

NorwasheatallaversetoplayingtricksonhisCNPFcolleaguesandirritatingthem.8“Asfarasweareconcerned,youarealwaysrockingtheboat,andthatgetsonournerves,”hewastoldratherforthrightlybyoneofthemonce.AformerdirectoroftheBankofFranceevenwentsofarastoreproachhimforlookingatproblems“fromanAuvergnepointofview.”9

Whatistobemadeofthehabithehasoftellingushedoesthedishesathome,thatdoingthedishesallowshimtothinkabouttheindustrialworld?IsthisakindofaffectationwithFrançoisMichelin?Idonotthinkso.Wehavenoreasontodoubthiswordonthispoint.Itistrue.AstrueaswhatAntoinePinay’ssecretarysaidtomeonedaywhileIwaswaitinginthereceptionloungenexttoabowloffruit:10

“Haveyouseenthepriceofapples?Thepresidentisfurious!”

Asrestrainedasitis,Mr.François’sangeralsohasadown-to-earthqualitybutismostlydirectedatthesmall-mindedautocratswhotheorizeabouteconomics.Ineveryotherway,themaniseven-tempered,courteous,andrespectfulofhisguests—as,inhisturn,YvesMessarovitchcanattestto:

MyfirstmeetingwithFrançoisMichelintookplaceinClermont-Ferrandfouryearsago.Ihadbeenwantingtoseehimforalongtimebutwasconvincedthatameetingwithhimwouldneverhappen.Hewassuchareservedindividualthatitseemedfutilefromthestarteventohopeforaninterview.Aspeoplesaidatthetime,justutteringthenameMichelinwasalreadysayingtoomuchabouthim.Allthesame,Imanagedtogetanappointmentwithhimeasilyenough.WhenIarrivedatthegateofthatoldplantonthePlacedesCarmes,11wherepreparationswereunderwayforamajorprocessofrenovation,Iwastakentoameetingroomfurnishedwithalarge,laminatedtable,aboutadozenchairs,anoverheadprojector,andawhiteboardstuckinthecomeronaneasel.Adjoiningthisarea,anotherroomcontainedtiresneatlylineduponametalrack.Michelintires,ofcourse,butalsosomeofthecompetition’sbrandnames.

“Ah,youfindthatinteresting?”camethesuddenqueryoutofnowhere.ItwasFrançoisMichelin.Ihadnotheardhimcomein.

“Ihadnevernoticedhowtreadpatternscouldbesodifferent,”Irepliedtohim,asthoughtoexcusemyselfforhavingturnedmybacktohim.

“Lookhere,”heexplainedtome,“onatire,thegroovethatdrainsthewaterisabsolutelyessentialforsafety.Thistirehereisratherpoorlydesigned,becausethewaterdoesnotdrainquicklyenough.Butthen,thisisnotaMichelintire!”

Thatishowwestartedoffourfirstexchange,whichmusthavelastedatotaloffourhours—fourhoursshutupinthisroomwithdiffusedlightingandnootherwitnesses,duringwhichtimeIdiscoveredamanwhoistotallyunliketheimagethatpeoplecommonlyhaveofhim:unpretentious,approachable,direct,clear,amusing,andaboveall,endowedwithawonderfulabilitytolisten.Duringthisfour-hourperiod,whichIwantedtobeasdenseaspossible,Idecidednottousemytaperecorder.Itookonlysomenotesbyhand,justenoughnottoputhimoff,becausehewasunaccustomedtodealingwithanykindofjournalist.Inmyseatontheplanegoinghome,Itriedhardtoreconstruct,asbestIcould,thewordsofthediscussionwehadhad.Then,thankstoanothertelephoneconversationwith“Mr.François,”Igotthego-aheadfromhimtoreproducehisremarkswithintheframeworkofasummerminiseriesdedicatedto“GreatandSilentPersonalities,”whichhadbeenrequestedbymyeditor,Franz-OlivierGiesbert.Thatturnedoutratherwell.

ThentherewasanotherphonecalltoFrançoisMichelintogethisagreementonthequotesthatIcouldattributetohim.Therewasnoproblemonthisscore,sinceheisamanwhoisrespectfulofotherpeople’swork,somethingthatisnot,alas,alwaystheruleininterviews.Thatishowweformedasteadyrelationship,punctuatedbyphonecallsandmeetingshereandthere.Thisled,onemorninginthebeginningofJanuary,tomysecretaryhavingthedelightfulsurpriseofhearingMr.Michelin,whowasinaverygoodmoodindeed,wishhera“HappyNewYear.”

Everythingabouthimisdistinguished:hisbearing,hismannerofspeech,andhisoffice.Thisfinefigureofaman,tallandelegant,isactuallydressedinthemostneutralwayimaginable:Agrayish,nondescriptsuit,anall-occasiontie,andasolidpairofdressshoesconstitutehisdailyuniform.Whatacontrastwithhisthousand-and-oneintellectualandspiritualpreoccupations!Inpointoffact,hisappearanceismerelyanoutwardhusk,asocialconvenience.

Assoonashebeginsspeaking,FrançoisMichelinlightsup.Itshouldbeunderstoodthathedoesnotexplainthingsasonewouldexpectthemtobeexplainedintheinstitutionsofhigherlearningortheuniversities.Hisopinionsaboutsociety,business,politicians,andthegreatquestionsofthedayareunique.Heistheveryimageofafreeman,farremovedfromthetalkthattakesplaceallaroundhim.FrançoisMichelinisFrançoisMichelin.Heborrowsnothingfrom

thetrendsoftheday.Whatheis,heowestohisabilitytoenterintodialogueandtohisboundlesscapacitytoremaintruetohisconvictions.

Inperfectharmonywithhimself,hemovesaboutinauniverse—hisplant,hisoffice—towhichnootherexecutivewoulddaretolayaclaim.AthomeinClermont-Ferrand,withthatsmellofrubberthathemisseswheneverheisawayfromit,hisdaybeginsinthesimplestofways.WhenhereachesthegroundsofthefactoryatthewheelofhisgrayBXGTI,12heshowshisIDbadgetotheguard,ashedoeseverymorning.ItmakesnodifferencethatheisFrançoisMichelin.Theruleshavetoberespected.Thenhegoesontoparkhiscaralittlebitfartheraheadontheright.Hegetsoutofthecar,unbendinghistallframeinanelegantmotionthatbetrays,despitehisseventy-twoyears,along-standingaffinityforthetenniscourt,tennisbeinghisfavoritesport.Hewalkstoamassivewoodendoorbuiltoutofsoberoakwithoutanyexcessofmoldings,whichleadstotheexecutiveoffices.Here,thereisnoreceptionistchargedwithscreeningthefewvisitorsthatwouldcomeherway,norevenawaitingroomwithfancyleatherseats.Infact,theexecutiveofficesbegininacorridorthathasasuccessionofdoors,allalike,onbothsides.

Ontheleft,thefirstoneopensupintoasmallroomwithyellowwalls.Awoodendesk,builtinthelastcenturyataboutthesametimeasthefirstplant,standsrightbesideanotherpieceoffurnitureofundefinedstyle.Inacorner,withinarm’sreach—spaceisstrictlyrationedhere—thereisashelfthatholdsafunny-lookingmodelrailcarmountedontires,madefrompaintedfoodcans—agiftfromgratefulrailwaymeninMadagascar!This,indeed,isFrançoisMichelin’soffice—monastic:alamp,threepiecesoffurniture,and,behindthedoor,acoatrackwithtwohooks.Hungcarefullyfromtheright-handhookisasetofoveralls.

Thisoffice,ofextrememodesty,standsinsharpcontrasttotheeconomicandfinancialpoweritrepresents.NootherenterpriseintheworldthathassalesofmorethaneightybillionfrancswoulddaretoimposesuchaSpartanregimeonitschairman.SoFrançoisMichelinexplainstoyou,ofcourse,thatinordertodogoodworktheimportantthingisnottobeostentatious.Rather,whatisreallyimportantistobefounddeepwithinoneself.Andheexplainsthatabareroomismoreconducivetothoughtandreflectionthanalusciousspaceclutteredupwithimpressivelyuselessgadgets.

Headdsthatheisnottheonlyexecutiveinthecompany,butthattheresponsibilitiesaredividedupamongahandfulofmenwhosharethesamevaluesintermsofperformance,simplicity,anddiscretion.Ithasbeenprecisely

thesethreecatchwordsthathavebeentheguidinglightintheeducationofEdouardMichelin,histhirty-five-year-oldson,agraduateoftheEcoleCentrale.13Edouardrecentlybecamemanagingpartnerandwilltakeoverthehelmofsuccessionwithhisownwayofdoingthings.“Hewasgiventhefreedomtobehimself.”LikeFrançois,hehaslearnedaboutlifeonthejob,inthemidstofpeopleontheshopfloor,tounderstandthemandtheirjobsbetter.AccordingtowhatissaidaboutEdouardbythosewhohavehadthechancetoworkwithhim,heisendowedwiththequalitiesthatarenecessarytopresideoverthedestiniesofthiscompany,whichismorethanonehundredyearsold.For,whileBibendumcelebratedhisone-hundredthbirthdayin1998,theMichelinbrandnamewasbornin1889.14

Foraslongashehasbeenworkingwiththecompany,FrançoisMichelinhasalwaysseenhisjobasmanagingpartner,asaseriesofobligations:keepingthevesseloncourse,protectingpassengersandcargo,anticipatingeventsintheworldandtheconflictingcurrentsofthemarketbutalwaystakingcaretosatisfythethreegroupsofpeoplewhoareentitled,hebelieves,toholdhimaccountable:thecustomers,theemployees,andtheshareholders.

FrançoisMichelindoesnotestablishahierarchybetweenthosewhobringtheircapitaltotheenterpriseandthosewhoprovideitwiththeirwork,althoughhealwaysranksthecustomerfirst.Asitwassaidinthepast:Thecustomerisking.Thecustomerisalwaysright.Andheisnotafraidtoadd:“Itistrue.Propertyistheft,whenitisnotattheserviceofpeople.”

HavinglunchattheinvitationofFrançoisMichelininClermontorinParisisaprivilege.Afterall,anotheroneofthehatshewearsisasbossoftheinspectorsfortheRedGuide,thepeoplewhogiveoutstarsandforks,andwhoalsowithdrawthemonoccasion.Oneday,whenhehadhadanenjoyabledinnerneartheGareduNordinParis,inthecompanyofoneofhisinspectors,hesuggestedgivingagoodgradetotherestaurantthattheyhaddiscovered.“Holdon,”theinspectoradvised,“weshouldsleeponit.”“Andhewasright,forweweresickduringthenight,”hereports,alwaysquicktosalutethepracticalintelligenceandcompetenceofthosewhoworkforthecompany.

Heisquickalsotorejoiceatthevirtuesofhardwork,education,well-understoodethicsandmorality,anacceptanceofandrespectforrules,humility,andtheacquisitionofknowledgethroughscientificresearch.HequotesthefinelyturnedphraseofPaulValèry:15“Amanwhomarvelsislikeablossomingrose.”AndFrançoisMichelin,distressedbythosewhoconfusecausesand

effectsandstateastheirfirstprinciplethe“cogito”ofDescartes16insteadofleavingthematterinthehandsofPascal,17smilesashespeaks,beamingwithdelight.

Obviously,healsohasahomeinheaven,andthisexplainshisjoyandconfidence,whichdoesnotstophimfromdigginghisfurrow,plowinghisfield,andbeinganenergeticbusinessmanonthisearth.

Competenceandvision....Thus,Michelinhasnogreatlikingforfinancierswhoareonlyfinanciers,thosewhoforgettheoriginoffinanceanditsreality,thetheoreticians,thesmall-mindedautocratsofpolitics,andthegovernmentadministrationsinParis.“Thecitymouserattlesoffitslessons....Thecountrymouselooksaroundandseesthings.”Byhisspeechandhisculture,hismanners,thereisaconstant,subtleevocationofthefablesofFontaineorFlorianandthedictionaries.18Ifhespeakssoclearly,sosimply,sovigorously—thispersonwho,ironically,isnotheardverymuch—itisbecausehehasimmersedhimselfinthecommonlanguageoftheworkers,becauseheisagoodlistener,andbecausehealwaysgoestocheckthemeaningofhiswords,notinLarousseorRobertbutinLittré.19

Itisasifheknowsthatanysortofmeaningfulexchangeisdonethroughlanguage,andthattheprimaryrelationshipbetweentheworkerandhisemployerhappensbywayofwords.Bettermakesure,inthiscase,thatthewordsarewell-understoodandwell-definedfromthestart.

Inthisregard,youshouldhearhimtouchonthesubjectofhierarchy:“Thebosswhoistheboss’sboss—thatpyramidalstructurethatfoulseverythingup,”ashegoesontostatehisownpreferenceforasystemoffree-thinkingexchangeontheEnglishmodel.“Itisonlyfreethinking,”hesays,“thatisentirelyworthyofafreeman.”

AsfortheState,whichcompelsandgovernsratherthanopensdoorsandsetspeoplefree,FrançoisMichelindoesnotlikeit.Andhere,forexample,iswhathappensif,unfortunately,youshouldquestionhimaboutthis:

“ButinthatcasewhydoesbigbusinessasktheStateforsomanyconcessionsandsomuchmoney?”

Hisanswerisquiteplain-spokenandtothepoint:“BecausetheStatetakesitawayfromus!”

Heillustrateshisremarksbypointingtothecostsinherenttoeveryindustrialenterprisethatendeavorstoraiseitsproductivity:“Whenyoupressdownacar’s

gaspedal,youneedmoregas.”

Thisisthesamemanwhoisnotafraidtoremindhisaudience,whethertheyaremenfromtheLeftortheRight,abouthisobsessionwithrisingmanpowercosts.

“FiftypercentofthewagespaidoutbyMichelininFranceareoffsetbyourforeignsales.Thisneedofourstoexportinordertosurviveandremaincompetitiveterrifiesmesometimes.”

HebacksuphispleadingforamassiveloweringofchargesandtaxesinFrancewithsomefigures:

“Inourcountry100francsinwagesforceustoaskfor180francsfromthecustomer,ascomparedtolessthan130francsinEngland.Itisthistruth,thisrealityofthemarket,thatweighssoheavilyoninvestment.”

Andtothosewhohavegonesofarastosay,“MichelinisNumberOne.Michelinisdoingallright.Michelincanpay,”Mr.François,thethirdinheritorofthedynasty,paintsapictureoftherelativeextentofhisempirewithasigh:

“Howcanwetalkaboutanempire?WearesmallinAsia.WeenjoyamodestpresenceinSouthAmerica,andalsoweareatthelowerlimitsofwhatshouldbedoneintheUnitedStates.Ifwewanttocarryonandsurvive,wehavetoinnovatenow,inthefuture,andalso,quitenaturally,wehavetoexpand.”

Essentially,Michelinseesglobalizationasbeingsimultaneouslybothaconstraintandatremendousopportunity.ThisisthereasonwhytheargumentheardinClermont-Ferrandstressesthedamagecausedbyanoverlyhastyopeningofborders.Asearlyas1994,FrançoisMichelinwouldexplaintohisvisitorsthebasicerrorofGATT(sincethen,ithasbecometheWorldTradeOrganization):“GATTislikealockonacanal.Insteadofopeningthegatesgentlyandslowly,theywereraisedallatonce.Thewaterissurgingin.Itisnotsurprisingthatthebargeinthecanalistakingasteepplunge.”

Itwouldbeeasytoviewthismetaphorofthecanallockasanexcuse.Itwouldbewrong,however,tomakeanysuchhastyjudgment.Why,infact,hasMichelinbeenabletotakefulladvantageofglobalizationsowell?Howhasamanasreservedasheissucceededinhoistinghisbusiness,inthirtyyears,fromtenthplacetofirstplaceintheranksoftiremanufacturers?

FrançoisMichelinkeepsalowprofileonthissubject.Forhim,thesecommercialsuccessesaremerelyaresponse—themostappropriateone,nodoubt,despiteitscostsintermsofthesuppressionofjobs—tothechallenges

thatwearefacing.Likeawavethatwearsawayrelentlesslyatacliffface,globalizationiseatingawayatFrenchsociety,forcingittoquestionitselfanddisruptingthesocialrelationshipsinthecities.Clermont-Ferrand,longdubbed“Michelinville”becausethecompanytookcareofeverythingforitsworkers—jobs,schools,hospitals—providesanemblematicillustrationofthis.Michelin’sshareholders,thefamilybeingforemostamongthem,haveneitherthemeansnorthepoliticalwilltokeepdoingthat.

FrançoisMichelinhasunderstoodthisforalongtime.Heistheonewho,havingmadethedecision,convincedhisfamilycircletohastentheadventofchangeincertainfacetsofthebusiness,inordertobetterprepareitforthetwenty-firstcentury.Inviewoftheresults,thisseemstohavebeenthethingtodo.Salesofeightybillionfrancswithfour-billion-francsprofitin1997,ultra-modemplants,loadsofplansandprojects:Alltheingredientsofalastingsuccessseemtohavecometogethernow,butthissortofconclusionmakesFrançoisMichelinjumpbecauseheknowsthattheseachievementscanveryquicklyturnintoanillusion,becauseeverydayheexperiencesthemenacingonslaughtsofadvancingcompetition.Thefault,asheexplainsinthisbook,liesnotinglobalizationitself—whetheroneisfororagainstitisnottherealdebate,seeingthatitisaninescapablefact—butinthepoliticianswhohavedominatedthesceneinFranceforseveralgenerations.FrancehasbeengovernedbythespiritualsonsofMarx.Andforwhatresult?Prohibitivemanpowercostskeepgoingup,preciselywhenitistheoppositethatshouldbehappening.

Competitionshouldpromptourgovernmenttoimplementthemeansbywhichthesecostsmightbebroughtdowninordertocombat—asFrançoisMichelindoesit—thetransferofplantstoforeigncountriesandtosavejobs.TodaytheheartofMichelinistheworld,butthesoulofitshelmsmancontinuestoresideatthefootofthePuydeDôme,wherehisfamilytookitsriseandwhereitwillcontinuetoliveforalongtimeyet.

Inbrief,therefore,theseconversationsconstituteatestimony.Theyexpressthemuted,sometimesfierce,angerofanauthentic,sinceremanwhoisalsoanonconformist,whoseimmensecharismaticauraisinverselyproportionaltohispublicappearances.Overtwentyyears,thesepublicappearancescan,infact,becountedonthefingersofonehand.We,ourselves,whohaverubbedshoulderswithhimthroughoutthisinterviewprocess,donotclaimtohavepenetratedallthesecretsofoneofthemostcelebratedtopexecutivesinFrance.

ThereisabitofJulesVerneinthisman.20Hisabilitytoseeintothefuture,toimaginenewmachines,andtousesimplelanguagetoexpresscomplexideas

mighthavemadehimasuccessfulwriter.Therearefewpeople,infact,whoareasgoodatusingvividimagesandparablestoconvinceothersofthelegitimacyoftheirintuitions.“IfIusesimplewordswhenIspeak,myintentquitesimplyistobesurethatIunderstandwhatIamsaying,”hesaysinhisdefense,notwithoutatouchofdisarminghumor.Thefactremainsthatbehindthebarelymaskednostalgiaforavanishedworld,Clermont’sindustrialisthasalreadysteppedfootintothetwenty-firstcentury.Thesuccessionhasbeensettled.Thebusinesshasapresencein170countries,andnewmanufacturingprocesses—thedetailsareconfidential—haveburstontothescene.TheyshouldgiveMichelinaseriousjumponitscompetitors,startingwiththealreadyfamous“C3M”machine,towhichthepresshasmadeallusionsonseveraloccasionsandwhichisgoingtorevolutionizemethodsofproduction.

MichelintheinnovatoralsoradiatesagreatdealofthatquietjoythatcanbefoundintheprewarfilmsofJulienDuvivier.21Thismanacceptstherulesofmassproductionandthewidedistributionofstandardizedgoods,buthehasnotgivenupontheold-fashionednotionofgood,soundworkreminiscentofthetradeguilds.

FrançoisMichelinisamanwhoisalwaysgrumblingaboutthedeclineofFrance,acountrywhere,since1936,22allthegovernmentshaveplacedsuchheavyburdensonthedonkey,thattheyhavemadetheanimalfalterandstumble.Onedaytheymayevenworkitintotheground.ThissameFrançoisMichelinstronglycondemnsthethirty-five-hourworkweek,asplantsintheUnitedStatesrun350daysayearcomparedto280daysinFrance.FrançoisMichelinregardsMarxandhisheirsaspartisansofaneconomycontrolled,planned,andadministeredbytheState,asthosewhoaremostresponsibleforFrance’smisfortunes.Nevertheless,hemaintainsanenthusiasticoutlookaboutmankindingeneral.Itisthestructuresgeneratingirresponsibilitythatheisagainst,withthecollusionsthattheyfosterbetweendifferentpowersandthebureaucracythatbattensonthem.Thisisnotsomethingthathedoesashumanity’sbenefactorbutasamanofgoodwillwhorecognizestheimportanceofconcreterealities.ItisinthissensethatFrançoisMichelincomesacrossthesedaysas“thelastoftheMohicans.”Industrialist,wealthyChristiancapitalist,bothphilosopherandworker,anonymousandwell-known,heistheonlylivingFrenchmanwhosenameisinseparablefromacommodityproductthathasaninternationalreputation,onethathasleftitsimpressionontheroadwaysoftheworldwithtracksthatare,atthesametime,deep-setandfaint.

—IvanLevaïandYvesMessarovitch

NotesandExplanations1Puy-Guillaume:Smalltowntwenty-fivemilesoutsideofClermont-Ferrand.

2PuydeDôme:OneofthemountainstenmilesfromClermont-Ferrand;altitude4,900ft.;gaveitsnametothewholeadministrativeregion.

3JacquesTati(1908-1982):Frenchfilmmakerfamousforhisoftensilentandmeditatingcharacter,Mr.Hulot.

4LeFigaro:FamousFrenchnewspaper;positionedcenter-centerright.

5RedGuide:Publishedin1900byMichelin;restaurantandhotelguidethatrefersthefamous“stars”everyyeartothebestrestaurants.

6FranceInter:Oneofthemostlistened-to,State-ownedradiochannels.

7GastonBachelard(1884-1962):Frenchphilosopher.

8CNPF:ConseilNationalduPatronatFrançais;associationofFrenchemployerscreatedin1946.

9Auvergne:NameoftheregioninthecenterofFrancewhosecapitalcityisClermont-Ferrand.

10AntoinePinay(1891-1994):Frenchpolitician,severaltimesministerundertheFourthRepublic;famousforhisgood,down-to-earthcommonsense;lastfinanceministerunderGeneralCharlesdeGaulle.

11PlacedesCarmes:InClermont-Ferrand;mainsquarewheretheMichelinheadquartersarelocated.

12BXGTI:Medium-sizeCitroenautomobile.

13EcoleCentrale:EcoleCentraledesArtsetManufactures;oneofthethreeorfourtopengineeringschoolsinParis.

14Bibendum:Nameofthe“Michelinman.”In2000,Bibendumwasvotedthebest-knownlogointheworld.

15PaulValèry(1871-1945):Frenchpoetandwriter.

16RenéDescartes(1596-1650):Frenchmathematicianandphilosopher;authorofDiscourseontheMethodofProperlyGuidingtheReasonintheSearchofTruthintheSciences.

17BlaisePascal(1623-1662):BorninClermont-Ferrand.Philosopherandphysicist;inventedthecalculatingmachine.

18JeanLaFontaine(1621-1695):Poet,famousforhisfables;JeanPierredeFlorian(1755-1794):wrotefivebooksoffables.

19LarousseandLittré:Namesoftwoverymuch-usedFrenchdictionaries;Laroussebeingmore-everydayexplanationsandLittrébeingmoreintosemanticsandetymology.

20JulesVerne(1828-1905):Frenchwriterfamousfor,amongothers,TwentyThousandLeaguesUndertheSeaandAroundtheWorldinEightyDays.

21JulienDuvivier(1896-1967):Frenchmoviemaker.

22Theyear1936—YearofthePopularFront:GeneratedbytheallianceofSocialistsandMarxistpartieswithinthenationalassemblymarkedbysweepingnationalizations.

PREFACE

WhyaDialogue?Realityisaharsh,uncompromisingteacher.Isay“teacher”becauseitisalwaysunceremoniouslyexplodingready-madeideasandprejudices.Howdoesrealitymanifestitself?—almostalwaysthroughmenandwomenwhoarebusyattheirwork.Itistheywhoteachusandnurtureusinoneformoranotherinthefascinatingdiversityoftheirreal-liferesponsibilities.

TheresponsibilitiesthatIhaveassumedoverthelastforty-sevenyearshaveledmetoseekanswersfromthepeopleworkingwithme,tothequestionsthatcomemyway.Thisrelationshipwithconcrete,everydayrealitiescontributessomethingessentialtolife,asitforcespeopletomakehard,bindingdecisionsthattheyhavetolivewith.

Also,thereareparticularmomentsthatinour“shoptalk”wecall“question-and-answersessions.”Thesetakeplaceone-on-oneoringroupsofvarioussizesandimportanceand,duringthem,anyquestionwhatsoevercanbeasked,evenonethatrunslikethis:“Howdoyoureconcilethefactthatyouareabusinessexecutive,withyourCatholicfaith?”ThisisaquestionthatI,formypart,reformulateinthefollowingway:“Istheresuchathingasahumanexperienceofthebusinessworld?”Actually,intheeverydayrealityoflife,everypersonstandsrevealedasafreecreation.Thisiswhyeveryoneisunique.Alloflife’ssuccessesandfailuresarethemeansbywhichthisfreecreationseekstoforgeitswayinthebustlingworldofmen,inascientific,technicalworld....Inthebusinessworld,aswell,itisessentialthatthisfreecreationsomehownotlosesightoftheessenceofitsownmodeoffunctioning.Thisfreecreationmustnotbemadetofeelthatitiscaughtupinsomethingthatithascometoregardasablinddeterminism.

Freedom,technology,ethics:QuestionstouchingonthesetopicswerealsoraisedseveraltimesbyMessrs.LevaïandMessarovitch,withwhomIhavehadthepleasureofengaginginanexchangeofideas.They,too,acknowledgedtheimportanceofconcreterealityandhaveseenfittoexpressthemselvesby

drawingonadifferentrangeofsensibilities,experiences,andoccupations.ThequestionstowhichbothofthemareseekinganswersarethesamequestionsthatIamaskingmyself,too.Thisishowtheideawasconceivedthatweshouldjoinforcesandtrytoarriveatanswerstoallthesequestionstogether.Theresultingdialoguehasallowedmetolearnagreatdealandtoseeproblemsinwhatis,forme,afresh,newlight.Myanswersareanendeavortoappealtofreedomofconscienceandopinion.

Themainthingistolive,butinordertodothis,onehastofeedontherealitythatishiddenbehindfacts,onehastoseekoutrootcauses.Tohavearespectfulattitude,apersonhastotakeintoaccountfacts,notopinions,beitintherealmofreligion,philosophy,or,onamoremundanelevel,politics.Whatreallycounts,whatremainsimportantinthefinalanalysisislivedreality,notthe“externalcharacteristics”ofthepersonwhoisdoingthetalking.Thismakeseveryhumaninteractionafulfillingexperience.Itallowsustobuildfreedom.

Onnoaccountisthisbookmeanttobeconstruedasajudgmentonanyperson.Iknowtheextenttowhichallthegoodintentionsintheworldareapttoberevealedasinadequatewhenitcomestotheactualreal-lifeachievement.

Theexperiencethatthethreeofushavelivedtogetherinordertowritethisbookwillservetodemonstrate,Ithink,howthesharingofacertainattitudeofmindandheartcanbeamainspringofprogress.Whenoneagrees,withoutpreconceivedideas,togoinsearchoftherealitythatdefinespeopleandthings,thisrealitydoesnotletitselfbetiedintoanyideologicalframework.

Itistheearnestwishofallthreeofusthatthemysterythatexistsineverymanandeverywomanshouldberecognizedandacknowledged.Maythisacknowledgmentpolishandrefineouroutlookonlifeandourabilitytolisten,becomingthefoundationofallouractions.

Andwhynot...?

—FrançoisMichelin

1

TheFactoryIVANLEVAÏ:Whenwebroachedtheideaofatitleforthiswork,whatcame

toyourmindwas“Whatthe‘Factory’TaughtMe.”Youusedthewordfactory.Whydidn’tyoureferto“thecompany”?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Companyisawordthatiscurrentlyverymuchinstyle,butsovaguethatitisgettinghardtoknowwhatisimpliedbyit.Also,itissomewhatnondescript.Factory,ontheotherhand,conjuresupnotionsofmachines,thingsthatareproduced,and,mostimportant,menandwomenwhoareemployees,customers,andshareholders.

Ihaveoftenaskedpeopleoutsideourcompany,who,theythought,wasthemostimportantindividualinit.Theiranswerstakeonthecoloringoftheirrespectivepoliticalorsocialopinions.Forsome,itistheemployer;forothers,itistheunionleaderortheworkersorthesupervisor,oroccasionallythecontrollerorsalesmanager.“Youaremistaken,”Isaytothem.“Themostimportantindividualisthecustomer.”Theirreplyisthatthecustomerisnotapartofthebusiness.“ButwhenIhavealargestockoftiressittinginthewarehouse,whatcanIdo?HowdoIpaywages?”Ireply.Whenaproductismanufactured,whetheritbetiresortaperecorders,wealthisonlycreatedoncetheyaresold.Thecustomerisnotonlyanintegralpartofthecompany,butheenjoysafantastictranscendentrelationshiptoitbecausehecanremainfaithfultoitor,onthecontrary,takehisbusinesselsewherewheneverhewants.Thecustomerisnothinglikethecaptiveaudiencethatthetaxpayeris.Ifeellikesayingthatthecompanyislikeaverbwhosesubjectisthecustomer.

IVANLEVAÏ:Butthecustomerisanoutsidertothebusiness.Henevergoesthere.Hestaysatadistance.Youcannotputafaceonhim.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Everycustomerisadistinctindividual.Automobilemanufacturersplayanimportantpartinoursales,and,believeme,weknowthe

facesofthepeoplewhobuyourtiresquitewell.Onemustneverlosesightofthefactthatthecustomeristhebeginningandtheendofeverything.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Isnotthetermfactorysomewhatoutdated?Donotpeoplesaytheyaregoingtoworkatacertaincompanyratherthan“atsuchandsuchfactory”?Eventheexpression“factorywork”seemsutterlyoutdated.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Andyet,“factorywork”expressesperfectlywhatwedoeveryday.Essentially,itisanactionthatconsistsoftakingrawmaterialsandmakingamarketableproductoutofthem.Itisanobleact.Toengageinfactorywork,youhavetohaveanin-depthknowledgeofthekindofmaterialsthatyouareworkingwith.Youhavetohavealoveforthesematerials—inthestrongestsenseofthewordlove—youhavetolikethemjustthewaytheyare.

IVANLEVAÏ:Eveninthecaseofrubber,whichhassuchanawfulsmell?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Itisamazingtoseehowtires,formanypeople,aresomethinground,black,anddirty,withanawfulsmell.Icanassureyouthatnobodyinthecompanylooksatthemthisway!

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Theyarealsoaninstrumentforplayandleisure,sincetheyallowapersontotravel,togoonvacation,ortoleavefortheweekend.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Youmean—theautomobile.Itisalsoanexcellenttool.Theautomobileisthemodern-dayequivalentofthehorse.TheFrencharenotatallmistakenintheirviewsonit.Whentheyareaskedwhat,intheirestimation,hasbeenthemostimportantinventionofthecentury,51percentofthemanswer:“Theautomobile.”

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Didyourancestorshavesomeinklingofthisphenomenon?HowdidtheMichelinscometohaveaninterestintires?Didtheyhaveasenseintheirowntimeoftheeconomicstakesthatwereinvolvedwiththecomingoftheautomobileandtheimplicationsarisingfrombothitsmilitaryandcivilianuses?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:EverythingstartedwiththearrivalofanEnglishcyclistinourplantyard.Hisbicyclehadbeenloadedontoanoxcartbecauseoneofhistireshadbeenpunctured.HehadcometoClermont-Ferrandwhere,hehadbeentold,therewasarubberplant.HisbicycletirehadbeendevelopedbyacertainMr.Dunlop,aveterinarianbyprofession,whowasfedupwithtravelingthecountryroadsonabikewithwheelsthatwereonlysimpleironrimscoveredwithastripofrubber.OnedayMr.Dunlophadthemarvelousideaofputtingacushionofairbetweenthewheelandthegroundsoastoenhancehiscomfortwhilecycling.Hewastherealinventorofthetire.

Butletusgobackabitfurther.Thefirmhadbeenfoundedin1832bytwopartners,AristideBarbierandNicolasEdouardDaubrèe.Mr.DaubrèehadmarriedthenieceofaScottishchemicalengineer(Macintosh),whohaddiscoveredtheprocessthatallowedrubbertodissolveandbemadeintoasortofgluethatwasusedtomanufactureraincoats.WhentheDaubrèefamilysettledinClermont-Ferrand,Mrs.Daubrèebroughtrubberwithher.

AristideBarbier’sdaughtermarriedJulesMichelin,acustomsofficeratLimogesatatimewhenthatcityexporteditschinaandearthenwareworldwide.1JulesMichelinwasarespectableemployeeofthepublictreasurybutalsohadaremarkabletalentforetching.Inhisyouth,infact,hehadpaintedwithGros.2Juleshadthreechildren:Marie,Andrè,andEdouard,whowasmygrandfather.

Whenthesechildrenbecameadults,thefamilybusinesswasinashambles,nearlycollapsing.HavingfinishedhisstudiesatEcoleCentrale,AndrèwenttoClermont-Ferrandandtendayslaterreturnedhome,discouragedandconvincedthatnothingmorecouldbedonetosavethecompany.

Edouard,whohadtakenlawandstudiedpaintingwithBouguereau,3decidedtogotheretocheckthingsoutaswell.Whenhearrivedattheplant,hesawtwoworkersbusilyboilingatreetopofsorbwoodinabucket.Asyouknow,thesorbtreeiswellknownforthedensityandhardnessofitswood.Surprised,heapproachedthemandaskedthemwhattheyweredoing.Theyansweredhim:“Makesurethatyoudonottelltheboss.Hedoesnotwantusgoinginthegarden.But,youknow,gearcogsaresoexpensiveintownthatwehavetomakedoonourownsomehow.”Mygrandfatheralwaystoldmethathecametounderstandwhatwasatthecoreofdoingbusinesswhenhewitnessedthishumanpowerandenergyatwork,thisdesiretomakeprogress,thissenseofeconomyandthrift.HestayedinClermont-Ferrand.Everyonethoughtthathewasmad,butforhimitwasbothanexcitingdiscoveryandaduty.

Heinventedallkindsofthings.Atthetime,carriageshadbrakeblocksthatmadeahorrificnoise,somethinglikethesoundthetrolleycarsmakeinStrasbourgwhentheyareheadingintoaturn!4Theymadeanawful,squealingnoise.Grandfatherperfectedabrakeblockthatmadenonoise:“THESILENT.”

AndthentheEnglishcyclistarrived.Grandfathermadetherepairintwohours.Hegotonthebikeandtookaridearoundtheyard.Thetireimmediatelygotanotherflat.Thiswouldbeagreatinvention,hethoughttohimself,butonlyifthetirecouldbefixedinfewerthantenminutes.Sixmonthslater,thetirethatcanbedisassembledwasinvented.Toproveitseffectiveness,abicycleracewasorganizedinClermont-Ferrand.AndrèMichelinhadtheterrificideaofgoingtothehardwarestoretobuynailsthatcouldstaypointedupintheair.Helaidthemallalongthecyclingroute.Everyonegotaflattire,butthecyclistsontheMichelinteamwerebackinthesaddlewithinminutes.Asfortheothers,ittookthemtwohourstomaketheirrepairs.

Itisthisstorythatmakesmesaythat,inbusiness,thecustomeristhebeginningandtheendofeverything.Thisideaisdeeplyprogrammedintothe“genes”ofthecompany.Whatdoesthecustomerwant?Whatishesaying?Howcanweimprovethingsforhim?

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Yousaythatthecustomeristhebeginningandtheendofeverything,butheisquitepassiveascomparedtothehardworkinginnovatorswhoareforeverdemonstratingafreshlyoriginalandvitalspiritofcreativity.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Idonotagree.Whenapersonspendsmoney,heistotallyinvolvedinhispurchase.Heismakingachoicebetweendifferentdesires,differentproducts.Itisanirreversiblechoice.Ofcourse,incertaininstances,ifyouarenothappy,yougetyourmoneyback.Butthisisnotsomethingyoucandowitheveryproductyoubuy—withacar,forexample,itisimpossible.Theactofpurchasingisafreeandresponsibleaction,onethatinvolvesthewholepersonality.Itisaneminentlyformativeact.

Itisformativeforthepersonwhoispurchasing,andformativeforthevendor.Takeapin.Itisabsolutelyphenomenalwhenyourealizeeverythingthatwasnecessaryinordertomanufactureit:ironore,coal,enormoussmeltingfurnaces—nottomentionanextraordinarilyelaborateeffortoftheimaginationandallthecarefulworkthatgoesintoitsmaking.Allthiseffortandenergytoarriveat

thislittletriflingthing,onlyjustsobig!

IVANLEVAÏ:Overthecourseofacenturysomeofthishasbeenforgotten.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Yes,someofit,butthereismuchthatstillremains.Justlookattheprideyoucanfindamongtheworkersintheplants.Itisimpressiveandsohuman.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Industrialproductshaveneverbeenassophisticatedastheyaretoday.Allthesame,theactofpurchasinghasbecomeutterlyinsignificant.Inthepast,buyingtiresorataperecorderrepresentedaseriousoutlayofmoney.Nowadays,theamountofmoneysetasideforthesethingsislessthanwhatyouwouldspendtogoonvacationortogotothedoctor.Howdoyouexplainthisinsignificance?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Insignificancemeanshasbecomecommonplace.AsfarasIamconcerned,thatisgreat!Itdoesnotnecessarilymeanthatthereisadropinquality.Itistheconceptofmassproduction,drivenbythemarketeconomythathasallowedthis.Unfortunately,theclimatethatsurroundsthiseconomicrealityispernicious,andthisiswhatcloudstheissue.ThisisMarx’sfault.Byartificiallystressingthefundamentaloppositionbetweenproducersandconsumers,byarguingthatoneisstealingfromtheother,hecompletelyovershadowedthehumanfactorintherelationship,whichbindsmentooneanotherbywayofworkandmoney.Thus,heturnedanactofserviceintogroundsforconflictandstrippeditofitsmeaning.ThisiswhatstartedStateplanning.

Likeanumberofphilosophersofhistime,Marxmistookconsequencesforcauses.Hetells,forexample,howstruckhewaswhenhenoticedthatfinanciersandindustrialistsalwayshadthewordcapitalontheirlips.Butwhatdoyouexpect?Themainconcernofthecaptainofashipisthehullofhisboat,andthatiswhathetalksaboutbeforehegetsaroundtotalkingabouttherestofit.Ifthereisaholeinthehull,theboatsinks.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:ForMarx,theexchangethattakesplaceismarkedbyconflict.Foryou,theexchangeisoneofcomplicity.Thebuyerandthevendorareonthesameboat,andtheexchangeisinsomewayorotherevenand

equal.Therearetheories,however,thatspeakofanuneven,unequalexchange.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Youneedatire.Asforme,Ineedtopaywagesandmyshareholders.ThemoneyIreceiveservesmanypurposes.

Ifyoulookbeyondtheshorttermofhumanlife,theactofexchangeisaprocessthatisfundamentalfortheproducerandthebuyer.Themarketeconomyistheonlyonethatworks,becauseittrulybringsmenintoarelationshipwithoneanother.And,personally,Iprefertospeakof“theeconomyofresponsiblechoice”ratherthanthemarketeconomy,forthemarketissimplytheplacewherechoicesaremade.

IVANLEVAÏ:YouaccuseMarxofhavingpollutedeconomiclifewithhistheoryofclassstruggle,butisnotTayloramajorculprit?5Havenotthemainprinciplesthatheestablishedovershadowedcreativity,andthe“nicepieceofhandicraft”thatpeoplewentintorapturesaboutinthepast?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Taylor’smethodconsistedofmakinganinventoryofusefulanduselessoperations.Hisfirststudydealtwiththeproblemsofasteelmakingfactorythatwashavingtroublekeepingitsfurnacesstokedproperly.Taylorrealizedthattheworkershadbeengivenhugeshovels.Thismeantthateverytenminutestheywereforcedtostopandcatchtheirbreath.Heshowedthat,byusingsmallershovelsandhavingmorepeopleworking,itwaspossibletoincreasetheoutputsignificantly.

VeryoftenitisonlyTaylor’sconceptofbreakingdowntasksintoindividualoperationsthatpeopleremember,andpeoplerememberitonlytodenounceit,ofcourse.Ithasbeenforgottenthatmorethananythingelsethiswasaresponsetothegrowingcomplexityofmanufactureditemsatthebeginningoflargecompanies,whenmenandwomendidnothavethenecessaryleveloftraining.Youhadtoput,towork,peoplewhohadnotbeentrainedatall.Breakingdowntasksintoindividualoperationsallowedthemtolearnajobquickly.Hismethodallowedindustrytogetofftheground,enablingmanypeopletobebetterservedwithsome“nicepiecesofhandicraft.”

Themostcommonerrorstemsfromjudgingthingsfromtheoutsideandnotontheinside.Taylor’sanalyseswereconsistentwithasuperiorlevelofcoherence.

IfyougoseethesewersofParis,youaregoingtosaytoyourself:Thisisoutrageous,disgusting;howcanpeoplebemadetoworkinthere?Theonlyconclusionthenthatshouldbedrawnfromsuchanattitudeisthatpeopleshouldnolongereatorwash!Inlifethereare,inevitably,dullanddustythings.Totakethesethingsforgrantedistoforgetthatoftentheyare,infact,onlyconsequencesofsomethingthatisinfinitelysuperiortothem.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Inyouropinion,therefore,thewholethingisaseamlesswhole.Itmeansthattheproductitselfcannotbedissociatedfrombecomingcommonplaceintheeyesofthecustomerandthemethodsofproductionthathavebeenimplementedtomakeit.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Thisexistsmoreinourmindsthanisthecaseinreality.IfyougotoaHomeCenter,youwillseethecarewithwhichbuyerschooseobjectsasinsignificantasnails.Theirchoosingcannotbyanymeansbesaidtobe“insignificant.”Whenyoubuyshoes,eventhoughthisisnotasignificantpurchase,allthesame,youdevoteahalfhour,sometimeseventhree-quartersofanhour,tochoosingyourshoesbecauseyoudonotwantshoesthatwillmakeyourfeetsore.

IVANLEVAÏ:Yousay,“Inlifethereare,inevitably,dullanddustythings.”Thisisaveryniceexpression,butisn’titthesamepeoplewhoarealwaysbeingsaddledwiththeinevitablydullanddustythings?Whatdoyouthinkabouttheevolutionoftheworkingclass?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Irememberaplantworkerwhowasclearlycapableofbecomingasupervisor.Isuggestedittohim.Tomysurprise,hereplied:“Mr.Michelin,youareverykind,buttheplantisnotthemainfocusofmyinterests.DonotaskmetogetmoreinvolvedinitthanIalreadyam.”Ifoundthisanswerinherentlyrespectable.Therearepeoplewhohaveapassionfortheirjob.Thereareothers,however,whoseinterestsarefocusedelsewhere.Itisobviousthattheyaspiretodeveloptheirtalents,tobecomewhattheypotentiallyare,butoutsidetheplant.Itisverydifficulttoarriveataproperjudgmentaboutanygivenstateofaffairswithoutlisteningtothepersonandhisdeepestmotivations.Ifyoulosesightofthis,youarelosingsightofanessentialaspectoftheproblem.

Oneday,someoneapproachedmeintheplant:“Mr.François,howdoyouexplaintheinfightingbetweendepartments?”Ireplied,“Whenyoujumpoutofbedinthemorning,don’tyoueveraskyourselfquestions?Isn’ttheresomethinginyourmindthatpromptsyoutoaskyourselfwhyyouaregettingupandwhetheryoushouldgetgoingornot?Deepwithinyou,youarealwaysinthestateofchoosing.Deepwithineachofus,thereisdivision.Thisisalsoanexpressionofourfreedom.Whyshouldthingsbedifferentbetweendepartments,seeingastheyaremadeupofpeoplewhohavethesamecharacteristicsasyoudo?”

Totackletheproblemofconflictbetweendepartmentsbyputtinginplaceastructurethattriestomakethemworktogetheristoworkontheconsequences,notonthecause.Ontheotherhand,toponderthequestionofwhatshouldbedonetotakemenandwomenwheretheyareandtraintheminsuchawaythattheycometoanunderstandingofthegeneralproblemsthatfacethecompanyaswellastherelationshipsandinteractionswithin,istoengageinawonderfultask.Youcreateateam,withanatmosphereofrespectfordifferentpersonalities.Iadmitthatthisiseasytosaybutquitedifficulttodoinpractice,preciselybecausedeepwithinourselveswearealldivided.

IVANLEVAÏ:Youarealwayscomingbacktopeople—fromthecompanytopeople.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Andtopeopleasacustomer.Fundamentally,“theeconomyofresponsiblechoice”possessesanutterlyessentialdimensionforone’sgrowth.Thatiswhytherehastoberespectforacodeofethics.Apersonhasnorighttolie.Whenyousaysomethinguntruetosomeone,itisasifyouwerehandingachildacanoffoodthathasgonebad.Andifyouarenotalwaysaskingyourselfifwhatyouaredoingisgood,youslip!

IVANLEVAÏ:Yousaythatapersonhasnorighttolie.Butdoeshehavetherighttoseducepeople?Inaway,thosewhoproducehavetoseducepeople.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Youcanseducesomeoneby“polluting”hisjudgment.Thisdoesnotlast.Orelse,youcanconfrontthepersonwithrealproblemsthathehastoresolve.Everyobjectisacompromise.Takeaprofessionalphotographer’scameraandadisposablecamera.Buyingoneorthe

otherofthesehastodowithachoicethatinvolvesacompromise.Everythingdependsonwhatyouwanttodowithit.Basically,truthistheonlyrealformofseduction,whenyougetrightdowntoit.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Withthetechnologicalprogressthathasbeenmade,thedifferenceinqualityhasbecomelessofafactor.Thequalityofdisposablecamerasisalmostthesameasthatofthereflexcamerasofafewyearsago.Qualityhasbecomeabanalconsideration,hasitnot?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Onceagain,letusbecarefulaboutthewordbanal.Ithasbecomeextremelypejorative.Nevertheless,ithasveryinterestingconnotations.InoldEnglish,the“banal”ovenistheoventhatissetupforeverybody’suse.Inpointoffact,thewordbanaliseminentlydemocratic.Nowadaysmoreandmorepeoplehaveaccesstohigh-qualityproductsatmorereasonableprices.Intheareaofcars,taketheTwingo,forinstance.6ItgoesasfastastheprewarCitroìn.Thisisphenomenal.

Imightaddthatthesearchforqualityineverysphereofbusinessactivityisalsoanextraordinaryunifyingagentthatbringsthepeopleinthecompanytogether.Itisespeciallythroughthisnever-endingsearchforhigherqualityintermsofproductsandservicesthatourpersonalrelationshipwithourcustomersismademanifesttoeverybodyinthecompany.Itisexpressedthroughacontinuousefforttoimprovethelevelofperformance,toguaranteetheconsistencyofproductsandservices,andtocutdownonourcosts.Everydetailcounts.Thepassionforinnovationandqualityistheverylifebloodofbusiness.

IVANLEVAÏ:WhenpeoplearepromptedtobuyaVCR,theyarehandedadevicethatcouldalmostbeusedasequipmentforaprofessionalvideotechnician.Manypeopleuseonlyoneortwoofthesixorsevenfunctionsthatareavailabletothem.Inaway,haven’ttheybeensomewhatcheated?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Iwouldnotsaythat.Deepdown,thebuyerswerehopingtodosomethingwiththisorthatfunction,buttheyrealizethattheydonotneedit.Thatisallright,butforthemtheimportantthing,whenallissaidanddone,istohavethatcapabilitywhentheywantit.Youknow,therearemanypeoplewhoarehappytoownacar,evenifitstaysintheirgaragealmostallyearround.Thefactthattheyknowthattheycanuseitonanygivendayisenoughto

satisfythem.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Itisakindofvirtualwealth.

IVANLEVAÏ:Orapollutingseduction.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Itisadegreeofpotentialfreedomthatmakesfordreams.Manhastheneedto“embarkonajourneyaroundhisroom,”asXavierdeMaistreputit.7

IVANLEVAÏ:Foryou,intheend,thewordbanalreallymeans“somethingthatisofbenefittoeverybody”?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Yes,somethingthatisavailabletoeveryoneandallowseverybodytolivebetter.Withlessmoney.

IVANLEVAÏ:Inshort,asanindustrialist,youconsideryourselftobeatthesourceofourhappiness.Aren’tyoualsoresponsibleforourmisfortunes?Tomakeroads—trees,and,indeed,wholeforestshavebeencutdown;everythingwasthenpavedover.And,inthefinalanalysis,peoplearecrammedintocitieswhereyoucannotevendriveanymore.Youhaveopeneduphorizonsforus,butattheendofitall,itfeelsasifwehavehitabrickwall.Whenitcomesdowntoit,youareguilty.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:No.Idonotthinkthatanindustrialistcanthinkthatheisatthesourceofotherpeople’shappiness,forhappinessbelongstoadifferentorderofthings,asdoesmisfortune,too.Butyourqueryposestheobviousquestionofresponsibility.Everyactionhasitsconsequences.Theproblemisthatifyoutakenegativeconsequencesasbeingcertainwhentheyarestillonlyhypothetical,youareparalyzedandnolongerdaretakeaction.Youhavetoacceptthedustontheroad.Itistruethattreeshavebeencuttomakehighways,butdon’tnewspapersalsoneedwoodpulptomakepaper?Theproblemis,makingsurethatpeoplecanmeetoneanotherandinteract.ItisthesamewiththeInternet.Itcanbeextremelypollutingand,atthesametime,ithasthepotentialtobeextremelybeneficial.Allofthisismerelyanexpressionofthe

responsibilitythatwehavetoexerciseourfreedominwhatwedoandwhatweare.Whatseemstometobethemostimportantaspectofthehumanbeingisthatheisself-teachable.Educationpresupposesthatapersonshouldalwayskeepinmindtherelationshipbetweenanactionanditsconsequences.AsIunderstandit,theessentialstrengththatunderlies“theeconomyofchoice,”itsspecificallyhumandimension,isthatitallowseverypersontomeasuretheconsequencesofhisorheractions.Whenapainterhasanexhibition,itisbecausehewantstoknowhowheratesasanartist,whatpeoplethinkofhimandhiswork.Whenthecompany’ssalesmengotovisitatiredealer,theytakenoteofhowpeopleperceiveusandwhatimprovementsweneedtomake.Whataboutthemediatoo?Theyspendtheirtimemonitoringhowtheystandintheratingstofindoutifthe“customer”issatisfiedwithwhathehasseenorheard.Theyaremerelyweighingtheconsequencesoftheiractions.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:IfweextrapolatefromyourargumentandlookatMichelin,whichhasspannedthecenturyandwhichrepresentstheidealsynthesisofeverythingwehaveknownoverthelasthundredyears,yourpositivecontributionsoverthistimeperiodarequiteevident.Alsoevidentarethelimitsofwhatyouhaveintroduced,thingsfromwhichwehaveallprofitedwithahighlypassivesortofcomplicity.Whataboutthenextstage?Inyourmind,whataretheconsequencesofallthis?Thewheelturns,butwhereisitgoingtotakeus?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Wedonotmaketires,butobjectsthatcanbeofhelpintransportingpeoplewhoneedtotravel,ascheaplyandassafelyaspossiblewhiletakingintoaccounttheexistingtechnologicalmeans.Thedaythatweforgetthatwearemanufacturingthingsthatareorientedtowardserviceastheirend,isthedaythatwewillbemakingapossiblyfatalmistake.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:So,then,peopledonotmakeanadequateassessmentofcausesandtheirconsequences.Somewhereyourefusetotakeintoaccounttheimplicitconsequencesofwhatyoudo.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Notatall!Whysomuchanxiety?WhatdidtheRomansdo?TheycutdownforestsinordertoconstructtheirRomanroads.Therabbitsintheforestmaketheirlittletrails.Dogsmarkouttheirterritoryintheirownway.Andtheworlddoesnotstopturningbecauseofthis—onthecontrary!

We,too,aremakingourownpath.Wherewillwebeintwentyorthirtyyears?—maybeinalesspollutedworld,afterall.Nuclearfusionwillmakeitpossibletoproduceelectricityverycheaply.Allthethermalpowerstationsthatrunonoilorcoalwilldisappear.Twentyyearsfromnow,wewillbedrivingcarsthatrunonhydrogen.Inshort,therewillbesubstantiallylesspollution.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Butwhenitcomesdowntoit,whateverweproduceinthislife—whetheritbetiresorsomeotherthing—whatgivesustherighttoignoreapartoftheconsequencesofouractionsandimaginethatitisnolongerourproblem?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:But,ofcourse,itisourproblem!Itisareasonforustodomore.

Nevertheless,apersonneverreallyknowsthecompleteconsequencesofhisactions.WhenyouthrowapebbleintotheSeine,8youmaybedisturbingasalmoninNewfoundlandandyetnotknowit.Consequently,whatyouhavetodoistotaketheutmostprecautions.Take,forexample,anaspirintablet.Ifithadbeenknownbeforehandwhatagreatnumberofstomachperforationsitwouldcause,itwouldneverhavebeenputonthemarket.Allthesame,inotherrespectsitisamarvelousproduct.Weliveourlivesinignorance.

Idonotwanttobemisunderstoodhere.Peoplearealwayssayingthattheyareentitledtomakeamistake.Thisdoesnotmeanthattheyareentitledtomakemistakesintentionally.Butyouhavetoknowhowtotakerisks.Apersonisduty-boundtoconductexperiments,evenwhilebeingespeciallyattentivetotheirlong-termconsequences.Itisthebasicactthatgovernsinnovation.Toachievethis,pastexperiencescanlighttheway,buttherecomesatimewhenuncertaintyentersintoplay.Ifyoudonotmakeuseofittotrythingsout,tomakedaringexperiments,youaremakingamistake.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Soitisthismysteriousareaofuncertaintythatdrawsourimaginationandencouragesustomakeprogress.OscarWildesaidthat“Progressissimplytheexpressionofutopia.”Isitnotalsoanotionthatistheexpressionofmystery?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Theeconomyofresponsiblechoicerestsonanelementofmysteryandrisk.Thevendorisalwaysbeingconfrontedwithfresh,

newenigmas.Irememberbeinginastoreonedayandwantingtobuyarecordplayer.Ilookedatthebottom-of-the-lineproducts,andthenIlookedabitfartherup,thenfartherstill,andgraduallyIrealizedthatIhadbeendrawntoproductsthatweremoreandmoreexpensive.Finally,Ileftwithoutbuyinganything.ThethingsthatIreallylikedwereunreasonablycostly.AsIleft,theowner,whowaspuzzled,askedme:“WhatshouldIdo?ShouldIopenone,separatestoreformytop-of-the-lineproducts,anotherstoreformymiddle-of-the-linethings,andyetathirdstoreforthebottomoftheline?”Neitherofushadananswertothisquestion.

IVANLEVAÏ:Basically,thegoodfortunesofMichelinrestonthewheel,whichisaltogetherthemostextraordinaryandthesimplestofinventions.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Verymuchso.Whenitwasfastenedontoawheel,thetirebecameofservicetothecar.Itisasimpleextensionofasimpleinvention.Thingsalwaysbeginbybeingcomplicated.Then,asyoumaketheefforttotrytounderstandthem,theybecomesimpler.

IVANLEVAÏ:Allthesame,itistheradialtirethatisyourclaimtofame.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Theradialtirewasbornoutofthedifficultiesexperiencedwiththestandardtire.Thestandardtirecouldnotgomorethaneightymilesanhourwithoutblowingup.Wehadtofindatirethatdidnotheatupasmuch.MariusMignol,theresearcherwhodiscoveredit,hadjoinedthecompanyasaworkerinourprintingdepartment.Heendedupbecomingthetireengineerofthecentury.

IVANLEVAÏ:Withoutthebenefitofaneducation,MariusMignolfulfilledhimselfatMichelin.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Totally.Hewasalsoanoutstandingmineralogistwhocouldtalktoyouaboutanything.Heistheonewhoexplainedatomicsciencetome.Youknow,somepeoplerecruittheirinventorsfromloftymountainheights,butsometimesitistheignorantpersonwhohastheadvantageoversomeonewhohaslearned,inthathedoesnotliveinagraveyardofideas.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:DoyouknowthatphrasefromMontesquieu:9“Ilikepeasantsbecausetheyarenotlearnedenoughtomakemistakes”?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Itisessentialtobeabletosay:“Idonotknow.”Thisispreciselytheattitudeofthetrulylearnedman,whoisalwayslaunchingoutintoareasthatarebeyondthelimitsofhisknowledge.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Doyoubelieveintheinfluenceofluckwithregardtoinventions?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Personally,Idonotbelieveinluckatall.Itdoesnotexist.Therearepeoplewhoknowhowtosee,andotherswhowillneverseeanything.TakeSirAlexanderFleming,forinstance,who,asadoctorduringWorldWarI,sawotherwisehealthypeopledying.Herealizedthathehadtofindawaytokillthemicrobesthatwerefesteringintheirwounds.Healreadyhadthenotionofantibioticsinmind.Onedayhenoticedthatastaphylococcusculturehadbeenstoppedbyakindofmold:Penicilliumnotatum.Hehaddiscoveredpenicillin.Allaroundus,theworldisfullofthingsthatcannourishourfreedom.Allyouhavetodoisbeattentiveenoughtodiscoverthem.

Andinnovationalsodemandsaboldnessanddaring.LetmetellyouananecdotethatIamquitefondof.Beforethewar,whenMichelinwasinterestedinrailwaytransportationwithaviewtooutfittingsometrainswithtires,thewholeproblemboileddowntomakingtherailcars,whichweretobecomeknownas“Michelines,”lightenoughtorenderthemcompatiblewiththeload-carryingcapacitiesofthetiresofthetime.Drawingtheirinspirationfromaeronauticaldesign,thetechnicalteamsdevisedanaluminumstructurethatwassolightandpliablethatthe“belly”oftheprototypesaggedontotherails.SummonedbeforeEdouardMichelin,andratherillatease,theyweresurprisedtofindthemselvesbeingcongratulatedforhavingdaredtogotothelimitsoftheexperiment.Infact,afewproperlyplaced,steeltie-rodsprovedtobeenoughtomakethisinventionviable.Thus,itwasmadepossiblefortherevolutionaryconceptofthe“rail-tire”toemerge.DidyouknowthatthereisaMichelinestillinserviceinMadagascar?

Thisisthesortofattitudethatexplainswhyinnovationhasremainedattheheartofourcompany.Itfreestheimaginationandencouragesrisktaking—goingtothelimitsinordertoseewhathappens.

IVANLEVAÏ:Abusinessdieswhenthethingitmakesisnolongerusefulorhasbeenreplacedbysomethingelse.Wehaveseenwholecorporationsdisappear.Whatwouldtheendoftiresbelike?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Thefirstquestionthatwehavetoaskourselvesisthefollowing:Wemustascertainwhether,aftertakingintoaccountthespecificnatureofourbusiness,therewillalwaysbetransportationineitherpublicorprivateform.Istransportationafundamentalgivenorapassingphenomenonoflifeinsociety?Theanswerstrikesmeasbeingself-evident.Ifwedonotwanttohavemegalopolisticcities,buthuman-sizecities,thenwehavetohavebothpublicandprivatemeansoftransportationtolinkthemuptogether.

Thereisasecondquestionthatwemustaskourselves.Wehavetoascertainwhatsortsofmeansoftransportationwillbeusedinthefuture.Todaywehavebicycles,scooters,motorcycles,cars,trains,buses,etcetera.Isitpossibletoimaginesomethingthatwouldreplacethesemeans?Asthingsstandnow,itishardtoenvisionanything.Thirty-fiveyearsagoweaskedourselvesaboutthenatureoftheforcethatmadethemooncircletheearth.Wasitnotpossibletoharnessthisforceanduseitfortransportation?Wehavenotyetfoundanywayofdoingso,althoughthisisnottosaythatonedaysomethingmaybefound.Wehavealsostudiedtheaircushionasapotentialsolutiontothisproblem—butseeingthatittakestwo-hundred-fifty-horsepowermotorstoliftthreepeople,Idonotthinkthatthisistheanswer.

Everysixmonthsweaskourselvesquestionslikethese,inordertoassessthedangerofusdisappearingoneday.Andthenweendupbeingreassured,whenweassessthefullextentoftheadvantagesofthewheel.Therealityisthatitallowsustotravel—overanyterrain—somethingthatisabsolutelyexceptional!

Whataboutthetire?Coulditbereplacedoneday?Youwouldhavetofindalikesortofproduct,onewiththesamequalities.Whatarethesequalities?Itcarriesaload,allowsavehicletoaccelerateandtobrake,andtoturnleftorright,isnoiseless,doesnotuseupenergy,isnotexpensiveand,ifatallpossible,itoughttolookgood.Itsbasicfunctionconsistsofabsorbingtheirregularitiesofthegroundbyusingtheleastcostlyandlightest“spring”possible:namely,air.Apneumatictireistheenvelopeorcasingintowhichisblownpneuma,10whichisnoneotherthanbreathorair.Whatcouldyoureplacethiswith?Someideasareunderinvestigation,but,whenitcomestosuchalternativemeans,thestumbling

blocksarealwaysquestionsofweightandpriceofthespring.

Giventhestateofourpresent-dayknowledge,thetirestillhasalonglifeaheadofit.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Couldyoutellussomemoreaboutanyleadsthatyoumayhaveintermsofsubstitutesthatyoucanimagineforthetire?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Wetrytoimaginesuchsubstitutes,buttherearealwaysdifficultiesthatprovetobeastumblingblock.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Aretheytechnicalorconceptual?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Both.Throughobservationweareconfrontedwithanumberofmysteriesthatwetrytounderstand.Beholdaskierwhoiscomingdownaslope.Abovehiships,hisbodyremainspracticallyimmobile.Hisknees,ontheotherhand,bendandstraightenatfullspeed.Atwhatmomentdoesbonebecometendon?Andwhendoestendonbecomemuscle?Thequestioncanalsobeaskedastowhythereisnowheelinnature.Whydoesn’tmanhavewheelsratherthanfeet?Orelseyoucanponderthemysteryofthecamel’sfeet!Howcanacamelwalkthroughsandandstoneswithoutinjury?Whatisthereaboutthecamel’sfootthatcouldbeappliedtothetire?

IVANLEVAÏ:Youmaketiresthatareofanextraordinarilyhighqualitynow,subjecttofewerandfewerflats.Butamongthefeaturesofthetirethatyoujustmentioned,thereisonethatremainshighlysignificant,bothforthecompanyandthepeoplewhoworkinit,nottomentiontheshareholders:Youhavetoreplaceit!Whatwouldhappenif,inonefellswoop,technologicalprogressmadeitpossibleforthecustomer,oncehehadboughtacarandtires,nevertohavetochangethem?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:YoudonothavetobeMalthusian!11Theradialtiregivesyouthreetimesmoremileagethantheconventionaltire.Well,webroughtitoutinspiteoftheprophetsofdoomwhotriedtotalkusoutofitevenwithinthecompanyitself.Accordingtothem,productionwasgoingtodropbytwo-thirds.Thetiredealerswouldbefurious.Foreverythreetires,theywouldbe

sellingjustone.Notonlythat,butthewholethingwasgoingtobecostlysincetherewouldhavetobeinvestmentinnewmachines,andpeoplewouldhavetobetrained.Thebossatthetime,Mr.Puiseux,decidedtotestthetireonastretchofroadthatheknewwell,betweenClermont-FerrandandtheJuraMountains.12Indoingso,herealizedthatitwastakinghimhalfanhourlesstimetomakethesametrip,thathewaslesstired,thathewasusinglessgas,andthathecouldcoverthisdistancemorepleasantly.Allofthiswasgoodforthecustomer.So,therewerenotwowaysaboutit:Wehadtobringouttheradialtire.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Whensomeofthemanagementstaffareopposedtoaproject,whomakesthedecision?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Theboss.Heistheonlyonewhocancommitthecompanyatthispoint.Theriskinvolvedwasanimportantconsideration,ofcourse,buthadwedeclinedtobringouttheradialtire,MignolwouldhavegonetoDunlop,Goodyear,orFirestone.Hewouldhaveconcluded,withgoodcause,thatMichelinwasdoomed,sincewewerehostiletoinnovation.

IVANLEVAÏ:Doesthecompanypromotetheideaofbeingbetterthanthecompetition?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Theso-calledmarketeconomy,orrather,theeconomyofresponsiblechoice,asIwouldputit,hastheenormousadvantageofputtingtheboss’sprideinitsplace.Ourproductsarenotalwaysthebest,noraretheyalwaysthecheapest.AndwhenacustomerchoosesGoodyearoverMichelin,itbringsyoudowntoearthinahurry.

IVANLEVAÏ:Isbeing“NumberOne”importantforthecompany?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Themostimportantthingistobethebestwheneverpossible.Butbeing“NumberOne,”“NumberTwo,”or“NumberThree”—isitreallythatimportant?Andbesides,itreallydependsontheeconomicevolutionofthecountrieswhereourmainoperationsarelocated!Butitistruethatperformanceismeasuredbycomparisonwithothers.Welatchedontoafabulousopportunity.Ourcompetitorsdidnotbelieveintheradialtire.GoodyearandFirestonedid,infact,buytheMichelinlicense,buttheydidnotdoanythingwith

it.Thisshouldservetomakeusmodestaboutoursuccess.Italsoshowstheimportanceofinnovation.Atthetime,theideathatwewereleavingtheindustrialagetoenterintoapostindustrialerawasalreadymakingitsinroads,andmanypeoplenolongerbelievedthattechnologyhasafuture.Thiswasanincredibleideologicalmistakemadebyoldfogiesintheirmid-twentieswhopreferredtoextrapolatecurvesratherthantoputtheirfaithinthehumanimagination.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Whatthoughtprocesspromptedyoutomakeadecisionthatwentagainstthetrendsofthetime?Youfoundyourselfaloneagainstanumberofyourmanagementstaff,aloneagainstallyourcompetitors.Thisbeingthecase,youmusthavegonethroughsomedarnedseriousself-questioningwhenyouwererightandeveryonewasagainstyou.Didn’tyoueventuallyaskyourselfifyoumightnotbewrong?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:ItwasnotthatIwasrightandthateveryonewasagainstme.Iwasright,onbehalfofthecustomer.Thecustomerneededaradialtire—andthatwasthat.Nothingelsecounted.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Butperhapstherearetimeswhenyoucannotbethatsureofbeingright,onbehalfofthecustomer.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Iftheproductistrulygoodforthecustomeranditcanbeputonthemarketatalowprice,thecaseisclosed.Iamstillastonishedbythemistakethatwasmadebyourcompetitors.IfGoodyearorFirestonehadfollowedourlead,theywouldhavebecomehuge.Itappearsthatitwasfinancialexpertswhodissuadedthemfromdevelopingthetechnologyoftheradialtireonaccountofitscost.

IVANLEVAÏ:Somistakesdoexistinindustry,andyoucanenduppayingforthemalongtime.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:ThatisthewholeproblemwiththetireindustryinEurope.Itisobvious.AsplainastheEiffelTowerinthemiddleoftheChampdeMars.13

IVANLEVAÏ:Haveyourcompetitorsmadeupforlosttimesincetheirfailuretocapitalizeontheconceptoftheradialtire?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Absolutely.Manyofthemhaveonceagainbecomeformidablecompetitors.Wearenowinamorenormalsituationintheindustry.TheownerofBridgestonecamefromJapanattheendofthe1950stoseewhatwashappeningintermsoftiretechnologyinFrance.WhenhediscoveredMichelin’smetallictire,hesaidtohimself,ThisiswhatIshouldbedoing.Nowheisoneofourmaincompetitors.Heismostfortunate,too,becauseinJapan,whenyouhaveanideainyourmind,itquicklytakesconcreteshape.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Youmeantosaythatoverthereeverythingpossibleisdonetofostersuccessinbusiness?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Absolutely.Andthisattitudeoftheirsisstillaforcetobereckonedwith.ItisthisthatwillallowJapantorecover.

Bywayofcontrast,gaugingfromtheattitudeofcertainofourpoliticians,thoseofuswhoaremanufacturersgettheimpressionthatwearetheenemy.Isitthatweare“politicallyincorrect”?Theseriousprobleminthiscountryisthat,assoonasyouventuretopointouttherealitiesofthesituation,youaresuspectedofbeingpolitical.

IVANLEVAÏ:Fiftyyearsafterthewar,theFrenchindustrialiststilldoesnothavetherecognitionthatheshouldhave.Thereisthisatmosphereofextremedistrust,asifthebittermemoriesofthepast(suchaschildlabor,forexample)werenotquiteforgotten.Howdoyouexplainthis?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:People’sperceptionsofquestionssuchaschildlaboror,moregenerally,socialconditionsatthebeginningofthecentury—orevenbefore—areoftendistorted.ReadLaBruyère’sdescriptionsofthehordesofpeasantswhowereleavingtheirfieldsintheseventeenthcentury.14Thesepeoplehadonlyoneconcern:toforgettheabominableconditionstheywerelivingin.Theindustrywasawayoutforthem.Letushavethehumilitytoacknowledgethatwecannotjudgemattersthatwehavenotlivedthrough.Thisisnottosay,though,thatthesolutionsthatwereadoptedwerealwaysthebestones.

IVANLEVAÏ:Butsocialvictorieshavealwaysarisenamidstpainandstrife.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Iwillnotsaythatcompanyexecutives,whoareashumanasanybodyelse,didnotsometimesmakemistakes.Evenso,ifyoulookattheyear1936,forexample,itwas,toallappearances,quiteprosperous.Buttheinflationwashorrendous!

Onedaymygrandfathersaidtome,“Ishouldhavecomeupwiththeideaofpaidholidaysearlier.”But,atthetime,theeconomiccircumstancesmadeitdifficulttoshutdownplantsforthreeweeks.Thesaleswerequitesmall.IfyoulookatthefilmsthatwereshotontheChamps-Elysèesinthe1930s,therearenocars!Unavoidably,inthepast,thenumberoftiresproducedwasmuchlowerthanitistoday.

IVANLEVAÏ:Whatrelationshipdoyouseebetweenpoliticsandbusiness?Ifyoulookattheproblemhistorically,yougettheimpressionthatveryoftenitispoliticsthatapplieseitherthebrakesortheacceleratortotheeconomy.

FRANÇOlSMICHELIN:Thisisacomplexproblembut,basically,forme,thebestkindofpoliticsconsistsofgivingeachpersonthemeanstobecomewhatheisandtosatisfyneedsthatarestillunknowntohim.ThisisatendencythatexistsintheUnitedStates,inSiliconValley,forexample.Onceagain,itisthecustomerswhoarethesubjectsoftheeconomy,andnottheopposite.Ifyouwantpoliticstohelpincreatingahealthyeconomy,itisnecessaryforcitizenstobecomethesubjectsoftheState,whereas,inpointoffact,theyarelookedonasobjects.Peopleareviewedas“fiscalreserves,”andtheStateisbusyusingthemup.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:DoyoufindnowadaysinFrancethatpeopledonotgiveenoughthoughttowholegreatareasofenterprise,whichremainunknown?YoumentionedSiliconValley.WhyisitthatwedonothaveanythinglikeitinFrance?Isitbecauseofpoliticaloradministrativeroadblocks?IsitbecausewehaveessentiallybecomeMalthusians?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Thatispossible.Ihaveaskedmyselfwhy,forexample,Franceputsomuchtimeandeffortintodevelopingthetelephone.In

actualfact,itwasJeanMonnetandhisplannerswhodecidedthat,becausethetelephonewasasignofsocialadvancement,ithadtobe“granted”totheuser.15“Granted”—noticethewordthatIamusingandwhatitmeans!Tofullyunderstandthings,youalwayshavetogobacktowordsandtheirmeaning.Oneday,IwenttoseePierreMauroy,whowasthenprimeminister,tospeaktohimaboutequitycapitalforbusiness.Ashehadbeendelayed,Ihadamomenttospendindiscussionwithhissecretary,Mrs.Boutillon.Thisdiscussionquicklygotquitestraighttothepoint:

“Ah,youareamanofmoney,ofprofit.”

“Yes,thatistrue.Butwhatdoyoumeanby‘profit’?”Iaskedher.

“‘Profit’iswhatyouputinyourpocket.”

“Forgivemeforbeingpedantic,buttheetymologicalrootsofthewordprofitcomefromtheLatinprofacere.Inotherwords,itiswhatyouputaside‘inordertodoormakesomething.’Thepeasantwhodoesnotputanythingasidetoprepareforhisnextharvestcannotgethisjobdone.Actually,IamamanofmoneyandprofitbecauseIamalwaysthinkingaboutwaystoplanforthefuture.”

“Well,inthatcase,Ithinkwecanagree!”sheconcludedwithasmile.

Afewminuteslater,Ispokewiththeprimeministerontheimportanceofequitycapitalforabusiness:“AbusinesswithoutequitycapitalcanbecomparedtoarunnerwhotacklesamountainwhilehookeduptoanIV!Similarly,asoldierwhogoestowarthinkingthatheshouldcomebackwithalltheammunitionthathetookwithhimwillnotlastverylong.Itisthesameprincipleinbusiness.Withoutglucoseinitssystem,abusinesscannotgrow.Andwithoutammunition,itcannotfight.”

Isnottheflexibilitythatequitycapitalgivesalsoanoutstandingwaytoavoidsocialinstability?

NotesandExplanations1Limoges:Middle-sizetowninthecenterofFrance,famousforitsporcelainmanufacturing.

2AntoineGros(1771–1835):Frenchpainter.

3WilliamBouguereau(1825–1905):Frenchpainter.

4Strasbourg:TownintheeastpartofFranceneartheGermanborder,locationoftheEuropeanParliamentassembly.

5FredericTaylor(1856–1915):WroteThePrinciplesofScientificManagement,whichstudiedthebreakingdownoftasksintotheirsmallercomponentsandthesuppressionofuselessoperations.

6Twingo:Small,modem,andveryinexpensive,recentmodelfromRenault.

7XavierdeMaistre(1763–1852):Frenchwriterandessayist,authorofTripAroundMyBedroom.

8Seine:RiverthatcrossesParisfromsoutheasttonorthwest.

9CharlesdeMontesquieu:FrenchphilosopherandauthorofPersianLettersandtheSpiritofLaws.

10Pneumatic:Greekwordmeaningbreath,air.

11Malthusian—RobertMalthus(1766–1834):Anglicanpastorwhoarguedthathumanprocreationmustbesloweddowntoadapttotheearth’scapacitytoprovideitssustenance.

12Jura:Mountainrange,intheeasternpartofFrance,twohundredmilesfromClermont-Ferrand,towardSwitzerland.

13ChampdeMars:LargeareainthecenterofParis,wheretheEiffelTowerstands.

14JeandeLaBruyère(1645–1696):Frenchthinkerandauthorof,amongothers,TheCharacters.

15JeanMonnet(1888–1979):Frencheconomist,convincedGeneraldeGaulletosetupcentralplanningin1945,whichthenledtothecreationofthefirstEuropeanorganizations.

2

CapitalismandResponsibilityYVESMESSAROVITCH:Howwouldyoudefinecapitalism?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Capitalismrestsonanevaluationoftheconsequencesthatactionshave.Onewayoranother,everyactioncarriessanctionsthatgowithit.Itisexperiencethathastaughtmethis.AndIrealizethatitisone’sownexperienceinlifethatgivesustheopportunitytoenterintoarealdialogue.Thatiswhywearetouchingonrealitiesherethatdonotnecessarilyhaveanypoliticalcoloringtothem,evenacentristcoloring.

Weareengagedindoingthisbooktogether,becausewesuppose—inallmodesty—thatwehaveausefulexperiencetocommunicatetopeople.Theresultingworkwillbejudgedbythereader.Itssanctionswillcomeintheformofitssuccessoritsfailure.Thesameprincipleisinvolvedwhenweturntothemarket.Abusinesscomesupwithaproductandmakesanefforttofindoutwhetherthisproducthasanybearingontherealneedsofthecustomer.Ineffect,therulingquestionbecomes“Doestheshoefitthecustomer’sfoot?”—not“Canwefitthecustomer’sfoottotheshoe?”Iftheanswertothisquestionis“Yes,”theproductenjoysgoodsales,andthebusinessreceivesmoneyinreturn.Theinstrumentthatmeasurescustomersatisfactionismoney.Themarketistheplacewheretheconsequencesofacapitalistactionareborneout—whethertheybepositiveornegative.Someonewhoisinchargeofabusinessisalsoaccountabletohisshareholders.Heriskstheirmoney,buthecannotdowhateverhewantswithit.Thepurposeofmanagementistobeforeververifyingwhethertheinvestmentsmadeareprofitableandwhether,therefore,theyaresuchthattheyensurethefutureofthecompanyontheonehandandafaircompensationfortherisktakenbyshareholdersontheother.Inaway,thisprocessallowsanassessmenttobemadeoftheforeseeableconsequencesthatinvestmentshave.

IVANLEVAÏ:Itistruethateveryactionhasitsconsequences.Butdoyou

reallythinkthatthepersonwhoperformstheactionsystematicallydesiresitsconsequencestobeverifiedandassessed?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Humanbeings,Irepeat,aretheonlyself-teachablebeingsontheplanet.Intheirhandstheyhaveallthemeanstobetterthemselves,ortodestroythemselves.Togrow,theyhavetoconstantlyweightheconsequencesoftheiractions.Capitalismgivesthemthisopportunitytoberesponsible.

TheeconomicliberalismtowhichIsubscribegivespeopletheconditionsoffreedomthatenablethemtogatherexperienceinsuchcircumstancesthattheycannotescapetheresultingsanctions,inthefullestsenseofthisterm.Itistheonlysystemthatleadstoabettermentofthecommongood.“Thecommongoodisthesetofmeansthatarenecessarytosatisfyneedsthatarestillunknown,”saysFriedrichvonHayekquiterightly.1Headds:“Attheheartofthemarketeconomyeveryhumanbeingisinsearchofhishappiness.Thisistheinvisiblehand.”

Thisvisionofthingsisobviouslydiametricallyopposedtotheoneespousedbythefollowersofphilosophicalliberalism,whorejectanypointofreferencethatisexteriortoman.Once,aprofessorofhistoryandgeographysaidtome:“Mr.Michelin,theterriblethingaboutcapitalismisthatitisanaturalphenomenon,notacreationofthespirit.”Notethelogicofthephraseheuses:“Theterriblethingisthatitisanaturalphenomenon!”Therejectionofanypointofreferencethatisextrinsictoourownwill,therejectionofanykindofjudgment,aclosinginononeselfandone’sownsystemofthought,arejectionofalltranscendence,thisistheveryessenceofphilosophicalliberalism:“NoGodnormasternorreality.”So,youcandoanythingwhatsoeverwithoutbeingsubjecttosanctions.Anditdegeneratesrapidlywiththeusualresults:dictatorship.Dictatorshipconsistsofrejectingtherulesoflifeinsocietyinordertoimposeone’sownrules.Itisatotallydestructivesystem.Inpointoffact,however,thecapacityforinnovationandcreationcannotfindexpressionotherthanbyreferencetoanobjective“NorthStar.”

Theworstliethatapersoncaninflictuponhimselfistorefusetoaskhimselfquestions.

Basically,philosophicalliberalismcreatesindividualswhoareclosedinonthemselvesandcontributenothingtothecommunity.Economicliberalismcreatestheconditionswherebyindividualsbecomepersonswhoenterinto

relationshipswithotherpersons.

Whetheryouseetheotherpersonasanindividualorasapersonchangesthingsradically.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Capitalismisbuiltontrust.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Precisely.Thisinducespeopletoweightheconsequencesoftheiractionswellbeforetheyact.

IVANLEVAÏ:Butallthesame,isn’tthereabasicconflictofinterestbetweentheemployerandthewageearner?ThelessIgivemycleaninglady,themoreIgettokeepinmyownwallet.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Ifyoupayyourcleaningladypoorly,shewillnotstaywithyouverylong,andyouwillhavealotoftroublefindingagoodoneafterward!Thereisnoconflictofinterestbetweentheemployerandthewageearner,but,attheverymost,thereisadifferenceofinterestthatliesinthe“hereandnow”orinthelongterm.ButtheMarxists,whodoalltheirreasoningintheirownlittle,closeduniverse,areincapableofintegratingthenotionofthelongtermintotheirwayofconceivingthings.Thecapitalists,ontheotherhand,quicklyrealizedthatiftheywantedpeopletoworkproperly,itmademoresensetofostertheirsenseofresponsibilityandtomakethempartnersratherthan“slaves”asrapidlyaspossible.HenryFordunderstoodthisperfectlywhenhedecidedtogivehisworkersasubstantialraiseinpay—withoutpenalizinghiscustomersbymakinghispricestoohigh—inordertoallowanumberofthemtoacquireacar.ThisishowAmericanprosperitywasborn.

IVANLEVAÏ:So,foryou,capitalismisanideal,harmoniousworldwheretheinterestsofthe“captains”contributetothegeneralwell-beingalmostnaturally?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Morethananythingelseitisasystemthatcountsonpeopleandtheircapacityforprogress.OnceIreadthefollowinginaLeftistweekly:“Thevoteonthelawonabortionconstitutesavictoryovercapitalism.”Thereyouhaveitinanutshell!Thevoteonalawthatlegalizestheseparationofanactfromitsconsequencesisavictoryovercapitalism!So,byimplication,thepersonwhoconceivedthisphrasemeanttosaythatcapitalismisasystemthat

linksanactionanditsconsequences.Todissociateonefromtheotheristorejectthewholepointofeducation.Capitalism,inthenon-Marxistsenseoftheword,isbasicallyasystemthateducates.Thereisanotherimportantaspecttobeconsidered.Contrarytowhatthislawonabortionmightimply,whatcomesfirstforthesepeopleisnotthepersonandhispersonalgreatness,butsociety.Nowintheethicalfoundationsofcapitalism,thepersoncomesbeforesociety.Formethematterhasnoambiguityaboutitatall:Societyismadeforman,andnottheopposite.

Ofcourse,thereareabuses,andmistakescanbemade.Butthingslikethisarepenalized,inasmuchasthecapitalistalwayshastofaceuptohisresponsibilitiesinawaythatispracticallyirreversible.Ifhemissesaturn,hiscariswrecked.AsSimonedeBeauvoirandJean-PaulSartreoncesaid:“FortheLeft,sanctionsarecollective,whilefortheRighttheyarepersonal.”2

Withinthecapitalistsystem,a“plant”isateam.Adviceshouldalwaysbesoughtbeforeactionisundertaken.Theteamistheretoinformus,toputusonourguard,tomakesurethatthebusinesswillstaythecourseandkeepitsplaceinthemarket.Furthermore,thereisatremendousinstrumentbehindeverycapitalistthatallowshimtoarriveatafinelycalibratedmeasurementofthequalityofhiswork:thehonestyofhisbalancesheetasverifiedbytheauditors—butthisisaninstrumentjudgingafterthefact.Meanwhile,everyactionthatisperformedinthebusinessremainsareflectionofthefreedomandresponsibilityofthepersonwhoperformsit.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Doesthisimplyahumanistphilosophy?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Ofcourse.Tolivetogether,peopleneedtorespecteachother.Freedompresupposesethics,amorality;thatistosay,asetofinstructionsthatallowadefinitionofthecodeofbehaviorthatshouldbeadoptedtowardotherpeopleandwithregardtooneself.Youshouldnotdotootherswhatyouwouldnotwantdonetoyourself.Forthis,youhavetobeginbyarrivingatanunderstandingofwhoyouare.Whatisman?JohnPaulIIsaysthatmanistheonlybeingincreationwhomGodwantedforhimself.Thehumanbeingisunique.Thisisamarvelousthingwhenyouthinkofit.Ihavealwaysbeendeeplyshockedthatlawmakerspasslegislationonembryoswithoutevergivingaprecisedefinitionofwhatanembryois.Howcansuchafundamentalconsiderationbebrushedaside?Ifyoudobrushitaside,youfallpreytophilosophicalliberalism,whichlegitimizesthegravestofactionsunderthe

pretextthatthelawallowsit.Thismeansthatwenolongerliveinastateoflaw.

IVANLEVAÏ:In1941awomanwasguillotinedbecauseshewascarryingoutillegalabortions.Itisterribletotakeawayaperson’slifebecause...

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Thatwasthelawatthetime.Thecontexthaschanged.Buttheabolitionofthedeathpenaltyhasnotdoneanythingtochangetheseriousnessoftheproblem.

IVANLEVAÏ:So,then,areyoureallydenouncingphilosophicalliberalismandthenotionofnoninterference?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Youcannothaveasystemofcompletenoninterference,asifapersoncoulddowhateverhewants.Liberalismshouldletthingstaketheircoursebutwithstandardsofmeasuretobackitup.Theidealsystemallowspeopleawidescopeofactivity,atthesametimeremindingthemthattherearesanctions.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Howdoyouexplainthegreatcrisesthathavebeentheoutcomeofnoninterferencearrangements?Isthisbecausetherewastoomuchofit?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:No,itisjustthatthestandardsofmeasurewerebroken,thatisall.Thatwasthecasein1930.ItisthecasetodayinSoutheastAsia.Itisacrisisofphilosophicalliberalism.

IVANLEVAÏ:Inthestrictsenseoftheterm,noninterferencehasneverreallyexisted.Therehavealwaysbeenlaws,betheyjustorlessjust,thathaveattemptedtoimposeconstraintsonpeopleandorganizethem.Thereisnoexampleofasocietywithoutlawsandregulations.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Youareright.Butdotheselawsalwaystakeintoaccountthecomplexrealitiesoflife?Thisbasiclawremains:Everymanmustbeaccountableforhisactions.Andthisisnotsomethingthatanybodyelsecandoforyou.

IVANLEVAÏ:HowdidyouinterpretthecriticalremarksthatthePopemadeinCubaaboutliberalism?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:WhenthePopeexpresseshisreservationsaboutliberalism,heisattackingphilosophicalliberalismandnotliberalismastheeconomistsunderstandit.Thetwoareutterlydifferent.Philosophicalliberalismrejectsanykindofconstraintandgoesaboutrefutingallnotionsoftranscendence.Thephilosophicalliberalthinksthathisnavelisthecenteroftheworld.Insteadofopeninghimselfuptoothers,heclosesinonhimselflikeanoysterandconsidershimselfGod.Economicliberalism,ontheotherhand,isasysteminwhichpeopleagreetolivetogetherinfreedomandsubmitthemselvestoacommonsetofrules,whichresultsinaneconomybasedontheideaofcontract—asocialcontract,asitwere.

IVANLEVAÏ:Nevertheless,thePopedoesnothesitatetodenouncetheincreaseinpovertyandreadilystressestheneedtoshare.Thesepreoccupationsareverymuchofaneconomicnature!SometimesIevenfindhehasa“sharing”side,touseanexpressionthatwasusedinthepastwithregardtoMarxists.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Communismwantsto“grabthingsbyforce.”InthecaseofthePope,hetellsusto“give.”Thisiswherethedifferencelies.Itissomuchmorebeautifulandmeaningfultogiveandtoseetheotherpersonjustasheorsheis:amanorawoman.Butthequestionis:Whatshouldyougive?Somefish,ortheknowledgeoffishing?

Besides,theCatholicreligionhasnothingagainstwealth,aslongasitisameansofenrichingothersaswell.SaintThomasAquinasisquitedefiniteonthispoint:“Richesthatlieidlearelikestagnantwateratthebottomofacistern.”3Everyoneshouldputhisorhertalentsattheserviceofothers,whetherthesetalentsbeintellectual,emotional,artistic,ormonetary.

AssoonasthePopedefinesmaninhisfullnessandrecallsman’sendasaspiritualbeing,whichisalltoooftenforgotten,heissuspectedofwantingtobeapoliticalactivist.Thereisnothingpoliticalaboutgivingadirectiontolifeandsayingthatmanhastoberespectedinorderforhimtoremainrootedintruth.Respectingthetrafficsignsissimplymakingsurethatyoucanmakeyourturnssafely.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Accordingtothedictionary,thepersonwhoisliberalis“favorabletocivicandpoliticalfreedomandtothegeneralinterestsofsociety.”Theopponentsofliberalismclaimpreciselytheopposite.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Theyareconfusingtrueliberalismwithphilosophicalliberalism.Thelatteractuallyvergesonanarchy.Lifeisimpossiblewithoutethicsandmoralrules.Thewholeproblemwithlifeinsocietyrevolvesaroundtheestablishmentoftruerulesthatareacceptedbyeverybodyandthatpointoutthedirectionweshouldbemovingtoward.Therearesomanyprinciples,whichmarkoutboundaries,thatoughtnottobebreached.ThatiswhyIamquitehappythattheauditorshaveacontrolafterthefactovertheregularityandgoodorderoftheinformationwegiveoutonMichelin’sactivities.Inthesameway,IconsideritfortunatethatMichelin’scustomers,bytheirfreeandresponsibleactofpurchasing,havetolduswhattheythinkofourproducts.

IVANLEVAÏ:Speculationisanintegralpartofeconomicliberalism.Doyounotthinkthattospeculateistoshowalackofrespectforhumanactivity?LookattheKoreansandtheIndonesians.Theretheyare,ruinedsuddenlybytheactionofspeculators.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Firstofall,speculationiswhathappenswhenapersonlooksaroundhiminanefforttoanticipateevents.Youknow,ameteorologistisaspeculator.

Likeanyotherword,thewordspeculationhasevolvedagreatdealandbecometaintedwithapejorativeconnotation.Itisalittlebitliketalkingaboutwinewhileyoureyesarefocusedonthemottledfaceofadrunk!Weneedtoreturntotheprimarymeaningofwords.

Buttotacklethisproblemofspeculation,Iwouldneedtomakealongerandmoreelaborateresponse.

IVANLEVAÏ:Iacceptthenotionofspeculationinindustry—thatbettingonthefuture,whichtakesplacewhenownersbringanewproductontothemarket,forexample—butbettingwithmoneyinordertomakemoneycanappearimmoral.Sometimesthemarketsreallyoversteptheboundsofreason.Yousee

peopletherewhodonotbelieveinanythingexceptmoney.Theironlygoalisspeculation.Theyaretheonesdoingtheharm!

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Youarehittingonafundamentalpoint.Thisisanextremelycomplexproblem.

Ifspeculation,asyoudefineit,closesthefinancialworldinonitself,youareright.

Butiffinancialspeculationreallygetsitslifebloodfromastudyoftheeconomiccontext,inthatcaseitbecomesusefulandnecessary.

“Finance”comesfromtheoldFrenchwordfine,whichmeans:tobringsomethingtoitsendpoint,tofinish.Hence,financeisameans.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Allthesame,therearesanctions.Abankthatmakesbaddecisionscancollapse.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Thatistrue.Itisanawesomebusiness.Ifindustryandthebanksworktogether,riskcanbeminimizedtoensurelastinggrowth.Onceagain,liberalismhasabsolutelynoconnotationsofindependencebutisbuilt,rather,ontheestablishmentoffreeandresponsiblerelationships.Aperson’shandsarenotindependentfromtherestofhisbody.

IVANLEVAÏ:Formorethanfiftyyears,wehavelivedwithanoutlookcharacterizedbyclassstruggle.Despitethisatmosphereofdialecticaldivision,toacertainextentwemanagedtoregulateourproblemsamicably.Theexploiterwasmeetingwiththeexploited,andtheyhaddealingswithoneanother.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Theideaofclassstrugglewasanunreal,virtualworld.Thereareeconomicrealitiesthatyoucannotavoid:Thetrueownerofthecompanyisthecustomer,nottheowner.Doesapersonbecomeanexploiterbecauseheisbuyingtires?

ThecrowningideaofMarxismistheconceptoftheplan.PlanningrefusestoacknowledgethefactthatthecustomertranscendstheindustryjustasthetaxpayertranscendstheState.

IVANLEVAÏ:DoyoudistrusttheState?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Idistrustthatparticularformofthe“sovereign”State,whichcannotallowthepossibilityofexperimentation.Itdecideseverything.Thebusinessleadersarefarfrombeingperfect,butatleastthecapitalistsystemallowstheirself-sufficiencytobequashedandtheirerrorstobemended.Theyareconstantlysubjecttothejudgmentoffinanciers,theirshareholders,andtheirworkforce.Ifaworkerdoesnotlikehisboss,heshouldbeabletogoworksomewhereelse.Thisliberalwayofdoingthings—whichistosay“liberal”inthetruesenseoftheterm—iscoherent.ThedayyouputonthetintedglassesofMarxismandyousupposethatthereisastronglydialecticalandsystematicrelationshipbetweenmen,youaregettingintoanabsurdlydestructivelogic!Respectforothersdisappears.Theproblemstakeonawholedifferentlightwhenyourealizethatthereisabasiccoherenceinthisworld,intermsofwhich,everymanneedsotherstoliveanddevelop.Itisquitedestructive,forexample,toreducepoliticaldebatetothetwinconceptsofmajorityandopposition.

Aren’tyoujournalistssomewhattoblameforthisaswell?

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Thetwoapproachesarecutfromthesamecloth.Aren’ttheybothsidesofthesamecoin:adestructivesideandaconstructiveside?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Yes,butifyouforgettheconstructiveaspectofthings,youwillnevergetanywhere.

IVANLEVAÏ:Hereyouaretouchingonthelimitsofliberalism.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Liberalismconsistsoflookingupontheotherasauniquebeingandnotasasubordinate.ThereisastorythatIamfondofrecountingandthatstillmovesmedeeply.OnedayatmyofficeinClermontarrivedamanwhowasabouttoretire.Hetoldmethathehadcometothatsameoffice,whenhewassixteen,todeliveralettertomygrandfatherwhowasthenseventy-eight.“Comeonin,sir,”mygrandfathersaidtohim,“andpleasetakeaseat.”Intheyearsthatfollowed,themanneverhadoccasiontoreturnthere.“Hiscallingme‘Sir’hasstayedwithmeallmylife,”heexplainedtome.And

weconversedaboutthemeaningofthewordSir.Etymologically“Sir”isashortenedformofSire.Toaddresssomeoneas“Sire”istoacknowledgethathehaswithinhimsomethinguniquelyirreplaceableandtranscendent.IfwedonotlookoneveryindividualasSire,wearemissingsomethingessential.Thisistrueforeverybodyfromtoptobottom,fromworkertoowner,fromunionleadertopolitician,withoutanyexceptions.Assoonasyounolongerlookatsomeoneashavingthispotential,thismarvelousseedthathecarrieswithinhim,youarekillingyourselfwithoutevenknowingit.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Ifitcomesfromsomebodywhoissincere,addressingaworkerasSirisanimpressivegesture.Conversely,havenotmanybusinessesusedthisasasmokescreentomaskcertainunpleasantrealities?Suchanapproachhassometimescausedwhatispejorativelycalled“paternalismintheworkplace.”Perhapsintheseinstancesitisbecausetheworkerdidnothaveenoughcounteractingpowertofightagainstit,don’tyouthink?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Tospeakofa“counteractingpower”ismeaningless.Cantherebepowerwithoutrealresponsibility?Tomywayofthinking,thatisdictatorship.Istheresuchathingascounterresponsibilitiesinbusiness?

IVANLEVAÏ:Youdonotdenytheusefulnessofengaginginsomesortofsocialdialogueinbusiness.Andyouaccepttheideaofasocialpartnership.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Idonotknowwhatthewordpartnermeanswhenitispairedwiththewordsocial.Aretheownerspartofthissocialaspect?Thepresentclimatethatsurroundsthisissuetendstofosterthebeliefthattheunionandtheworkforceareoneandthesame.Itmustbenotedthatinthecourseofreallifethisisnotthecase.Besides,youonlyhavetolookatthegrowthofcoordinatedgroupsofworkerswhorejecttheexclusiveprotectionoftheunions.

Whatisagoodunion?Whatisitsresponsibility?Letuslookatthedictionary:“Partner:someonewhohasthesameendinviewasyoudo.”Isthisthecase?

A“social”dialogueshouldbeconducteddirectlywiththepersonnel.Itisadirectexchangebetweenpersons;everyoneshouldcomeoutofitenhancedinonewayoranother.Why?Becauseeachpersonhashisownspecifictraitsandtalents.Likestatistics,acollectiveentityisalie.

Ihavealwayshadtheimpressionthataunionlivesandactsasifitwereoutsidethebusinessandapartfromit.ItwasMr.Kaspar,formersecretaryoftheCFDT,4who,ataL’Expansionforum,5illustratedthisproblemformewhenheusedthefollowingphrase:“Nowthatwehaveacknowledgedthelegitimacyoftheemployers,itishightimethattheyacknowledgedours!”ItmustneverbeforgottenthatunionsaresupportedbytheState.Whatisthenatureoftherelationship,bywayoftheState,betweenpoliticiansandunions?Whatwouldhappentothisrelationshipifsociallegislationwasnotframedtotheirliking?Inyouropinion,whatsignificancedoestheunions’decliningaudiencehave?Whydotradeunionofficialsneedtobeprotectediftheyaretrulyprovidingaservicetothecommunity?Andwhatdoyousayabouttheauditingfirmsthatareattachedtotheunions?

Aunionmemberoncesaidtome:“Mr.François,youhavetolistentowhattheunionsandunionmembersaresaying;theywillgiveyouatemperaturereading:Theyareathermometer.But,youknow,asickmanhasneverbeencuredwithathermometer.”Weshookhandsand,lostinthought,Ilefthim,sayingtomyself:Whatcouldwedotofreeupenoughtimetoestablisharealnetworkofcontactsbetweenthedifferentactorsinthecompany?

Iamstruckbythededicationofcertainunionmembers.Ihaveknownandstillknowsomeoutstandingones.

IVANLEVAÏ:Agoodunionco-managesthebusiness,whichistosaythatittakesintoaccountlarger,groupinterests.Ifthereisgrowthhappeningandifproductivityisimproving,wagesincreasethesameasdividends,andtheunionsays“yes”tothings.Andthegoodunionalsosays“yes”whenaneedarisesforworkerstoputtheirnosetothegrindstoneandacceptapayreduction.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:“Co-management,”toco-manage—whatdoesthistermmeanprecisely?Tomanageistotakeonhuman,financial,andlegalresponsibility.Nouniondoesthat.Note,too,thatintalkingabouttheroleoftheunionsyouhavenotmentionedthecustomer.

Theexerciseofpowerwithoutresponsibilityisdictatorship.Theexerciseofpowerwithitsattendantresponsibilitiesthenbecomesservice.

Marxistunionsrejectthehumanrealityofthemarket.Nowwhiletheunioniselectedonlybyworkers,thebusiness,foritspart,iselectedeverydaybyitscustomers.The“economic”democracyisbasedonelectionstoo!Itisthewhole

workforcethatiselectedeachtimesomeonebuysatire.Andthisvotethatthecustomercastsgiveshimacertaincommitment,sincehehasgivenapartofhisownsubstancetotheproduct.

IVANLEVAÏ:DoyourememberthatsceneinZolawhere,duringaminingstrike,theworkerscometotheiremployer’sofficeandareterriblyintimidated?6Theparquetfloorsarepolished.Capinhand,theyshifttheirfeetawkwardly.Itisahumiliatingscene.Canpaternalismreallybegenuineandsincere?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Youareforgettingsomething.Howcanapersonnotbeimpressedbythetasksthatothersassume?IamalwaysintimidatedwhenIgointoaworkshop.

Paternalismconsistsofthenotionthat,sincepeoplehavenothing—andyouhaveeverything—youhavetogivethemeverything.Itisthinkingthatyouknowbetterthantheydowhatisgoodforthem.Thisiswhatpaternalismis.

Whatadifficultsubject,however!Wastheinstitutionoffamilyallowances—andMichelinwasamongthefirsttodothis—paternalism?WhataboutMichelinschools?

Thebestapproachliesinteachingpeoplehowtofishratherthantogivethemfishandinexplainingeconomicrealities,toalloweachpersontocometoanunderstandingofthingsandmakehisorherownjudgments.Thisway,peoplecandosomethingwithwhattheyhavebeengiven.

Asforpaternalism,thetechnocratssetagoodexampleofitintheirturn.“Ithink,”theysay,“thereforeyouare.”Recentlywereceivedaletterfromagovernmentministry(Ihavekeptit)whosaiditishightimetoorganizerelationsbetweentheeliteandbusiness!Whatdoesbeingoneoftheelitemean?Surelyitmeansdoingyourworkwellandbloomingwhereyouareplanted.Myreproachagainstbureaucracy,urgedonasitisbythepoliticians,isthatithasrefusedtoconcedebusinessthemeanstobepartnerswiththewholeworld.Itpreferstoburyusunderallsortsofexpensesandtaxes!

IVANLEVAÏ:Inthelifeofabusiness,therecometimeswhenyouhavetoletgosomeofyourworkers.Almostovernight,asitwere,theystopbeingpartners.Thiscanbejustified,inordertosavethemainbodyofthecompany,butevenso,themoralproblemremainsunresolved.Inaway,whenyoudismisssomeone,

youconsignhimorhertoavoid.WhenyournameisFrançoisMichelin,howdoyoulivewiththat?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Withdifficulty,withgreatdifficulty,thatisforsure.Lettingapersongoisafearfulthingtodoandallthemoreregrettableinthatquiteoftensuchactionsaremadenecessarybyregulatoryburdensorpoliticaldecisionsthathavenothingtodowiththebusiness.Whenyoulayoffsomeone,itisbecauseyoureallycannotdoanythingelse.Whatismissingnowadaysisawaytoletpeoplegoinanatmosphereofdignity.Yououghttobeabletosaytothem:“Listen,twoorthreeyearsfromnow,Iwillnotbeabletogiveyouanymorework.Youaregoingtohavetoleaveus.Wearegoingtofindwaystomakethistransitionassmoothaspossible.Youcanstartlookingforanotherjob,andwewilldoallwecantohelpyoufindone.”Thesedays,thissortofapproachisimpossibleinFrance,becauseyoucannotmakeplansandlookveryfarahead.Wheneveryouareforcedtoletsomeonego,youarefacedwithaheapofunrealistic,administrativerulesandregulations,especiallyifyouareacompanythatemploysmorethanfivehundredpeople.Ifonlytheymadefeweruseless,unrealisticrulesandregulations!Fortunately,youknow,manygovernmentemployeesarebeginningtorealizethis.

Therealquestionthatneedstobeaskedconcernseachperson’sparticipationinthecreationofwealth.Whenthegovernmenthiresadditionalemployees,thenitraisestaxes,whichmeansthatyouhavetolayoffpeopleintheprivatesector.Becausethegovernmentemployeesarenotusedfortasksthatareallthatnecessary,theydonotalwayshelpcreatetheconditionsthatarenecessaryforeconomiclife.Abusiness,ontheotherhand,createstruepossibilitiesforsharedwealth,andthesepossibilities,aswehavealreadymentioned,areachievedoncetheproductissold.

IVANLEVAÏ:Therehadtoberulesandregulationsputinplacefortheemployerswhowerenotbehavingproperly.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Ofcourse,hereyougetbacktothenotionofaminimallynecessaryframework,butmanyofthecurrentrulesandregulationsare,infact,opposedtothedignityofmenandwomen.

Employerswhothinkonlyoflayingoffpeoplearenotemployers.Dismissingsomeoneisaterriblehumandrama.Whensomeoneleavesthecompany,itisa

partofourverysubstancethatisgoingaway.Believeme:Overthelastfifteenyears,andjustabouteverywhereintheworld,wehavehadtoletalargenumberofpeoplego.Eachtimewedidit,itwasarealordealforthecompany.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Michelinhasundergoneasignificanttransformationinthelasttenyears,ashavemanybusinessesthathavebeenforcedbyacompetitiveenvironmenttoundergoanevolutioninordertosurvive.Thesedays,doesyourcompanystillgivethenationeverythingitcanintermsofwealth,prosperity,andsocialequilibrium?Or,onthecontrary,hasthestatusofthecompanybeenpervertedasglobalizationforgesitintoastatelessstructurethatisnolongermindfulofthesenseofsocialvocationthatwasitsguidingprincipleforafullhalfcentury?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Whatatenyearsithasbeen!Manyprofoundandfundamentalchangeshavetakenplaceandtheyarenotnecessarilyallthatreadilyapparent.

Wecouldhavedonemuchbetterifthelegalenvironmentthatwasforcedonbusinesseshadtakentherealityofthesituationintoaccount.InFrance,capitalistshavealwaysbeenlookedonashardlybetterthanleeches,peoplewhohadtobeputintheirplace.Ihaveneverheardaclearexpressionofthefactthattherewouldbenoworkwithoutcapital,norgrowthincapitalwithoutwork.Itisalltooeasilyforgottenthat,ifthereisworkoutthere,itisbecausepeoplehavetakenrisks.Notanyonecanbeacapitalist.Youhavetobeabletoaccepteverythingevenifitmeansthelossofyourcapitalandyourownearnings.

Thatiswhy,too,itisveryimportanttokeepabalancebetweeninstitutionalshareholdersandtheshareholderswhoareactuallyphysicalpersons.

IVANLEVAÏ:Whatisthemostjust—nottosay,theleastscandalous—waytorewardthepartnersinaneconomicundertaking?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Ajustrewardisonethatallowsboththebusinessandthepeopleinvolvedtogrow.Thebuyingpowerofthepersonnelisakeycomponentintheeconomicwell-beingofacountry.Asfortheissueofremunerationfortheshareholders,whichhasoftenbeenpoorlyunderstoodinFrance,remunerationisessentialincreatingandsustainingtheentrepreneurialdynamismwithoutwhichneitherjobsnorwealthcanbecreated.

Experienceshowsthat,allowingforbothgoodandbadyears,therateofeconomicgrowthisintheorderof3percentoverthelongterm.Everyincreaseinwagesthatgoesbeyondagaininproductivitythatisnotlinkedtogrowthinvolumeisharmful.High-techbusinessesaregoingunder,preciselybecausetheyfailedtoconsiderwhatthefutureheldforthemintermsofrealgrowth.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Doescapitalismdoagoodjobofincorporatingthenotionoftime?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Ofcourse.Indeed,thisisoneofitsessentialcharacteristics.Theexperiencethatisneededforpeopletogrowtakestime.Thelifeofabusinessisbasicallyanongoingcreation.Toachieveabetterresponsetotheconstantlychangingneedsofitsbuyers,itcanonlymoveforwardbyengagingininnovationinboththelongandshortterm.Hencetheimportanceofresearch,whichrequirestimeand,therefore,theimportanceoflong-termsupportonthepartoftheshareholders,inordertofinancetheseeffortsandtakerepeatedriskstoensurethegrowthoftheircapital.Thus,thethreemainactorsinabusiness—personnel,shareholders,andcustomers—areengagedinanadventuretogetheroverthelonghaul.Toapproachthebusinessfromamerelyfinancialpointofviewisamajordanger.

Theecologistssaythatnobodyhastherighttodowhateverhewants,aspeople’sactionshaverepercussionsonfuturegenerations.Thereisnoonemoreecologicalthanatruecapitalist.Hespendshistimeweighingthefutureconsequencesofhisdecisions.

IVANLEVAÏ:Allthesame,ourriversarepolluted,ourcarsarenotallequippedwithcatalyticconverters,thedebateaboutthedieselengineisstillunresolved.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Perhaps,butlookattheprogresswehavemadeaswelloverthelastfortyyears!Manisinastateofcontinuousexperimentation.Ifyouputastoptoallexperimentssimplybecausemistakeshavebeenmadeinthepast,youendupputtingastoptoeverything.Manisnotincontrolofanything.Theonlythingthatwereallyknowisthatweknownothing.Thedaythatyouthinkyouknowitall,youaredead.Manisalwaysgrowinganddeveloping,buthecanonlygrowtotheextentthatheagreestoaccepthisresponsibilities.Itis

anactofhumility.Keepingone’stwofeetplantedsolidlyontheground.Doesn’tthewordhumilitycomefromthewordhumus,whichmeans“soil”or“earth”inLatin?

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Intenyears,France’sGDPhasrisenaroundtwothousandbillionfrancs,whichisanincreaseofabout35percent.Thisisasignificantincrease,butdoyougettheimpressionthatpeople’shappinesshasgrownbyathirdintenyears?Whathasthisgrowthgiventoindividuals?Howhasitbeensocially“used”?TheprimeministerofBhutansaid:“YouWesternersdoyourreasoningintermsofGrossNationalProduct,butIreasonintermsofGrossNationalHappiness.”Hasnottheforwardmarchofproductioncreatedmorediscontentmentthanithassatisfaction?Howelsedoyouexplainthequestforimmaterialthingsonthepartofmanyofourcontemporaries?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Thisdissatisfactionisawayorapproachasmuchasitisaquestion.TheCatholicChurchoffersavisionthatsaysthatthereisnoquantifiable,materialisticanswertoman’sirrepressibledesiretobehappy.Thisisextraordinarilyprofound.TheCatholicfaithmakespeoplehumble.Arethereotherreligionsorothersystemsofthoughtthatcanleadussowelltothethresholdofthemysterythatweare—andmakeusfeelthatthismysteryhasarealmeaning,thatitisnotopium?

IVANLEVAÏ:Itisyouindustrialistswhohavemadeourhappinessamaterialone.Nowadays,whenItakemycar,Iamnottoohotnortoocold;Ilistentotheradio,Idriveonapavedhighway,Isitinaplush,comfortableseatwithanicecarpetundermyfeet,andwithinarm’sreachIhaveaguidethattellsmewhicharethebestrestaurantstostopatalongtheway!Mr.Michelin,inaway,itisyouwhohavepushedustowardalifeofease.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Theindustrial,scientificworldhasputyouinthepositionwhereyourealizethatcomfort,goodtires,andanicecararenotenoughtonurtureyoursoul.Thereyouhaveit!Theultimategoalofeconomicandscientificdevelopmentistoshowmanthatthereissomethingthattranscendshim.Bluntlyput,youhavecometorealizethatyouhaveeverythingandthatyouarenothingbecauseyouarelackingwhatisessential.“Letthesplendoroftheworldteachyouthatyouhavebeencreatedformuchmorethanthis,”Irememberreadingsomewhere.Inshort,SaintAugustinesays:“Ourheartsare

madeforYou,OLord.UntiltheyrestinYou,weshallberestless.7”

IVANLEVAÏ:Doesthisjustifyyourpassionfortechnology?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Doyoumeantosaythatthethingthatisessentialistobeseekingboundariesthatarealwaysrecedingindefinitely?

TheBiblesaysthatitisthemissionofcraftsmentocompletecreation.Isn’tthismarvelous?TheonlyrealwaytoapproachGodisthroughbeauty.Beautyisthemostbeautifulprayer.Thisistrueinallareas.TherearesomeimpressivepassagesintheBible:“TheyhaveseenCreationbuthavenotreturnedtotheCreator.”Orthispsalm:“TheythinkthatIdonotseethem,whereasitwasIwhomadetheireyes.”

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Inyourmind,then,arebeautyandperfectiononeandthesamething?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Exactly.“Agoodairplaneisbeautiful,”saidMarcelDassault.8Abeautifulplaneorabeautifulcarcankindleakindoftranscendence,aslong,ofcourse,asyoudonotmakethemidolsorendsinthemselves.Anobjectwillnevergiveyoufullsatisfaction.Oftentimes,beforeyouacquiresomething,youdreamaboutit,youtellyourselfthatitwillbegreattohaveit.Andthen,whenyougetit,youarewell-awarethatthehappinessyouwereexpectingisnotcomplete.Thereissomethingmissing.Manisa“capacitor”madetobefilled.Themoreyoulearn,themorehungryandthirstyyouareforsomethingelse.Itisinexplicable,butthatisthewayitis.Anyway,Godcannotbecomprehendedbytheintellect.Ontheotherhand,theintellectcandiscoversignpoststhatleadtoGodandtheproofsforhisexistence.Allofthisisbeyondunderstanding.WhenyouwanttoexplainGod,youarenotreallyexplaininganythingatall;thedaythatyouthinkyouunderstandwhatGodis,youhavereallyunderstoodnothing.God,theself-subsistingbeing,saysofhimself:Iamthegoodthatdiffusesitself.IamwhoIam.Itistheepisodeoftheburningbush.TheintellectslipsandslidesasitgrappleswiththewordsofGod,yetitneverstopsseekinguntilitreachesthepointwhereitrealizesthatallitcandoisfallonitskneesandsay:Itis!Itisthesameasbelievingyouhavegotsomeonefiguredout,believingthatyouunderstandhimcompletely,andthendiscoveringonedaythatyoudonotreallyknowhim:Everyoneisinfinitely

morethanhisvisible,palpable,earthlyexterior.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Youattachalotofimportancetothebeautyofcreation.Foryou,aworkerisfirstandforemosta“craftsman,”isn’the?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Precisely.Eventhosewhofulfillthesmallestoftasksareaccomplishingaworkofcraft.Followingthedeathofafactoryworker,whohadpassedawayafterhavingbeentreatedbyabadsurgeon,mygrandfathercreatedahospitalinClermont.Thecompanywastakinggreatcareofthecleanlinessoftheinstitution.Torespondtothisconcern,thearchitecthadthebrilliantideaofdevisingtheroomsinsuchawaysoasnottocreaterightanglesbetweenthewallsandthefloorbut,rather,toroundthebottomoff.Therewerenocomers,whichmadethetaskofthejanitorsagreatdealeasier.Togivethemabetterunderstandingofjusthowimportanttheirjobwas,somedustwascollectedfromasickman’sroomandculturedonapetridish.Itillustratedhowquicklythemicrobescontainedinthedustcouldgrow.Afterthat,thehousecleaningdutiestookonanutterlynewsignificance.FornowyouweredealingwithjanitorswithacapitalJ,whowereaccomplishingaworkofcrafteveryday.

IVANLEVAÏ:Asbeautifulasanobjectmaybe,itshouldnotmakeusforgetGod;andinordertohave,manshouldnotforgetthathealsoneedstobe.Thatisallwellandgood,butfollowingonthecollapseofideologies,yougettheimpressionthattheutterlymaterialworldinwhichweliveleadspeopletohavemoreandmoreallthetimeandtoforgetabouttheirneedmerelytobe.Basically,isnotman’salienationquiteasgreatasiteverwas?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Formantoexperiencehisbeing,hehastohave.Thatisthewholemeaningofwork.Also,youcanalwaysbeseekingtohavemore,andthusyouforgetbeingandrejectthemysteryofyourownself.

Beingandhaving.Tobeabletocouplethesetwowords,itmeansthatyouhavetohaveyourownbeing,doesn’tit?

Butthisdualismbetweenbeingandhavingisaphonydebate.Whenyouhave,youalsoexperiencethatyouarelackingsomething.Somethingofadifferentorder.Andthatiswhenyouarepromptedtojustsimplybe.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Thisiswhatmakestheworldgoaround,doesn’tit?Youalwayswantmore.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Iwouldnotputitthatway.Manismadeforinfinity.Howdoyouthinkhecouldbesatisfiedwithfinite“products”?Toaspireformoreisintheorderofbeing.Thepaththatleadstotheachievementofthisendispartofthemysteryofeverymanandeverywoman.

IVANLEVAÏ:Allthesame,youarenotforgettingthatitisearthlyfoodthathasmadetheMichelinGuide’sfortuneandisstilldoingso.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Andthatitisearthlyfoodthatgivespleasuretoyournoseandtastebuds?CertainlyIamnotforgetting!

TheMichelinRedGuide’sfortunesrestonthekeennessoftheFrenchtaste.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:WithoutrevealingallthesecretsoftheMichelinRedGuide,thewaythatitcanmakeorbreakanenterprise,couldyoutellushowyousucceededingeneratingtheimplicittrustthatpeoplehaveinit,suchthatitisgenerallyrecognizedasacodeofgoodconduct?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:OneofthestrengthsoftheMichelinRedGuideisthatitsreadersknowthatweareonthelookoutforthingsthatarenotastheyshouldbe.Oftentimestheywritetoustogiveustheiropinionortorectifyajudgmentmadebyoneofourinspectors.ThesuccessoftheGuideisduetothefactthatweareforeverdissatisfied.Everyyearwereceiveuptoahundredthousandlettersfromuserswhomentiontheircriticisms.Likeartcritics,weexpressourjudgment,butwesurelydonotbelievethatwearetheabsolutelyfinalreference.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:ThatiswhatgivesrisetothetrustthatpeoplehaveintheGuide.Yousniffoutdeceptionanddeceit.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Itistheloveofprogressandimprovementthatmakesitnecessarytosniffoutproblemsandmistakes.Inthisregard,theanonymityoftheGuide’sinspectorsisessential.I,myself,donotknowtheir

identity,eventhoughImightbeacquaintedwithsomeofthemfromClermontwhomayhavewantedtochangecareersand,hence,joinedtheranksofourinspectors.

NotesandExplanations1FriedrichvonHayek(1899—1992):Austrianeconomist.

2SimonedeBeauvoir(1908—1986)andJean-PaulSartre(1905—1980):Marxistswritersandphilosophers,advocatesofexistentialisttheories.

3SaintThomasAquinas(1225—1274):Philosopherandtheologian.

4CFDTandJeanKaspar:ConfédérationFrançaiseDémocratiqueduTravail(Frenchunion);JeanKaspar,presidentoftheunionbetween1989and1992.

5L’Expansion:Well-knownFrencheconomicweekly.

6EmileZola(1840—1902):Frenchwriter,authorof,amongothers,Germinal,mostlyknownforhispositionontheDreyfusaffairandforhisrequestforaretrial.

7SaintAugustine(354—430):Theologianandphilosopher.

8MarcelDassault(1892—1986):OwnerandpresidentofDassaultIndustries,theFrenchaeronauticalcompanythatmadetheMirageandRafalejetfightersandtheFalconrangeofaircraft.

3

FranceandGlobalizationYVESMESSAROVITCH:Isityourimpressionthattheopeningupof

nationalborders,whichwasbothdesiredinsomerespectsandimposedbyforceofcircumstancesaswell,isbeingcarriedouttoorapidlyincomparisontotheadaptivecapacityofacountrylikeFrance?Inyouropinion,cantheFrenchaffordtogohead-to-headwithworldcompetition?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Businessiswillingtocompetebut,unfortunately,notthegovernment!Itissadtosay,butinourcountry,thereisamarkedpreferenceforhittingpeoplewithallkindsofdutiesandtaxesratherthangivingthemthemeanstoinvent,tomakeprogress,andtocompete.Thisisthehuboftheproblem.Frenchindustrialists,Iamconvinced,aretotallyopentoglobalization.Forsometimenow,theFrencheconomyhasbeenorientedtowardforeignmarkets,partlybecausewehaveto,sincewedonothavemanyoftherawmaterialsthatweneed(oil,ironore),butthesedaysourtechnocratsareovercomewithafeelingofpanicinthefaceofglobalization.Theyarediscoveringatlonglast,withhumiliation,thatoureconomyisdependentontheoutside.Foryearstheyhavedeniedtherolethatindustryplays.Nowthattheyarebeginningtobelieveinit,theyarediscoveringthatFranceisjustasmallcompanyinaveryactiveworld.Ithasbeenarudeawakeningforthem.Itistruethattheyhaveneverreallyseriouslystudiedthequestion,excepttoputforwardthefalseideathatFranceshouldhavespecializedinproductsthatwerecostlyandtechnicallyelaborateandleftthemanufactureofgoodswithalowaddedvaluetoless-developedcountries.Someofthemevenwentsofarastosaythatoureconomyshouldbe“spared”theindustrialstageand,thus,gorightfromaprimarytoatertiaryeconomy.Fortunately,theyrealizedintimethattherearenojobswithoutindustry.ButourtechnocratsarestillmanagingFrancelikeayoungmanwithmoneywhoneveraskshimselfhowhisfamilyactuallycreateditswealth.

Theconfiscatorytaxlawsappliedtocapitalgotworseinthe1960s,withthe

laststrawbeingthetaxoncapital.ThisservedtoweakenthehumanfabricofFrenchcapitalismconsiderably.Behindtheofficialnoises—andIwouldliketoknowwhy,strangelyenough,thishasnotunleashedatideofmediastories—therealityisthatmoreandmoreFrenchbusinessesarebeingboughtbyforeigninvestors,andthisisnotthefaultoftheshareholdersanymorethanitisoftheowners!Itisthefaultofthepoliticians.

InFrance,youhavetopaythepricetoremainashareholder.Itisashame,becausetheFrenchhavealwaysshownthattheycanbeinnovativeandarenotafraidofhardwork.

IVANLEVAÏ:Soyoudonotbelieveinapossibledivisionofproduction,atleast,ifnotoflabor?Istherenotanadvantage,nevertheless,inhavingsomecountriesspecializeincertainmanufacturingprocessesandforgetothers?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Tomanufacturecomplicatedobjects,youhavetohaveskilledpeople.Now,notallcountrieshavethepeoplewiththenecessaryskillsyet.Shouldtheybebanishedfromtheworldstagebecauseofthis?Also,letusnotforgetthatintheso-calleddevelopedcountriestherewillalwaysbepoorlyskilledpeople.They,too,oughttobeabletofindwork,evenifitturnsouttobetraditionaloccupationsormenial,littlejobs,whichare,Icanadd,quiteasrespectableasanyother.Idonotknowanybodywhoisnothappydoinggoodwork.Itiseveryman’sjoytosucceedinsomething.

SoitwouldbeaseriousmistaketodivideupproductionbetweentheadvancedanddevelopingcountriesbyadecisionmadeatsomesortofYalta-stylesummit.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Whatisbredinthebonecomesoutintheflesh:Inthepast,Englandnearlykilleditsindustry,andnowwehaveasituationwhereithasbecomemoreprofitabletosetupproductiontherethaninFrance.Inthe1970sandrightuptothefirsthalfofthe1980s,theAmericansalsohadthenotionofputtinganendtotheirindustrialcapacity.Surelyitistheheightofironythatinourdaytheyhavebecomecompetitiveonceagain.InFrance,industryispenalizedbytheheavyweightofcostsandbenefits—butcan’twehopethatonedaythepoliticalclasswillbowtotherealityofthesituationandacknowledgethatithasmadeamistake?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:EvenattheheightofitsLabourPartyphase,Englandheldontothefavorableinfrastructureoftransmissionofpatrimony,andtooffshorecompaniesthatallowedindividualandindustrialpatrimoniestothrivedespitepoliticaloptionsthatwerechosenasaresultofobscurantistpressureonthepartofunionsandtechnocrats.Thewealththatwasthusprotectedplayedanessentialroleafterwardinfinancingthereconstructionofthecountry—areconstructionthatwasbrisklycarriedoutbyMargaretThatcher.OneofthecausesforthesuccessoftheEnglishrecoveryisthebasicrejectionofuniondictatorship.OurfinancialexecutivesarenowflockingtoLondon.AhundredthousandFrenchpeoplehavealreadysettledthere.

IntheUnitedStates,thingsareabitdifferent.Onefineday,acertainMr.Sloan,whowasCEOofGeneralMotorsinthe1960s,evenwentsofarastoannouncethattheworldhadenteredapostindustrialera.Andthus,thestudentsatHarvardweretaughtthatinthefutureallthatonewouldhavetodoisputsomechromeoncarsanddosomemarketinginordertosellthem.AndthenthedaycamewhentheAmericanswereforcedtoembarkontheirculturalrevolution,tofaceuptothecompetitionfromJapanesecarmanufacturers.Butthisrevolutionwasonlymadepossiblebecauseofthefabulousamountsofmoneythathadbeenamassedincapitalpensionfunds.Today,thesearethefundsthatfinancetheAmericaneconomy,toalargeextent.InFrance,unfortunately,wedonothavesuchpensionfundsatourdisposal.Giventheseconditions,howdoyouembarkonarecoveryprocesssimilartothatofEnglandortheUnitedStates?Withoutmoney,wenolongerexist.Alltheyoungpeoplewhoareleavingtotrytheirluckabroadunderstandthisquitewell.Theykeepquiet,butnonethelesstheyvotewiththeirfeet.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Ifyouhadtomakeabetonthechancesofourcountry’sbouncingback,wouldyoubeoptimistic?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Francehaseverythingitneedstopullthrough,butIdonotknowhowlongitwilltake.Everythingwilldependonthehumilityofourpoliticalleaders.Willtheybehonestenoughtoacknowledgethattheyweremistakenintheiranalysisofthecausesofourdifficulties?Willtheybeclear-sightedenoughtomakeajudgmentaboutthesituationinourcountryvis-à-visinternationalrealities?

Inanycase,thehurdlestobeovercomeareenormous.Bypropoundingcertainideas,wehaveallowedinourcountryaconceptofeconomiclifethatis

extremelyrestrictive,onethatisbasedonthedesiretobringemployerstoheel....Infact,thespiritofclassstruggleprevailsoneverylevelofoursociallife,andthesheerweightofintellectualdictatorshipthatwearesubjectedtoisalarming.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Doyouthink,asFrançoisMitterandhassaid,thatwehavedoneeverythingwecanagainstunemployment?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Yes,inthesensethatwehaveusedeveryavailableremedytotreatthewoundsuperficially,butnobodyhasevertackledtheprimarycauseoftheinfection.Howcanbusinessesdomorehiringwhenthesocialchargesthattheyaresupportinghavegoneupby22percentovertenyears?Duringthissametime,theStatehascontinuedtoincreasethetaxesbornebyhouseholds,simultaneouslyreducingtheirpurchasingpower.Insteadofmakingthecakelargerandincreasingtheamountofworkavailable,theyhavemadethechoice,quitesimply,toslowdowngrowth.Itisalittlebitlikewantingtolaunchahot-airballoonafteryouhaveslippedanoosearoundit—ahugeropethatstopstheballoonfromexpanding!WhateversuccessFrancehasenjoyeduptothispointisowedtotheexceptionaldedicationofitsbusinessmenandbusinesswomen.ItmakesmemadwhenIhearpoliticianssaytoemployers:“Stopaskingformoney;getdowntobusiness.”Theyhavetakeneverythingawayfromus,andthentheyaresurprisedthatwefeelwearebeingsuffocatedtodeath.And,asifthatwerenotenough,thisyearagainwearebeingforcedtopaythatidioticsurcharge,thetradetax,1arealbrakeonhiringandinvestment.Businessistaxedevenbeforeithascreatedanywealth.Ifyouputamillnexttothespringandnotalongtheriver,itswheelswillneverturn!Torecover,FranceneedsonceandforalltogetridoftheMarxistconceptofexistencethatisprevalentinoursocietyandwhichstillinspiresanumberofsupposedlyeliteminds.Forthem,theStateistherefereeandtheemployeristheenemy.Thisisoutrageous!TheMattéoliReportlaiditoutquiteclearly:2ThebasiccauseofunemploymentistheheavyhandoftheStateinoureconomy,butfewpeoplewanttolookthistruthstraightintheface.“Thecitymousereciteshislessonswhilethecountrymouselooksaroundandseesthings,”asMichelSerresputsitquitenicely.3Franceisaseedthatonlyneedsalittlebitofwaterandsuntogrow,butthesedaysthemoneywellisdryandtheprotectiveshadowoftheStateisobscuringthelightofthesun.If,startingatthetop,peoplewerefirmlyresolvedtostopthrowingamonkeywrenchintotheworks,theFrenchwouldmanageallofEurope!ThepotentialthattheFrenchpeoplehaveis

extraordinary.Givethemafreerein!

IVANLEVAÏ:Don’tyougettheimpression,though,thatcommonsenseisintheprocessofgainingtheupperhand?EventheSocialistFrançoisHollandehassaidthatthethirty-five-hourweekshouldnotraisefalsehopes.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Toolate,theevil’sbeendone!Peoplehaveitintheirheadsthatthethirty-five-hourweekisgoingtolessenunemployment.Whentheyrealizethatitisaninsane,illusoryhope,theywillturnagainstthepoliticiansandcallthemliars!Thenotionofathirty-five-hourworkweekisaperfectexampleofanideologicalapproach.

IVANLEVAÏ:Thesentimentsyouarevoicingarenotjustconfinedtotheemployers.Thereisafeelingofprotestintheairinthiscountry.Thepeoplefeelthattheyarebeingforcedtoyieldtoanall-powerfulgovernmentwhichimposesallkindsofheavy-handedpressuresonthem.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:LetusnotforgetthattheFrench,touseanacceptedexpression,are“subjected”totheSocialSecuritySystem.Thisterm,subjected,revealsmuchaboutthestateofmindofthepoliticianswhocameupwithit.Theyhavetransformedwhatwassupposedtobesocialsolidarityintoakindofslavery.IfyouconsidertheprimarymeaningoftheRepublic’smotto:“Liberty,Equality,andFraternity,”itleadstoanimpasse.Forpeopletobebrothers,theyneedafather!Equalitydoesnothaveanymeaning,either,ifyouconfuseitwithegalitarianism.WhenthenotionsofLiberty,Equality,andFraternityareviewedassomethingthatcomesfromoutsideofman,intheendtheyaretransformedintoeitheradictatorshipoftheproletariatoranextraordinarilypowerfultechnocracy.TheFrenchpeoplearetreatedasobjectsofsolidarityandnotassubjectsofsolidarity.Thisattests,inactualfact,toacontemptforthepeople.Thisdistinctionbetweensubjectandobjectisessential,andyourinteriorattitudeaseitherasubjectoranobjectofteninfluencesyoursuccessorfailure.Noticewhathappenswhenyouareconfrontedwithsickness!Whatisyourattitude?Isyourfocusonbeingsick,oronthesickness?Whichmattersmore:thesickpersonorthesickness?Weallknowthatthewillanddesiretogetbettermayhaveasignificantimpactonthesickness.Subjectorobject?

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Becauseweareinvolvedintheglobalizationoftrade,willnotFrance,soonerorlater,havetoadjust?Isn’tacertainformofeconomicorganizationgoingtobeimposed,whetherwelikeitornot?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Clearly.Untilthepresentday,wehadalwaysbeenabletomaintainacertainindependencewithrespecttotheoutsideworld.Todaywehavelostthis.WhatwillIdoifonedayIreceivealetterfromaforeignpensionfundandaMichelinshareholderasksmenottomakeanymoreinvestmentsinFrancebecausechargesandtaxeshavebecometoohighandthethirty-five-hourworkweekisintolerable?Wearetryingtocompeteeconomically.Itisstrangethatnobodyreallywantstoacknowledgethis.

IVANLEVAÏ:Arewedefinitelygoinginthissuicidaldirection?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Wearenotgoingthere.Wearealreadythere.Over40percentofthesharesinourfinestbusinesses,thoseoftheCAC40,4arealreadyheldbyforeigninvestors.Donotforget,too,thatthereisamovementunderwaytoimposetypicallyAnglo-SaxonnotionsofcorporategovernanceonFrenchbusinesses.Thesehavenothingtodowithage-oldFrenchlawandthestructureofFrenchbusinesses.DowewanttokillofftheverysoulofFrancecompletely?

IVANLEVAÏ:Whatcancountriesdowhentheyarefacedwiththissituation?Multinationalsareall-powerfulanddictatetheirownterms.InthedisputebetweenBoeingandAirbus,AmericaandtheEuropeangovernmentshavealmostnosayinthematter.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:IfIdonotwanttobuyLaTribuneorLeFigaro,theStatecannotdoanythingtoforceme.Ifsomebodydoesnotwanttobuyourtires,Icannotdoanythingtomakethembuyourtires,either.Itcanneverbestressedenoughthatthecustomeristherealownerofthebusiness.Heistheonewhodecidestobuyyourproducts...orthoseofyourcompetitorsbecauseyoursaretooexpensiveornotasgood.Ifyouforgetthis,the“thermodynamics”oftheexchangeisdoomedtofailure,unlessyoudosomeauthoritarianplanningandputyouropponentsintheGulagorinconcentrationcamps.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Butthepowerofthelargegroupsissuchthatmoreandmoreoftencountrieshavetosubmittotheirdemands.

FRANCOISMICHELIN:Agroup’spowercomesfromthequalityofitstradeandofitsproducts.Whyshouldnotitbethesameinthecaseofcountries?Ourleadersshouldconvenetheemployersandaskeachofthemwhatshouldbedonetomakeitpossibleforthemtotakeupthebattleonequaltermswiththeircompetitorsintheirrespectivesectorsoftheeconomy.

IVANLEVAÏ:Theyaregoingtoaskforsubsidies!

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:No,itissomethingentirelydifferentthatisneededforFrance’seconomiclife.Askyourselfthequestion:Wheredoesthemoneyforsubsidiescomefrom?Fromtaxes!

Agovernmentthatdistributessubsidiestoeverybodyisnotworthyofthename.Iamnotopposedtotheprincipleofsubsidies,butthereshouldbesomejustificationforthem,andtheyshouldbedistributedinsuchawayastomakepeopleawareoftheirresponsibilitiesinreturn.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:WhichbringsusbacktotheideathatsubsidiesareagoodwayfortheStatetoestablishitspower.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Theproblemofpowerisknowingwhattodowithit.Forwhatendisthepowerbeingused?Whataretheresponsibilitiesassociatedwithit?

IVANLEVAÏ:YoucanunderstandwhytheStategivessubsidiestoagriculture.Weverymuchneedtopreserve“France’sgarden.”Butwhataboutothersectorsoftheeconomy?Intenyearsmorethanahundredbillionfrancsofaidhasbeengiventothesteelindustry,forexample.Hasn’tthisgonetoofar?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:ThetragedyoftheironandsteelindustrystemsfromtheEuropeanCoalandSteelCommunity.Insteadofaskingemployerswhattheyneededinordertogotobattle,thegovernmentmadethedecisiononitsowntokeepcertainbusinessesaliveartificially—with,obviously,therigidity

andinflexibilitythatnaturallygoeswithit!Whatgooddiditserveif,attheendoftheday,alltheyhavemanagedtodoismanufactureaproductthatcannotbesoldbecauseitistooexpensive?

IVANLEVAÏ:Doyouthinkthatourcountrydoesenoughtoencourageinnovation?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Thatisagoodquestion.Theanswerissomewhatsad.Innovationisnotencouragedatthelevelwhereitshouldbe.Therealreasonforthis,Ibelieve,isthatFrancedoesnothavethementalandfinancialstructuresthatarenecessaryforinnovation.Untilquiterecently,itwasalmostimpossibletoobtainventurecapitalinFrance.Howdoyouexpectthenationalbanks,whichdonothavetheirowncapitalfunds,tobeabletotakeriskswiththeirdepositors’money?Itisunthinkable.Hatsofftoalltheindustrialistsandtheirshareholderswhohavemanaged,insuchdifficultconditions,todowhattheyhavedoneinFrance!Itisextraordinary.IftheyhadhadameretenthofthefinancialresourcesavailabletotheAmericans,EuropewouldbeFrench!

YVESMESSAROVITCH:FrançoisMitterandchosetoopen,wide,France’sborderswithintheframeworkofGATTandthentheWorldTradeOrganization,butinternallywehavenottakentheoverallmeasuresthatwouldallowustofightonanequalfootingwithforeigncompetitors.Howdoyouaccountforthisshortsightedness?Andwhatconsequencesdoyouseearisingfromitinthefuture?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Mr.Mitterandwasrighttoopenuptheborders.Hewashopingthatthiswouldwakeupthepoliticians,butthisishappeningmuchtooslowly.Rightnowoursituationisasfollows:Itisbelowzero-degreeFahrenheitoutside,thedoorsarewideopen,andwearebeingaskedtotakeoffoursweaters!Michelinexports50percentofitsproductsoutsideofFrance.Thisistwicethenationalaverage.Thus,halfthetotalwagesistiedtooperationsthatareoutsideofFrancewiththeresultbeingthateverythingthatpenalizesuswithrespecttoourforeigncompetitors,intermsofqualityorprice,hasfatalconsequencesforatleast50percentofthecompany’smanpower.Thethirty-five-hourworkweek,forexample,isleadingusstraighttoadisaster.Ihavenothingagainstworkingfewerhours,butnotifthisraisesthecostofourtires.AllofFrance’sbudgetsshouldbeanalyzedonthebasisofthiscriterion.

IVANLEVAÏ:Onegetstheimpressionthattheadjustmentisbeingmadebysheerforce.Ontheonehand,theStateisindeclineandgrowingweaker.Ontheother,globalizationisadvancingbyleapsandboundswithnoendinsight....Andallthewallsandbarriersarecollapsing.Today,ifIwanttomakeaphonecallwithoutgoingthroughFranceTelecom,Ican.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Thiswholeprocesscanonlyincreasethefreedomofindividualsandbusinesses.AndFrenchpoliticianshaveaveryhardtimeacceptingthis.ItistruethatthepoweroftheStatedeclineswhenitisnotfulfillingitstask!

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Why?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Ihavenoidea.Youhavetowantotherpeople’sfreedom,youhavetodesiretogivethemthecapacitytoconductexperimentsandtomakemistakessometimesaswell.TheStatedoesnotlikethisideaverymuch.Oneofthebiggestdifficultiesofanemployerisallowingthepeoplefacingaproblemtofreelyexpressthemselvessothattheycanchoosethebestandmostrealisticideas.Fromthispointofview,theStatehassomeprogresstomake.

IVANLEVAÏ:ArenotFrenchbusinessesalsoresponsibleforthisstateofaffairs?Here,assoonassomethingisnotgoingright,peopleturntotheState.TheimmediatereactionoftheAmericans,ontheotherhand,istotrytosortthingsoutontheirownwithoutappealingtotheauthorities.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Thefaultdoesnotliewithindustry.ItliesprimarilywiththeStatealoneanditswillofpower.Themomentthatyounolongerwanttogiveothersthemeansbywhichtheycanbethemselvesandmakeprogress,becauseofthemarket,andthemomentthatyouwanttoestablishyourpoweratanycost,youwreckthewholesystem.Ofcourse,menmakemistakes.Theyarefarfromperfect,andsometimestheymakeerrors,buttheirsenseofresponsibilityentersintoplay,andcorrectivemeasuresarequicklyputinplace.Thevastnumberofsmallerrorsmadebyalltheactorsintheeconomyasawholeisinfinitelylessdangerousthanthemajormistakescommittedbyadozen

technocratsworkingintheirownlittleareasofresponsibility.LookatthedrasticmistakesmadebytheplannersinMoscoworbythecircleofpeoplearoundHitler!Whatdoyouexpect?Ourgovernmentsdonotlikealternativewaysoflookingatthings.Thisistheirgreatflaw.Assoonasyoubearwitnesstofacts,whichshowthatthetheoryinplaceisnogood,youareaccusedofplayingpolitics.ItissaidthatthePopeisbeingpoliticalbecausehemaintainsthat,accordingtoChristianity,maniswhatstructuressociety,nottheopposite.WhatistheGulagotherthanarejectionofanalternativewayofthought?And,unfortunately,itisclearthatthird-partyjudgmentsanddecisionshavemuchmoreweightthanjudgmentsanddecisionsmadebythosewhoareinclosecontactwiththerealityofanygivensituation.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Wheredoyoudrawtheboundarylinebetweenthedesiretogatheranduniteandtheriskofdomination?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Thisisaproblemofethics,ofloveinthestrongestsenseoftheword.Youbecomeadictatorassoonasyounolongeracknowledgethefactthattheotherpersonhasapartofthetruth.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Inaway,thefightagainstinflationcanbeconsideredakindofeconomicdictatorship.Nevertheless,itdoeshaveitsvirtues.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Inflationisthegranddaddyofallvices.Keynes,whoobtainedthefinancingforHitler’snationalsocialismfromtheBankofEngland,saiditquitewell:“IamanimmoralistbecauseIknowthatinflationisabletoperverttheconscience.”5Inflationisanorganizedlie.Adrugthatcanhavetragicconsequences.Wagesrise,investorscannolongermakeinvestments,nobodywantstolendmoney....Inthisrespect,oneofthebasicvirtuesofMr.Trichet’spoliticsisthatitforcesustomakeareal,trueeffort.6Astrictmoneysupplyforcesustoconfronteconomicdemandsand,thus,putupafightthatgoesintherightdirection.Inthiscase,itisnotthelawofthestrongestthatisimposedbutthelawthatstemsfromtherealityofthings.If,intomorrow’sworld,wenolongerhaveanindustrialefficiencythatisonparwiththatoftheAmericans,wewillnolongerbeabletoexport.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Whataboutthetaxpayer?Doesn’thealsoplayaprimerole?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Certainly.Onlyhereistherub:TheAmericantaxpayerhasmuchmorepowerwrittenintohisConstitutionthandoestheFrenchtaxpayer.

InFrance,whenpeopletalkaboutloweringtaxes,theysaythatitisgoingtocostthegovernment!Whereisthetaxpayer?Whathappenstohispurchasingpower,theforemostelementineconomiclife?

IVANLEVAÏ:Globalizationfavorsacquisitionsandmergersandtransnationalorganizations.Howdoyouavoidbeingboughtoutonedaybythosewhoaretherichestandmostpowerful?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Youcannotdoanything.Thetragedyisthatsuccessivegovernments,beginningwithJosephCaillaux,7haveallmadeitimpossibleinFrancetoaccumulatemoney.Theirfearwasthatpeoplemighthavetoomuchindependencevis-à-vistheState.AntoinePinay,whowasanintelligentman,gavebusinessthemeansnottohavetogoabroad,thankstothefundthatbearshisname.

IVANLEVAÏ:Howdoyouviewyourcompetitors?ArecompanieslikePirelliandGoodyearpotentialpreyforyou?Oraretheyrivalstospuryouon?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Likeus,theyareactorsinanextremelycompetitivemarketinwhichthecustomerisalwayslookingforimprovements.Itissimplyamatterofofferingpricesthatarelowerthantheirsforabetter-qualityproduct.

IVANLEVAÏ:Allthesame,anyvictoryonyourpartwouldmeantheirdefeat.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Woulditbeavictory?Anyway,therearetimeswhenyouaretemptedtocrushallthecompetition,butitoftencannotandshouldnotbedonebecause,behindeverybusiness,therearepeople.Andalso,asyouknowquitewell,acustomerwhohasonlyonesupplierstopsusinghisbrains.

Theabsenceofcompetitionleadstoaphenomenallossofsubstance.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Arenotwealltoblameforallowingmonopolisticconditionstohavedeveloped?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Idonotbelieveso.Assoonasyoutaketoomuchmoneyfromcustomersthroughexcessivetaxes,thesecustomersgetpoorerandstarttowanttobuycheaperproducts.Toachievethelowestprice,therefore,manufacturersareforcedtoadaptandgetintomassproductioninabigway.Soyoubecome“toobig”againstyourwill.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Inthatcase,whydon’ttaxpayersandconsumershaveamoreresponsibleattitudeanddomoretoprotestthissituation?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Whomshouldtheyprotestagainst?Theirmindshavebeenpolluted.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Itlookslikelythattheadventofopenbordersisgoingtotrivializeeverything:productionprocesses,socialrelations,andfinanceandtaxationsystems.Don’tweruntheriskoflosingsomethingofourculturalidentityinallthis?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:No.Whenyoubuildaroadthateveryonecanuse,thisdoesnothingtoweakentheindividualityofthosewhodriveonit.Achangethataffectseveryonedoesnotmeanhomogenization.Thereisnodoubtthatglobalizationisgoingtopromptustorevisethewaywethinkandchangesomeofourhabits,butitisalsogoingtogiveusanewrelationshipwithreality.ThisnewconnectionisgoingtogivetheFrenchastrengthandadignitythataremuchsuperiortothesortofcocoonthattheyliveintoday.Whyshouldyoucallit“trivialization”?Onthecontrary,thisisasalutary,cleansingprocess!

YVESMESSAROVITCH:TheUnitedStates,thatisattheheightofitseconomic,financial,andmilitarymight,hasneverhadfewerdoubtsaboutitspositionintheworldtoday.NordotheAmericansreallyhavemuchdesiretodoanykindofcleansing.Americanpoliticalcorrectness,moreover,betraysthetotalabsenceofanykindofmeaningfuldebateontheothersideoftheAtlantic.

Isnotthisreluctancetoengageinanysortofself-questioningalsoaformoftrivialization?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Idonotagreewithyouatall.ThereisanextraordinarydebateoverideasintheUnitedStates.ItisFrancethathasnotdoneenoughintermsofself-questioningsince1947.Itisverydifficulttobeginquestioningyourselfandtoadmitthatyoutookthewrongroad.Thereisagreat,bigcowintheroom.Theonlyoneswhocannotseeitareourideologists.

IVANLEVAÏ:Theyseethecowbutdonotdaregrabasticktochaseitout.Despiteallthis,though,donotyouhavethesensethatwehavemadesomeprogress?Peoplearenotblithelyopeningupallkindsofdoorsandwindowsanymorewithimpunity....

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Alas,wearestillinadensegrayfogofideas.Nevertheless,theNorthStaristheretosuggestthewaythatweshouldfollow.Thisdoesnotmeanthatweshouldrushaheadwithoutgivingthingsathought.Wecanmoveforward,swervingsometimestotheright,sometimestotheleft.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:IsthecreationoftheEurolikelytoacceleratetheadjustmentsthathavebeenimposedbyglobalization?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Don’tyouseethatthetechnocratsarepreparingtoputinplaceashellthatwillnotbyanystretchoftheimaginationbeenoughtochangethings!TheEuroisnotasolutioninitself.Whetherornotthereisasinglecurrency,therealquestionposedbyglobalizationremainsinfactthefollowing:“Whatdoweneedtodo,sothatFrancecancompeteandsothatourbusinessescanperformwellandgoofftoconquernewmarkets?”Weknowthattherealengineofgrowthwouldbeamassiveloweringofpublicspending,whichmeanslowertaxes.Thisistheonlywaytogivecustomersbacktheirpurchasingpowerandtomakeitpossibleanddesirableforthemtobuy,save,andtakerisks.

HowlongwilltheFrenchpeoplebeabletoaffordtheluxuryofatowncouncil,ageneralcouncil,aregionalcouncil,aHouseofRepresentatives,aSenate,Strasbourg,andBrussels?Governmentsshouldprovideanexampleinsavingmoney—butthatisnotwhattheyaredoing.

IVANLEVAÏ:TheEuroissupposedtoserveasasortofsafetyrailing.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Youcannotdecreethevalueofacurrency.Whenacountry’seconomicactivitiesarenotasgoodasthoseofaneighboringcountry,itsmoneydepreciatesinvalue.TheEurowilldonogoodifthegovernmentsinvolveddonotstarttakingsomemeasuresthatareabsolutelyvital,movingforwardtogethertowardamoreflexibleapproach,lessspending,andfewertaxes.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Intheeconomicandmonetaryunionthatiscoming,goodsystemsoftaxationshouldforceoutthebadones.Don’tyouthinkthattheFrenchwillwinoutinthisrespect?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Whatisnecessary,firstandforemost,isanintelligentmanagementofpublicspending.Thenweneedasystemoftaxationthatisintelligentaswell,onethatallowsforgrowth.

NotesandExplanations1Tradetax:Taxsetupin1975,basedontherentvalueofthetotalassetsandonthetotalmanpowercost.

2MattéoliReport:JeanMattéoli(1923),Frenchpolitician,memberoftheSocialandEconomicCouncil.

3MichelSerres(1930—):Frenchphilosopher.

4CAC40:FrenchequivalentoftheDowJones;takesintoaccountthesharesofthefortybiggestFrenchcompanies;MichelinbelongstotheCAC40.

5JohnMaynardKeynes(1883—1946):Britisheconomist.

6JeanClaudeTrichet(1942—):FrencheconomistandheadoftheBankofFrance.

7JosephCaillaux(1863—1944):FrenchpresidentoftheCouncilofMinisters,aswascalledthepostofprimeministerundertheFourthRepublic.

4

NotEnoughEconomicThinkingYVESMESSAROVITCH:ArecentstudyputoutbytheOECDhasshown

that,althoughexperimentswithashorterworkweekhavesometimescreatedjobs,theyhavenot,byandlarge,generatedadditionalwealth.Bysettingupthethirty-five-hourweekinFrance,dowenotriskseeingthecountrysinkintoastateofself-complacency?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Francehasnotyetcopedwiththeadditionalfifthweekofholidaysandthethirty-nine-hourworkweek,launchedin1968.Wealthcanonlybecreatedwhenyouareselling.Forme,theimplementationofthethirty-five-hourweekwillhaveanegativeeffectonconsumption.Togofromathirty-nine-hourworkweektoathirty-five-hourone,withnoreductioninwages,wouldamountineffecttoan11percentincreaseinthepayroll,whichwillindirectlyincreasethecostoftheproducts—intheend,resultinginadecreaseinthepurchasingpowerofthepeople.Thentheywillreducetheirpurchases,andthecreationofwealthwillsufferbecauseofit.Theeffectofthiswillbetoslowdowngrowth.Aftertotallyjamminguptheworks,youwillhavenochoicebuttogetitgoingagain.How?Throughinflation!Butthecentralbankswillnottoleratethisforverylong.Theywillraiseinterestrates.

IVANLEVAÏ:Thethirty-five-hourweekdoesnothavetobeconstruedasademandformorecomfortandleisure,aswasthecasewithpaidholidays,forexample.Thesedays,peoplewanttosharetheirworkwiththosewhodonothaveany.Somehowitisalegitimate,nobledemand,almostChristianinitsinspiration.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Truesharinghappenswheneverypersonactivelymakesuseofallhisgifts.Lifeinsociety—particularly,lifeasitislivedintheworldofindustry—isnotazero-sumgame.Thetrueformofsharingthatshould

bepromotedseeseverypersonbeingenriched,sotospeak,bythesharinghecontributesto.Therehastobegrowthontheeconomiclevelandonthehumanlevel.Ifyoudonotmakethisyourbasicobjective,thatistosay,ifyoustartfromtheprinciplethatitisazero-sumgame,theresultthatyouwillbeleftwithwillnotbesolidaritybutpovertyandsocialstrife.So,itisbyaimingtogiveeveryonethemeanstoworkmorethatyouwillfacilitatethesharingthatpeopleaspireto.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Inthisdebateaboutthethirty-five-hourweek,arenotpeoplerightlyseekingtodeveloptheirtalents?Iftheywantmorefreetime,isnotitinordertohavethetimetodowhattheyreallywanttodoinlife?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Thatistrue.Buttheymustnotlosesightofthefactthat,withoutmoney,theseactivitiesareunthinkable.Andthelessyouwork,thelessmoneyyoumake.Itisonlylogical.Thereissomethinginthisdebatethatutterlyappallsme:Everyoneisinagreementabouthavingmachinesdomoreofthework,butpeopleforgetthatwhatpeoplehaveintheirheadsisinfinitelysuperiortoallthemachinesintheworld.Formaterialists,theminddoesnotexistasaspiritualentity.Itissimplyamanifestationofmatter.Francehasbecomeamaterialisticcountry.Itismoreconcernedwithdividingupthepiethanwithcreatingit.

IVANLEVAÏ:Howmanyhoursdoyouworkeveryweek?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Andwhataboutyou?Whatiswork?Oncethisquestionwasputtoalittlegirl.Sheanswered:“Toworkistobuild.”Whatdoesitmean,“tobuild”?Itistogiveyourselfatargetthatyouwanttoreach.Itisfindingmaterialstobuildahouseortoproducetires.Youthinkthatyouarebuildingafamilyoracompany.And,inthefinalanalysis,itisyourselfthatyouarebuilding.Inmyownpersonalcase,IbelievethatIamworkingallthetime.Toworkforabusinessistoalwayskeepitsobjectivesinmind,toassimilateanythingthatcanhelpyouclarifythem,andtofindthemeanstoachievethem....Itisalsotoaskyourselfwhythingsarethewaytheyare.Whenyouhaveproperlyunderstoodthereasonwhythingsarewhattheyare,youknowhowtomakeuseofthem.Reasoningbyanalogyisamarveloustool.Quiteoften,differentphenomenahavesomethingincommonthatconnectsthem—anunderlying,primarycausethatallowsyoutounderstandalotofthings.Youmay

merelybewatchingsomeonesweepthestreetandyoucansuddenlybestruckbyanideathatwillallowyoutoimprovethemachinesthatyouusetomaketires.

IVANLEVAÏ:DoyouthinkthattheStateshouldbeinthebusinessoflegislatingonthesubjectofworkinghours?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Abusesneedtobeavoided.ThatistheroleoftheState.Buttheproblemofthethirty-five-hourweekisdifferent.Letushavethecouragetoadmitthatlawslikethistouchonthefreedomtoworkandonthefreedomandresponsibilitytodobusiness.Imightadd,too,thatthislaw,whichhasalreadybeenpassedbutwhichwillonlyachievefullimplementationinseveralstages,iscontrarytodemocracy.Theywanttodivideanddistributeapiethatthethirty-five-hourweekisgoingtomakesmaller.Howdoyouexpectemployerstoacceptadecreaseinpurchasingpowerbyputtingacaponwages?Withallthis,thereisnopossibilityofgrowth.AsalwaysinFrance,theegalitarianvisiontakesprecedenceoveranyotherconsideration.

OnedayIhadadiscussionabouttheSMIC1—amonstrouslyhereticalthingtodo—withagovernmentministerontherightwingofpolitics:

“Yougivetheimpressionthatthegovernmentcanincreasethepurchasingpowerofthepeopleinanarbitraryway,thateverythingdependsonthegoodwillofthegovernment,”Itoldhim.“Youarenolongerlinkingremunerationwitheffort.Butwhetheryoulikeitornot,itisabasicgivenofhumanactivity.”

HerepliedthathewouldprefersomeonetobeunemployedratherthantobeworkingforlessthantheSMIC.Nevertheless,ifamanisnotactive,ifyouarepayinghimtodonothing,youaredestroyinghim.Thisisthewholetragedyofunemployment—andpeopleacceptit,allforthesakeofaninsaneideologyofegalitarianism.WithouttheSMIC,companies—notably,smallandmedium-sizedbusinessesandindustries—coulddomuchmoremassivehiring.Allyouwouldhavetodoisleavetheminpeace.Noristhereanydoubtthat,intheend,manywageswouldexceedtheSMIC.

IVANLEVAÏ:Whatdoes“leavingtheminpeace”meanforyou?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Firstandforemost,youwouldhavetogivethemsane,realisticlaws.InFrance,theemploymentlawshavedrawntheirinspiration

fromMarxism.TheyweredevelopedbyAmbroiseCroizat,2amemberoftheCommunistParty.Forthemostpart,theyrestontheunderlyingideaofclassstruggle.TheyareSoviet-stylelaws.Accordingtotheirlogic,businessisaclosedsystemfromwhichthecustomeriscuriouslyabsent.Inreality,ofcourse.thecustomerisatthebasisofeverything.Bycontrast,inaclosedsystem,theownersandworkersarecastasmastersandslaves,andtheyopposeoneanotheronaphilosophicallevel.Thisbeingthecase,theStateimposesitselfonthesceneasthecompulsoryreferee,withsweepingregulationswhoseprimaryeffectistocutthebondsthatlinkhumanbeings.Thesebondsareessentialtotheexistenceofbusiness.Thus,theydestroytheverythingthatmakesforthemagnificent,manifoldbeautyofhumanity:free,unhinderedrelationshipsbetweenpeople.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Thisclosedsystemwasputinplacewiththecomplicityoftheemployers,thegovernment,andtheunions.Isnoteveryoneguilty?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:ThatisoneofthereasonswhyMichelinlefttheCNPFatthetimeoftheGrenelleAccordsin1968.In1966,Iwasnotable,inspiteofallmyefforts,toputthewordconsumerinonesingle,solitarydeclarationoftheCNPF.Theotherreasonisthat,beforeFrançoisPerigot,3noneoftheofficialsattheCNPFcaredaboutthe“shareholder.”Doesnottheemployerexercisehisresponsibilityinrelationtothreegroupsofindividuals:theshareholders,thecustomers,andtheworkforce?

IVANLEVAÏ:WhenyouquittheEmployersAssociation,didyoudosoonyourownorwithotheremployers?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:BusinessesarenotregistereddirectlyintheCNPF.ItistheAssociationoftheRubberIndustrythatrepresentsuswiththeCNPF’sauthorities.Wesimplytoldtherubberindustryassociation:“EitheryouwithdrawfromtheCNPF,orweareleavingtheassociation.”Atthetime,alltheotheremployersmutteredtoeachother:“WhatisthematterwiththatfoolfromClermont-Ferrand?”WhenyouliveinParis,youdonothaveenoughcriticaldistancetohaveaclearperceptionoftherealityofthings.LifeinParis,withitsorientationtowardthe“CountryClubEconomy,”tendstoimposeuniformthinking,simplybecauseitisoftencutofffromtherhythmsofflesh-and-blood

reality.

IVANLEVAÏ:Isanassociationfortheemployersreallyveryuseful?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:IfinditquiterevealingwhenpeoplesaythattheheadoftheCNPFisthe“bossofbosses”!

Tohaveanorganization,independentofpolitics,toexplaintherealityoftheworldofbusinessisindispensable,butforalltoolongthishasnotbeenthecase.

Butdonotforget:We,atMichelin,havethesamebossasourcompetitors,GoodyearorPirelli.Thecustomer!Whenacarmanufacturertellsusthathewantsatireforacarweighing1.5tons,whichisgoingtogo120milesanhourandhastobeabletotransportfourpeople,heisgivingusanorderinthetruesenseoftheword.Ifwedonotprovidehimthetirethatheneeds,hewillgosomeplaceelse.Thisiswherethebasicprincipleofthe“economyofchoice”istobefound.Itisthebestsystemthereisintermsofconfrontingpeoplewiththeirresponsibilities.

IVANLEVAÏ:Thefatiguethatworkerssufferhasalsochangedinnature.Itisnotamatterofachingmusclesanymore.Thesedays,peoplesufferfromnervousfatigue.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:InClermontweuseverysophisticatedmachines.Afterfourorfiveyears,someofthepeoplewhoworkonthemaskforachangeofscenery.Theycannotstandthefactthatalltheyareusingistheirbrain,whichisonlyonepartoftheirexistentialmakeupaspeople.Theyarenolongersatisfiedwiththejobofbeinganoverseer.Thisisindeedadifficultproblem!

ThatiswhyallthetalktotheeffectthatFrenchindustryshouldconcentrateonelaborate,sophisticatedproducts,andleavetounderdevelopedcountriesthetaskofmanufacturingsimpler,low-gradeproducts,doesnotholdwater.Whatdoyoudowithindividualswhoarenotabletoworkoncomplexmachines?Theyarejustasmuchworthyofrespectastheothers,buttheyaregoingtobecutoutofthepicture.ItistheresponsibilityoftheStatetoreflectonthewayinwhichtheproductioncostsofbusinesscanbereduced,inordertoallowpeopletocontinueworkinginthetextileindustry,forexample.Thesolutionissimple:Youhavetoreducechargesandtaxes.Everyoneknowsit.WhatistheBalladur

orJuppésubsidyifnotanacknowledgmentthatcarscosttoomuch?4Freezoneshavebeensetup,butwhatdoesthismean,otherthanthatoutsideofthesezonestheState’sleviesaretoohigh?Theseindirectadmissionsoffailureshouldbetakenveryseriously,andtheirsignificanceneedstobepointedout.Thiswouldmakeawonderfultopicforthemedia.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Everyoneconcedesthattaxesonwagesandcapitalaretoohighandthattheywillhavetobeloweredmassivelyinordertoreduceunemployment.Theproblemisthat,indoingso,youriskcausingthefragilehouseofcardstocollapse.Outoffear,successivegovernmentshavebeencontenttotinkerwiththeoldmachine,eventhoughitisinbadshape,ratherthanoverhaulitfromtoptobottom.Thisbeingthecase,howdoyoucarryoutthenecessaryreformswhileatthesametimerespectingtheEuropeancontextofthesituationwithoutcausingacataclysmic,nationalupheaval?Dowehavetowaitforthewholethingtobreakdownmassivelybeforethedecisionismadeatlonglastthatitneedstobefixed?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Theproblemisthatwenolongerhaveastatesmanwhoiscapableofsaying:“Youhaveanillness.Ithastobetakencareof,ifyoudonotwanttogetworseandendupwithsomethingmoreserious—aheartattack,forexample.”Fishalwaysstartrottingfromtheheaddown.PeoplearegettingboggeddowninsteriledebatesbetweentheRightandtheLeft.Therealquestionis,gettingahandleonwhatmustbedonesothatwithintheirlimitspeoplecangrowandbloomwheretheyareplantedandbegiventhemeanstobecomewhattheyreallyare.Thatistherealquestion.TheanswercanonlycomefromquestioningthatmonstrousphenomenonofState-imposedauthoritarianism,createdbythepoliticians,whichFrancesuffersfrom.Francesuffersfromaplannedeconomy.Thepoliticianshavegiventhebureaucratsfreereinintheirdesiretorunthewholeshow.Thethinkinginthiscountryhasbeenthatthebureaucratsaremoreintelligent,moreconcernedaboutthepublicinterestthanarethecitizens.Wehavenotbeenabletomakethemrealizethatthepublicintereststemsfromthesumofalltheparticularinterests.Asiftherecouldbeapublicinterestthatisnotthesumofparticularinterests!ContemptfortheroleoftheemployerreachedapeakwiththepricecontrolsthatPresidentRenèMonory,whowasthenministerofFinance,startedtoimposeattheendofthe1970s.Thispricecontrolcostusphenomenalsumsofmoney.Priceswerefrozenwhile,atthesametime,therewererateincreasesinSocialSecuritycontributions,electricity,etcetera.

IVANLEVAÏ:Itisalsoacontemptforthemarket.Itisarefusaltorecognizethatnaturallawofthemarket,thelawofsupplyanddemand.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Yes,itisacontemptforbuyers,thesuppositionbeingthattheyarenotresponsibleandareincapableofmakingagoodchoice.ThereisaconfusiononthepartofsomeoftheFrenchpeople.Forexample,somebodyinthecompanyoncerequestedhissupervisortoaskthebossifhecouldintervenewiththegovernmentwithaviewtochangingthelawofsupplyanddemand.Nobodyhadpointedouttohimthatthelawofsupplyanddemandisareflectionofrealityand,thus,anaturallaw.Youareright.Therefusaltorecognizenaturallawandrealityisattherootofourcountry’sdifficulties.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Isnotitalsoawayfortheupperechelonsofthegovernmentemployeestoprotecttheirowninterestsandkeeptheirprerogatives?Wehavelostourcolonialempire,butwehavekeptcontroloftheFrencheconomy.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Iwouldnotwanttoreadintotheirintentions.IthinkthattheseupperechelonsreallybelievedthattheStatehadtointervene.Inthe1960sImadeaproposaltoamemberofthesteeringcommitteeoftheENA,5suggestingthaton-the-jobtraininginthebusinessworldbeorganizedforthestudents.Thiswashisreplytome:“Youaregoingtodistorttheirjudgment!”

Upper-levelgovernmentemployeeshaveaveryhighlydevelopedsenseofthepublicinterest.Theyaredecentpeople.TheyhaveasincerebeliefintheregulatoryfunctionoftheState.Theyarenottotallywrong,butwhatashameitisthat,intheirtraining,theyhavenotbeengiventhechancetoexerciseanyoftherealresponsibilitiesthatresponsiblebusinessmenmustexercise.Theywouldfindoutthatonlythecustomerisinapositiontoknowwhathewants.ThefunctionoftheStateistotakethisrealityintoaccount.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Wehavebeentaughttheveryopposite.TaketheStateplan,forexample,whichreallyamountstoadesiretosetupsignpostsinthefuture.

IVANLEVAÏ:Initself,theStateplanisaSoviet-inspirednotion.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Absolutely.ThenotionofStateplanning,whichentailsdeterminingsixyearsinadvancewhatthecitizensshouldbebuying,isfundamentallyantirepublicanandMarxistinessence.Anybodywhotalksaboutfreedomisreallytalkingaboutfreedomofchoice.Ofcourse,youhavetohavethemeanswithwhichtoachievethisfreedom.

Thisisnottosaythatyoushouldnotmakeprojectionsintothefuture,northatanyinitiativebypublicauthoritiesandeconomicplayersactinginconcertshouldberejectedfromthestart.Itcanbesaidthattherearetwotypesofplanningprocesses.Thefirst,Stateplanning,considersthecitizenasanobject.Theother,whichisessentiallyliberal,considersthepersonasaresponsiblesubject,thatistosay,themotorofasocietythatisdrivenbyaninfinitediversityofpersonalneeds.

IVANLEVAÏ:Wearescaredoftheglobaleconomy.Ateveryturn,weriskbeingdevoured.Wearethehens,andthefoxistheAmericanorJapaneseeconomy.Weareinaglobaleconomicclubwhereitisveryhardtolaydownrulesandwhere,inthenameoffreedomandfreetrade,themostpowerfulhavethemostleewayintheiractions.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Whycouldn’twebepowerfulplayersaswell?Franceisstillthinking:Franceonly.Itishergreatfailing.Doyouwantanillustrationofthis?Takethequestionofthetradetax.Inaneconomyprotectedagainstimports,thefactthatwearetheonlycountrytohaveatradetaxappearsonthesurfacetobeofnoconsequencesfortheshortterm.Infact,thisisnottrue,forassoonasitbecomespossibleforpeopletobuyforeigngoods,thetradetaxbecomesasubsidyfortheimportedgoods.Theproblemisthatnobodycaresaboutthisstateofaffairs.Andsothetradetaxremainsinplace,causinganincreaseinunemploymentandariseinthecostofinvestment.Localgovernmentaswellaschambersofcommercearebusykillingthehenthatlaysthegoldeneggs.Theintroductionofthetradetaxwasapoliticalact,notaneconomicone.

IVANLEVAÏ:Hereyouhavesomethingthattheemployerscouldmountafightagainst.Whydidn’ttheyriseupmoreaggressivelyagainstthistaxon

employment?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:TheCNPFwasapoliticalorganizationforalongtime.Itschairmanwasregardedasagovernmentministerfortheemployers!Hence,hisbeingcalled“thebossofbosses.”Thisischanging,whichwillbeverygoodforFrance.

IVANLEVAÏ:WehaveState-controlledagricultureandsectorsofindustrythataresubsidized,andnowwearesubsidizingemployment.IsnotoneofthereasonsforFrance’smisfortunestobefoundinthefactthat,inourcountry,everythingissubsidized?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Iamafraidso.ItistheresultofaMarxistconceptofsociety.Fromthispointofview,LouisXIVandColbert,6likeHitlerandsomanyothers,were“Marxists.”Thereissomethingelse,too.Wehadaremarkablemaninthecompanywhosaidtomeoneday:“Ihavemadeagreatdiscovery.Iwastaughtinschoolthatthereasonthattheworldisinsuchbadshapeisthatitisnotrunbypeopleassmartasweare.ButIhavesincediscoveredthattherewasanotherfactor,onethatdidnotfallintothedomainoflogicandreason:man’sfreedomwhenheisfacedwiththegoodorbadthingsthathecando.Irealizedthatlogicandreasondidnotworkwhenfacedbythisfactor.Ihadbeensteeredtowardatheoretical,virtualworld.Thiswasnottherightwaytogo.”Anotherpersononcesaidtome:“YourememberFourastiéandhistheoriesabouttheprimarysector(agriculture),thesecondarysector(industry),andthetertiarysector(services).7WehadthoughtthatFranceshouldavoidthedramaofundergoingtheindustrialstageinitseconomyandgodirectlyfromtheprimarysectortothetertiarysector.Andthen,wemadeabigdiscovery:Werealizedthattherewerenojobswithoutindustry!”

Forme,thiswasanexplanationastowhyIwasnotsucceedingingettingourmessageaboutindustryacrosstothegovernment.Quiteoftenthepeopleingovernmenthaveaconceptofeconomiclifethatdoesnotcorrespondtoreality.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Andwhydoyoungpeopleinourschools,universities,andpost-secondaryinstitutionsnotlearnenoughaboutproduction?Itisutterlyabsentfromthecurriculum,asifitweresomethingthatisdegradingandshameful.AretherestilllingeringechoesofZolainpeople’sminds?Isthis

becauseofanintellectualsnobbery?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:OneoftheleadingMarxistsoncesaidtoLenin:“Youaremakingamistakeindevelopingyoureducationalandtrainingprograms.Ifyouteachpeoplehowtoreason,onedaytheywillrealizethattheyhavebeendeceived.”ItmustnotbeforgottenthatournationaleducationsystemstillworksundertheLangevinReport.8Consider,too,ourmodemmathematicaltraining,whichtriestopromotereasoningaboutconceptsratherthanrealities.Nowwhenyouintroducepeopleintothedomainofconcepts,youcanmanipulatethemexactlythewayyouwant.Aconceptallowsyoutodemonstrateanythingyouwantanditsopposite,andthatis,howyouturnoutslaveswhoarrogantlybelievethattheyaremasters.OnedayIwenttoseePresidentGeorgesPompidoutolethimknowthatmodemmathematicswouldbethedownfallofFrance.“DoyouknowhowPascaldiscoveredgeometry?”Iaskedhim.“Bylookingattheparquetlinesonthefloor.Hadhebeentaughtmodemmathematics,hewouldneverhavediscoveredgeometry.Withthissortofeducation,wewillnothavedecentchemicalengineersordoctorsanymore.Wewillhaveanapproachtomedicinethatisconceptualanddrug-orientedbutnotapracticeofmedicinebasedonobservation.”Fortunately,thisisintheprocessofchanging.Thenotionofclinicalstudyisregainingitsimportance,butwearebehindothercountries.CertainaspectsofAmericanmedicineareoutstanding.InClermont,thereisachiropractorwhogoestotheUnitedStatesregularlyforrefreshercourses.Isuggestedtosomeonewhohadakneeproblemandwhosedoctorwasthreateningtosendhimforanoperationthatheshouldgoseehim.Tendaysafterhehadgonetovisitthischiropractor,hiskneewascompletelyhealed.Allthechiropractorhaddonewastopressonasmallareaofoneofhisvertebraeandunjamthewholething.Hehadbeenabletoseeimmediatelythat,ifthekneewasswollen,itwasbecauseitwasout-of-whackandnotworkingproperly.Hehadgonebacktothecauseoftheailmentinordertotreathispatient.Thereisnodoubtthatthismodemworldofoursalwaysmistakesconsequencesforcauses,especiallyinFrance.Thus,modemmathematicsandsettheoryaretheresultofalong,scholarlyprocessthatisofsomeusetocertainbrainytypes,butforthemajorityofpeople,itdoesnotmakeanysense.Whatpurposedoesitservetoputsomeoneonthetopofamountainthathedoesnotknowhowtogetdownfrom?AssoonastheRussiansnotedthefailureofmodernmathematics,theyabandonedit—lock,stock,andbarrel—asdidtheAmericansaswell.And,asluckwouldhaveit,orsoitseems,thisiswherescienceismakingthemostprogress.Currentestimatesshowaboutforty

thousandFrenchengineerswhohaveleftFrancetoworkinSiliconValley.Itisnotacaseofmerechance.Theretheyhavetheopportunitytoachievefulfillmentandtogrowinaclimateofrealism.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Insocialmatters,theorycansometimesbefoundtobeopposedtoreality,butyougettheimpressionthattherealismthattempersthemindsoftheemployersneedstobebetterarticulated.Asitstands,theyareatalossforwordsthatareneededtocombattheinapplicablemodelthatthepoliticianswanttoimposeonthem.Towinoverpublicopinion,don’tyouhavetoreturntothetrulybasicquestionssuchasthewhysandwhereforesofproduction,whoyouareproducingfor,andatwhatcost?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Verymuchso.InthecompanytherewasaCommunistemployeewhomIhadknowninthepast.Hewasaformerfriendofminefrommyarmydays.ThetwoofusfoundourselvestogetherataclassreunioninSavoie,9andweenteredintoaveryfree-rangingdiscussion,aswehadinthepast.

“Yoursupervisorsreallyp——meoff!”hesaidtome.“Theyarealwaysaskingmetoworkmore,asifitdidmeanygood!”

“Howmuchdoyouthinkthecompanyearnswhenitsellsanoff-the-roadtire?”Iaskedhim.

WhenIgavehimaroughestimateofourprofitmargins,heconfessedtomeratherpensively:“Ihadabsolutelynoideathatthecompanyissofragile.”

Anothertime,Iwastryingtoexplainwhatcapitalismistoaworkerwhowasaskingme.Istartedbypointingoutanumberofthingstohimbutrealizedatacertainpointthathedidnotunderstandmebecausetherewasakeyelementmissinginhisreasoningprocess.Iaskedhimifhehadmoneyinasavingsaccountorabank,andhesaidthathedid.Iwantedtoknowifhewaspaidinterestonthismoney,andhesaidthathewas,around3or4percentatthetime.Atthatpoint,Iaskedhimwhere,inhisopinion,themoneyfortheinterestcamefrom.Hisanswertothiswasclearandsimple:theBankofFrance.ItwastheBankofFrancethatmadethemoneytocovertheinterestonthecapitalthathehadinhisaccount.WhenIexplainedtohimthatthemoneythatwasneededtopayhisinterestcamefromthefactthathisinitialcapitalhadbeenlentouttobusinesseslikeours,heexclaimedthat“surely,[he]wascostingthecompanysomemoney!”Hewascaughtupinasystemofthoughtinwhichtherewasno

relationshipofcauseandeffect,anunrealisticsystemthatwastotallyideologicalandutterlysocialistic.ThenIwantedtoknowifhecouldplaythelotterywithborrowedmoney.Hesaid,no,since,ifhedidnotwin,hewouldnotknowwhattodotopaythemoneyback.Iputthefollowinghypothesisbeforehim:Ifanengineercametoyouwithanexcellentideathathada50percentchanceofsuccess,wouldyouagreetodevelopthisideawithborrowedmoney?Againhesaid,no.Iftheideawasnotasuccess,hewouldnotbeabletopaybackeitherthecapitalortheinterest.Itoldhimtoimaginethathewastheengineerinquestionandthatsomeonetoldhimthathewasreadytoadvancehimsomemoneyandthenwinitorloseitwithhim.Herepliedthat,inthatcase,hewoulddoit.So,thereyouhavetheessenceofcapitalism.Heretherealroleoftheshareholdercomestolight.Itrevolvesaroundthenecessityofallowingmentotrythingsoutandexperiment.Itisimportanttorealizethatthiscomplementarityofrolesconstitutestheveryfoundationsofanextraordinaryprogressandgrowthineconomiclife.

ThereisanotherstoryyetthatIwasveryimpressedby.AladywhoworkedasasecretaryinoneofourplantsinNovaScotiainCanadaonceexplainedtomewhyshehadleftherpreviousemployer:

“TheownerofthestorewhereIwasworkingfiredmebecauseIwasexpectingachild.”ShewasconvincedwithallherheartthatthismanwasadownrightSOB.Butwhatstruckmewasthatatnopointdidshehaveanythingtosayagainstthecapitalistsystem.InFrance,anemployeefacedwithanidenticalsituationwouldinevitablyhavesaid:“Thecapitalistsystemisrotten.”

IVANLEVAÏ:DoyouthinkthathereinFrance,attheendofthecentury,capitalismremainsadisputedquestion?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Yes,absolutely.OnedayIwaslisteningtoanoutstandinglyintelligentphilosophersupportingthecreationofakindof“coordinatingcommittee”whoserolewouldbetoavoidthe“abuses”ofcompetitionandsetupasortofregimeofcorporatism.

Attheendofhislecture,Isimplyaskedhim:“Butwhataboutcreatingsomesortofcoordinatingcommitteeforliterature?WhenIgointoabookstore,Iamalwaysstruckbythenumberofbookstherearecrammedontotheshelves.Therearejusttoomanyofthem.Nobodyhasthetimetoreadthem.Itwouldbethejobofthiscoordinatingcommitteetoselectthosethatareworthago,andasforthe

others.”Hereactedsharplytothissuggestionandcitedfreedomofexpressionandcreativity.

Infact,allthatanindividualasksforinanysocietyistobegiventhechancetoexpresswhathehastosayandtobegiventhefreedomandthemeanstoputitintopractice.Intellectualsexpressthemselvesbywritingbooks.Asforus,weexpressourselvesbymakingtires.Thatisallthereistoit.

IVANLEVAÏ:Areyouquitecertainthatclassstruggleisstillgoingon?ManyFrenchmennolongerdisputethefactthatsomepeopleownthemeansofproductionandothersarewageearners.Withinthecompanies,socialdialogueisactuallyoccurring.Possibly,theonlypointsofdisputeconcerntheorganizationoftheworkplaceandhowtheprofitsarisingfromgrowtharetobeshared.Moreover,eventhoughemployersmaybehavingsecondthoughtsaboutcertainfeaturesofwhatisconsideredsocialprogress,orworkersmaybecallingforasixthweekofpaidholidays,thenotionofclassstruggle,properlyspeaking,nolongerentersintotheequation.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Ourcountrysuffersfromalackofpractical,economicculture.Consequently,itisverydifficulttohaveacalm,dispassionatedialogue.Theargumentsoftheemployersdonotcarryanyweight.Manypeoplestillhaveloadsofpreconceivedanimositytowardthem.Everytimethereisadiscussion,youhavetositdownatatableandexplainthewhysandthewhereforesofthingsandthedelicatebalancethatexistsbetweenthecostofproductsandpurchasingpower.Youareforcedtoestablishtheconnectionthatexistsbetweenwhatyougiveyourshareholdersandwhatyougiveyouremployees.

Oneday,atthegateoftheplant,Ihadtheopportunitytoenterintoadiscussionwithaunionrepresentativewhowashandingoutpamphlets.Ihaveforgottenhisname,butIdorememberthathehasveryblueeyes.

Afteranexchangeofviewsthatlastedatleasttwentyminutes,Iaskedhim:“Asfarasyou’reconcerned,isanemployeraworker?”Herepliedimmediately:“No,becauseanemployerdoesn’thaveworker’sstatus!”

Todefineamanaccordingtowhetherornothehasacertainstatus—whatastrangewaythisistolookatlife!Hejustifiedhisanswertomebymaintainingthataworkertakesorders,somethingthatisobviouslynotthecasewhenitcomestoanemployer.

AtthatpointIexplainedthingstohim:“Whenautomobilemanufacturers,forexample,turndownourtires,aren’tthey,ineffect,orderingmetomakeproductsthatarelessexpensiveandofahigherquality?Whenmyqualitycontroldepartmentrejectsacertainrawmaterialasinadequate,isn’tthisalsothesameasmybeingorderedtogooutandbuyabetterqualityproductthatiseasiertoworkwith?”

Intheend,whenallwassaidanddone,itturnedoutthatIamaworker!

Iwonderifthisconversationdoesnotservetohighlightanessentialaspectofthedifficultiesthatourcountryisexperiencing.Itisthisaspectthatliesattherootsofoursocialbreakdown.ThedefinitionIwasgivenofa“worker”iseminentlyMarxistandwouldordinarilyleadtoslavery.Fortunately,therealityinindustryisutterlydifferent.

Weshouldsimplynotethatmanypoliticalattitudesstemfromthepresuppositionthattheemployerlivesonanotherplanetandisnotaworker.

Eachandeveryonehasresponsibilitiesofthesamenature.Weareallpursuingthesameobjectivesbutdoingsoindifferentwaysandindifferentgeographicalareas.Thenotionofclassstruggleisawonderfulpretextforconsolidatingpoliticalpowerinaplannedeconomy.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Consideringthattheeconomyhasbeenunderaspotlightinthemediaoverthelasttwentyyears,youwouldthinkthatcertainmessagesmighthavebecomestalebynow.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Itisverydifficulttohaveanysortofexchangewithideologists,whethertheybeleft-wingorright-wing.Theytaketheirpointofdeparturefromready-madeapproaches,conceptsthatarefarremovedfromreality.Theyhavenotreachedthestagewheretheycanadmitthattherearepeoplewhothinkdifferentlyfromthem.Theyareprisonersofasystemofthoughttowhichtheyascribethetranscendencethatislackinginmaterialisticapproaches.JustasAIDSpatientshavelosttheirimmunedefenses,peoplewhoare“sufferingfrom”Marxistphilosophy,forexample,havelostanypointofreference.Itissoeffectiveatclosingindividualsinonthemselvesthattheotherperson,bydefinition,becomesanenemy.RereadtheSatanicpoemsofMarx:Youwillunderstandhowsickandcorruptthisphilosophyis.

IVANLEVAÏ:Youwouldhavethoughtthatthespectacularcollapseof

Communistsocietywasgoingtoputthingsbackinperspective.WhocouldstillcallhimselfaMarxist,inthefaceofsuchamonumentaldisaster?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:ThosewhostillbelieveinitclaimthatCommunismisadeviationfromMarxism.Theyabsolutelyrefusetocallintoquestionthematerialisticanalysisoflifeinsociety.Marxismremainsanextraordinarilypowerfulformofmessianism.Andforwhatresults!

IVANLEVAÏ:DoyoureallythinkthatMartineAubryisaMarxist?10

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:WhoamItojudge?Youknow,weareallmoreorlessMarxistsatcertaintimesinourlivesinanycase.TheessenceofMarxismistherejectionoftheother.Marxismisakindofintellectualvirusthatcanstrikeanyone,sometimeswithouthisknowingit,ChristiandemocratsnolessthanradicalSocialists,Communists,moderateSocialists,andmembersoftheso-calledRight.Allofthemdrawtheirinspirationfromthesamesource.Forallofthem,theStateisbetterabletomanagesocietythanindividualsthemselves.Marxismrejectstwoofthemostfundamentalquestionsthereare:“Wheredowecomefrom?”and“Wherearewegoing?”Heldhostagebyasystemofthoughtthatistotallyabsurd,manhasnochoiceotherthantoresorttotheStateintermsoftranscendence.Inthatcase,herisksbecomingnomorethanalittlebugcaughtunderthecrushingweightofasteamroller.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Whatdoyouthinkofthetrainingineconomicsgivenintheschoolstoday?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:AllyouhavetodoisopentheeconomicstextbooksinournationaleducationalcurriculumtorealizethatMarxistideologyisfarfromdead.Ifanything,thesituationhasgottenevenworse.Somepoliticalofficialsarebusyreestablishingtheconditionsfavorabletoclassstruggle.

Also,whatahugenumberofengineerstherearewho,withfiveyearsofexperienceundertheirbelt,arecriticaloftheirtrainingforhavingcutthemofffromanimportantpartofreality!

IVANLEVAÏ:ShouldaworkeratMichelinknowthecompany’sfinancial

accounts?Inanidealbusiness,shouldanXray,sotospeak,ofthebusiness’sfinancialstatebeinformationthateveryonehasaccessto?Wouldnotthisbearesponsetothelackofeconomictrainingthatpeoplehave?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:In1930,thecompanywasonthebrinkofbankruptcy.MygrandfatherhadacertainMr.Vigiergoaroundtothebankstoaskthemtoloanusmoney.Hecamebackwithwhat,intoday’smoney,wouldbeequivalenttoabillionfrancsandwenttoseemygrandfatherinhisoffice.

“Ihavethemoney,”hesaidwithadelightedexpressiononhisface.

“Goodthingyoudo,Mr.Vigier,”mygrandfatherreplied.“Hadyounotgottenit,wewouldhavebeenbankrupt.”Inretrospect,Mr.Vigiercollapsedtotheground.

Thereareveryfewpeoplewhocanholdupunderthepressureofahigh-riskventure.Youcannotandyoushouldnottelleveryoneeverything.Youhavetotakeintoaccounteachindividualperson’sabilitytounderstand.Thewaythatpeoplereceiveinformationdependsonwhotheyare.Ontheotherhand,too,thereisalwaystheriskthattheinformationthatisgiventotheemployeesmayfallintothehandsofthecompetition.Thiscanbedeadlytoabusiness.

IVANLEVAÏ:Aren’tyouthe“lastoftheMohicans”?Youareatthesametimeaname,afamily,andaflagship,anditmaybethatyouarethelastsurvivingFrenchnamebrandforaworld-renownedproduct.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Ihopenot.Youknow,whenyoubegintogetjustaglimmerofunderstandingthateachpersonisunique,Ireallydonotseehowyoucouldviewtheproblemintermsofbeing“lastoftheMohicans.”

NotesandExplanations1SMIC:SalaireMinimumInterprofessionneldeCroissance;minimum,State-controlledbasesalary,forallprofessions.

2AmbroiseCroizat(1901—1951):CommunistministeroflaborfromNovember1945toMay1947.

3FrançoisPerigot(1926—):PresidentoftheCNPFin1986.

4EdouardBalladurandAllainJuppé:NamesoftwoFrenchprimeministerswhoheavilysubsidizedthepurchaseofnewcarsinthe1990s.

5ENA:EcoleNationaled’Administration(NationalAdministrationInstitute).Createdin1945underdeGaulletoserveasaspecializedinstitutetotrainupper-echelongovernmentemployees.

6JeanBaptisteColbert(1619—1683):MinisterunderLouisXIV,believerinapowerfulState.

7JeanFourastié(1907—1990):Frencheconomist,authorofTheGreatHopeoftheTwentiethCentury.

8LangevinReport:NamedforPaulLangevin(1872—1946)MarxistFrenchphysicist,advocateofthefactthatstudiesshouldbemainlytheoretical,cutfromreality.

9Savoie:ProvinceofeasternFrance,closetoItaly,twohundredmilesfromClermont.

10MartineAubry(1950—):Severaltimesministeroflaborandsocialaffairsuntil2000.

5

TheBoss—TheManIVANLEVAÏ:TheMichelinadventureisfantastic.Yourfamilyhasputits

signaturetoaproduct,muchliketheartistwhosignshiscanvas.Aftermorethanacentury,yournameisworld-renownedtothepointwhereithasalmostbecomeagenericterm.Therearemanypeoplewhomsuchpopularitywouldhavemadevainandconceited.Howcanyoulivethroughthatwithsimplicity?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Idonotlookatthedistancewehavealreadycoveredbut,rather,atwhatwehaveyettodo.Thathelpstokeepaperson’sfeetfirmlyplantedontheground.Youreallygetafeelingofsmallnesswhenyoulookatthemagnitudeofthetaskthathastobedone.Sometimesitisfrighteningtorealizethat120,000peopledependonyouandyourbusiness.Whoeveryourboardofdirectorsareandwhateverothersafeguardsyouputintoplace,therecomesatimewhenyouhavetomakedecisionsthatcouldeventuallyturnouttobefatalforthecompany.Nothingcomeseasily.Ifthechoicesaresoterrifying,itisbecauseyouneverhaveallthepertinentpointsofinformationinhandwhenyoumakeadecision.Theheadofabusinesshastonavigateinafogofuncertainty.Heisforcedtotakeactioninreal-lifecircumstances,andthatispreciselywheretheproblemlies.Onceagain,attherootofeverydecision,thereisthefollowingquestion:Isitusefulforthecustomer?Yes,becauseitisthatwhichleadstotheshareholdersandcustomersbeingsatisfied.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Doyouhaveafeelingthatyoustillownyourownname,whenitfallslikethisintothepublicdomain?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Mygrandfathertoldmeoncethathewasquitesorrythathehaddubbedourtires“Michelin”tires.Thisaspectweighsheavilyonafamily.PeopleneverlookatFrançois.TheylookatMichelin.TheonlyadvantagethatIseeisthatitgivesamorehumandimensiontotheproduct.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Whenyougiveyourproductsyourownname,areyounotalsocommittingyourselftobothyourcustomersandyouremployees?Inaway,youaregivingthemanadditionalguarantee....

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Certainly.Havingyournameinvolveddoes,perhaps,addadimensionandevenmorethanthat,nodoubt.Itisanincentiveforapersonnottodotoomanystupidthings!

IVANLEVAÏ:Itisinterestingtoseehowwidespread“signature”productsareintheautomotiveworld:Citroën,Peugeot,Renault,Ford.Allthesenamebrandsarereminiscentofindividualsandfamilies.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Theautomobileisapassion.Nodoubt,thatisthereasonforthis!

Asalways,apersonoragroupofpeopleconstitutesthefoundationofallprogress.Mostoftentheseindividualsandfamilieshaveactedwithagreatdealofstrengthandcourageinallsortsofcircumstances.

IVANLEVAÏ:Nowadays,businessesarenolongerreferredtobynamebutbyabbreviationsandinitials.Howdoyouexplainthedroppingofthosenamesasapointofreference?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:AtthebeginningoftheIndustrialAge,bankersfirstputtheirtrustinamanoragroupofpeople.Therewasnosuchthingyetaspubliclimitedcompanies.Atthebeginning,thePeugeotfamily,forexample,wasalimitedpartnership,asweare.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Atthetime,manybusinessesfirststartedlocally.Bankersandtheirfamilieshadlongbeenrubbingshoulderswithindustrialistsandtheirfamilies.Theyhadawell-knowncodeofethics,acommonsocialandfamilyenvironment,andacertainsetofpoliticalconvictions.Wasn’ttheconsensusthatexistedatthattimeafactorcontributingtowardbusinessstability?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Certainly.Everyventurehasasitspointofdeparturethedesirethatpeoplehavetobuildsomethingtogether.Thatishowbusinessesstart,onalocallevel,becausecertainindividualsfeelthat,byjoiningtogethertheirefforts,theymaybeusefultosociety.Inourpresentworld,itisabsolutelyessentialforustorediscovernotonlythenecessarylegalstructuresbutalltheothermeansweneed,aswell,inordertopreservethefactorsthatarevitalforstartingupabusinessandthenpromotingitsgrowth.TheformofcorporatearrangementthatMichelinenjoys,namely,apartnershiplimitedbyshares,isjustsuchameansperhaps.Becauseofthestatutoryresponsibilityofthepartners,youthinktwicebeforemakinganydecision,whileyoutrytodiscernwhethersuchadecisioncarriesanyadvantagesintermsofthefuture.

IVANLEVAÏ:Societyasawholehasbecomeimpersonalincomparisontotheoneinwhichyougrewup.Thedevelopmentoftoday’schildtakesplaceinanobscuresystemadministeredbyfacelessofficialswhere“anicepieceofwork”isnolongerrecognizedandacknowledgedasitoncewas.Inspiteofallthis,haveyoutriedtohandonthevaluesthatyouholddeartoyourchildren?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:MywifeandIhavetriedtoputourchildrenincontactwithmatter,reality,andwithnature,toallowthemtoexperimentontheirown.Afatherlearnsalotmorefromhischildrenthanhischildrenlearnfromhim.Childrenaskmarvelousquestions.Youthinkthatyouknow,andthenyourealizethatyoucannotproduceanexplanation.Yourmindhasaconstanttendencytooperateintermsofagrandhierarchy,goingfromhighesttolowest.Thisisafundamentalerror.Alittlesix-month-oldchildcanteachyouloadsofthings.Lookathiminhisstroller:Thereheisinhisroyalsplendor,surveyingthescenewithwide-openeyes....

IVANLEVAÏ:Allthesame,isthereaguidingprinciplethattheMichelinspassontooneanotherfromfathertoson?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Perhapswhatwepassonistheperennialconcerntobeclosetothefacts.Itisthesenseoffacts.Thus,welearntolovetheproducttothepointwhereitbecomesathingthatispretty-neartyrannical.Whenyoureallylovesomething,yousniffoutanythingthatisnotsatisfactory,anditbecomesunacceptable.Genetically,wearefiercelyattachedtothenotionofservicebothtoourcountryandtoourcustomers,employees,andshareholders.Finally,Iam

notterriblyenamoredofthenotionofthecustomerbeingtheking.Youcannotalwaysdiscussmatterswithaking.Andyouhavetobeabletodiscussthings,inordertoreachanunderstanding.Youcannotdoanythingwithacustomerwhosays,“Getlost!”So,youhavetofindawayforhimtosay“yes”toyou.Andthisisonlypossibleifwhatyouareofferinghimcorrespondstowhatheneeds.Ashoesalesman,eventhemostcharmingshoesalesmanintheworld,willneversellshoesthathurtyourfeetbecausetheshoesaretoonarrow.

Anotheroneofourpassionsisinnovation.Technicalinnovation,ofcourse,butthereareotherareasaswell.Thehistoryofthebusinessisagoodillustrationofthis.

Imightalsoaddthat,forgenerations,wehavefeltadeeprespectformaterials.Wantanexample?Atthebeginningofthecentury,peopleweredoingresearchonanewelectricalinsulatorthatcouldbeusedinsteadofwoodandceramics.Woodsoakedupwaterandcausedshortcircuits.Asforceramics,theycouldnotbeworkedproperly.Oneofthecompany’sengineershadtheideaofproducingebonitewithrubberandsulphur.Thismadeforanoutstandingrigidinsulatorthatcouldbeeasilyworked.Itwasanextraordinarydiscovery,butmygrandfatherdecidednottodeveloptheproduct.Forhim,itwasabsolutelyinconceivablethatonecouldhardentheonlyelasticmoleculeonearththatoccursnaturally.Itwasoutofrespectforthematerialthathemadehisdecision.Shortlyafterward,Bakeliteappearedonthescene—anexcellentinsulatormadewithveryinexpensiverawmaterials—formolandcasein.

Thisattitudeisoffundamentalimportancewhenyoudealwithpeople.Thecompanymustfindthemeanstomakeitpossibleforeachperson’spredominanttraittobebroughtout.Itmustalsogiveeachpersontheopportunitytobecomewhatheis.Youcannotimaginethenumberofpeoplewhocometousasachemicalengineerorwhatever,andwho,afterafewyears,reorientthemselvesintoanutterlydifferentlineofworkbecausetheydiscover,deepdownintheirguts,thattheyarealsocutoutforalotofotherthings,overandabovewhattheyhadoriginallythought.Whenyoumanageacompanylikeours,youhavetobesufficientlyflexibleinyourdealingswithpeopleintheorganizationsothateachperson,inhisturn,canbe“pneumatic,”an“all-terraintire,”abletohugtheroadinanykindofweather.

IVANLEVAÏ:WeretheMichelinbrothers,whofoundedthebusiness,alreadycommittedtothesevalues?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:AsfarasIknow,yes,buttheonewhowasmostimbuedwiththemwasEdouardMichelin.“Yournumber-onetaskistolovetheemployeesforwhomyouareresponsible,”hetoldhismanagers.Tolovepeoplelikethisis,bynomeans,akindofidioticsentimentality.Quitesimply,itmeans:Seeingpeopleastheyare.

IVANLEVAÏ:Nocompanydirectorwouldventuretosaythistooneofhismanagerstoday.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Doyouthinkso?Mindyou,whennowadayspeopleusethetermhumanresources,somethinghappenstotheconceptofman.

IVANLEVAÏ:WasyourgrandfatheraChristian?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Yes.Christianityexplainswhythingsareastheyare.Butisnotanyhumanbeingwhostandsinwonderbeforethebeautyofaroseoralandscapeabelieverwithoutknowingit?“Beauty”isanothernameforGod.Manypeopledonotwanttofollowtheirbeliefsthroughtotheirlogicalconclusion,becauseoffear,perhaps,ofthemoraldemandsthatmightbemadeonthem.Thesedemands,Ishouldmentioninpassing,concernthewaythathumanbeingscoexistinharmony.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Isthatwhytherehasalwaysbeenanobjectiveconsensusamongpeople,basedonthehopethatintheendthingsmayturnoutwell?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Yes.Butthatisnotenough.Pascalsaiditquitewell:“Themanwhocommitssuicideislookingforhappiness.”Thisshowstowhatdepthsofuncertaintyanddarknessthehumanconsciencecansometimesplunge.

IVANLEVAÏ:Youaretheproductofanindustrialdynastythathasattempted,throughouttheprocessofyoureducation,topassonvaluestoyou.Whatagewereyouwhenyoureallyacceptedandacknowledgedthesevalues?Whendidyouunderstandthenatureofthecompanyanditsfinality?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Attheoutset,youknow,mydreamwasnottorunthecompany.Iwantedtobeameteorologist!Idonotknowwhy,butcloudsfascinateme.InmyyouthIembarkedonstudiesforadiplomainmeteorologyattheSorbonne.1Ihavequitevividmemoriesofmyprofessor.Hewantedustosharehispassionforwhirlwindsandothermysteriesoftheatmosphere.Itwassimplymarvelous.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Whystudymeteorologyandnotastrophysics?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Onceagain,onlybecauseIfindcloudsfascinating.

IVANLEVAÏ:Itissuchachancy,uncertainthingtostudy.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Precisely,thatiswhatissofascinatingaboutit!Doyouknowthatcertaincloudsarehollowontheinside,likecertaincheeses?Itisamazing.Butletusgetbacktoyourquestion.Youspokeaboutadynasty.Idonotcarefortheideaverymuch.Itconjuresupthenotionofexternalpressurebeingbroughttobearonthethinkingofayoungmanorayoungwoman.Thiskindofpressureleadstonogood.Thereisnothingmoredreadfulthansomeonewhowantshissontofollowinhisfootstepsatallcosts.Thechilddoesnotfindhimselfbeingvaluedforwhatheisbut,rather,intermsofanideathatisimposedonhimfromtheoutside.Thisisquiteunhealthy.

IVANLEVAÏ:CouldyouhavedonesomethingelseotherthanworkatMichelin?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Mr.Mignol,theinventoroftheradialtire,oncesaidtome:“Ifyoudonotliketires,getoutofhere!”

YVESMESSAROVITCH:CouldapersonreallyspeaksodirectlylikethattoamemberoftheMichelinfamily?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Yes.Itisoneofthecharacteristicfeaturesofthecompany.Thebestideasdonotnecessarilycomefromtheboss.Thebestideaistheonethatbestsatisfiesthecustomer.Thisattitudeisgeneticallyingrainedin

ourcompany.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Soyouwerecaptivatedbytires?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Whatafascinatingobject!Thecarisamarveloussymbolthatepitomizesthewholehistoryofhumanityallonitsown:themarathon,Romanroads,thehorse.

IVANLEVAI:Howoldwereyouwhenyouweretakenbythispassion?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Idonotknow.ItisasifyouwereaskingmehowoldIwaswhenIfeltlikebreathing.Whenyouaskacentipedehowhemanagestowalk,doyouknowwhathappens?Hehasastroke.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:HaveyourchildreneverquestionedtheirmembershipintheMichelinfamily?Havetheydisputeditatsomepointorotherintheirlives?Havethey,fortheirpart,triedtoputdistancebetweenthemselvesandyourwork?

FRANÇQISMICHELIN:Attimes,theyfoundmyworkannoyingbecauseitwastakingmeawayabittoomuch.

IVANLEVAÏ:Dotheywanttofollowinyourfootstepsoneday?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Yes.Whenyouareyoungandyouhearpeopletalkingaboutafascinatingjoballthetime,youdevelopaninterestinit.TheygrewupinClermont,andtheyrecognizetheimportanceofthecompany.Theyhavealsoseenpeopleonstrikemarchingpastourhouse.Thishascertainlyleftitsmarkonthem.

IVANLEVAÏ:Didthecontextofclassstruggle,whichwasprominentatthetimeyouwereachild,leaveitsmarkonyou?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Irememberadayintheyear1936when,whileI

waswithmygrandfatherinhisofficeonCoursSablon,alonglineofpeopleonstrikepassedbeneathourwindows.2WhenIheardsomenoise,Iwenttothewindowandliftedupthecurtain,whichpromptedshouting.Mygrandfathersaidtome:“Peoplewilltellyouthatthesepeoplearenasty,butthatisnottrue.”Irealizedthatmygrandfatherwasspeakingthetruth,whichleadsmetosaythatthenotionofclassstrugglestemsfromanintellectuallazinessinwhichpeoplewanttoavoidaskingthemselvesrealquestions.

Sincethattime,Ihavebeenhauntedbythisphraseofhis:“IfyouregardaCommunistasaclassenemy,youaremakingamistake.Ifyouseehimasamanwhosimplyhasawayofthinkingthatisdifferentfromyours,thatisatotallydifferentmatter.”EachtimeImeetsomeone,Iaskmyself:Whatdiamondishiddeninthisperson?Allthesejewelsthatsurroundusmakeanincrediblecrown,whenwehavelearnedhowtoopenoureyesandseethem.

IVANLEVAÏ:DoyouthinkinthesamewaywhenyoucrosspathswithMrs.MartineAubry,ourcurrentministerofemploymentandsolidarity?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Ofcourse.Mypersonalexperiencehasshownmethatitisdifficultforpeopletoacceptthisnotionofthediamondintermsoftheirownlives.Ifyoulookcloselyatthishiddenjewel,itrevealsmanythingstoyou,bothgoodandbad.Similarly,theattitudeofthepeoplearoundyoutellsyouanenormousnumberofthings.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Inyouropinion,whydocertainpeoplelookattheir“jewel”butdonothaveenoughconfidenceinit,preferringtobowtoapreestablishedsystem?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Theydonotfollowtheimplicationsoftheirreasoningrighttoitslogicalend.Theyfailtodrawtherightconclusionsaboutit.Ifthethreeofusfinditpossibletohaveaconversationtogether,itisbecauseeachofuslooksontheotherpersonasbeingunique,aself-givenentity,notreducibletoanyother.Itisonlyunderthiskindofconditionsthatyoucanbuildsomething.

IVANLEVAÏ:Butletusgetbackdowntoearthhere.Michelinhas,withtheutmostsecrecy,developedanewmachinethatbearsthemysteriousnameof

“C3M.”Accordingtotheinformationthatonehearshereandthere,thisgreatinventionallowsaconsiderableincreaseinproductivity.Areyounotbuildingadangerousworldwherethetechnologyofproductionisgoingtogettheupperhandovermaninalasting,permanentway?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Tolaunchanaveragefactorycostsabillionfrancsandtakesfouryears.WithC3Myouputthemachineinplace,andthreedayslater,itisproducingtires!Itisafantasticinvention,whichwillbeabletobeusedinanyso-calleddevelopingcountry,allowingthosewhouseittopassdirectlyintothetwenty-firstcentury.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Butitwillonlyuseahighlyskilledworkforce.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Peoplehavethewrongideawhenevertheytalkaboutskilledlabor.Youknow,peoplehaveaphenomenalcapacitytomoveforwardandmakeprogress.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Asregardstechnologicalinnovation,Michelinhasalwaysbeenattheforefront:theradialtire,thesecretnewC3Mprocess,thegreentire,thePAXSystem,3themarveloussensorsthattransmittirepressurereadingsrighttothedashboard....Whoisbehindalltheseinventions?Isitthefruitoftheworkoflicensedengineerschargedwiththejobof“makingdiscoveries,”or,onthecontrary,doyouencouragespontaneousinnovation?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Itseemstomethatinnovationisalwaysspontaneousifthehumanenvironmentisfavorable.Goodideascanbeconceivedanywhere:intheworkshop,intheoffice,withcustomers,etcetera.Itisuptothoseinchargeofresearchdepartmentstosurroundthemselveswithengineerswhohavethehumilitytoimplementideasthatarenotnecessarilytheirs.Asfortheboss,sometimeshehastogoagainstthereservationsthatsomeofthepeopleinhisworkforcemighthave.Whenwewerereadytolaunchthegreentire,someofthepeopleinthecompanywereopposedtoit.Theyarguedthatthemachinerywouldhavetobechangedandthatitwasgoingtocostalot.But,alongwithMr.Zingraff,4weheldfirm,forthefactsofthemattershowedthatthiswasanexcellentproductandthat,amongitsotheradvantages,itconsumedlessenergy.Tomoveaone-toncarforward,youneedtwelvekilosof

force/cm2witharegulartire,butonlyeightkiloswithagreentire.Itisanecologicaltire!

IVANLEVAÏ:Nevertheless,bydevelopingyourrevolutionaryC3Mmachine,youarewell-awarethatyouarehelpingtogivebirthtoaworldinwhich,twentyyearshence,therewillnotbeanywork....

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Whatiswork,Mr.Levaï?

IVANLEVAÏ:Itisthathumanactivity,beitintellectualormanual,thatallowssomethingtobedone;itallowsaperson’stalentstobearfruit.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Thatiswhy,whenyouareonvacation,thereisnothingtokeepyoufromworking.Atthesametime,assomeoccupationsdieoff,othersareemerging.Whydoyousupposethatdevelopmentandprogressshouldhaveanendtermplacedonthem?Inthenineteenthcentury,whowouldhavethoughtthatadaywouldcomewhentheserviceeconomyandresearchsectorwouldcreatemoreemploymentthanindustrydoes?

Weshouldmakenoteofsomethinghere:Doesnotthetediousnessofworkalsostemfromthefactthatourprideisforcedtosubmitnotonlytotherealityofinanimatematerialsbut,aboveall,totherealitythatisinherenttoman?Isnotthesweatofourbrowoftenaby-productofourbatteredpride?

NotesandExplanations1Sorbonne:Parisuniversitycreatedin1257;famousforitsliterature,philosophy,languages,andtheologycurriculum.

2CoursSablon:OneofthelargeavenuesinClermont-Ferrand,whereEdouardMichelinusedtolive.

3PAXSystem:OneofthelatestinventionsoftheMichelingroup,whichproposesasystemthatallowsonetodrivesafelywithaflattireand,thus,tosuppressthesparewheel.

4RenéZingraff(1937—):OneofthethreemanagingpartnersoftheMichelingroup.Heassumedthepositionin1986.

6

AndWhyNot?IVANLEVAÏ:HowdoyoumanagetoreconcileyourChristianhumanism

withcapitalism?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:ThewordcapitalismwasborninMarx’smind.Hecouldonlyseetherelationshipbetweencapitalandlaborasaformoffighttothedeath,whichhedubbed“theclassstruggle.”WithhisHegelianverbosity,hethusjustifiedhatredasthemainspringofhistory;butcapitalisforbusinesswhatthehullofhisshipisforthesailor.1Theessentialroleofthecapitalistconsistsofconstantlyseeingtoitthatthehulloftheshipallowsbusinesstosailasfaraspossiblewithoutevertakingonwater.Whyshouldtherebeafighttothedeathbetweencapitalandlabor?Thetwoofthemareasinseparableasthehandandthebrain.Thedialecticiansareapain,alwaysbeingonthelookoutfordivisioneverywhere.Considerarabbit:Ithaspaws,ahead,atail,anditisalive.If,ontheonehand,youanalyzethepawsandthengoonfromtheretoanalyzethehead,thatistheendoftherabbit!Descartesisintotalerrorwhenheapplieshisdualismtohumanlife!Toomuchanalysiskillslife.

AsforMarx,ithasbeenproventhathewasincapableofunderstandingtheessentialroleofcapital.Itisafundamentalfailingofdialecticalmaterialismtobealwaysmistakingconsequencesforcauses.Marxismisutterlydeludedaboutobjectives.IfKarlMarxhadlivedwithshipcaptains,hewouldnothaveinventedthewordcapitalismbut,rather,hullism....Hehadabsolutelynounderstandingoftherolethatshareholdersplay.

Nevertheless,thereissomethingelsebehindthewordcapitalism.Wehavealreadyspokenaboutit.Youhavemenandwomen,andtheyhavetheirownresponsibilitiesandautonomy,whichneedtobedefendedconstantlyagainsttheinvasionoftheStateandsociety.Whencertainfinancialaspectsofcapitalismarecriticized,whatisbeingattacked,infact,arethemeansnecessaryforthefreedomofpersons.Onceagain,thefundamentalquestioniswhethermanisa

subjectoranobject,whethersocietyisformanormanforsociety,andwhetherweshouldoptforliberalcapitalismorcollectivism.

IVANLEVAÏ:WhenyouareaChristianemployer,whatshouldyourbasicoutlookonglobalizationbe?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Accordingtoyou,whatdoesbeingChristianmean?

IVANLEVAÏ:Someonewhoconsidershimselftohavearesponsibilitytowardhumanity.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Andwhataboutyourself?Doyounotsharethisfeeling?

Onadeeperlevel,theChristianwayofthinking,whenitisanalyzeddispassionately,istheonlyonethatgiveseverymanandeverywomananswerstotheirmostprofoundquestionsanddoessoinaspiritoftremendousrespectfortheirfreedom.

IVANLEVAÏ:Butyouarenotanemployerlikeanyother.Youhaveethicsandmorality.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Youknow,everypersonwalkshisownpathandhashisownsetofexperiences.Thesystemofethics—torespondsomewhatmorefullytoanearlierquestion—thatmyChristianfaithgivesmeisformidable,sinceitisconstantlyshowingmethegapthatexistsbetweenwhatIamdoingandwhatIshouldbedoing.Butatthesametime,itgivesmethestrengthtocarryon.

IVANLEVAÏ:Butareyounotboxingyourselfin,becauseyouintendtorespecttherulesoffairplayandloyaltythatothers,inevitably,donotcaretoimposeonthemselves?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Soonerorlater,apersonpaystheconsequencesforwhathehassaidordone.Christianornot,ifyouacceptthisreality,youactwithaclearconscience.Christianfaithaddssomethingtotheequation,asitexplains

whytheworldisorderedasitis.Itshowsthebasicattitudethatweshouldhave,inordertogrowandtohelpotherstogrow.PerhapsaChristianhasamoredetailedvisionofthings,becauseitismorenaturalforhimtogototheveryfoundationsofman.Inmyopinion,thisiswhatmakesthedifferenceonthehumanlevel.

IVANLEVAÏ:IsnotChristianityamoralsystemthatinvitesustomakeabetterapportionmentofthefruitsandprofitsofbusiness?ConsiderJesus’parableattheSeaofGalilee—thesharingofthebreadandthefish.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Mostcertainly.

Ishouldpointouttoyouthatthesharingofthebreadandthefishisnotaparablebutahistoricalaction.Beforeitwasshared,thebreadhadtobemultiplied.Isn’tthispreciselywheretheskilloftheindustrialistlies?

Christianityhasputmanbackattheveryheartoftheworld.RespectfortheotherpersonispartoftheChristianwayofthinking—buthowweakwefeel,facedwiththisobjective!

YVESMESSAROVITCH:CertainChristianemployershaveleftadistinctivestampontheinnerworkingsoftheirbusinessandhavetriedtoexpresstheirconvictionsinthewaythattheyhaveorganizedhumanrelationships.Isn’tthegrowthofglobalcompetitiongoingtoforcethesebusinessestobecomecommon,everydaycompanies?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Initself,globalizationconstitutesaformidablemeasuringtool.If,inthelastfifteenyears,wehavehadtopartwithmanypeopleinthegroup,itisnotbecauseofglobalizationbutbecauseofobstaclesthathavebeenputinthewayofprogressiveadaptation.ItisalsooneoftheconsequencesoftheunrealisticgrowththatoccurredintheboomperiodfollowingWorldWarII.Asawhole,ourpersonnelunderstoodthereasonsforourreductionsinoverallstaff.Oneday,whenIwasdiscussingthingswithouremployeesinaworkshop,aunionrepresentativefromtheCGTsaidtome:“Mr.François,wearewell-awarethat,ifyouletpeoplego,itisbecauseyoureallydonothaveanyotherchoice.”2Hewasright.Overandaboveofferingearlyretirementprograms,wehavemadesubstantialefforts,withsuccess,tohelpagreatnumberofpeoplefindnewjobs.

IVANLEVAÏ:WhethertheyareChristiansornot,manyemployerssharethesamevalues.Thatisallwellandgood,butglobalizationgivesconsumersaccesstoproductsmadeontheothersideoftheworldbypeoplewhodonotnecessarilyrespectthesamesetofethicsandwhosesocialsystemscanbeverydifferent.Howdoyouknow,inthisgreat,open,globalmarketplace,whetheryouarebuyingproductsmadebyunderpaidworkerswhodonotevenoperatewithinarudimentary,supportivesocialframework?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:“Underpaid”—relativetowhomandwhat?Acountry’seconomyisaseamlesswhole.Itisdangeroustopickoutoneelementofitandcompareittoanexternalsituation.Thequestionofglobalizationlieswithintheseparameters.Thatbeingsaid,peoplearefarfrombeingperfect.Everypersonisresponsibleforthewayhebuysandconsumes.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Allthesame,thereisaninformationproblem.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Eitheryouarepassiveandyoudonotaskyourselfanyquestions,orelseyoudemonstrateyourdignityandyouaskyourselfquestions.Thereisnothingmoreformativethanafreeactofbuying.

IVANLEVAÏ:Becauseofmergersandconcentrationsofpower,dominantgroupscanbeseentobeemerging,andtheyexerciseaformofdictatorshipoverthemarket.Whenthefoxhaseatenallthechickensandherulestheroost,whathappensthen?Areeachoftheactorsinacapitalistsociety(shareholder,customer,worker)stillsurethattheywillreapthejustrewardsfortheirefforts?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:ThisiswheretheStatemustintervene.ItisuptotheStatetoguaranteeahealthycurrencyandtomakesurethatdominantpositionsarenotusedimproperly.Justasyouneedahighwaycode,youneedstrict,simplerulesguaranteeingthatnobusiness(orgroupofbusinesses)caneverlaydownthelawtothemarket.Capitalismcanonlyfunctionifeverycustomerisinapositiontomakeafreeandresponsiblechoice.Bynotrespectingthisfreedom,peopleareeventuallyweakenedandundermined.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Evenso,youcanbedominantwithoutexercising

amonopoly.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Exactly.Wehavetotaketheinitiativeinimposinglimitsonourselves,eventhoughourpridemaypointusinanoppositedirection.TheworddominantcomesfromtheLatindominus,whichmeans“themanofthehouse.”Haveyoueverseen“themanofthehouse”takethetilesoffhisroofinordertogetrunningwaterinhisbathroom!Anyonewhocaresabouthishousestrivesforharmoniousadditionsandrenovations.Ifyoudonottakethetruthofthemarketintoaccount,youaremakingamistake.

IVANLEVAÏ:Inyourview,theStateshouldmakesurethatcertainlawsarerespected,butmoreandmoreweareseeingthegrowthofaformofcapitalismthatknowsnobordersandshowsutterdisdainforthelawsandinjunctionsissuedbycountries.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Thisinternationalopennessisbydefinitionanecessarything.Letusnotforgetthatwehavetogoabroadtobuyrawmaterialsthatcannotbefoundonourownsoil,beginningwithoil.TheFrencheconomyhastobeglobaloritwillnolongerexist!Norisitpossibleanylongerforustokeepawayfromthescientificresearchthatistakingplaceintheworld.Theglobalizationoftechnicaldiscoveryandthoughtisagiventhatwehavetoacceptinordertomoveforwardandmakeprogress.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Butwhatifyouarecompelledtodothingsacertainwaytogainafootholdinageographicalarea?Ifyourcompetitorsaredoingthesesortsofthings,wouldyougiveupamarketonaccountofmoralreasons?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Absolutely.Therearelimitsthatneedtoberespected.Ibelievethatmany“capitalists”areinagreementwithme,butonceagain,letusstoprejectingglobalization!Iseeit,rather,asareasonforhopethattheFrencheconomywillevolveinthegoodsenseoftheterm.Whomdoesglobalizationbotherthemost?TheFrenchState,whichisgoingtohavetoadmit—kickingandscreaming—thatitwasmistakentokeepasystemgoingthattodayisnolongerviable.Ourarchaicsystemsofthoughtwillnotbeamatchmuchlongerfortherealitiesthatarebeingbroughthometousbythesuccessof

theAmericansandtheBritish.Franceisgoingtohavetochange.Ifnot,shewilldie.

IVANLEVAÏ:MuchhasbeensaidaboutthesuccessofaliberalizedEngland,andnowwediscoverthat,inourdayandage,fivehundredthousandBritishchildrenworkinintolerableconditions.Whatshouldbedonetocombatthis?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Ifthisistrue,isitnottheresultofshortcomingsonthepartofthepoliticians?Isitnotalsofundamentallyaproblemofexcessivecosts?Andwhatwashappeningtwenty-fiveyearsago?But,beyondthat,letusalsopointoutthatcapitalismisareflectionofman,andthatiswhyitisamixtureofthingsthatarebothgoodandbad.AsChurchilloncesaidaboutdemocracy,“Itistheworstformofgovernment—exceptforallthoseotherformsofgovernment.”Nevertheless,itisasystemthatworks,becauseeventuallyitputseveryoneface-to-facewithhisresponsibilities.Thisishowhumanitymovesforwardandmakesprogress.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Nevertheless,thereisasortofhybridpositionthathasappearedbetweencapitalismandMarxism,called“themixedeconomy.”Publicopinionseemstoloveit,orFrenchpublicopiniondoes,atanyrate.Thissystemmaintainstheillusionthatpublicenterprisecandothingsaswellasprivateenterprisewithoutitsdisadvantages,suchaslayoffs,nottomentionwagefreezes.WhatlinkdoyouseebetweenamixedeconomyandMarxism?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Youcannothavetwotypesofpowerbaseinacountry,oneofthemresponsibleandtheotherirresponsible,especiallyifyouaskonepartofthepopulationtopayfortheirresponsibilityofthosewhorunthepublic-servicesector.Onceandforall,theStatehastounderstandthatitisnotitsjobtomanagetheeconomy.Thecollusionthattakesplacebetweengovernmentandthepublic-servicesectorismuchtoodangerous.

IVANLEVAÏ:AtMichelineverythingisconcreteanddown-to-earth.Youmanufactureaproductthateverybodyknowsanduseseveryday.Youandyourfamilyarepersonallyresponsibleforthefutureofyourbusinessbecauseofitsstatusasalimitedpartnershipthatinvolvesyourownproperty.Hereyouhavedevelopedacapitalismthatislessoffensivethanthevarietyofcapitalismthatis

avirtualmonster,cloakedinanonymity,whereyoudonotknowwhodoeswhat,whoproduceswhat.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Whatyousayneedstobequalified.Youmustneverlosesightofthefactthatmoneycanonlyyieldaprofitwhenitisputattheserviceofmankind.PerhapsthisiswhereMichelin’sstrengthlies.HowmanytimesIhavereiteratedtoourfinanciersthatthefiguresaremerelythefruitsofthelaborofmenandwomenwhohavedonetheirjobsalltheirlives,inordertoworkforthemselvesandforthesuccessofthecompany.Oneday,tomygreatsurprise,itwasoneoftheworkerswhohadthecouragetotellthem[thefinanciers]inthemiddleofashareholders’meeting:“ItisMr.Michelinwhoisright,notyou.Whycan’tyoujustletusworkinpeace?!”

IVANLEVAÏ:FacedasyouarewiththeproblemsthatareunderminingFranceanddiscouraginghugenumbersofbusinessmenandworkers,haveyoueverhadthetemptationtosellMichelin?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:No.Myfirstreactionistoaskmyself:Whatcanbedonetogetthiscountrybackonitsfeetagain?Besides,howdoyouexpectmetowalkawayfromthecompanyanditspeople?Whenyouareawareofallthehumanitythatsparklesintheeyesandfacesofthemenandwomenwhoworkinthecompany,youdonotaskyourselfthiskindofquestion.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Doyouthinkthat,withtime,progresshasbeenmadeinchangingthemind-setthatpeoplehave?Arepeopledoingmoretoadjusttheirthinkingtothelong-termratherthantotheshort-term?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Agreatmanyofthecompany’semployeesknowthatthethirty-five-hourworkweeklawisbasedonideasthatarecompletelyunrealistic.Peopledonothavethecouragetosaythatthemoreyouwork,thelessunemploymentyouwillhave.Ifpushcomestoshove,peopleshouldbepreparedtoworkaforty-one-hourworkweekforthirty-ninehoursofpay,inordertopullusoutofthismess.Withintwoyearstheeconomywouldpickupagain,costwouldbelowered,purchasingpowerwouldbeincreased,andworkerswouldhavetobehired,inordertomeetthenewproductionneeds.Thesedays,Franceiskeptgoingonlybecausethedollarishigh,butnobodyis

tosaythatoneofthesedaysitmaynotfalltofivefrancstoadollar.Ifitdropswhileourcostsrise,wewillnotbeabletosellanything.Frankly,theimposedreductionofworktimeisanaberrationandonemoreillustrationofavisionthatistooshort-termandcharacterizedbyanignoranceofwhatworkis.

Oneofthecausesofthedefeatof1940wasthetransitionin1936fromaforty-eight-hourworkweektooneoffortyhours.Itbecamenecessarytohireadditionalworkerswhocouldnotbetrainedintime.Thiswasevidentinthearmamentsectorwhereyearsareneededtotrainskilledpersonnel.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:TheGermansalsoputpeopleintheirmunitionsplantswhodidnotknowwhattheyweredoing.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Yes,butthatwasthreeorfouryearsearlier.Andtheyworkedtenhoursaday,sixdaysaweek.Besides,theyhadtutorswhowereresponsibleforpassingontheirknow-howtotheyoungergeneration.ThenotionofapprenticeshiphasdeeprootsinGermany’sindustrialculture.

IVANLEVAÏ:TheproductionmanagementsystemsthatyouareimplementingatMichelinaregood,nodoubt,becausetheypromoteincreasedproductivity,butthequestionis,Dotheycontributetoincreasedemployment?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Everyprocessthatcontributestoareductionincostisbeneficial.Manypeoplewouldliketobuyhigh-qualitytires,butgiveupiftheyaretooexpensive.Everydropinpricescontributestoasmoothlyrunningeconomy.InFrance,peopledonotunderstandthisyet.Whydoestheroadtaxonluxurycarsremainexorbitant,eveninthecaseofsecondhandvehicles?Lotsofpeoplemighttoywiththeideaofbuyingthemselvesanicesecond-orthirdhandcarforaroundtwentyorthirtythousandfrancs,buttheygiveupontheideabecauseoftheadditionalexpensearisingfromtheroadtax.Whatreasonistherefortheirdreamsandaspirationstobepenalizedotherthanajealouslyhostileattitudethatencouragesthebeliefthattheclassstruggleisactuallystillagoingconcern?

IVANLEVAÏ:Inyouropinion,whatistheurgency?Isittaxreform?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Weneedtostartbyreducingtheweightof

government’sheftyhandontheGDP.Wearealreadyatafigurebetween50and60percentinthisrespectand,infact,thesefiguresareincreasingratherthandecreasing.Isitasolutiontohiremoregovernmentemployeesforpurelypoliticalreasonsandgivethemahigherrateofpay?Atthesametime,theyhaveannouncedtoproductiveworkersintheprivatesectorthatinorderto“amortize”theconsequencesofgivingthirty-ninehoursofpayforathirty-five-hourworkweek,theywillneedtoimposeathree-yearwagefreeze!Thisisaseriousinequality—and,also,agreatwaytoslowdowngrowth,sincethesalariesofgovernmentemployeescomefromtaxes.

Youknow,somegovernmentemployeesarenotateasewiththesituation.RememberthewordsofProudhon:“Governmentemployees,don’tyoueverforgetthatthemoneyyouliveonistaxmoney!”3

Afterthat,itwillbepossibletolaunchareformofthetaxstructure,whosegoalshouldbetofacilitategrowth.Youknow,manygovernmentemployeesthinkasIdoandcannotunderstandthepoliticians.

IVANLEVAÏ:Thegovernmentshavecomeandgone,oneaftertheother,andtheyallhavethesameobsession:namely,thereductionofunemployment.Sometimesyougettheimpressionthatalltherecipeshavebeentriedandthat,atthesametime,therangeofpossibilitiesgetsnarrowerandnarrower.Theycannotplayaroundwithinflationordevaluationanymore.Yet,nobodyhasthecouragetotackleanin-depthreformofourtaxsystem.Isnottheintroductionofashorterworkweektheonlysolutionthatissomewhatinnovative?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Implementingashorterworkweekamountstoaunilateralimpositionofincreasedbusinesscosts,whichincludesaraiseinthehourlyworkingwage.ItisanabsolutecertaintythattherewillbemoreunemployedworkersinFrance.Insteadofsayingtopeople:“Keepfightingthegoodfight.Youwillgetoutofthismess!”theyaretold:“Youaregoingtodie,butputyourmindatease—youwillnotevennoticewhatishappening.”Letusberealistic.Weareheadedrightintogreatupheavals!Anditwillnotbethefaultofthedown-to-earth,practical-mindedemployers.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Arenottheyoungpeopleoneofthepotentialvehiclesforthisrevolution?Francefindsitselfatadramaticcrossroads.Oneoutofeveryfouryoungpeoplewhoarelookingforajobcannotfindone.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Iseetworeasonsforthis.Thefirststemsfromadistortedsenseofdiscernmentonthepartofqualifiedyoungpeoplewithdegreeswhohavebeentoldthattheycannotdoanyotherjobexceptwhattheyhavebeentrainedtodo.Andtheyhavebeentoldthatitisbettertobeagovernmentemployeethantoproduce,becauseproducingintheprivatesectoris“shameful.”Thereisasecondreason:theirtotalignoranceofthewaythatbusinessworks.

Ourpersonneldepartmentimplementedaprogramcalled“SpringboardforYouth,”inwhich190sponsors,activeorretiredmembersofthecompany,drawnfromdifferentdisciplines,explaintheirworktoyoungpeopleandtellthemwhatlifeinindustryisallabout.Inayear,thisexperimentmadeitpossibleformorethanthreehundredyoungpeopletofindwork.AttheplantinVannes,4weduplicatedthesameexperimentwithpeoplewhodidnothaveworkandwereindreadfulpsychologicalshape.Today,thankstothededicationoftheirsponsorsandtheworktheythemselveshavedone,theyhavebeentransformed.Tothegreatjoyoftheirsponsors,theyhaverediscoveredtheirdignity.

Thesearethetypesofinitiativesthatcarrythepromiseofsuccessinresolvingtheproblemofunemployedyoungpeople.Inthisway,theyaregivencontactwithreality.

Assoonasthingsbecomeofficialandthusloadedwithrulesandregulations,theyarethoughtofassomethingthatisowed,somethingthathastobe,andthisishowyoustartgettingperversesideeffects.Ifonlytheycouldtaketheshacklesoffandletusdowhatwehavetodoinaspiritofcontinuousadaptation!Theseprogramsthatwehaveputinplaceforyoungpeoplecostusfiftymillionfrancsayear.Theydemandtimeandgenerosityonthepartofthepeoplewhoworkintheplant.Thelaborregulationswewerefacedwithwereabsolutelyparalyzing,buttherewasnothingthatwecoulddoaboutthem;but,eveninthegovernmentadministrationtherearepeoplewithaheart,willingtomakeallthispossible.Thisisaveryhopefulsignforthefuture.Wearewalkinghandinhandinthefightagainstunemployment.

IVANLEVAÏ:Inyoureyes,isthissortofmoralsponsorshipofyoungpeopleasolutionforthefuture?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Ifmoralstandardsarethe“operationmanual”we

usetodirectusthroughlife,yes.

IVANLEVAÏ:Iwouldratherputitintermsofpassingonresponsibilities.Youhavereceivedatalent,youhavemadeitbearfruit,andnowyouaregivingayoungpersonthemeansandresourcestodothesame.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Alloflife’sbeautycanbefittedintothisprocess.Itliesattheheartoflifeinsociety.Youarequiteright.

IVANLEVAÏ:Areyouapessimistoranoptimist?Doyoubelieveinprogress?Isthesituationbettertodaythanitwasinyourgrandfather’stime?Andwillitbebetterwhenyoursonassumescontrolofthecompany?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Ofcourse,Ibelieveinprogress.Asforthesituationtoday,itisdifficulttomakecomparisons.Thesituationsarenotatallthesame.WhenIarrivedatthecompany,theradialtiretechnologywasalreadyinplace.AllIdidwasmakeuseofittoallowMichelintoassumearelativelyimportantplaceintheworld.Ifoundateamofoutstandingmenandwomeninplace,andtheytaughtmeeverything.TheonlythingthatIreallydidwastogiveeachoneofthemthemeanstoreleasetheirpersonalenergy.Believeme,though,thisisachallengingbutthrillingtask—anditistheonlywaythatIhavebeenabletomakedecisions.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Thisiswhatyoucall“beingduty-boundtoexperiment.”

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:HaveIbeenabletocopewiththingsdespitebeingsaddledwiththeformidableweightofgovernmentregulations,nottomentionallsortsofotherconstraints?Losttimeisoneofthereasonsforthisbook,whichissupposedtobeapersonaltestimonial.WhenIwashandedtheresponsibilityforMichelin,anoldhand,whomIhaveneverforgotten,toldme:“Bewhoyouare,donottrytobeyourfatheroryourgrandfather.Begenuine,withallyourstrengthsandweaknesses,butopenyoureyes,openthemwide.Gointotheworkshops.”Ourso-calledmodernworldisswarmingwithideologists.Itisgoingtobeshatteredbytheimpactoffactsandreality.Thiswillbeapainfulthing,butasourceofprogress.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Soyouaremoreapessimistthen?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Ifthepessimistisapersonwhosays:“Thereisnothingwecando.Wearegoingtocrashintoabrickwall,”thatisnotmeatall.Iftheoptimistisapersonwhothinksthatthingswillgetstraightenedoutontheirown,Iamnotthat,either.Ithinkthatyouhavetobearealist.Youhavetoconsiderwhetherthelightsthatyouareseeingarereallightsandtheshadowsthatyouareseeingarerealshadows.Andyouhavetotakeactionaccordingly,basingyourselfonanumberoffundamentalreflectionsonman’s“necessary”freedomandthesplendorofprogress.Realism,Ibelieve,isacharacteristictraitoftheindustrialistwho,ofnecessity,isanoptimist,ashehastoproducetangibleresults.Attheheartofalifeofaction,realityrules.

Andbesidesallthis,thereissomethingthatIbelieveinthatis,forme,asourceofenthusiasmandconfidenceinthefuture:research.Itdigsintothewhysandthewhereforesofthingsandespeciallyofpeople.Itappliestoeverydomain,includingthatofsocialrelations.Researchisanextraordinarytrainingschoolforthehumanbeingandapowerful,unpredictablemotorinthedevelopmentofourmodernsocieties.Itisthroughresearch,aswell,thatyoushouldteachpeoplehowtoacquireacapacityforwonder.

IVANLEVAÏ:Mygenerationhaslivedthroughtwoincrediblelies,StalinismandHitlerism.If,intheend,itwaspossibletoovercomehardshipslikethese,doyounotthinkthatourpresent-daydifficultiescanalsobeovercomeoneday?Afterall,theyarejustsmallproblemswhenyouconsiderthebroadsweepofhistory.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Stateplanningisalsoalie,awell-catnouflagedone!

Yes,ofcourse,theseproblemscanbeovercome.Iknow,throughexperience,thatmanhasexceptionalresourcesthatcomeforthwheneverdifficultiesarise.Ihavegreatconfidenceinhumanbeings,aconfidencethatisbasedonreal-lifeexperience.Allthatmanasksforistobeallowedtosurpasshimselfandbecomewhatheis,assoonasyougivehimthemeanstodosoandyouacknowledgealltheglorioussplendorofhishumanity.Anymanthatyoucanlookatstraightintheface,regardinghimasauniqueindividualwhoisfreeandresponsible,

blazesforthlikealightasdazzlingasanysun.WhenIthinkofeverythingthatcouldbeaccomplishedifonecouldreleasealltheenergyfoundinhumanbeings!

IVANLEVAÏ:WouldMichelinbeMichelinifitsbossdidnotbelieveinGod?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Theworldismadeupofmysteriesthatnobodycanregardwithindifference.Whydopeoplehaveahuman,emotionaldimensionofsuchgreatbeauty?Whyistechnologicalprogresslimitless?Whyistheworldbrimmingoverwithvaststreamsofintelligence,asEinsteinsaid?Didmancreatehimselfonhisown?Ismindtheproductofmatteror,onthecontrary,canmatterbeperceivedandcomprehendedbymind?Ifyouagreetoaskyourselfthesequestions,youshouldfollowthethreadoftheirimplicationsrighttotheendandreadtheBible:theGospels,thepsalms,theproverbs,thetextsoftheChurch.Youwilldiscoverananswerthatgoesbeyondthehumanintellect,butitisananswerthatismeanttobesavored,ananswerthatshinesinthenightliketheNorthStar.Godisunexplainable.Heissaidtobeboundless,whichsimplymeansthathecannotbeunderstoodbyourhumanmind.Thegreatestactthattheintellectcanengageinistoacknowledgeitslimitsandtoacceptthemysteryofthings.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Atthesametime,thereisavastcoherenceininfinitythatremainsunexplainable.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Godtellsusthat:“WithoutMeyoucandonothinggoodandworthwhile,becauseIamtheway,thetruth,andthelife.”Godisamystery,butverymuchalive,deepinsideeachoneofus,andheiscallingus.Heactsoutofatremendousrespectforourfreedom.Wecannotcureourselvesanymorethanadoctorcanoperateonhimselfforappendicitis!Themysteryofeveryhumanbeing,themysteryofGod—thetwoofthemcallouttooneanother,youknow.Nobodywilleversucceedinputtingpeopleintoanequation.

IVANLEVAÏ:Hasyourfaith,whichissosincere,changedthewaylifeislivedinthecompany?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Godonlyknows,notI!Butthecriterionofwhetherlifehasbeenchangedforthebetterinthecompanyisthelevelofsatisfactionachievedbythosewhoconstituteit,namely,theemployees,theshareholders,andthecustomers.

Andwhatprogressstillneedstobemade!

WithJoanofArcIwouldsay:“IfIhavefaith,mayGodkeepitandpreserveit.IfIdonothaveit,mayGodgrantittome.”5Butwhatisfaith?Aphilosopherhassaid:“Whenyouareinthepresenceofafriend,youareinthepresenceofamystery,butyouknowthroughexperiencethatthisfriendprovidesyouwithsomething.Youbelieveinyourfriend,youhavefaithinyourfriend.”Notethattheobjectoffaithisyourfriendandthatfaithisanactthatbindsyoutoyourfriendinamysteriousway.

IVANLEVAÏ:Hasyourfaithledyoutosurroundyourselfwithpeoplewhosharethesameconvictionsasyoudo?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Ifyouaretalkingaboutreligiousconvictions,Iwouldsay,no.Whattheplantneedsandlooksforinpeopleisthesoundnessoftheirreasoning,theirsenseofreality,andtheirconcernforothers.Amongpeoplewhocallthemselves“Christians,”therearesomewhodonotreasonsoundly,drawingonready-madeideasandpreconceptions,whileothersreasonsoundlyandaresensitivetowhatisconcreteanddown-to-earth.Itisthesamewiththosewhodonotbroadcasttheirconvictionsonewayoranother.Christianityisalife,notanideology.

IVANLEVAÏ:Ifyouweretodietomorrow,wouldyoufeelthatyouhadaccomplishedyourtaskonearth?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Whocanclaimtohaveaccomplishedhistask?Apersonneverstopsbeingenrichedbyhisassociationwithothersand,althoughhedoesnotknowit,heenrichestheminreturn.Anyonewhodiesinfullconsciousnesscannotbuthavethefeelingthathehasallkindsofthingslefttodoyet.Asyouage,youbegintonoticewithsomedegreeofcalmnessandequanimitythatyouhavenotbeenofmuchuse.

YVESMESSAROVITCH:Whatmessagewouldyouliketopassontoyourson?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:“Truthisgreaterthanyouare,”mygrandfatheroncesaidtome.Andheadded:“Thetruthishiddenamongthefacts,justlikepreciousmetalinaloadofore.”Inessence,truthresidesinarightrelationshiptoreality.Thetaskofactingonthetruthisneverfinished

Inadditiontothis,Iwouldalsosay,“Beloving.”Tolovesomeoneistoacceptthatpersonasheorsheis,itistogoinsearchoftheplain,unvarnishedtruthaboutthatpersonandtoacknowledgethistruth,whateveritmaybe,evenifitisunexplainable.Timeandtimeagainpeoplehavesaidtome:“Youcannotmakemebelievethat!”Andmyanswertothemis:“Itisnotmyjobtomakeyoubelieveit,butitismyjobtotellittoyou.”Whatitamountstois,simply,arespectforthefreedomoftheperson.Itisarespectforthemysteryoftheperson.

Furthermore,nobodyknowswhathischildren’smissioninlifewillbe.

IVANLEVAÏ:Youdemonstrateahumilitythatstandsingreatcontrasttothearroganceofmanypoliticians.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Aretheyreallyarrogant?Itismyopinion,rather,thatwehavenotbeenabletoconveytothemourpracticalexperienceoflife.Letmereiterate:Havewebeenabletomakethemunderstandthatthecustomerisnotataxpayer,thatthecustomeristhereasonfortheexistenceofthebusiness?Thereisnobodymorehumblethanapeasantor,moregenerallyspeaking,thosewhoareincontactwiththerealandtheconcrete.Inthecompany,peopleontheshopfloordoanoutstanding,indeed,extraordinary,jobeveryday.Andyet,whatfantastichumilitytheyhaveintheireyes!Itiswrongtoputdownmanuallabor,especiallyasitdemandssuchcarefulattentiontodetail,suchdoggedtenacity.Anengineeroncesaidtome:“DuringmystudiesIwasnottaughtthatworkerscouldbeintelligent,too.”Itiscrazy—thenumberoffoolishideasthatareplantedinthemindsofouryounggraduatesandlefttofesterthere!Thatengineerwaslookingatthejob,nottheman.

Thisbringstomindapersonalexperience.WhenIwasayoungshopmanager,itwassuggestedthatIacceptamanfromanotherworkshopwhowas,

himself,alsoyoung.Hehadabadreputationbothwithregardtohisbehaviorandtohiswork.Ofcourse,IspokeabouthimtoMr.Marchand,whowasteachingmemyjobatthetime:“Shouldthismanbeinsuchacriticallyimportantworkshop?”Thisishowheansweredme:“Mr.François,youdonotknowthisman,andrememberthataman’sreputationisnotnecessarilyafact.Forgeteverythingthathasbeensaidabouthim.”SoItookhimonandexplainedtohimthattherewerethreebasicpointsthathadtobeheededintheworkshop:noaccidentsonthejob;anattitudeoffaithfulrespectforourmethodsofoperation,whichistosay,aconcernforquality;andfinally,production.Iadded:“Ifyouseethatthereareimprovementstobemade,byallmeanstellus.”Threemonthslater,hehadoneofthemostsensitivejobsintheshop,andIneverhadtheslightestproblemwithhim.Whatalesson!

YVESMESSAROVITCH:SincetheGrenelleAccordsin1968youhavechosentodisappearfromthesceneandtogiveinterviewsonlyonrareoccasions.Whyhaven’tyouwantedtodomoretopassontheseideasthataresoclosetoyourheart?

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Itisthefaultofthejournalistswhohavesaidtome:“Thelessyouspeakout,themoreyouwillbeheard.”Whatisapersontodointhatcase?No,inthefinalanalysis,apersonneedstimetoreflectandmature.PerhapsIwasmistaken.Butwouldpeoplehavelistened?Whenpeopleareswampedwithready-madeideas,theyarenottoodisposedtolistentopracticalideas.Youhavetobehungrytoeat.IambarelybeginningtodiscoverwhatweweremadeforandwhatIwasmadefor.Iamfascinatedbythecompany,thatisobvious.Ilovetiresandcars,butthatisnotenough.Whatcountsmorethananythingelseishelpingpeopletobecomewhattheyare.

Howdifficultthisis,though!Pascalsaysquiterightly:“Howdoesithappenthatlamepeopledonotirritateus,whilealameminddoes?Itisbecauselamepeoplearepreparedtoadmitthatwearewalkingstraight,butalamemindclaimsthatwearetheoneswhoarelame.Otherwisewewouldhavepityonthepersonwiththelamemindratherthanbeingangrywithhim.”Ifindthisahauntingthought,whetherIapplyittomyselfortoothers.

Once,onaplane,ImetayoungmanagerwhohadjustbeenhiredbyMichelin.Iaskedhimwhyhehadchosentocometoworkforthecompany.

Hisanswertomewas:“Intheadvertisement,itsaidthatsuccessonthisjob

demandedgoodhumanqualities.Thatiswhatcaughtmyeye.”

Iadded:“Thecompanyiswaitingforyoutobecomewhatyouarebycultivatingyourqualities.”

NotesandExplanations1GeorgHegel(1770—1831):Germanphilosopher.

2CGT:ConfédérationGénéraleduTravail,hard-coreMarxist-Leninist,Frenchtradeunion.

3PierreJosephProudhon(1809—1865):Frenchanarchistwhocreatedthefirstmutuals.

4Vannes:SmallFrenchtowninthewestofFrancewhereMichelinhasaplant.

5SaintJoanofArc(1412—1431):WasdivinelyinspiredtodeliverFrancefromtheEnglishinvaders.ShewascondemnedforsorceryandburnedatthestakeinEnglish-controlledterritoryinRouen.PatronsaintofFrance.

POSTSCRIPT

TheFive-StepMethodItisimpossible,ofcourse,toimaginebeingabletoachieveaconclusiveendingtoadialogueaboutpeopleinsociety.Theaspectofmysterythatresidesineverypersonissogreat—butitispossibletosetdownareasoffundamentalagreementthatallowsomeimpositionofstructureonthissymphonyofideas.

WhatfollowsisaninternalmemorandumwrittenbyEdouardMichelinin1912andknowninthecompanyas“TheFive-StepMethod.”Itroundsoff,inauniqueway,whatwehavespokenabout.

MemorandumfromEdouardMichelinRegarding“TheFive-StepMethod”Amajorityofthedifficultiesthatariseinthecompanybetweenmenand

betweendepartments—nottomentionamajorityofthemistakesthataremade—stemfromthefollowingcauses,whichthe“five-stepmethod”makesitpossibletoavoidalmosteverytime:a. Whenaquestionhasnotbeenformulatedwithsufficientclarity.Itis

extremelyrareforaquestiontobeformulatedproperlyrightattheoutset.Youhavetomakeclearwhereyouarestartingfrom.Itcanbesaidthataquestionthatisproperlyformulatedisaquestionthatishalfwaytobeingresolved.

b. Whenyourinvestigationhasnotbeenthorough.Thatistosay,whenyourreasoninghasbeendoneonthebasisofincompletefacts.Aninvestigationandanalysisofthefactsareofprimeimportance.Carnegiesaysthateverytimethathehaslostmoney,itisbecausehisinvestigationhadbeenincomplete.IfyoulookatthecathedralfromruedesGras,youseetwospiresonit.1Whenyouareinside,youcannotseethemanymore,butyouseethenaveinstead.Whenyouseeasquadofsoldierscomingoutofasmallstreet,youdonotknowifthereisaregimentorabrigadefollowingonitsheels.So,donotinitiateyourreasoningprocessbytakingthefact

thatyouhaveonlyseenthesquadasthebasisofyourreasoning.c. Whenyouhavenotconsideredallthepossiblesolutions.Infact,itisoften

thesolutionrejectedout-of-handthatwouldhaveworked.d. Whenyouhaveadoptedasolutionwithoutlookingatallitsdisadvantagesanddangersoritsrepercussionsonotherdepartments.Therefore,whatneedstobeadoptedisthesystemthatIhaveusedforalongtime,whichIcall“thesystembasedonthetableofadvantagesanddisadvantages”(seebelow).

e. Whenyouhavenotconsideredthefinancialconsequences.Itisourgoaltoproducethebesttiresatthebestpossibleprice.

TheMethodBasedontheTableofAdvantagesVersusDisadvantagesTakeapieceofpaperanddivideitintotwocolumns.Totheleft,writedowna

complete,numberedlistofadvantages.Totheright,writedownacomplete,numberedlistofallthedisadvantages.Makesurethatyoukeepitallononesheet.Oncethelistismade,youindicatewithcheckmarksthenumberedpointsthatyoufindthemostworthwhile,andyoulightlycrossoutthepointsofargumentthathavebeenjudged,uponcloserexamination,tobeinsignificant,makingsuretokeepthemlegible.Thisisanexcellenttoolthatcanhelppeoplegetusedtojudgewhatconstitutesaseriouspointofargument;thatistosay,apointthatneedstohaveabearingonanydecisionthatismade.

Advantages Disadvantages

1.Itrequiresquestionstobeformulatedclearlyandinacompleteway.

1.Ittakestime(butthisisnotwastedtime).

2.Itrequiresagoodinspectionofeveryaspectofthequestion.

2.Itisboring.

3.Itrequiresaconsiderationofallthepossiblesolutions.

4.Itallowsonetoforeseethedangersandthustotakeprecautionsinadvanceagainstthem.

advanceagainstthem.

5.Itleadstoasearchforthemosteconomicalsolution,whichisalsogenerallythesimplestandthefastest.

Conclusion:TheFive-StepMethodIstoBeAdoptedIaskyoutoapplythismethod.Iftheboss,forexample,doesnotuseit,make

surethatyoupointouttohimthatheisnotusingagoodandusefulmethod.TheFive-StepMethodshouldbethebenchmarkforeveryactionthattakesplacewithinthecompany.

FRANÇOISMICHELIN:Thisnote,adecisionfromtheboss,inwhichhe,nolessthanhisworkers,obligeshimselftolivebyitsdictates,isaperfectillustrationoftheprocessonwhichbasisMichelinhassoughttobuilditsfortunes.Iknowofnoareaoflifeinwhichitcannotbeapplied.Itsessentialvirtueisthatitallowseachpersontoexpresshimselfandso,toderivebenefitfromalltheothermindsthataretacklingaproblem.Howelsecanasocietythatistrulyfreeandresponsiblebeconstructed?Thisiscloselyakintothemajorproblemthatarises,Ibelieve,fromthatdilemmathatweallhaveincommon,whichhasalwaysfascinatedme:namely,thechoicebetweensubjectandobject,betweenpersonandindividual.Thoughdemanding,itisalsoamarveloussourceofpotentialprogress.

NoteandExplanation1RuedesGras:OneofthesmallstreetsclosetotheMichelinplantinClermont-Ferrand.

INDEX

abortionaction,humananarchyAquinas,SaintThomasAssociationoftheRubberIndustryAubry,MartineAugustineofHippo,Saint

Bachelard,GastonBaladur,EdouardBankofEnglandBankofFranceBarbier,AntoinebeautyBeauvoir,SimonedebeingBibendumBouguereau,WilliamBridgestone

Caillaux,JosephcapitalcapitalismcarCatholicChurchCatholicFaithChampdeMarsChamps-ElysèesCharasse,MichelChristianityChurchill,Winstonclass-struggleClermont-FerrandColbert,JeanBaptistecollectivismCommunismConfédérationFrançaiseDémocartiqueduTravail(CFDT)ConfédérationGénéralduTravail(CGT)consumer

contractCounseilNationalduPatronatFrançais(CNPF)Croizat,AmbroiseCubacustomer

Dassault,Marcel

Daubrèe,NicolasEdouardDeFlorian,JeanPierreDeGaulle,CharlesDescartes,RenéDickens,CharlesDunlopDuvivier,Julian

EcoleCentraledesArtsetManufacturesEcoleNationaled’AdministrationeconomicseducationEiffelTowerEinstein,AlbertembryosemployersEnglandethicseuroEuropeanCoalandSteelCommunity

factoryfinanceFirestoneFive-StepMethodFleming,SirAlexanderFordCompanyFord,HenryFourastié,JeanFranceFranceTelecomfreechoicefreemarketfreedom

GATTGeneralMotorsGiesbert,Franz—OlivierglobalizationGodGoodyeargovernmentGrenelleAccordsGros,Antoine

havingHayek,FriedrichvonHegel,G.W.F.Hitler,AdolfHollande,Françoishumility

IndustrialAgeinflationinnovationintelligence,human,

Internet

JapanJoanofArcJohnPaulIIJuppé,AllainJuramountains

Kasper,JeanKeynes,JohnMaynard

LaBruyère,JeandeLaFontaine,JeanLaTribuneLabourPartyLangevinReportLeFigaroLenin,I.V.Levaï,IvanL’Expansionliberalism,economicliberalism,philosophicalLouisXIV

Maistre,XavierdeMalthus,RobertmanagementMarx,KarlMarxismmaterialgoods,materialismMattéoliReportMauroy,PierremediaMessarovitch,YvesMichelinRedGuideMichelin,AndrèMichelin,Edouard(grandfatherofFrançois)Michelin,Edouard(sonofFrançois)Michelin,FrançoisMichelin,JulesMichelin,MarieMignol,MariusMitterand,FrançoismixedeconomyMonnet,JeanMonory,RèneMontesquieu,Charlesde

naturallawnuclearfusion

OECD

ParisPascal,BlaisepaternalismPAXsystemPèrigot,Françoisperson,humanPeugeotPinay,AntoinePirelliplanningpoliticsPompidou,GeorgesPopularFrontprofitprogressProudhon,PierreJoseph

remunerationRenaultRevelationRomansrubberruleoflaw

Salaire,MimimumInterprofesssionaldeCroissance(SMIC)Sartre,Jean-PaulSerres,MichelshareholdersSiliconValleysolidarityspeculationStalin,Josephstatesupplyanddemand

Tati,JacquestaxationTaylor,FrederictechnologyThatcher,Margaretthirty-fivehourweekthirty-ninehourweektiresTrichet,JeanClaudetrusttruthTwingo

unemploymentunionsUnitedStatesofAmerica

Vàlery,Paul

Verne,Jules

Wilde,OscarworkWorldTradeOrganizationWorldWarI

Zingraff,RenéZola,Emile

ABOUTTHEAUTHORS

FRANÇOISMICHELINbeganworkingathisfamily’sfirminClermont-Ferrandin1951.Heservedthereinvariouscapacitiesbeforeassumingin1955theresponsibilityofmanagingpartner,fromwhichheretiredin2002.Hisachievementsincludepromotingthedevelopmentoftheradialtire,whichrevolutionizedthetireindustryandestablishedCompagnieGénéraledesEtablissementsMichelin(CGEM)asaglobalcompanyandtheworld’slargesttiremanufacturer.

IVANLEVAÏandYVESMESSAROVITCHhavespentmanyyearsworkingasjournalistsinFrance.IvanLevaïiseditorialdirectorofLaTribune,andYvesMessarovitchwritesinthebusinesspagesofLeFigaro.