Anburaj Thesis - Final

Biodiversity & Ecosystem functioning of Mid-elevation Forests of Pachamalai Hills

83

CHAPTER - IV

RESULTS . .

The present study on biodiversity of Pachamalai was carried out around

117.5 km2 against the total area of Pachamalai 14,122 km2. The study area included

three important hill ranges which are predominant form of mid-elevation forest

representative of Pachamalai. The study area included Gangavalli, Uthambium and

Manmalai, hills range and the major portion of forests is recognized by Forest

Department under the reserve forest (Topographical map of Tamil Nadu (№ 581/11)

Survey of India, Chennai). All these ranges lies between the latitude 78 29′ 20″

East and 78 42′ 40″ East and longitude 11 17′ 44″ N and 11 28′ 40″ North. Even

though they were very close and adjutant to one another, they distinctly differed in

their structure of forest vegetation (Plate-1). The types of vegetation were identified

and categorized by indicator landscape elements and considered with key parameter

in the studies of biodiversity.

The seasonal rainfall is the main water source in Pachamalai which provide

and support the existing and expanding vegetation in the study area. It received the

maximum rainfall in the months of September, October and November. During the

present study maximum rainfall was recorded by the month of October in the last

four years. However, the water with holding capacity and long-term availability to

the vegetation showed variation. The three hill ranges showed variation in the type

of forest mainly based on the water availability and soil type. After the raining

season, the water from the top hill portion flows continuously up to April and

Chapter - III Results


84

March in Gangavalli and Uthambium respectively. Whereas in the case of

Manmalai, the available water source after raining season became withdrawn and

highly reduced within a month,

The plants in the study areas were predominantly found in the two

ecosystems i.e., terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Most of the vegetations were

exclusively present in the terrestrial ecosystem. The aquatic forms were represented

by small streams found around the riparian plant communities found along with

the stream and extended up to rangeland. All the stream lines aggregated in

the range land to produce a vast water reservoir in the form of small lake (Plate-7;

Fig. 21-24).

Inventory Studies

The field survey found a total of 1045 angiospermic and pteridophytic plants

which were classified into four forms based on their habit i.e., Trees, shrubs, herbs

and other forms. The fourth other forms include straggler, liane, vine, climber and

twiner. Within the angiospermic, 856 species were dicots which come under a total

of 110 families (82%), monocots have 185 species under 20 families (15%) and

pteridophytes have 4 species under 4 families (3%).

The families Fabaceae (132 species), Gramineae (69 species), Euphorbiaceae

(51 species), Compositae (48 species), Acanthaceae (47 species), Rubiaceae

(35 species), Asclepiadaceae (27 species), Malvaceae (27 species) and

Convolvulaceae (26 species) were the dominant families. In the case of monocots’

families such as Cyperaceae (51 species) and were prominently found in and around

the stream and other aquatic conditions.



85

Occurrence of nine threatened species of angiosperms found the threatened

species were Decalepsis hamiltonii (Fig. 81) (endangered), Santalum album

(endangered), Smilax zeylanica (Fig. 111) (vulnerable), Moringa concanensis

(vulnerable), Gloriosa suberpa (Fig. 110) (low risk), Aristolochia bracteolata (low

risk), Pseudarthria viscid (Fig. 60) (Papilionoideae), Rubia cordifolia (Fig. 74)

(Rubiaceae) and Iphigenia indica (Fig. 112). Of these, Decalepsis hamiltonii,

Smilax zeylanica, Santalum album, Smilax zeylanica, Pseudarthria viscida and

Iphigenia indica were found only in Gangavalli hills. Gloriosa suberpa was found

both in the Gangavalli and Uthambium hills. Uthambium contributes 17% of RET

plants. Moringa concanensis was found both in the Uthambium and Manmalai hills.

Aristolochia bracteolata and Rubia cordifolia were found only in Manmalai and

were recorded as a single population.

Many wild relatives of cultivated vegetable crops were identified in the study

area, they were: Canavalia mollis (Kattu avarai), Atalantia monophylla (Kattu

elumpichai), Citrus medica (Kattu naarthai), Ampelocissus tementosa (Fig. 51)

(Wild grapes), Curcuma neilgherrensis (Fig. 104) (Wild turmeric), Jasminum

angustifolium (Wild jasmine), Moringa concanensis (Wild drum stick),

Lycopersicon sp. (Wild tomato) and Solanum sp. (Wild brinjal) (Table-1).

Study of Landscape Elements

The formation and the composition of landscape elements differed in all

three hill ranges. The Gangavalli vegetation was remarkably made by dry evergreen

mixed deciduous and scrub jungle, and manmade disturbed vegetations. The

Uthambium vegetation included all the patches of dry evergreen forest. The



86

Manmalai predominantly possess dry evergreen, mixed deciduous, scrub jungle,

grassland and grazing land. However, the scrub jungle vegetation was found in

different altitudes in all three study areas (Gangavalli 300 m to 500; Uthambium

400m to 600 m and Manmalai 300 m to 600 m). The grassland vegetation was

exclusively present in Manmalai between the altitudes 800 m to 900 m along with

some tree species. The patches of mixed dry deciduous and dry evergreen

vegetations were found in the valley regions of almost all the three hills but differed

significantly in their range of altitude (Gangavalli 550 to 650 m; Uthambium 600 to

650 m and Manmalai 600 to 900 m).

The landscape elements were the plant representatives to that very useful

identity the vast area of land which has some unique physical and biological

environmental. In other words, landscape elements were the indicators of specific

landscape identify and demarked the forest formation. In Gangavalli, the mixed

deciduous vegetation the representative were Polyalthia cerasoides, Chloroxylon

swietenia, Citrus medica, Spondias pinnata, Cassia fistula, Ixora pavetta, Wrightia

tinctoria, Cleistanthus collinus and etc. the dry evergreen vegetation was found in

and around the altitude range from 550 m to 650 m MSL along with mixed

deciduous and some patches of scrub jungle vegetation. The dry evergreen

vegetation representative of Gangavalli were Pittosporum floribundum, Garuga

pinnata, Cipadessa baccifera, Pleurostylia wightii, Ventilago maderaspatana,

Allophyum serratus, Sapindus emarginatus, Dalbergia latifolia, Pterocarpus

marsupium, Memcylon umbellatum, Pavetta indica, Maba neilgerrensis,

Stereospermum tetragonum, Litsea deccanensis, Bridelia roxburghiana ,



87

Artocarpus heterophyllus, and etc. The scrub jungle vegetation mainly composed of

the following species; Toddalia asiatica, Ziziphus jujuba, Zizyphus xylopyrus,

Dioscorea oppoistifolia, Euphorbia antiquorum, Dioscorea pentaphylla, Disocorea

tementosa, Gloriosa suberpa, Smilax zeylanica, Asparagaus racemosus, and etc. In

Gangavalli seasonal streams supported many aquatic and semi - aquatic plants in

the riparian vegetation and was made by heterogeneous combination of water and

shad loving plants such as Habenaria crassifolia, Habenaria elliptica,

Papilionanthe subulata, Vanda spathulata, Decalepsis hamiltonii, Pseudarthria

viscid, Iphigenia indica, Tiliacora acuminate, Tinospora cardifolia, Stenosiphonium

parviflorum, Marsilea quadrifolia, and etc.

The man made agriculture on top hills of Gangavalli has drastically changed

the native vegetation and indirectly supported the formation of grassland. The

members of cyperaceae and graminae were abundant in this deforested agricultural

land and most often in the shifted agriculture land. The representative members

were Bulbostylis barbata, Cyperus distans, Fimbristylis schoenoides, Kyllinga

melanosperma, Scleria lithosperma, Andropogon pumilus, Chloris barbata,

Cymbopogon martini, Cyrtococcum trigonum, Echinochloa colona, Heteropogon

contortus, Perotis indica, Setaria tomentosa and etc.

The Uthambium forest included the dry evergreen, mixed deciduous and

scrub jungle. The landscape elements varied from Gangavalli vegetations. Some

important representative of dry evergreen were Aglaia roxburghiana, Allophyllus

serratus, Artocarpus integrifolia, Cedrela toona, Cinnamomum iners, Cipadessa

baccifera, Dalbergia latifolia, Diospyrous ebenum, Ehretia laevis, Elaeagnus



88

indica, Gmelina arborea, Ligustrum walkeri, Maba neilgerrensis, Memcylon

umbellatum, Mimusopus elengi, Morinda umbellata, Polyalthia cerasoides,

Sapindus emarginatus, Scutia myrtina, Trema orientalis and Ventilago

maderaspatana. Acalypha fruticosa, Albizia lebbeck, Albizia odoratissima,

Bauhinia vareigata, Cassia fistula, Chloroxylon swietenia, Citrus medica,

Cleistanthus collinus, Dalbergia latifolia, Diospyrous ebenum, Dodonaea viscosa,

Elaeodendron glaucum, Erythroxylum monogynum, Feronia elephantum, Fluggea

virosa, Gardenia lucida, Gyrocarpus americanus, Hiptage madablota, Holoptelea

integrifolia, Ixora parviflora, Maba buxifolia, Mallotus philippinensis, Odina

wodier, Opilia amentacea, Plecospermum spinosum, Polyalthia cerasoides, Premna

tomentosa, Scutia myrtina, Symphorema involucratum, Terminalia bellerica,

Terminalia arjuna, Toddalia asiatica and Wrightia tinctoria were the dominant

species found in the deciduous area. The scrub jungle forest content the following

representatives: Albizia amara, Alangium salvifolium, Cassia auriculata, Euphorbia

nivulia, Gmelina asiatica, Gymnosporia heyneana, Hemicyclia sepiaria, Holoptelea

integrifolia, Hugonia mystax, Morinda tinctoria, Randia brandisii, Randia

malabarica, Capparis divaricata, Capparis sepiaria, Combretum ovalifolium,

Sarcostemma intermedium, Dolichandrone falcata, Dioscorea oppositifolia and

Disocorea tementosa. The riparian vegetation in Uthambium was mostly restricted

to the top hills and very few members were found along the main stream. Some of

them were Tiliacora acuminata, Tinospora cardifolia, Passiflora foetida, Centella

asiatica, Canscora sessiliflora Stenosiphonium parviflorum, Papilionanthe

subulata, and etc.



89

The Manmalai vegetation contains mainly the dry evergreen, mixed

deciduous, scrub jungle and grassland. The dry evergreen and mixed deciduous

forest were formed by the following respective taxa: Aglaia roxburghiana,

Allophyum serratus, Chukrasia tabularis, Cipadessa baccifera, Clematis gouriana,

Diospyrous ebenum, Ehretia laevis, Ligustrum walker, Maba buxifolia, Memcylon

umbellatum, Morinda umbellatum, Osyris arborea, Pleurostylia wightii, Putranjiva

roxburghii, Sageretia parviflora, Sapindus emarginatus, Scutia myrtina, Ventilago

maderaspatana and Albizia lebbeck, Bassia latifolia, Bauhinia vareicata,

Buchanania angustifolia, Cansjera rheedii, Cassia fistula, Celtis wightii,

Chloroxylon swietenia, Cleistanthus collinus, Combretum ovalifolium, Dalbergia

latifolia, Diospyrous ebenum, Erythroxylum monogynum, Gardenia lucida, Gmelina

arborea, Gyrocarpus americanus, Hiptage madablota, Ixora parviflora, Mallotus

philippinensis, Mimusopus elengi, Opilia amentacea, Premna tomentosa,

Symphorema involucratum, Terminalia bellerica, Toddalia asiatica, Wrightia

tinctoria, and etc.

The scrub jungle vegetation was made by some predominant plant species

such as Capparis sepiaria, Cassia auriculata, Commiphora berryi, Flacourtia

indica, Gmelina asiatica, Gymnosporia heyneana, Hemicyclia sepiaria, Holoptelea

integrifolia, Hugonia mystax, Morinda tinctoria, Toddalia asiatica, Zizyphus

xylopyrus, Atlantia monophylla, Cassia minosoides, Dichrostachys cinerea, Rubia

cardifolia, Sarcostemma intermedium, Viscum articulatum, Dioscorea oppositifolia,

and etc. The grass land vegetation has two forms in Manmalai such as natural grass

land and manmade grazing land. The grazing land vegetation in both places were



90

well distinguished with their species composition, the natural grassland patches

were endowed with the Cymbopogan citrates, Imperata cylindrica with the tree

species like Phoenix humilis and Osyris arborea, etc. The man-made grazing land

vegetation was formed by graminae members such as Cymbopogon martini,

Themeda triandra, Crotalaria mysorensis, Crotalaria nana, Chloris barbata,

Cynoda dactylon, Cyrtococcum trigonum, Dactyloctenium aegyptium, Heteropogon

contortus, Oplismenus composites, Perotis indica, Aristida adscensionis,

Commelina benghalensis, Typha augustata and etc. (Table 1). It was found that the

aquatic forms were not found in Manmalai.

Biodiversity Analysis

Out of the 45 quadrats studied (Table-2) quadrat G8 showed the highest tree

layer diversity with the diversity index 3.324485. The quadrat being laid in Fragile

Aquatic ecosystem, it showed the richest tree layer species composition. The total

number of tree layer species found in this quadrat sample was 52. Some of the tree

layers species dominantly present in this quadrat sample were Polyalthia

cerasoides, Capparis grandis, Sterculia foetida, Acacia ferruginea, Albizia amara,

Prosopis juliflora, Syzygium cumini, Wrightia tinctoria, Tectona grandis,

Gyrocarpus americanus, Euphorbia nivulia, Phoenix loureirii, Tiliacora acuminate,

Canavalia virosa, Coccinia grandis and Dioscorea oppositifolia etc. Next to this,

the diversity of tree layer was in the quadrat sample U10 laid in mixed deciduous

forest of Uthambium hills with the diversity index 3.059355 (Table-3). Cleistanthus

collinus, Terminalia bellerica, Butea parriflora, Sterculia foetida, Atlantia

monophylla, Euodia lunuankenda, Commiphora caudata were some of the



91

dominating species. The total species number found in this quadrat was 31. M10

quadrat laid in dry evergreen forest of Manmalai showed the diversity index

3.052521 (Table 4) with 22 species. Bauhinia racemosa, Diospyrous ebenum,

Litsea deccanensis, Pittosporum floribundum, Atlantia monophylla, Aglaia

roxburghiana, Swietenia macrophylla, Sapindus emarginatus were some of the

dominant species. The quadrat G10 laid in the mixed deciduous forest area showed

the diversity index 2.890372. The quadrat U8 showed the next higher diversity

index with 2.996813. The quadrats comparatively showed higher diversity index

with the dominant species such as Prosopis juliflora, Givotia rotteriformis,

Cleistanthus collinus, Euphorbia nivulia, Wrightia tinctoria, Dalechampia

scandens, Albizia amara, Canthium dicoccum. This quadrat was laid in undisturbed

forest of Uthambium. The total number of species found in this quadrat was 59.

The moderate diversity of tree layers was found in dry evergreen G9 with the

index of 2.757039. It was laid in dry evergreen forest area of Gangavalli with 39

individual species. Syzygium cumini, Givotia rotteriformis, Dolichandrone arcuata,

Euphorbia nivulia, Anamirta cocculus, Bambax ceiba, Elaeocarpus serratus,

Atlantia monophylla were some of the tree layer species dominantly present in this

quadrat sample. The quadrat of Scrub Jungle forest found in Manmalai hills named

as M8 had the total of 60 tree layer species and showed the diversity index

2.697272. Some of the dominant species found in this quadrat were Prosopis

juliflora, Givotia rotteriformis, Dalechampia scandens, Stemona tuberose,

Radermachera xylocarpa, Phoenix loureirii, Coccinia grandis, Cleistanthus

collinus and etc. U7 had the diversity index 2.667844 and with 31 individual tree



92

layer species like Dalechampia scandens, Givotia rotteriformis, Atlantia

monophylla, Ziziphus xylopyrus, Prosopis juliflora, Garuga pinnata, Acacia

leucophloea, Albizia amara, Albizia odoratissima and etc. It was laid in Scrub

Jungle forest area. The quadrat laid along the Scrub Jungle namely M6 had 27

individuals and showed 2.617929 diversity indexes. The quadrat U6 was with the

diversity index 2.42548 and had 17 individual plant species such as Chloroxylon

swietenica, Ziziphus mauritiana, Maba neilgerrensis, Tectona grandis, Phyllanthus

polyphyllus, Polyalthia cerasoides and others. It was put with in the forest area of

Uthambium hills. The above said G9, M8, M6, U6 and U7 showed moderate

diversity index of tree layers (Tables 2, 3 and 4) (Diagram-1).

The lowest diversity index of tree layer diversity was got from the quadrat

G15 laid in the land cleared for the cultivation in the Gangavalli hills with the index

0.693147. Total number of tree species found in that quadrat was only 2. The

quadrats with lower diversity index were M15, U1, U11 and U2 with the respective

diversity indices of 1.098612, 1.039721, 1.321756 and 1.732868. The above stated

five quadrats were laid in the cultivated field area. Some tree layer species found in

that area were Azadirachta indica, Prosopis juliflora, Bauhinia racemosa, and

Delonix elata.

The quadrat G7 laid in the undisturbed scrub jungle forest of the Gangavalli

hills showed the highest shrub layer diversity with the index 3.5684. The total

number of plant species found in that quadrat was 91. Some of the tree layers

species dominantly present in this quadrat sample were Atylosia albicans, Ixora

coccinea, Acalypha alnifolia, Acalypha fruticosa, Asyatasia gangetica, Acacia



93

pennata, Basella alba, Euphorbia cyathophora, Caesalpinia mimosoides, Gymnema

sylvestre, Polyalthia suberosa and Capparis divaricata. Next high diversity index

was derived from the quadrats G8 laid in fragile aquatic area with the index of

3.5542. The total number of shrub layer species was 147; some of them were

Acalypha fruticosa, Acalypha alnifolia, Helicanthes elastic, Gymnema sylvestre,

Croton bonplandianus, Persicaria orientalis, Caesalpinia bonduc and Caesalpinia

mimosoides. The quadrat U8 lay in the Dry Evergreen area of Uthambium hills

showed the index of 3.4292 with 147 total numbers of individuals. The quadrat G5

laid in Scrub Jungle and G9 of Dry Evergreen derived next higher diversity with the

respective indices 3.4102 and 3.4056. The quadrat G5 contained the species like

Debregeasia longifolia, Pouzolzia bennettiana, Eranthemum capense, Barleria

noctiflora, Barleria longiflora, Sida spinosa, Justicia gendarussa, Calamus rotang,

Asyatasia gangetica, Anisomeles carnosus and also it contained the endangered

plant namely Pseudarthria viscida. The G9 quadrat had the species like Justicia

tranquesbariensis, Acalypha alnifolia, Acalypha fruticosa, Sarcostemma

intermedium, Maba buxifolia, Cipadessa baccifera, Atylosia albicans, Elaeagnus

indica, Croton bonplandianus, Melochia corchoriafolia and etc.

The quadrat U14 which was laid in cultivated field of Uthambium hills top

showed the moderate shrub layer diversity index of 3.0775. The total number of

individual found in this quadrat were as follows 184 and total number of species

were 38. Colocassia esculenta, Alysicarpus vaginalis, Eclipta prostrate, Acrous

calamus, Ageratum conyzoides, Richardia scabra, Anagallis arvensis, Paspalum

longifolium, Vicoa indica, Cyanotis villosa, Rhyncospora corymbosa and others.



94

Some other quadrats with moderate diversity index laid in various locations such as

dry evergreen, cultivated field and scrub jungle vegetations namely M9, M13, M6

and G15 were found to have the diversity index 3.0775, 2.99991, 2.9832 and 2.9765

respectively.

Lowest shrub layer diversity was found in the quadrat M11 laid in the mixed

deciduous forest area of Manmalai hills with the diversity index 2.0621. There the

total number of shrub layer plant species found was 26 such as Cymbopogon

martini, Aristida adscensionis, Echinochloa colona, Apluda mutica, Heteropogon

contortus, Celosia argentea, Pycreus flavescens, Scleria lithosperma, Eleocharis

atropurpurea and Fimbristylis sieberianana. Next lower diversity were found in

G11 laid in mixed deciduous with the index 2.3595. The total number of individual

plants found in this quadrat was 16. U11 of Cultivated field found with the diversity

index 2.3595 and total number of individual plants in this quadrat was 89, M1 also

showed low diversity index 2.3196 and had the following species such as Cynoda

dactylon, Agave augustifolia, Alternanthera sessileis, Gomphrena globosa, Cyperus

nutans, Fimbristylis bis-umbellata, Imperata cylindrical, Alysicarpus monilifer,

Kyllinga melanosperma with the total of 20 species, U1 with 2.3132 and U2 with

the diversity index 2.26792. All the above quadrats which showed the lower

diversity indices were laid in the cultivated field of range land and upper region of

the hills except M11.

The herb layer diversity was highest in the quadrat U3 with the diversity

index 3.75666. This quadrat was laid in the land used for cultivation of Uthambium

foothills. The total number of plants found in that quadrat was 208. Some of the



95

herb layer plants found in the quadrat were Saccharum spontaneum, Borreria

articularis, Phyla nodiflora, Amarantus virids, Mimosa pudica, Aerva lanata,

Hackelochloa granularis, Pedalium murex, Phyllanthus amarus, Cyperus exaltatus,

Kyllinga melanosperma, Tridax prochumbens, Blepharis madenaspantensis,

Amaranthus spinosus, Fimbristylis miliacea, Chloris barbata, Echinochloa colona,

Leersia hexandra, Panicum repens, Erigeron karrinskianus, Trichodesma indicum,

Apluda mutica, Oldenlandia umbellata, Glossocardia bosvallea. Following this, the

quadrat made in the cultivated field (M3) showed the next higher herb layer

diversity index with 3.71403. Imperata cylindrical, Saccharum spontaneum,

Pedalium murex, Chloris barbata, Striga gesnerioides, Agave augustifolia,

Amaranthus spinosus, Phyllanthus amarus, Scilla hyacintha, Cyperus difformis,

Erigeron karrinskianus, Tridax prochumbens, Indonesiella echoides, Aristolochia

bracteolata were some of the species found in this quadrat. Among them

Aristolochia bracteolata has some ecological importance because it is a RET plant.

The total number of species in the quadrat M3 was 53 but the total individuals were

178. The cultivated field of Gangavalli regions made with the quadrat namely G4

had the next high herb layer diversity index with the value 3.66114. Saccharum

spontaneum, Mimosa pudica, Eclipta prostrate, Pedalium murex, Marsilea

quadrifolia, Pistia stratiotes, Ageratum conyzoides, Phyllanthus amarus, Rotala

indica, Leucas aspera were the plant species of the above stated quadrat. The

quadrats named G5 and U4 also had high herb layer diversity with the diversity

value 3.43994 and 3.43518 respectively.



96

The moderate diversity index of herb layer was observed in the G9 of dry

evergreen patch with the index 3.03547. Aloe verra, Evolvulus alsinoides, Dicoma

tomentosa, Erigeron karrinskianus, Sansevieria roxburghiana, Carex nubigena,

Actiniopteris radiata, Crotalaria prostrate, Knoxia sumetrensis, Adenostemma

lavenia, Anagallis pumila, Priva cordifolia, Leucas nutans, Sebastiana chamaelea,

were the plants found in the above mentioned quadrat. This quadrat also had the

RET plant Iphigenia indica and the orchidaceae member Papilionanthe subulata

(Fig. 103). Cultivated field of Manmalai range land also had moderate diversity in

the quadrat M5 with the index of 3.01897. The plant species found in this quadrat

was Tridax prochumbens, Ocimum basilicum, Hackelochloa granularis, Vicoa

indica, Aristida setacea, Aerva lanata, Aloe verra, Tribulus terrestris, Cynoglossum

zeylanicum and Sesamum laciniatum. U5 and M8 of scrub jungle vegetation had the

diversity index 2.96994 and 2.95872 respectively. Cultivated field of Uthambium

forest also had moderate diversity in the quadrat U15 with the index 2.85729.

Alysicarpus vaginalis, Acanthospermum hispidum, Vicoa indica, Evolvulus

alsinoides, Allmania nodiflora, Polygala rosmarinifolia, Crotalaria nana, Blumea

lacera, Guizotia abyssinica, Anagallis pumila, Scutellaria violacea, Cyanotis

villosa were some of the 25 species found in this quadrat.

Mixed Deciduous forest area of the Gangavalli region named G11 had the

lowest herb layer diversity with the value of 1.80797. It had the plant species such

as Centella asiatica, Aristida adscensionis, Celosia argentea, Kyllinga

melanosperma, Actiniopteris radiata, Curculigo orchioides (Fig. 105), Ruellia

tuberaosa, Sebastiana chamaelea and Blepharis madenaspantensis. The quadrats



97

U11 and U1 laid in cultivated field of Uthambium forest had low herb layer

diversity 2.15103 and 2.25021 respectively. Scrub Jungle forest of the M6 quadrat

also showed low herb layer diversity with the index 2.26026 and with the species

Scilla hyacintha, Aristida setacea, Euphorbia elegans, Aerva javanica, Aristida

hystrix, Euphorbia hirta, Mullugo nudicaulis and Coldenia procumbens. U6 quadrat

of scrub jungle vegetation showed the following herb layer diversity index 2.34744.

It had the species of Alloteropsis cimicina, Polyalthia cerasoides, Aristida hystrix,

Lepidagathis cristrata, Cynoglossum zeylanicum, Atlantia monophylla, Mullugo

nudicaulis, Crinum asiaticum, Peristrophe bicalyculata, Brassica juncea and etc.

The Maps 1, 2 and 3 are showing the variation in the diversity of plant species in all

three layers of the stury are.

Though the diversity index of the G6, G7, G9, G10, G12, U8, U 10, U12,

U14, M2, M3, M13 and M14 were not highest, the presence of the RET species

makes it of great ecological importance.

Study of Ecosystem Functioning

In the present study analysis of the ecosystem functioning through soil

formation and mineral enrichment studies was carried out. Ecological interactions

which included the Plant-Plant (parasitic angiosperms, hemi parasitic angiosperms

and epiphytic angiosperms) and Plant-Animal interactions (butterfly, insects, small

animals and galls), anthropogenic interactions (Cultivation, Ethnobotanical and

Ethnomedicine) was also analysed.



98

Soil Formation

The soil formation from barren rock was found in Gangavalli (600-640 m

above Mean Sea Level). It was observed that the rocky region along with stream

contained many patches of lichens that deterioted the rock and succeeded by

bryophytic plants such as Riccia and Richardia successfully. Further the same

places were continuously occupied by the bryophytic population. Furthermore small

herbaceous taxa and some pteridophytic plants established in these newly formed

soil. The sequential process clearly demonstrate the lithozeric (a type of xerozeric

forest formation) soil formation and initial pioneer communities of vegetation. It

was also observed that these specific region were comparatively undisturbed from

the local population (Plate 24, Fig. 148-154).

Soil Fungal Culture

The newly formed soil samples were cultured in the PDA medium

(Laboratory conditions) in order to identify the soil fungus. Interestingly it was

found that the Fusarium sp. (Fig. 155) was predominant (83.3%) the other fungus

like Rhyzopus sp and Aspergillus sp were found with each 8.3% and totally 16.6 %

formed soil of Gangavalli.

Soil Mineral Analysis

The important minerals available in the forest soil were studied both in

undisturbed forest and compared with deforested cultivated land. Along with

mineral enrichment studies, soil pH, electrical conductivity and organic matter have

also been analyzed for almost all samples (Table 5).



99

Population Interaction

As like mineral enrichment, population interactions with in the vegetation

have also been considered as an important factor for species richness and

establishment in the forest. The present study identified two types of major

interactions i.e., Plant-Plant interaction and Plant-Animal interactions. The first

category included the parasitic hemi-parasitic and epiphytic plant population in the

study area.

Plant-Animal Interactions

In the plant-plant interaction studies, it was observed that, most of the

Parasitic and Lemiparasitic plants depended on the branches (58%) for their

survival. Arial parts like shoots twigs supports 27% of parasitic plants such as

Stroiga (Fig. 162) and Balanophora (Fig. 96). On the main trunk only 4% of the

parasitic plant were observed in our study area (Table 7).

The second category included the plant - animal interactions. Majority of the

butterfly, bee species interacted with the plant species for nectar with the percentage

48%. 17 % of the animal species used the plants as the platform for trapping their

prey. The plant species provide the breeding centre for the 12% of the animal

species which includes insects and birds. 9 % of the animal species uses the plants

as shelter. Animal species using the plants aerial vegetative parts for feeding was

5% in our study area. 3% of the animal species were dependent on the plants for the

fruits. The animal species depending on the seeds, tuber and latex respectively each

were 2% and totally 6 %. It was found that 7% of plant populations were either



100

directly or indirectly associated with animal population in the study area

(Diagram-2).

For instantce, some plants acted as the breeding centre for butterflies, mints,

bugs and wasps. According to our studies the plant species such as Hugonia mystax

(Fig. 41), Plumbaga zeylanica, Lantana camara, Citrus medica and Calotropis

gigantean are being used as a place for breeding. The plant parts such as leaves,

flowers and young shoot supplies food material and the leaves itself or the branches

are the place of halting for various caterpillars of butterflies, bugs and grasshoppers.

Various leaves and shoots in young stage of various plants species are the fodder

for grassing domestic animals such as cows, goats and sheep. The goats were eating

almost all the plants available in the study area which are at the reaching height. It

was observed that the goats eat even the poisonous leaves of Cleistanthus collinus

(Fig. 98) but in minimum quantity. Almost all the cyperaceae and graminae

members are being the fodder for the domesticated cow herds found the study area.

Ants are making their shelter with the help of the Syzygium cumini leaves.

And they derive their food from the Tamarindus indica, Morinda coreia, Calotropis

gigantean and Canavalis virosa. The plants such as Tridax prochumbens, Cadaba

fruticosa, Stachytarpheta indica, Leucas aspera, Tarenna asiatica, Parthenium

hysterophorus, Notonia grandiflora, Sarcostemma intermedium, and Pavetta indica

are providing nectar for various butterflies like Acraea violae, Appias albino, Borbo

cinnara, Junonia almanac, Danaus chrysippus, Pachliopta hector, Hypolimnas

misippus, Neptis hylas, Papilio demoleus and Euploea core. Among the plant



101

supplying nectar to butterflies Leucas aspera supports the maximum number of

species.

The honey bees get their nectar from the following plant species, Craea

violae, Appias albino, Borbo cinnara, Junonia almanac, Danaus chrysippus and

Euploea cor. The trees like Terminalia arjuna, Syzygium cumini and etc., provides

the place for making hives of honey bees. Croton bonplandianus, Cissus

quadrangularis, Malvastrum coromandelianum, Lantana camara, Leonotis

nepetiifolia, Justicia tranquesbariensis and Canavalis virosa are the plants which

support the insects and beetles. Calotropis gigantea, Argemone Mexicana and

Ageratina adensophora are the plants supporting the grasshoppers. Dragon flies use

the plants like Leucas aspera as the platform for trapping insects.

Leucas aspera, Caralluma umbellate, Anisomeles malabarica, Euphorbia

antiquorum, Caralluma attenuate, Sarcostemma intermedium, Passiflora foetida

and Justicia tranquesbariensis provides places for web making and ideal place for

trapping insects which visit their flowers in seek of nectar.

The plants such as Leucas aspera, Caralluma umbellata, Anisomeles

malabarica, Euphorbia antiquorum, Caralluma attenuate, Sarcostemma

intermedium, Passiflora foetida, Justicia tranquesbariensis and Cuscuta chinensis

were foraged by flies and they provide nectar for them. It was also observed that the

plants which support flies are also being the place of spider shelter. Anisomeles

indicus, Justicia tranquesbariensis and Citrus medica are the plants which provided

nectar and shelter for wasps. The plants such as Coccinia grandis, Borassue

flabellifer and Cocos nucifera provide the fruits and sheltering place for various



102

birds. The deciduous tree Moringa concanensis is being the wonderful place for the

lizard to stay as the tree bark and skin of the animal are almost same in appearance

and simplify the hunting process of lizard (Plates 20-23).

In Pachamalai, barking deer and wild boar were depend on some selected

taxa for their food source such as the tree species Sapindus emarginata and

Dioscorea pentaphylla (Fig. 108)respectively and their population number is being

steadily reduced in the past four year’s survey. Therefore the depended animals

have also been limited to food source and they go for alternative available plants in

the study area (Table 6).

Anthropogenic Interaction Studies

It had been identified in three ways namely agricultural practices,

ethnobotanical and ethnomedicines. The agricultural practices have been

extensively done in both, range land and hills tops. The hills tops were chiefly

occupied by the tribal people and it was found that 10-15 families inhabited in

Gangavalli and Uthambium permanently practiced agriculture. Whereas the top

hills of Manmalai soil is completely eroded and unfavoured for the cultivation.

It was found that the shifting and expansion of agricultural land on top floor

can cause the disturbance to the natural vegetation. The low level of rainfall in all

three hills also created problems in the settled agriculture of tribal people.

Agro-biodiversity Studies

Mostly the hills top land was used the cultivation of 11 agricultural crops.

Among them, Eleusine coracana gave 8 % of the total productivity, Panicum

miliare gave 12 % of the productivity, Oryza sativa (verity I) (Mara Nellu) 9 %



103

gave productivity and Oryza sativa (verity II) gave 11% of the production totally

20%, the productivity of Manihot esculenta was 16 %, Macrotyloma uniflorum gave

2 % of productivity, Vigna mungo supports the tribals with the productivity of 3 %

of the total productivity of the uphill crops. Sesamum orientale supplies the edible

oil need with the 11% of total productivity, Paspalum ps give maximum yield with

17% of the total productivity i.e., 655 kg/acre. Pennisetum americanum and Setaria

italica gave the productivity of 6% and 5% of the productivity respectively (Table-9

and Diagram-3). Whereas in the case of range land occupied by the tribal and non-

tribal people. Almost 13 crop varieties were cultivated in the range land by tribal

and non-tribal community; they are as follows, Zea mays, Allium cepa, Manihot

esculenta, Arachis hypogaea, Musa paradisiacal, Saccarum officinarum, Curcuma

domestica, Oryza sativa, Vigna mung, Sesamum orientale and Helianthus annuus.

Among all the corps studied Saccarum officinarum gives maximum production with

18140 kg/acre (Table-10).

During the agricultural process, the native flora of forest was disturbed and

devasted from parental lands. The present study have also observed the low rainfall

concomitantly with increasing temperature on hills tops has caused the shifting of

agricultural land have lead to the damaged species distribution pattern in natural

ecosystem which indirectly has affected the ecosystem functioning.

Ethnobotany and Ethnomedicine

The percentage of plant parts used for ethnobotanical and ethno medicine is

given in the Table-11 and Diagram-4. Totally 39% of the tribal’s ethnobotanical

activities were dependent on the leaves of the plant species found in the study area.



104

Root supports 15 % of the ethnobotanical and ethnomedicinal need. Next to this

fruits support 11 %. Remaining needs were supported by fiber, branch, nuts, prop

roots, rhizome, seeds, stem, trunk, tuber, wood, young shoots, bark, flowers,

inflorescence, latex and in some cases the whole plants.

The tribal community has utilized wild plants having ethnomedicine and

ethnobotanical values for regular uses. The plants which are having ethnomedicinal

value is used for various ailments such as stomachache, vomiting, skin disease,

fever, headache, body pain, boils, swellings, scorpion sting, snake bite and venereal

diseases and others such as ethno-veterinary uses. Some of them are Cleistanthus

collinus, Helicteres isora, Cissus vitiginea, Cardiospermum canescens,

Pseudarthria viscid, Acacia torta, Passiflora ediulis, Randia malabarica, Tarenna

asiatica, Decalepis hamiltonii, Mallotus philippinensis, Dioscorea oppositifolia,

Toddalia asiatica and Actiniopteris radiata which are exclusively found in the hills

area of Pachamalai and not in foothills and surroundings. The ethnobotanically

valued plants were used for hut making, designing agricultural implements,

furniture, rope making and other purposes, few of them are Acacia caesia,

Canthium dicoccum, Pavetta tomentosa, Tarenna asiatica, Sansevieria

roxburghiana, Cymbopogon martini, Commiphora caudata and Hugonia mystax.

The following plants are known to be used as edibles for their fruits and

seeds Passiflora ediulis, Passiflora foetida, Coccinia grandis, Opuntia stricta,

Randia malabarica, Salvadora persica, Caralluma attenuata and especially

Dioscorea pentaphylla is a well known edible tuber among the tribal people.



105

Antibacterial activity studies

Some important medicinal plants as referred by the tribal people were

selected for antibacterial studies in order to find out the efficiency of plants against

the bacterial pathogens. The leaves of the plants such as Helicteres isora, Claucena

dentata, Ampelocissus tomentosa, Acacia sinuata, Pavetta indica, Blepharis

maderaspatensis, Stenosiphonium parriflorum, Dioscoria oppositifolia, Hemionitis

arifolia and Cleistanthus collinus were tested for antibacterial and antifungal

activities in various concentrations such as 25, 50, 75 and 100 µl. Out of them

Cleistanthus collinus showed maximum inhibition against the bacteria such as

Escherichia coli (2.5 mm), Steptococcus (2.4 mm), Salmonella (2.5 mm) diameter

of inhibition zone. All the ethnomedicinal plants showed significant antimicrobial

activity in all the concentrations expect few plants in 25 µl concentrations

(Table-12).

The study area is dominated with agriculture fields interspersed with forest

patches and many villages such as Edapadi, Meelpaalthankarai, Keezh

paalthankarai, Valasakalppatti, Chinna Karattoor, Periya Karattoor, Naripaadi,

Uthambium and Manmalai. Intense pressure for fuel wood and livestock grazing

and the movements of livestock were persistent and significant sources of intense

biotic pressures. This is not an uncommon situation in Indian forests by any means.

Chapter - IV Results


106

Table-1: Checklist of Plant Species recorded in the Study Area

S.No. Family Botanical name Habit/ Habitat Occurrence TSF 1. Ranunculaceae Clematis gouriana Roxb. Climber / DE Hills tops 2

Naravelia zeylanica (L.) DC. Climber Foothills and Hills

2. Annonaceae Artabotrys hexapetalus (L.F.) Bhandari. Straggler Foothills 7

Polyalthia longifolia (Sonn.)Thwaites Tree Foothills

Polyalthia cerasoides Hook. f. and Thomson Tree / DE, MD Hills

Polyalthia suberosa (Roxb.) Thwaities Shrub Foothills

3. Menispermaceae Anamirta cocculus (L.) Wight and Arn. Liane Hills 9

Cissampelos pareira L. Liane Foothills and Hills

Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Diels. Climber Foothills and Hills

Cyclea peltata Diels. Twiner Hills

Diploclisia glaucescens Diels. Liane Hills

Pachygone ovata (Poivet) Hook. f. and Thomson Straggler / SJ Plains and Hills

Tiliacora acuminata Miers Liane / RE Foothills

Tinospora cordifolia Hook f. and Thomson. Climber / RE Foothills and Hills

4. Nymphaeaceae Nelumbo nucifera Gaertner Herb Foothills 2

Nymphaea nouchali Burm. f. Herb Foothills

5. Papaveraceae Argemone Mexicana L Herb Foothills

6. Cruciferae Cardamine trichocarpa Hochst. Ex. A. Rich Herb / RE Hills

7. Capparaceae Capparis divaricata Lam. Shrub / SJ Foothills 13

Capparis sepiaria L. Straggler / SJ Plains and Foot hills



107

S.No. Family Botanical name Habit/ Habitat Occurrence TSF Capparis zeylanica L. Straggler Plains and foot Hills

Cadaba fruticosa (L.) Druce Shrub / SJ Foothills

Cadaba trifoliata (Roxb) Wight and Arn Shrub Foothills

Capparis grandis L.f. Tree Hills

Cleome felina L.f. Herb Foothills

Cleome monophylla L. Herb Hills and Foothills

Cleome viscosa L. Herb Foothills and hills

Crateva adansonii DC. Tree Foothills

Maerua oblongifolia (Forsskal) A. Rich Straggler Foothills and hills

8. Violaceae Hybanthus enneaspermus (L.)F. Muell. Herb Foothills and hills 1

9. Flacourtiaceae Flacourtia indica (Burm.f.) Merr. Shrub / SJ Plains to hills 3

Scolopia crenata D. Clos Tree / DE Hills

10. Pittosporaceae Pittosporum floribundum Wight and Arn Tree / DE Hills 1

11. Polygalaceae Polygala erioptera DC. Herb / RE, SJ Foothills and hills 5

Polygala javana DC Herb Foothills and Hills

Polygala rosmarinifolia Wight and Arn Herb Hills

12. Caryophyllaceae Polycarpaea corymbosa Lam. Herb Foothills and hills 1

13. Portulacaceae Portulaca oleracea L. Herb Foothills and hills. 2

Portulaca quadrifida L. Herb / SJ Plains and hills

14. Elatinaceae Bergia ammannioides Roxb Herb / RE Foothills and hills 1

15. Malvaceae Abelmoschus ficulneus (L.) Wight and Arn Herb / RE Foothills and hills. 27



108

S.No. Family Botanical name Habit/ Habitat Occurrence TSF Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet. Shrub Foothills and hills

Hibiscus canescense Heyne. Shrub / RE Foothills and hills

Hibiscus ovalifolius (Forsskal) Vahl Shrub / SJ Foothills and hills

Hibiscus lobatus (Murray) Kuntze Herb / SJ Plains and hills

Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke Shrub Foothills and hills

Sida acuta Burm. f. Shrub Plains and hills.

Sida rhombifolia L. Shrub / SJ Hills

Sida spinosa L. Shrub Hills

Urena lobata L. Shrub Hills

16. Bombacaceae Bombax ceiba L. Tree / RE Foothills and hills 2

17. Sterculiaceae Guazuma ulmifolia Lam. Tree Foothills 6

Helicteres isora L Tree Hills

Melochina corchoriafolea L. Shrub / RE Foothills and hills

Sterculia foetida L. Tree/ RE

Waltheria indica L. Herb / SJ Foothills and hills

18. Tiliaceae Grewia abutilifolia Vent. Shrub Foothills and Hills 14

Grewia flavescens A.L.Juss Straggler / RE Hills

Triumfetta pilosa Roth. Shrub / RE Hills

19. Elaeocarpaceae Elaeocarpus serratus L. Tree Hills 1

20. Linaceae Hugonia mystax L. Straggler / SJ Foot hills and hills 1

21. Erythroxylaceae Erythroxylum monogynum Roxb. Shrub / MD Foothills and hills 1



109

S.No. Family Botanical name Habit/ Habitat Occurrence TSF 22. Malpighiaceae Hiptage benghalensis (L.) Kurz. Liane / RE, MD Foothills and hills 1

23. Zygophyllaceae Tribulus terrestris L. Herb Foothills and hills 1

24. Oxalidaceae Oxalis corniculata L. Herb Hills 2

25. Averrhoaceae Averrhoa bilimbi L. Tree Foothills 1

26. Balsaminaceae Impatiens balsamina L. Herb Hills 2

27. Rutaceae Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. Tree Foothills and hills 14

Atlantia monophylla (L.) Corr. Serr Tree / SJ Foothills and hills

Atlantia racemosa Wight and Arn. Tree / RE Foothills and hills

Clausena dentata (Willd) Roemer Shrub / SJ Foot hills and hills

Chloroxylon swietenica DC Tree / SJ, MD Hills

Citrus medica L. Shrub / MD Hills

Limonia acidissima L. Tree Foothills and hills

Murraya koenigii (L.) Sprengel Shrub Plains and hills

Toddalia asiatica (L,)Lam Straggler / SG, MD Foot hills and hills

28. Simaroubaceae Ailanthus excelsa Roxb Tree Foothills and hills 1

29. Balanitaceae Balanities roxburghii Planchon Tree Foothills and thills 1

30. Ochnaceae Ochna obtusata DC. shrub / MD Hills 1

31. Burseraceae Garuga pinnata Roxb. Tree / DE Hills 4

Commiphora berryi Engl. Shrub / SJ Plains and hills

Commiphora caudata (Wight and Arn.)Engl Tree Hills

32. Simaroubaceae Ailanthus excelsa Roxb. Tree 1



110

S.No. Family Botanical name Habit/ Habitat Occurrence TSF 33. Meliaceae Aglaia roxburghiana (Wight and Arn.) Miq. Tree / DE Hills 7

Chukrasia tabularis Adr. Juss. Tree / DE Hills

Cipadessa baccifera Miq. Shrub / DE Hills

Melia dubia Cav. Tree / MD Hills

34. Olacaceae Olax scandens Roxb. Straggler / SJ Foothills and hills 1

35. Opiliaceae Cansjera rheedii J. Gmelin Straggler / SJ, MD Foothills and Hills 2

Gymnosporia heyneana M. Lawson Shrub / SJ Hills

Opilia amentacea Roxb. Straggler / MD Hills

36. Celastraceae Cassine glauca (Rottb.) Kuntze Tree Foothills and hills 5

Glyptopetalum lawsonii Gamble. Shrub Hills

Pleurostylia wightii Wight and Arn. Tree / DE Foothills and hills

37. Hippocrateaceae Salacia chinensis L. Shrub Foothills and hills 2

38. Rhamnaceae Sageretia parviflora (Klein) G. Don. Liane / DE Hills 8

Scutia myrtina (Burm.f) Kurz straggler / SJ, MD, DE Foothills and hills

Ventilago maderaspatana Gaertner. Liane / DE, SJ Foothills and hills

Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. Tree / SJ Foothills and Hills

Ziziphus oenoplia Miller Shrub / SJ Hills

Ziziphus rugosa Lam. Shrub Foothills

Ziziphus xylopyrus (Retz) Tree / SJ Foot hills

39. Vitaceae Ampelocissus tomentosa (Roth) Panchon Vine Hills 10

Cayratia pedata (Lour.) Juss. Liane Foothills and hills



111

S.No. Family Botanical name Habit/ Habitat Occurrence TSF Cissus heyneana Planchon. Climber Hills

Cissus pallida Panchon Liane Hills

Cissus quadrangularis L. Vine / SJ Foothills and hills

Cissus setosa Roxb Vine / SJ Foothills and hills

Cissus vitiginea L. Vine Foothills and hills

40. Leeaceae Leea indica (Burm. f.) Merr. Shrub Hills 1

41. Sapindaceae Allophyum serratus (Roxb.) Kurz. Shrub / DE, SJ Foothills and hills 8

Cardiospermum canescens Wallich Climber Hills

Cardiospermum helicacabum L. Climber / RE Foothills and hills

Dodonaea angustifolia L.f. Shrub Foothills and hills

Dodonaea viscose Jacq. Shrub / MD Foothills and hills

Filicium decipiens Thwaites Tree / RE Foothills and hills

Lepisanthes tertraphylla (Vahl) Rodlk. Tree Hills

Sapindus emarginata Vahl. Tree / DE, RE Foothills and hills

Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken. Tree Hills

42. Anacardiaceae Buchanania axillaris (Desr.) T. P. Ramamoorthy Shrub / MD Hills 7

Mangifera indica L. Tree Foothills and hills

Nothopegia heyneana Hook. f. Tree / DE Hills

Rhus mysorensis Don. Shrub / SJ Plains and hills

Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz. Tree / MD Hills

43. Moringaceae Moringa concanensis Nimmo Tree Hills 2



112

S.No. Family Botanical name Habit/ Habitat Occurrence TSF 44. Papilionoideae Aeschynomene aspera L. Shrub / RE Foothills andt hills 87

Aeschynomene indica L. Shrub / RE Foothills and hills

Alysicarpus rugosus DC. Herb / RE, SJ Plains and hills

Abrus precautorius L Straggler / SJ Foothills and hills

Alysicarpus veginalis (L) DC. Herb Hills

Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taubert Tree Foothills and hills

Canavalia virosa (Roxb.) Wight and Arn. Vine / SJ Foothills and hills

Clitoria ternatea L. Vine / RE, SJ Foothills and hills

Crotalaria mysorensis Roth. Herb / GL Hills

Crotalaria nana Burm. f. Herb / GL Hills

Crotalaria pallida Aiton Shrub Foothills and hills

Crotalaria verrucosa L. Shrub / RE Foothills

Crotalaria willdenowiana DC Shrub / RE Foothills and hills

Dalbergia latifolia Roxb Tree / DE, MD Hills

Derris scandens Benth. Liane / SJ Foothills and hills

Dunbaria ferruginea Wight and Arn. Vine Hills

Erythrina stricta Roxb. Tree Foothills and hills

Galactia tenuiflora Wight and Arn. Twiner Hills

Mucuna pruriens (L.) Pers. Vine / RE Foothills and hills

Pongamia pinnata (L.)Picrre. Tree Foothills and hills

Pseudarthria viscida (L.)Wight and Arn Herb / RE Hills



113

S.No. Family Botanical name Habit/ Habitat Occurrence TSF Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. Tree / DE Hills

Vigna trilobata (L.) Verdc Herb Foothills and hills

45. Caesalpinioideae Bauhinia racemosa Lam. Tree / MD Foothills and hills 25

Cassia auriculata L. Shrub / SJ Plains and foothills

Cassia minosoides L. Herb / SJ Hills

Cassia montana Heyne ex Roth. Shrub Foothills and hills

Cassia fistula L. Tree / MD Foothills and hills

Delonix elata (L.) Gamble. Tree Foothills and hills

Delonix regia Raf. Tree Foothills and hills

Tamarindus indica L. Tree Foothills and hills

Pterolobium hexapetalum (Roth) Santapau & Wagh. Straggler / SJ Foothills and hills

46. Mimosoideae Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. Tree Foothills and hills 20

Acacia caesia (L.)Willd. Straggler / RE, SJ Foothills and hills

Acacia leucophloea Willd. Tree Foothills and hills

Acacia sinuata (Lour.) Merr. Tree Foothills and hills

Acacia torta (Roxb) Craib Straggler Hills

Albizia amara (Roxb.) Boivin ssp. amara. Tree / SJ Foothills and hills

Albizia lebbeck Benth. Tree / MD Foothills and hills

Albizia odoratissima Benth. Tree / MD Foothills and hills

Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight and Arn. Shrub / SJ Foothills and hills

Mimosa pudica L. Herb / RE Foothills and hills



114

S.No. Family Botanical name Habit/ Habitat Occurrence TSF 47. Crassulaceae Kalanchoe floribunda Wight and Arn. Herb Hills 2

48. Haloragaceae Myriophyllum oliganthum (Wight and Arn.) F. Muell. Herb Foothills and hills 2

49. Combretaceae Anogeissus latifolia (DC.) Wallich. ex Beddome. Tree / MD Hills 9

Combretum ovalifolium Roxb. Straggler / SJ, MD, RE Hills

Terminalia arjuna Wight and Arn. Tree Foothills and hills

Terminalia bellerica Roxb. Tree / MD Hills

Terminalia chebula Retz. Tree / MD Hills

Terminalia paniculata Roth. Tree / MD Hills

50. Myrtaceae Eucalyptus globules Labill. Tree Hills 4

Syzygium cumini (L) Skeels Tree / RE Foothills and hills

51. Melastomataceae Osbeckia zeylanica L. f. Herb / SJ Plains and hills 5

Memcylon umbellatum Burm f. Shrub / DE Hills

52. Lythraceae Ammannia baccifera L. Herb / RE Foothills and hills 5

Ammannia multiflora Roxb. Herb / RE Foothills and hills

Ammannia octandra L.f. Herb Foothills and hills

53. Punicaceae Punica granatum L. Shrub Foothills and hills 1

54. Haloragaceae Myriophyllum intermedium DC. Herb

55. Onagraceae Ludwigia perennis L. Herb / RE Foothills and hills 2

56. Turneraceae Turnera ulmifolia L. Herb Plaisn and hills 1

57. Passifloraceae Passiflora edulis Sims. Climbers / RE Hills 3

Passiflora foetida L. Climbers / RE Foothills



115

S.No. Family Botanical name Habit/ Habitat Occurrence TSF Passiflora subpeltata Ortega. Climbers / RE Hills

58. Cucurbitaceae Citrullus colocynthis Schrader. Vine Foothills 22

Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. and Nakai. Vine Foothills

Coccinia grandis (L.) J. Voigt Vine Foothills and hills

Ctenolepis garcinii (Burm. f.) C. B. Clarke Vine / SJ Plains and foothills

Cucumis melo L. Vine / RE Foothills and hills

Diplocyclos palmatus (L.) C. Jeffrey. Climber Foothills

Luffa cylindrical (L.) Roemer L. Vine Foothills and hills

Solena amplexicaulis (Lam.) Gandhi. Vine Foothills and hills

59. Begoniaceae Begonia malabarica Lam. Shrub Hills 1

60. Cactaceae Cereus pterogonus L. Shrub / SJ Foothills and hills 3

Opuntia stricta (Haw.) Haw. Var. dellenii Shrub / SJ Foothills and hills

61. Aizoaceae Gisekia pharnaceoides L. Herb / RE Foothills and hills 5

Mollugo pentaphylla L. Herb Foothills and hills

Mollugo nudicaulis Lam. Herb / SJ Foothills and hills

62. Umbelliferae Centella asiatica (L.) Urban. Herb / RE Foothills and hills 4

63. Araliaceae Schefflera stellata Harms. Shrub Hills 1

64. Alangiaceae Alangium salvifolium Wangeri Tree / SJ Foothills and hills 1

65. Rubiaceae Canthium dicoccum (Gaertner) Teijsm and Binnend Tree Hills 35

Catunaregan dumetorum (Retz.)Tirv. Shrub Hills

Chomelia asiatica Kuntze. Shrub / MD Hills



116

S.No. Family Botanical name Habit/ Habitat Occurrence TSF Gardenia lucida Roxb. Tree / MD Hills

Ixora pavetta Andrews. Shrub / DE Hills

Ixora parviflora Vahl. Shrub / MD Hills

Mitragyna parvifolia Korth. Tree / RE Foothills and hills

Morinda coreia Buch. - Ham. Tree / SJ Foothills and hills

Morinda umbellata L. Liane / DE Foothills and hills

Oldenlandia corymbosa L. Herb / SJ Plains and hills

Oldenlandia umbellata L. Herb / RE Foothills and hills

Pavetta indica L. Shrub / DE Foothills and hills

Plectronia didyma Kurz. Tree / DE Foothills and fhills

Randia brandisii Gamble. Shrub Hills

Randia malabarica Lam. Shrub / SJ Foothills and hills

Rubia cordifolia L. Vine / RE Hills

Tarenna asiatica (L.) kuntze ex schumann. Shrub Hills

66. Compositae Acanthospermum hispidum DC. Herb Foothills and hills 48

Adenostemma lavenia Kuntze. Herb / RE Hills

Ageratina adensophora R. King and H. Robinson. Herb Hills

Ageratum conyzoides L. Herb Foothills and hills

Bidens pilosa L. Herb Foothills and hills

Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. Herb / RE Foothills and hills

Erigeron karrinskianus DC. Herb Hills and hills top



117

S.No. Family Botanical name Habit/ Habitat Occurrence TSF Glossocardia bosvallea DC. Herb / RE, SJ Foothills and hills

Kleinia grandiflora (DC.) N. Rani. Shrub / SJ Foothills and hills

Notonia grandiflora Wallich ex DC. Tree Hills and hills top

Parthenium hysterophorus L. Herb Hills

Tridax procumbens L. Herb Foothills and hills

Vernonia anthelmintica (L.) Willd. Herb Hills

Xanthium strumarium L. Shrub Foothills and hills

67. Campanulaceae Lobelia heyniana Roemer and Schultes Herb Hills 4

68. Plumbaginaceae Plumbago zeylanica L. Shrub Foothills Hills 1

69. Primulaceae Anagallis pumila Sw. Herb / RE Hills 1

70. Myrsinaceae Embelia basal A.DC. Straggler Hills 3

Maesa perrottetiana A.DC. Tree

71. Sapotaceae Bassia latifolia Roxb. Tree / MD Hills 5

Mimusopus elengi L. Tree / DE, MD Hills

72. Ebenaceae Diospyrous ebenum Roxb. Tree / DE, MD Foothills and Hills 7

Diospyrous montana Roxb. Tree / MD Foothills and Hills

Diospyrous ovalifolia Wight. Tree Hills

Maba buxifolia (Rottb.) A. L. Juss. Herb / SJ, MD Hills

Maba neilgerrensis Wight. Tree / DE Hills

73. Oleaceae Chionanthus male-elengi (Dennst.) P.S. Green. Oleaceae Hills 13

Jasminum angustifoium Vahl. Climber / SJ Foothills and hills



118

S.No. Family Botanical name Habit/ Habitat Occurrence TSF Ligustrum walker Decne. Tree / DE Foothills and hills

Linociera intermedia Wight. Tree / DE Foothills and hills

Linociera malabarica Wallich. Tree Hills

74. Salvadoraceae Salvadora persica L. Tree Foothills 1

75. Apocynaceae Aganosma cymosa (Roxb.) Don. Climber / RE Foothills and hills 21

Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. Tree Hills

Carissa canandas L. Shrub Foothills and hills

Carissa spinarum L. Shrub Foothills and hills

Catharanthus roseus (L.) Herb Foothills and hills

Ichnocarpus frutescens R.Br. Straggler / SJ Hills

Wrightia tinctoria R. Br. Tree / MD Foothills and hills

76. Gentianaceae Enicostema hyssopifolium (Willd.) I. Herb

77. Asclepiadaceae Asclepias curassavica L. Herb / RE Hills 27

Calotropis gigantea R.Br. Shrub Foothills and hills

Caralluma attenuata Wight Herb Foothills and hills

Caralluma lasiantha (Wight) N. E. Br. Gard Herb Foothills and hills

Caralluma umbellata Haw. Herb Foothills and hills

Decalepis hamiltonii Wight and Arn. Liane / RE Hills

Desmodium triflorum (L.) DC Herb Plains and hills

Gymnema sylvestre R. Br. ex Schultes. Straggler / SJ Foothills and Hills

Hemidesmus indicus (L) R. Br. Straggler / SJ Foothills and Hills



119

S.No. Family Botanical name Habit/ Habitat Occurrence TSF Oxystelma esculentum (L.f.) R. Br. Straggler / RE Foothills and hills

Sarcostemma intermedium Decne. Climber / SJ Foothills

Wattakaka volubilis (L.f.) Stapf. Straggler Foothills and hills

78. Loganiaceae Strychnos nux-vomica L. Tree Foothills and hills 1

79. Gentianaceae Canscora decussata Schultes and Schultes Straggler / RE Foothills and hills 6

Enicostemma axillare (Lam.) A. Raynal. Herb Foothills

80. Boraginaceae Coldenia procumbens L. Herb / RE Foothills and hills 9

Heliotropium indicum L. Herb Foothills and hills

Stachytarpheta indica (L.) Vahl. Herb Foothills and hills

Trichodesma indicum (L.) R. Br. Herb Foothills and hills

81. Cordiaceae Carmona retusa (vahl) Masam. Shrub / SJ Hills 4

Ehretia laevis Roxb. Tree / DE Hills

82. Convolvulaceae Argyreia cuneata Ker Gawler. Shrub Hills 26

Argyreia daltoni C.B. Clarke. Vine / RE Foothills and hills

Evolvulus alsinoides L. Herb / SJ Foothills and hills

Cuscuta chinensis Lam. Twiner / RE Foothills

Evolvulus alsinoides L. Herb Foothills and hills

Ipomoea carnea Jacq. Shrub / RE Foothills and hills

Ipomoea pes-caprae (L.) R. Br. Climber Foothills and hills

Ipomoea per-tigridis L. Climber Foothills

Rivea hypocrateriformis Choisy. Vine / SJ Foothills and hills



120

S.No. Family Botanical name Habit/ Habitat Occurrence TSF Stitocardia tiliifolia (Desr.) Hallier f. Vine Foothills and hills

83. Solanaceae Datura innoxia Miller. Shrub / RE Foothills 15

Datura metal L. Shrub / RE Foothills and hills

Physalis minima L Herb / RE Foothills and hills

Solanum anguivi Lam. Shrub Hills

Solanum trilobatum L. Climber Foothills

84. Scrophulariaceae Dopatrium junceum Buch.-Ham. Herb / RE Foothills and hills 17

Micrargeria wightii Benth. Herb /SJ Foothills and hills

Striga asiatica (L.) Kuntze. Herb Foothills

Striga gesnerioides (Willd.) Vatke. Herb Foothills

85. Lentibulariaceae Utricularia graminifolia Vahl Herb / RE Hills 1

86. Bignoniaceae Dolichandrone arcuata C.B.Clarke Tree /SJ Foothills and hills 6

Dolichandrone falcata Seemann Tree / SJ Foothills

Stereospermum personatum (Hassk.) Chatterjee Tree Hills

Stereospermum tetragonum DC. Tree / DE Hills

87. Pedaliaceae Martynia annua L. Herb Foothills and hills 7

Pedalium murex L. Herb Foothills

Sesamum laciniatum Klein ex Willd. Herb Foothills

88. Acanthaceae Adhatoda zeylanica Medic Shrub / RE Foothills 47

Andrographis alata Nees Shrub Foothills and hills

Asystasia gangetica (L.) T. Anderson. Shrub / RE Foothills and hills



121

S.No. Family Botanical name Habit/ Habitat Occurrence TSF Barleria buxifolia L. Shrub / SJ Foothills and hills

Barleria prionitis L. Herb Foothills and hills

Blepharis maderaspatensis (L.) Roth Herb Foothills and hills

Elytraria acaulis Lindau Herb / RE, SJ Foothills and hills

Hygrophila auriculata (Schumach.) Heine Herb Foothills and hills

Indonesiella echoides (L.) Sreemadh. Herb Foothills and hills

Justicia betonica L. Shrub / RE Foothills and hills

Justicia gendarussa L.f. Shrub / RE Foothills and hills

Justicia glabra J. Koenig Shrub / RE Foothills and hills

Justicia tranquebariensis L. f. Shrub Foothills

Lepidagathis cristrata Willd. Herb / RE Foothills and hills

Stenosiphonum parviflorum T. Anderson Shrub / RE Hills

Strobilanthes barbatus Nees. Shrub / DE Hills

89. Verbinaceae Gmelina arborea Roxb. Tree / DE, MD Hills 18

Gmelina asiatica L. Shrub / SJ Foothills and hills

Lantana camara L. Shrub / DE, SJ, MD Foothills and hills

Lantana wightiana wallich ex Gamble. Herb / SJ Foothills and hills

Premna corymbosa (Burm. f) Rotter and Willd. Shrub / SJ Foothills and hills

Premna serratifolia L. Tree / SJ Hills

Premna tomentosa Willd. Tree / MD Hills

Stachytarpheta jumaicensis (L.) Vahl. Herb Hills



122

S.No. Family Botanical name Habit/ Habitat Occurrence TSF Symphorema involucratum Roxb. Straggler / MD Hills

90. Labiatae Anisomeles indicus Kuntze Herb / RE Foothills 22

Anisomeles malabarica R.Br. Herb / RE Foothills

Leonotis nepetiifolia (L.) R. Br. Herb / RE Foothills and hills

Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link. Herb Foothills and Hills

Leucas nutans Sprengel Herb / SJ Hills

Leucas ternifolia Desf. Herb Hills

Ocimum canum Sims. Herb Foothills and hills

Plectranthus mollis (Aiton) Sprengel. Herb Hills

Scutellaria violacea Heyne ex Benth. Herb Hills

91. Nyctaginaceae Boerhavea erecta L. Herb Foothills and hills 6

Commicarpus chinensis L. Heimerl. Herb Hills

92. Amaranthaceae Achyranthes aspera L. Herb Foothills and hills 18

Achyranthes bidentata Blume. Shrub Hills

Aerva lanata L. Herb / SJ Foothills

Aerva sanguinolenta (L.) Blume. Herb Foothills and hills

Allmania nodiflora R.Br. Herb Foothills and hills

Amaranthus spinosus L. viridis Herb Foothills and hills

Alternanthera pungens Kunth. Herb Foothills

Digera muricata (L.) C. Martius. Herb Foothills and hills

93. Basellaceae Basella alba L. Climber Foothills and hills 1



123

S.No. Family Botanical name Habit/ Habitat Occurrence TSF 94. Polygonaceae Persicaria orientalis (L.) Assenov. Shrub Hills 1

95. Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium album L. Herb

96. Aristolochiaceae Aristolochia bracteolata Lam. Herb Foothills 2

Aristolochia indica L. Twiner / SJ Foothills and hills

97. Piperaceae Peperomia dindingulensis Miq. Herb / RE Hills 2

Piper hymenophyllum Miq. Vine Hills top

98. Lauraceae Cassytha filiformis L. Twiner / SJ Foothills and hills 5

Cinnamomum iners Reinw. Tree / DE Hills

Litsea deccanensis Gamble Tree / DE Hills top

99. Hernandiaceae Gyrocarpus americanus Jacq. Tree /MD Foothills 1

100. Elaeagnaceae Elaeagnus indica Servettaz Straggler / DE Hills 1

101. Loranthaceae Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.) Ettingsl. Herb Foothills 5

Helicanthes elastica (Desr. )Dense. Herb Hills

Taxillus heyneanus (Schult.) Danser. Herb Hills

102. Viscaceae Viscum articulatum Burm.f. Herb / SJ Hills 2

103. Santalaceae Osyris arborea Wallich Shrub / DE, GL Hills 2

104. Balanophoraceae Balanophora sp. I Herb / SJ Hills 2

Balanophora sp. II. Herb / SJ Hills

105. Euphorbiaceae Acalypha alnifolia Klein ex Willd. Shrub / SJ 51

Acalypha fruticosa Forsskal Shrub / MD Foothills

Bridelia roxburghiana Gehrm. Tree / DE Hills



124

S.No. Family Botanical name Habit/ Habitat Occurrence TSF Breynia retusa (Dennst.) Alston. Shrub Foothills and hills

Croton benphndianus Balillon. Herb Foothills and hills

Cleistanthus collinus (Roxb.) Benth ex Hook Tree / MD Hills

Emblica officinalis Gaertner Tree / MD Foothills and hills

Euphorbia antiquorum L. Shrub / SJ Foothills and hills

Euphorbia hirta L Herb Foothills and hills

Euphorbia nivulia Buch-Ham Tree / SJ Hills

Euphorbia thymifolia L. Herb Foothills and hills

Euphorbia tortilis Rottler ex Ainslie Shrub / SJ Hills

Excoecaria robusta Hook.f. Tree Hills

Fluggea virosa Baillon Shrub / MD Foothills and hills

Givotia rotteriformis Griffith Tree / SJ Foothills and hills

Jatropha glandulifera Roxb. Shrub Foothills and hills

Mallotus philippinensis (Lam.) Muelli. Arg. Tree / MD Hills

Memicyclia sepiaria Wight & Arn Shrub / SJ Hills

Putranjiva roxburghii Wallich Tree / DE Hills

Sapinum insigne (Royle ) Trimen Tree Foothills and hills

106. Urticaceae Debregeasia longifolia (Burm. f.) Wedd. Shrub / RE Hills 6

Girardinia diversifolia (Link) I. Friis. Shrub Hills

Pouzolzia auriculata Wight Shrub / RE Hills

Pouzolzia bennettiana Wight Shrub Hills



125

S.No. Family Botanical name Habit/ Habitat Occurrence TSF 107. Salicaceae Salix tetrasperma Roxb.

108. Ulmaceae Celtis wightii Planchon Tree / MD, DE Hills 6

Holoptelea integrifolia Planchon Tree / MD Hills

Trema orientalis Blume Tree / SJ, DE Hills

109. Moraceae Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. Tree / DE Hills 14

Ficus benghalensis L. Tree Foothills

Ficus benjamina L. Tree Hills

Ficus hispida L.f. Tree Foothills and Hills

Ficus talbolti King. Tree Hills

Plecospermum spinosum Trecul Straggler / MD Hills

110. Casuarinaceae Casuarinas equisetifolia Forster and Forster. Tree Foothills 1

111. Hydrocharitaceae Ottelia alismoides (L.) Pers Herb Foothills and hills 1

112. Orchidaceae Habenaria crassifolia A. Rich. Herb / RE Hills 4

Habenaria elliptica Wight. Herb / RE Hills

Papilionanthe subulata (J. Koenig) Garay Herb / RE Hills

Vanda spathulata (L.) Spreng. Herb / RE Hills

113. Musaceae Musa paradisiaca L. Herb Foothills and hills 1

114. Zingiberaceae Curcuma neilgherrensis Wight Herb / RE Hills 2

115. Amaryllidaceae Crinum asiaticum L Herb Hills 2

Crinum latifolium L. Herb Hills

116. Hypoxidaceae Curculigo orchioides Gaestner Herb Foothills and hills 2



126

S.No. Family Botanical name Habit/ Habitat Occurrence TSF Molineria trichocarpa (Wight) Balakr. Herb Hills

117. Agavaceae Agave angustifolia L. Shrub / SJ Foothills 3

Sansevieria roxburghiana Schultes and schulte Herb Foothills

118. Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea oppositifolia L. Vine / DE, SJ Hills 3

Dioscorea pentaphylla L. Vine / SJ Hills

Disocorea tomentosa J. Heyne Vine / SJ Hills

119. Stemonaceae Stemona tuberose Lour. Vine Hills 1

120. Liliaceae Aloe vera (L.)Burm. f. Herb / SJ Foothills 7

Asparagus racemosus Willd. Vine / SJ Foothills and hills

Chlorophytum tuberosum Baker Herb Foothills

Gloriosa suberpa L. Climber / SJ Foothills and hills

Iphigenia indica (L.) A. Gray. Herb Hills

Scilla hyacintha (Roth) J.F.Macbr. Herb / SJ Foothills

Smilax zeylanica L. Vine / SJ Hills

121. Commelinaceae Aminschophacelus axillaris (L.) R. Rao and Kamm. Herb Foothills and Hills 20

Commelina benghalensis L. Herb / RE, GL, SJ Foothills and hills

Commelina diffusa Burm. f. Herb / RE Foothills and hills

Commelina ensifolia R.Br. Herb / RE Foothills and hills

Cyanotis arachnoidea C.B.Clarke Herb Hills

Cyanotis pilosa Schultes f. Herb Hills

122. Arecaceae Areca catechu L. Tree Foothills 9



127

S.No. Family Botanical name Habit/ Habitat Occurrence TSF Borassue flabellifer L. Tree / SJ Foothills

Calamus rotang L. Shrub / SJ Foothills

Cocos nucifera L. Tree Foothills and hills

Phoenix loureirii Kunth. Tree / GL Foothills and hills

Phoenix sylvestris (L.) Roxb. Tree / SJ Foothills and hills

123. Typhaceae Typha angustata Bory and Chaub. Herb / GL, RE Foothills and hills 1

124. Araceae Amorphophallus sylvaticus Kunth Herb Hills 6

Colocassia esculenta (L.) Schott. Herb Foothills and hills

Pistia stratiotes L. Herb Foothills and hills

125. Lemnaceae Lemna perpusilla J. Torrey. Herb Foothills and Hills 2

Wolffia globosa (Roxb.) Hartog and van der plas. Herb Foothills and hills

126. Najadaceae Najas graminea Del. Herb Hills 1

127. Aponogetonaceae Aponogeton echinatus Roxb. Herb Foothills 1

128. Eriocaulaceae Erocaulon quinquangulare L. Herb Foothills and hills 1

129. Cyperaceae Bulbostylis barbata Kunth Herb / RE, SJ Hills 51

Cyperus articulates L. Herb Foothills

Cyperus distans L.f. Herb Hills

Cyperus pygmacus Rottb. Herb / RE Foothills and Hills

Eleocharis atropurpurea (Retx.) C. Pres. Herb / RE Foothills and hills

Fimbristylis schoenoides Vahl Herb / SJ Hills

Kyllinga melanosperma Nees Herb Foothills and hills



128

S.No. Family Botanical name Habit/ Habitat Occurrence TSF Mariscus cyperinus Vahl Herb Hills

Pycreus flavescens (L.) Reichb. Herb / RE Hills

Rhyncospora carymbosas (L.) Britton. Herb / RE Hills

Scleria lithosperma Sw. Herb Hills

130. Gramineae Alloteropsis cimicina Stapf Herb / SJ Foothills and hills 69

Andropogon pumilus Roxb. Herb Foothills and hills

Aristida adscensionis L. Herb / GL Foothills

Aristida funiculata Trin. and Rupr. Herb Foothills

Chloris barbata Sw. Herb / GL Foothills and hills

Cymbopogon martinii Watson Herb / GL, RE Hills

Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Herb / GL Foothills and hills

Cyrtococcum trigonum A. Camus Herb / GL Hills

Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) P.Beaur. Herb / GL Foothills and hills

Echinochloa colona Link Herb / GL Foothills and hills

Eragrostis aspera Nees Herb Hills

Hackelochloa granularis Kuntze Herb Foothills and hills

Heteropogon contortus P. Beauv. Herb / GL Hills

Imperata cylindrica Herb / GL Hills

Leersia hexandra Sw. Herb Foothills and hills

Melanocenchris monoica (Rottler) C. Fischer. Herb / SJ Foothills and hills

Oplismenus composites P. Beauv. Herb / GL Foothills and hills



129

S.No. Family Botanical name Habit/ Habitat Occurrence TSF Perotis indica (L.)Kuntze Herb / GL Foothills and hills

Setaria tomentosa (Roxb.) Kunth. Herb Hills

Sporobolus diander P. Beauv. Herb Hills

Themeda triandra Forsskal. Herb / GL Hills

131. Actiniopteridaceae Actiniopteris radiate (Sw.) Link Herb / RE, SJ Foothills and hills 1

132. Polypodiaceae Marsilea quadrifolia L. Herb / RE Foothills and hills 1

133. Hemionitidaceae Hemionitis arifolia (Burm.f.) T.Moore Herb / RE Hills 1

134. Sinopteridaceae Cheilanthes mysorensis Wallich ex Beddome Herb / RE Hills 1 Foothills : 400 to 600 meter Hills : 600 to 900 meter Hills top : Above 900 meter TSF : Total number of species found in the study area DE : Dry Evergreen MD : Mixed deciduous RE : Riverine Ecosystem SJ : Scrub Jungle GL : Grass Land



130

Table-2: Plant Species Diversity Index of Samples of Gangavalli RF

Location Quadrat № Latitude Longitude Vegetation Type Tree Layer Shrub Layer Herb Layer Valasakalpatti Village G1 11 27' 02" 78 38' 30" Cultivated field 1.3296 2.4429 3.0579

G2 11 26' 51" 78 38' 37" Cultivated field 1.7479 2.824 3.05799 G3 11 26' 46" 78 38' 45" Cultivated field 1.351 3.0851 3.35757 G4 11 26' 42" 78 39' 06" Cultivated field 2.512659 3.3514 3.66114 G5 11 26' 48" 78 39' 18" Scrub Juncle 2.871476 3.4102 3.43994 G6 11 26' 50" 78 39' 28" Scrub Juncle 2.759192 3.2497 2.6736

Edapadi Village G7 11 27' 02" 78 39' 34" Scrub Juncle 2.836097 3.5684 2.8127 G8 11 27' 03" 78 39' 42" Fragile Aquatic 3.324485 3.5542 3.25242 G9 11 26' 40" 78 39' 34" Dry Evergreen 2.757039 3.4056 3.03547 G10 11 26' 23" 78 39' 29" Mixed Deciduous 2.890372 3.3575 2.46348 G11 11 25' 45" 78 40' 00" Mixed Deciduous 1.362671 2.3595 1.80797 G12 11 25' 42" 78 39' 52" Cultivated field 1.818483 2.5261 2.72703

Melpalthankarai Village G13 11 25' 34" 78 39' 52" Cultivated field 1.751524 2.8026 3.37397 Keezhpalthankarai Village G14 11 25' 28" 78 40' 02" Cultivated field 1.559581 2.6991 3.21995

G15 11 25' 24" 78 40' 05" Cultivated field 0.693147 2.9765 2.59285



131

Table-3: Plant Species Diversity Index of Samples of Uthambiam RF

Location Quadrat № Latitude Longitude Vegetation Type Tree Layer Shrub Layer Herb Layer Naripadi Village U1 11 25' 40" 78 35' 00" Cultivated field 1.039721 2.3132 2.25021

U2 11 25' 18" 78 35' 04" Cultivated field 1.732868 2.26792 3.26444 Sinnakarattur Village U3 11 25' 16" 78 35' 07" Cultivated field 1.351 3.2402 3.75666

U4 11 25' 09" 78 35' 07" Scrub Juncle 2.143952 3.2939 3.43518 U5 11 24' 57" 78 35' 12" Scrub Juncle 2.393312 3.2158 2.96994

Uthambiam Village U6 11 24' 59" 78 35' 21" Scrub Juncle 2.42548 2.488 2.34744 U7 11 24' 49" 78 35' 12" Dry Evergreen 2.667844 3.278 2.6165 U8 11 24' 42" 78 35' 03" Dry Evergreen 2.996813 3.4292 2.60984 U9 11 24' 37" 78 35' 03" Mixed Deciduous 2.861012 3.4026 3.09338 U10 11 24' 30" 78 35' 01" Mixed Deciduous 3.059355 3.2254 2.81204 U11 11 25' 21" 78 35' 42" Cultivated field 1.321756 2.3595 2.15103 U12 11 25' 27" 78 35' 51" Cultivated field 2.245035 2.5261 3.07374 U13 11 25' 34" 78 36' 10" Cultivated field 1.549826 3.1122 3.21205 U14 11 25' 36" 78 36' 19" Cultivated field 2.42548 3.0775 3.27934 U15 11 25' 42" 78 36' 23" Cultivated field 1.475076 2.9174 2.85729



132

Table-4: Plant Species Diversity Index of Samples of Manmalai RF

Location Quadrat № Latitude Longitude Vegetation Type Tree Layer Shrub Layer Herb Layer Murungappatti Village M1 11 22' 49" 78 31' 12" Cultivated field 1.351784 2.3196 2.57931

M2 11 22' 39" 78 31' 18" Cultivated field 1.704551 2.9674 3.26321 M3 11 22' 32" 78 31' 28" Cultivated field 1.95126 2.8553 3.71403 M4 11 22' 23" 78 31' 36" Cultivated field 1.937666 3.226 3.27588 M5 11 22' 18" 78 31' 39" Cultivated field 2.025326 2.9131 3.01897

Manmalai Village M6 11 22' 14" 78 31' 45" Scrub Juncle 2.617929 2.9832 2.26026 M7 11 22' 03" 78 32' 03" Scrub Juncle 2.429977 3.1737 2.80707 M8 11 22' 00" 78 32' 18" Scrub Juncle 2.697272 3.2381 2.95872 M9 11 22' 00" 78 32' 21" Dry Evergreen 3.044487 3.0775 2.44485 M10 11 21' 54" 78 32' 31" Dry Evergreen 3.052521 3.38 2.41747 M11 11 21' 48" 78 30' 54" Mixed Deciduous 1.767761 2.0621 2.7137 M12 11 22' 00" 78 31' 09" Cultivated field 1.351784 3.1306 3.13358 M13 11 22' 03" 78 31' 18" Cultivated field 1.906155 2.99991 3.15894 M14 11 22' 10" 78 31' 24" Cultivated field 1.549826 2.7187 2.77756 M15 11 22' 14" 78 31' 28" Cultivated field 1.098612 2.72556 2.617



133

Table-5: Mineral Analysis jof Soil Samples from the Study Area

Soil Samples

Parameters

pH

Elec

trica

l co

nduc

tivity

Org

anic

C

arbo

n

Org

anic

M

atte

r

Ava

ilabl

e N

itrog

en

Ava

ilabl

e Ph

osph

orus

Ava

ilabl

e Po

tass

ium

Ava

ilabl

e Zi

nc

Ava

ilabl

e C

oppe

r

Ava

ilabl

e Ir

on

Ava

ilabl

e M

anga

nese

Gangavalli

Newly formed soil

7.4 0.11

0.28 0.03

0.22 0.01

0.36 0.12

59.2 4.21

1.83 0.28

70.0 0.5

0.35 0.09

0.27 0.06

4.55 0.32

1.54 0.21

Used for shift cultivation

7.8 0.06

0.3 0.11

0.19 0.02

0.39 0.04

68.6 5.35

1.9 0.17

68.33 2.88

0.68 0.02

0.31 0.05

4.26 0.15

1.77 0.36

Undisturbed forest area

7.7 0.10

0.25 0.06

0.29 0.07

0.57 0.13

76.5 0.79

2.5 0.4

83.33 6.65

0.26 0.07

0.47 0.16

5.4 0.3

2.23 0.11

Uthambium


7.8 0.07

0.33 0.01

0.33 0.01

0.63 0.017

69.96 5.95

2.53 0.15

86.33 1.52

0.22 0.01

0.45 0.03

5.24 0.15

2.32 0.02


7.8 0.02

0.44 0.03

0.23 0.015

0.44 0.02

70.6 0.36

2.26 0.25

65.33 1.52

0.25 0.01

0.24 0.03

4.17 0.04

2.23 0.06

Manmalai


7.8 0.02

0.20 0.02

0.21 0.01

0.42 0.01

66.86 0.85

2.1 0.15

76.66 2.08

0.21 0.01

0.65 0.02

5.74 0.17

2.14 0.05


7.8 0.05

0.22 0.02

0.18 0.01

0.36 0.02

73.23 0.94

1.73 0.04

70.43 0.60

0.23 0.02

0.34 0.02

4.21 0.01

1.58 0.25

Rock sample 7.5

0.09 0.32

0.01 0.21

0.01 0.22 0.01

54.6 0.62

1.53 0.25

75.33 0.57

0.25 0.02

0.25 0.03

4.56 0.23

1.53 0.03



134

Table-6: Plant-Animal Interactions Found in the Study Area

S. No. Host Plant Visiting Animals / Insect Purpose 1. Argemone Mexicana L. Grass hopper Pollen collection

2. Cadaba fruticosa (L.) Druce Appias albina Boisduval Nectar

3. Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke. Insect Nectar

4. Citrus medica L. Mormon, lime butterfly caterpillar and wasp

Breeding centre and shelter

5. Hugonia mystax L. Caterpillar Breeding centre

6. Erythroxylum monogynum Roxb. Goats Fodder

7. Ziziphus rugosa Lam. Ant and mites Breeding centre

8. Cissus heyneana Planchon Bugs Breeding centre

9. Cissus quadrangularis L. Insect Nectar

10. Sapindus emarginata Vahl. Barking Deer Seeds

11. Moringa concanensis Nimmo. Lizard Shelter

12. Canavalis virosa (Roxb.) Wight and Arn. Ants Nectar

13. Pongamia glabra Vent. Heney bees Nectar

14. Tamarindus indica L. Ant Nectar

15. Terminalia arjuna Wight and Arn. Honey bee Shelter

16. Syzygium cumini (L) Skeels Ant Shelter

17. Passiflora edulis Sims. Honey bees Nectar and pollen

18. Passiflora foetida L. Honey bee, grass hopper, insect and spider

Nectar and pollen / platform for trapping insects



135

S. No. Host Plant Visiting Animals / Insect Purpose 19. Coccinia grandis (L.) J. Voigt Birds Fruit

20. Morinda coreia Buch. - Ham. Ant Fruit sap

21. Pavetta indica L. Euploea core Cramer Nectar

22. Tarenna asiatica (L.) Kuntze Neptis hylas Moore Nectar

23. Ageratina adensophora R. King and H. Robinson Grass hopper Platform for trapping insects

24. Erigeron karrinskianus DC. Honey bee Nectar

25. Notonia grandiflora Wallich ex DC. Hypolimnas misippus Linnaeus. Nectar and breeding centre

26. Parthenium hysterophorus L. Papilio demoleus Linnaeus and insect

Nectar and platform for trapping insects

27. Tridax prochumbens L. Acraea violae Fabricius Nectar

28. Plumbago zeylanica L. Caterpillar Breeding centre

29. Calotropis gigantean R.Br. Ant, honey bee, beetle and grass hopper

Nectar and feeding on the latex of leaves

30. Caralluma attenuate Wight Fly and spider, Nectar and platform for trapping flies

31. Caralluma umbellata Haw. Fly and spider Nectar and platform for trapping flies

32. Sarcostemma intermedium Decne. Honey bee, Pachliopta hector Linnaeus and spider


33. Cuscuta chinensis Lam. Fly Nectar

34. Belepharis maderaspatensis (L.) Roth Honey bee Nectar

35. Justicia tranquesbariensis L. f. Wasp, beetle and spider Nectar and platform for trapping the insects

36. Lantana camara L. Caterpillar and insect Breeding centre and feeding on petals

37. Stachytarpheta indica (L.) Vahl. Borbo cinnara Wallace Nectar



136

S. No. Host Plant Visiting Animals / Insect Purpose 38. Anisomeles indicus Kuntze Wasp Nectar

39. Anisomeles malabarica R.Br. Fly and spider Nectar and platform for trapping animals

40. Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link. Borbo cinnara Wallace, Junonia almanac Linnaeus, Acraea violae Fabricius, Danaus chrysippus Linnaeus, honey bees, tragon fly and spider


41. Leonotis nepetiifolia (L.) R. Br. Lady bird insect Nectar

42. Croton bonplandianus Balillon Insect Nectar

43. Euphorbia antiquorum L. Fly and Spider Nectar and platform for trapping insects

44. Dioscorea pentaphylla L. Wild boar Tuber eating

45. Borassue flabellifer L. Birds Shelter

46. Cocos nucifera L. and Grasses Birds Nest making

47. Cymbopogon martini Watson Cows Fodder



137

Table-7: Parasitic Interactions among Plant Species Recorded in Study Area

S. No. Host plant / Plants Parasitic plant Supporting Parts

1. Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. Serr. Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.) Ettingsh. Branch

2. Allophylus serratus (Roxb.) Kurz Taxillus heyneanus (Schult.) Danser Main trunk

3. Amischophacelus axillaris (L.) R. Rao and Kamm. Cuscuta chinensis Lam. Aerial parts

4. Atlantia monophylla (L.) Corr. Serm. Viscum ramosissimum Wall. ex Wight and arn Branch

5. Azadirachta indica (L.) Adr. Juss Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.) Ettingsh. Branch

6. Bauhinia racemosa Lam. Cuscuta chinensis Lam. Aerial parts

7. Bombax ceiba L. Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.) Ettingsh. Branch

8. Cadaba trifoliate (Roxb.) Wight and Arn. Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.) Ettingsh. Branch

9. Chloroxylon swietenica DC. Cuscuta chinensis Lam. Aerial parts

10. Clausena dentata (Willd.) Roemer Cuscuta chinensis Lam. Branch

11. Dodonaea angustifolia L.f. Cuscuta chinensis Lam. Aerial parts

12. Elaeocarpus serratus L. Rhus mysorensis Heyne. Viscum articulatum Burm.f. Branch

13. Erythrina stricta Roxb. Taxillus bracteatus (Wallich) Tieghem Branch

14. Euphorbia antiquorum L. Striga gesnerioides (Willd.) Vatke Root

15. Grasses Balanophora sps. Root



138

S. No. Host plant / Plants Parasitic plant Supporting Parts

16. Grasses Striga asiatica (L.) Kuntze Lour. Root

17. Mangifera indica L. Cuscuta chinensis Lam. Aerial parts

18. Mangifera indica L. Taxillus bracteatus (Wallich) Tieghem Branch

19. Pleiospermium alatum (Wight and Arn.) Swingle. Helicanthes elastica (Desr.) Danser. Branch

20. Randia candolleana Wight and Arn. Taxillus bracteatus (Wallich) Tieghem Branch

21. Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam Helicanthes elastica (Desr.) Danser. Branch

22. Wrightia tinctoria R. Br. Cuscuta chinensis Lam. Aerial parts

23. Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. Cassytha filiformis L. Branch and leaf

24. Zizyphus glabrata Heyne. Taxillus bracteatus (Wallich) Tieghem Branch



139

Table-8: Epiphytic Interaction among Plant Species Recorded in the Study Area

S. No. Host plant Epiphytic plant / plants Supporting parts

1. Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) R. Br. Ficus sp Scar of the bark

2. Borassue flabellifer L.

Ficus benghalensis L and Sancevieria roxburghiana Schultes and Schulter f.

Old leaf base

3. Carmona retusa (Vahl.) Masam. Lichens Trunk, branches and twigs.

4. Chionanthus male-elengi (Dennst.) P.S. Green. Lichens Twigs

5. Clausena dentata (Willd) Roemer. Lichens Branches

6. Helicteres isora L. Lichens Trunk

7. Hugonia mystax L. Papilionanthe subulata (J. Koenig) Garay Main trunk

8. Murraya koenigii (L.) Sprengel Vanda spathulata (L.) Spreng. Branch



140

Table-9: Check List of Plants Species with Agricultural Importance to Tribal Community

S. No. Name of the crops Type of irrigation Yield (Kg/acre)

1. Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertner. Depends on rain water. (Manavari) 309 ± 73.74

2. Panicum miliare Lam. Depends on rain water 486 ± 74.68

3. Oryza sativa L. (Mara Nellu) Depends on rain water. 334 ± 70.01

4. Oryza sativa L. Stream water (only available Oct to Feb) 417 ± 79.97

5. Manihot esculenta Crantz. Depends on rain water. 635 ± 110.67

6. Macrotyloma uniflorum (Lam.) Verdc. Depends on rain water. 82 ± 25.88

7. Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper. Depends on rain water. 100 ± 22.78

8. Sesamum orientale L. Depends on rain water. 432 ± 74.58

9. Paspalum sp. Depends on rain water. 655 ± 83.16

10. Pennisetum americanum (L.) Leeke Depends on rain water. 250 ± 38.47

11. Setaria italic (L.) P. Beauv. Depends on rain water. 181 ± 52.95



141

Table-10: List of Plants Supporting the Human Beings for Subsistence and

Economic Needs in and Around the Foothills

Non-Tribal Community

S. No. Name of the crops Type of irrigation Yield (Kg/acre)

1. Zea mays L. Hill streams and Bore well water 1005 ± 49.72

2. Allium cepa L. Hill streams and Bore well water 1535 ± 152.84

3. Manihot esculenta Crantz. Hill streams and Bore well water 709 ± 46.47

4. Arachis hypogaea L. Bore wells and depends on rainwater 519 ± 34.03

5. Musa paradisiaca L. Hill streams and Bore well water 8315 ± 533.35

6. Saccarum officinarum L. Hill streams, lake and Bore well water 18140 ± 1272.09

8. Curcuma domestica Valeton. Hill streams, lake and Bore well water 215 ± 40.27

10. Oryza sativa L. Hill streams, lake and Bore well water 1705 ± 149.90

11. Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper. Bore wells and depends on rainwater 424 ± 54.94

12. Sesamum orientale L. Bore wells and depends on rainwater 580 ± 103.27

13. Helianthus annuus L. Bore wells and depends on rainwater 982.5 ± 86.64



142

Table-11: Checklist of Plant Species of Ethanobotanical Importance

S. No. Botanical name and family Part (s) used Preparation and application 1. Annona squamosa L. Leaf Antiseptic and parasiticidal. Also used to kill lice on cattle.

2. Pachygone ovata (Poivet) Hook. f. & Thomson

Stem The weak stem of the plant were used to tie up the constructive poles and roof of the households.

3. Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers ex Hook F. & Thoms

Stem, root The stem is used to cure stomachic, diuretic, stimulates bile secretion, burning sensation, vomiting, enriches the blood, skin diseases, fever and urinary diseases. The root and stem are prescribed in combination with other drugs as an anti-dote to snake bite and scorpion sting.

4. Nelumbo nucifera Gaertner Leaves and flowers

Used to serve food and fold the flowers and its flowers worshiped in temple.

5. Brassica juncea (L.) Cosson. Seeds Used for stomach problem.

6. Cleome monophylla L. Roots Root extract is used to cure Headache.

7. Cleome viscosa L. Leaves and Root

Root paste applied externally on body to reduce pain. Leaves used for wounds & swellings.

8. Capparis zeylanica L. Leaves Leaves used to reduce swellings and boils.

9. Hybanthus enneaspermus (L.)F. Muell. Leaves and roots

Leaf extract is a tonic. Leaf juice mixed with honey is given to men to enhance sperm production. The root is used to cure scorpion sting.

10. Abutilon indicum (L.) Leaves and flowers

Fresh leaves paste externally applied thrice a day to cure ringworm infection. Leaf and flower juice with honey used to treat snake bite.

11. Hibiscus canabinus L. Stem fiber Fibers derived from the stem were used to make rope.

12. Sida acuta Burm.f. Leaves Leaf powder is given to cure tuberculosis

13. Sida rhombifolia L Roots Roots useful in diarrhoea and burning sensation.



143

14. Bombax ceiba L. B. Bark Bark powder used to cure venereal diseases

15. Helicteres isora L. W&A Leaves and fruits.

Reduce earache and cures cuts. Ash of fruits is mixed with filtered coconut oil applied to the ear twice a day to treat a sore ear.

16. Erythroxylum monogynum Roxb. Leaves Leaves cure fever along with stomach problems. Leaf is also used as the fodder to the goats.

17. Oxalis corniculata L. Leaves Leaves are used as greens by the tribals.

18. Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. Serr. Fruits Fruit is slightly burned in the fire and inner jelly parts are applied in the legs (broken, blood clod nerves replacement)

19. Atalantia monophylla L.Corr.Serr. Fruit Fruit juice mixed with honey and given to cure cough.

20. Murraya koenigii (L.) Sprengel Leaves Decoction of the leaf taken orally to cure dysentery.

21. Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam. Leaves, bark, Roots

Leaves used to reduce stomach pain and roots are used in fever and diarrhoea. Used and flavouring agent in sweet makings.

22. Azadirachta indica Adr. Juss. Leaf Leaf paste is used to apply on the skin as parasiticide. And also used as antiseptic, germicide, and vermifuge.

23. Melia azadirach L. Leaf Leaf paste is given orally to increase fertility

24. Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. Fruit Fruit pulp along with curd, pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) juice and sesame oil taken orally to cure blood dystentery.

25. Ziziphus xylopyrus (Retz) Stem Bark Fresh stem bark filtrate is taken orally on an empty stomach to relieve stomachache

26. Cissus quadrangularis L. fresh stem and leave

Fresh stem and leaves paste cures menstrual disorder. Leaf + tamarind + table salt are pasted and used to cure digestive problems. Young shoots with salt is ground well and applied on the tongue of the cattle which does not feed well.

27. Cissus vitiginea Fruit 10ml of the filtered juice of the fruits are mixed with the juice of Anisomeles indicus Kuntze for relief of flatulence.



144

28. Cardiospermum canescens Wallich Leaves Leaves juice orally given in an empty stomach to arrest dysentery.

29. Cardiospermum halicacabum L. Leaves Leaf paste is applied to cure skin diseases. Decoction cures cough and nervous disorder.

30. Abrus precatorius L. Roots and seeds

Seeds used as a contraceptive and to treat diabetes. Root is used to induce abortion, bile and to treat dandruff.

31. Derris scandens (Roxb.) Benth. Leaves Leaf extract given orally and the paste used for external application on snake bitten region.

32. Desmodium triflorum DC Leaves Fresh leaves applied to wounds, abscesses, sores and itch.

33. Pseudarthria viscida (L.) Wight & Arn Leaf, stem & roots

The roots are digestive tonic. They are useful in cough, diarrhoea and fever.

34. Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. Young Shoot Juice obtained from the young shoot with hot water is used as tonic.

35. Acacia caesia (L.) Willd Trunk A good defensive hedge plant used for fencing agricultural fields.

36. Cassia auriculata L. Sp . Pl. Leaves and flowers

Leaf paste was applied as pain killer. Leaves are manure and also used as the soap. Leaves juice reduces body heat. Flower paste with small amount of Lime is used for cure cuts.

37. Cassia fistula L. Leaves and flowers

Leaf paste used to treat injuries. Root is used for burning sensations and skin diseases.

38. Clitoria ternatea L. leaves and roots

Leaves and roots are used to reduce body aches; root is used in the treatment of fever.

39. Acacia caesia (L.) Willd Whole plant Whole plant used for live fencing. Bark and pad powder used as a substitute for soap and its decoction is a lice killer. Woody twigs used as toothbrushes and also a source of fuel wood. Flowers used by women to treat menstrual disorders.



145

40. Acacia torta Young shoot and inflorescence bud

Used as greens.

41. Albizia amara Leaves, bark and wood

Bark is used as an astringent in diarrhoea, dysentery and internally to check uterine bleeding. Leaves are fodder and have insecticide properties. Woods are used as fuel.

42. Mimosa pudica L. Roots Roots extract reduces diarrhea and piles.

43. Syzygium cumini (Linn.) Skeels Leaves, fruits The fruits and seeds are used in diarrhoea, ringworms. Leaves used for strengthening the teeth and gums.

44. Punica granatum L. Bark Stem bark and fruit are used to stop diarrhoea and dysentery.

45. Passiflora ediulis Sims. Fruits Edible fruits for tribal children.

46. Passiflora foetida L. Fruit Matured fruits are used for its edible value by the tribal children. 47. Citrullus colocynthis Schrader. Fruits Used as purgative and tonic.

The paste made from the fruit is given orally to improve the fertility and to remove stomach warms in cows.

48. Coccinia grandis (L.) J. Voigt Leaves and fruits

Leaves and unripe fruits are used as vegetable and ripen fruits are edible. Whole plant is a very good fodder.

49. Opuntia stricta Root and fruits

Roots are used against snake bite. Ripened fruits are edible for the tribal children after carefully removed the thorny skin.

50. Mollugo pentaphylla L. Whole plant Fresh plant is made into paste with Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) and applied externally on the body an hour before bath to get relief from eczema.

51. Alangium salviifolium Wangerin Roots and fruits

Root is used for the treatment of bites of rabbits, rats, and dogs. Root bark used for skin diseases. Fruit along with white layer of egg, calcium and ground turmeric mixture applied to cure facture.



146

52. Canthium dicoccum (Gaertn.) Teijsm. & Binn.,

Stem and Leaves

Stem is used to make fencing around the young saplings planted around the household and the leaves were very good fodder for their domesticated animals.

53. Oldenlandia umbellata L. Leaves Leaves made in to juice and taken internally for three days to reduce Fits.

54. Pavetta tomentosa Roxb. ex Smith.

Stem Used to making fencing around the house to product their cattle form the diurnal wild animals

55. Randia malabarica (Lam.) Leaves, fruit and wood

Wood used as fuel, edible fruits and also has insecticidal properties. Leaf is used as the fodder to the goats.

56. Tarenna asiatica (L.) kuntze ex Schumann

Root or leaf The root and leaf paste are placed on painful area of body

57. Tarenna asiatica (L.) kuntze ex schumann.

Stem Used to construct the fencings.

58. Ageratum conyzoides L. Whole plant Decoction of the fresh plant used for hair-wash and makes the hair fragrant, soft and dandruff-free.

59. Bidens pilosa L. Whole flowering plant

Used as a tonic and stimulant, Kidney Stones

60. Tridax procumbens L. Leaves

Leaves are burned to ash, mixed with salt and Cocus nucifera (Coconut) oil to make paste and applied externally to get rid of ringworms. Leaves mixed with small amount of Lime and made in to paste and applied externally for Poisonous bites.

61. Vernonia anthelmintica (L.) Willd. Leaf Used as tonic and also for stomach problems

62. Plumbago zeylanica L. Root The dried powdered root mixed with goat milk to relieve body pain and arrest frequent urination.

63. Salvadora persica L. Leaves, wood and roots

Young roots used as toothbrushes. Tender shoots, seeds are edible. Leaves used as goat forage, to increase lactation in cows. Wood is used to make furnitures.



147

64. Carissa spinarum L. Root Root powder is used as a purgative. Roots also act as snake repellent.

65. Catharanthus roseus (L) Roots Used to general weakness.

66. Wrightia tinctoria R. Br. Leaves The leaves are used in various skin disorders and toothache. The leaf paste mixed with Neem oil and applied externally for curing Eczema. Leaf and stem bark paste is used for snake bite.

67. Caralluma attenuata Wight. Stem Skin removed succulent stem is edible.

68. Caralluma umbellata Haw. Whole plant Anti-inflammatory. 69. Decalepis hamiltonii Wight & Arn. Roots Root extract is taken orally to rejuvenate the body and it is the popular health

tonic.

70. Gymnema sylvestre (Retz) . RBr . ex . Schultes

Leaves The leaf extract cures stomach ache, and act as laxative.

71. Hemidesmus indicus (L) R. Br. Leaves and roots

Root powder is given with milk to pregnant women for getting a healthy offspring. Leaf paste mixed with oil of Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (Meliaceae) is applied for eczema. Root paste is used for the snake bite.

72. Sarcostemma intermedium Decne. Root and whole plant

Used to cure bone fracture. Ground with latex and applied externally for snake bite and insect bite.

73. Heliotropium indicum L. Leaves Leaf extract is having antidandruff property and cooling effect.

74. Evolvulus alsinoides L. Leaves Fresh leaf juice taken to cure urinary problems. whole plant with goat's milk is taken orally three times a day for three days to reduce body heat and skin diseases

75. Capsicum frutescens L. Fruits One hand full paste of dry or green fruit for stomach problems

76. Datura innoxia Miller. Young shoots Tender shoots paste as a pain killer, diarrhoea and skin diseases.

77. Datura metal L. Leaves Paste is prepared by crushing fresh leaves with honey throat swelling, fever, diarrhoea, skin diseases,

78. Pedalium murex . L Leaves Ground Leaves and tender stems are given to cows to increase fertility. Handful of leaves, made in to a juice, taken internally to reduce Body Heat.



148

79. Sesamum orientale L. Seed Used as ointments and also used for massaging

80. Adhatoda zeylanica Medic Whole plant Whole plant is a live fence. Fresh leaves juice is orally given to cure cold and cough and asthma.

81. Asystasia gangetica (L.) T. Anderson Leaves Leaves used as vegetable.

82. Barleria prionitis L. Leaves and tender shoots

Used in the treatment of tooth ache, strengthening of gums

83. Blepharis maderaspatensis (L.) B.Heyne ex Roth

Leaves Leaves mixed with Onion, made in to paste and applied externally for Cuts.

84. Hygrophila auriculata (Schumach.) Heine

Leaves Leaves are used to cure cough and teeth problems.

85. Justicia tranquebariensis L. Leaves Leaf extract is applied externally on the swelling and reduce the pain due to Poisonous Bites. Leaf paste also is applied on the injuries of cattle even though appears of the worms.

86. Lantana camara Leaves and fruits

Fresh flowers, onion bulb (Allium cepa L.) and leaves of (Mimosa pudica L.) are made into paste with a few drops of water and used to treat any unknown insect bite. Ripen and unripe fruits are eaten by tribal children.

87. Lantana wightiana Wall. ex Gamble Leaves Leaf juice is given to children before food for easy digestion.

88. Premna corymbosa (Burm. f.) Rottler & Willd.

Leaf Leaf is used as the fodder to the goats.

89. Anisomeles indicus Kuntze Whole Plant Body ache.

90. Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link. Leaves Leaf paste is externally applied to cure ringworm infection. Young leaves are used as greens. Leaf extract is used to cure prolonged cut injuries in the cattle. Leaf paste is used to cure foot and mouth infections in cattle.

91. Ocimum canum Sims Leaves Young leaves are used as mouth freshener by the tribal children

92. Boerhavia erecta L. Leaves Cure wounds.



149

93. Achyranthes aspera Leaf Leaf paste with honey and curd taken twice a day to cure blood dysentery and insect bite. Leaf paste also cures external wounds. Stem used as tooth brush.

94. Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. ex Schult. Whole plant, leaves, roots

Spiritual use for good-luck. Root powder with honey used to cure burning sensation. The inflorescence with Azadirachta indica (L.) Adr. Juss. leaves used to decorate the roofs of the house during Pongal celebration

95. Aristolochia indica Leaves and rhizome

Rhizome and leaves paste used against venomous insect and snake bites. Also use for fevers, blood complaints and Menstrual disorders.

96. Santalum album L. Wood Used as a urinary antiseptic.

97. Acalypha alnifola Klein ex Willd. Leaf Used to cure dysentery.

98. Acalypha indica L. Leaf Paste of the areal parts of the plant is used as parasiticide.

99. Cleistanthus collinus (Roxb.) Benth ex Hook

Leaves Leaves are poisonous and infrequently used by the tribes to suicide. Green leaves extract is evenly sprayed on the land before ploughing and sowing rice to act as a pesticide.

100. Euphorbia antiquorum L. Roots Root juice is used to cure stomachic, ulcers, deafness and cough.

101. Euphorbia hirta L. Leaves and inflorescence

Used against diarrhoea and dysentery. Latex of the plant is used for curing cuts. Leaves paste is applied on the head before 15 - 20 mints of bathing for the cooling effect. Young inflorescence (Cyathia) is eaten by the tribal children.

102. Euphorbia nivulia Buch. - Ham. Stem and Root

Stem juice used to relieve earache. Turmeric powder mixed with juice applied to piles. Root mixed with black pepper employed in scorpion stings and snake bites. The milky latex is applied to pimples of the face.

103. Euphorbia thymifolia L. Whole plant Used to cure dysentery, wound, ring worm infection, cure dandruff, leaves are applied over dislocated bones and to skin complaints.

104. Excoecaria robusta Hook Latex To stop the loose motion in cattle.

105. Givotia rottleriformis Griffith. Leaves Leaves are used to serve meals.



150

106. Mallotus philippinensis (Lam.) Muelli. Arg.

Leaves Fresh leaves crushed with hen's egg and the paste applied cure eye diseases. Used as purgative for the dogs, cats and poultry.

107. Sapium insigne (Royle) Benth. & Hook. F

Juice of the bark is dropped in the wound of animals to dispel any worms or germs inside the wound. Used as fodder.

108. Ficus benghalensis L. Leaves, latex, bark and prop root.

Leaves are used to serve food. Stem latex is applied on the cracked feet for healing. It is also used as a remedy for toothache. The bark extract is tonic. Latex is used to stop lose motion. Young portion of Prop roots are made into paste and orally given to the cow to increase the fertility.

109. Curcuma longa L. Rhizome Used as antiseptic agent in Broken horn, parasiticide and sometimes used in indigestion.

110. Crinum asiaticum L. Crushed leaves with honey and some amount of lime are applied to cut wounds.

111. Curculigo orchioides Gaetrn. Root Root is useful in treatment of piles and snake bite. Shade dried root powder is given in empty stomach with cow's milk to increase sexual vigour in males.

112. Sansevieria roxburghiana Schultes & Schulets f.

Leaves, root and fiber

The roasted leaves used as an emollient. Rootstocks used for cough. Juice of tender shoots used to clear phlegm. White fibers from leaves are a source of making a strong rope/ twine.

113. Dioscorea oppositifolia L.

Root tuber Boiled root tubers are taken orally to reduce body heat.

114. Dioscorea pentaphylla L. Root tuber Edible

115. Dioscorea tomentosa J. Koenig ex Sperengel)

Leaves Cure injuries.

116. Aloe vera (L.)Burm. f. Leaf Given orally to reduce the stomach worm and enhance the calf growth. Also used as fly repellent if apply on the surface of the wounds and injuries. It improves the pregnancy and lactation while giving orally.



151

117. Asparagus racemosus Willd. Tuberous roots

The roots used to cure nervous disorders, throat infections and cough.

118. Gloriosa superba L. Tuber The paste of tuber is abortifacient. Paste of the upper half of the plough like root tuber is applied on the stomach and the paste of the lower half is applied on the abdomen to relieve pain at the time of child birth.

119. Commelina bengalensis L. Young Shoot To feed as fodder to the young calf at the initial stages.

120. Areca catechu L. Fruits Dried fruits are effective for tape worms and round worms and also used as purgative.

121. Borassus flabellifer L. Leaves A dust like forms in the young leaves is placed on the cut injuries to stop blood bleeding.

122. Cocos nucifera L. Nuts Coconut water is a highly nutritious food source. Coconut oil is used stop loose motion in cattle.

123. Cymbopogon martini Watson Whole plants Dried whole areal portion of the plants were used to construct the roof of the house holdings and other shadow making setup in the agricultural lands.

124. Actiniopteris radiata Sw. Link Leaves To cure wounds

125. Commiphora caudata (Wight & Arn) Engl.

Trunk, branch and leaves

Trunk was used to make the wooded furniture such as doors, table, and window of the house hold. Branches were used as supports in the constructions of roofs and also planted before the houses during festival times and family functions to make the setups for shadow . The small twigs having the leaves were spread upon them.

126. Hugonia mystax L.

Branches The branches were used to construct the fencing around the plantations during the initial stages.



152

Table-12: Antimicrobial Activity of Some Selected Ethnomedicinal Plants

S. No. Name of the Plant Studied Organisms Ethanol Extract (Volume in µl)

Control 25 50 75 100 1. Helicteres isora L. E.coli 0 1.08 ± 0.083 1.16 ± 0.114 1.26 ± 0.054 2.02 ± 0.148

Steptococcus 0 1.02 ± 0.044 1.58 ± 0.109 1.62 ± 0.044 2.16 ± 0.114 Salmonella 1.02 ± 0.044 1.18 ± 0.083 1.28 ± 0.148 1.42 ± 0.148 2.18 ± 0.130


Control 25 50 75 100 2. Clausena dentata (Willd.)

Roemer E.coli 1.4 ± 0.122 1.82 ± 0.148 2.08 ± 0.228 2.46 ± 0.219 2.02 ± 0.148 Steptococcus 1.14 ± 0.089 1.22 ± 0.083 1.46 ± 0.114 1.62 ± 0.083 2.16 ± 0.114 Salmonella 1.06 ± 0.089 1.16 ± 0.054 1.32 ± 0.036 1.44 ± 0.089 2.18 ± 0.130


Control 25 50 75 100 3. Ampelocissus tomentosa

(Roth) Planchon E.coli 0 1.14 ± 0.114 1.2 ± 0.122 1.38 ± 0.083 2.02 ± 0.148 Steptococcus 0 1.1 ± 0.122 1.22 ± 0.148 1.4 ± 0.100 2.16 ± 0.114 Salmonella 1.22±0.192 1.46 ± 0.089 1.58 ± 0.204 1.72 ± 0.178 2.18 ± 0.130


Control 25 50 75 100 4. Acacia sinuata (Lour.) Merr. E.coli 1.5 ± 0.158 1.82 ± 0.148 2.06 ± 0.134 2.16 ± 0.089 2.02 ± 0.148

Steptococcus 1.54 ± 0.151 1.76 ± 0.194 1.92 ± 0.143 2.12 ± 0.130 2.16 ± 0.114 Salmonella 1.24 ± 0.089 1.36 ± 0.114 1.66 ± 0.114 1.86 ± 0.114 2.18 ± 0.130



153


Control 25 50 75 100 5. Pavetta indica L. E.coli 1.1 ± 0.100 1.22 ± 0.109 1.5 ± 0.158 2.3 ± 0.122 2.02 ± 0.148



Control 25 50 75 100 6. Cleistanthus collinus (Roxb.)

Benth ex Hook

E.coli 1.32 ±0.148 2.1 ± 0.122 2.36 ± 0.089 2.5 ± 0.212 2.02 ± 0.148 Steptococcus 1.36 ± 0.114 1.52 ± 0.148 2.24 ± 0.181 2.4 ± 0.070 2.16 ± 0.114 Salmonella 1.22 ± 0.228 1.32 ± 0.148 2.18 ± 0.294 2.5 ± 0.254 2.18 ± 0.130


Control 25 50 75 100 7. Stenosiphonium parriflorum

T. Anderson E.coli 0 1 ± 0.122 1.52 ± 0.109 2.48 ± 0.216 2.02 ± 0.148 Steptococcus 1.42 ± 0.248 1.5 ± 0.212 1.62 ± 0.342 2.2 ± 0.223 2.16 ± 0.114 Salmonella 1.02 ± 0.130 1.1 ± 0.212 1.22 ± 0.083 1.5 ± 0.254 2.18 ± 0.130


Control 25 50 75 100 8. Dioscoria oppositifolia L. E.coli 1.28 ± 0.083 1.44 ± 0.114 1.66 ± 0.219 2.44 ± 0.230 2.02 ± 0.148




154


Control 25 50 75 100 9. Dioscorea tomentosa J.

Koenig E.coli 0 1.14 ± 0.054 1.22 ± 0.083 1.48 ± 0.083 2.02 ± 0.148 Steptococcus 0 0 1.14 ± 0.151 1.4 ± 0.122 2.16 ± 0.114 Salmonella 0 0 1.08 ± 0.083 1.18 ± 0.083 2.18 ± 0.130


Control 25 50 75 100 10. Hemionitis arifolia (Burm. f.)

T. Moore. E.coli 1.02 ± 0.083 1.32 ± 0.109 1.46 ± 0.054 1.58 ± 0.083 2.02 ± 0.148 Steptococcus 1.04 ± 0.181 1.1 ± 0.122 1.24 ± 0.167 1.4 ± 0.100 2.16 ± 0.114 Salmonella 0 1.08 ± 0.083 1.32 ± 0.178 2.16 ± 0.151 2.18 ± 0.130

Anburaj Thesis - Final

Documents

Transcript of Anburaj Thesis - Final