UNDERDOGS

ANATOMY OF A STORYBOARD: TERMS & TECHNIQUESFebruary 5, 2014 — Made by Devin Larson

Don’t look so confused.

Sure, an article about storyboarding may not be the first thing you’d expect on a site about making comics. Art, writing, marketing — these clearly apply to comics as they do many other creative pursuits. But storyboarding? That’s a movie-making technique.

While it’s true that storyboarding is an efficient process for visualizing a movie or television show prior to filming, storyboards actually share many similarities with comic books. They both tell stories through a sequence of drawings, using the same composition and framing techniques to help the audience follow along. Another shared attribute, one few people realize, is that each medium is transitory. Storyboards are meant to be tools that facilitate a film. They aren’t intended for public consumption, and exist only to serve the final form of the project. Comics are storytelling tools as well. No individual panel or drawing is meant to interfere with the story. The action exists in the imagination of the reader.

There are also differences. Storyboards are constrained by the proportions of the television/movie screen and maintain the same dimensions for every frame. Comic panels can be a variety of shapes and sizes! Storyboards need to translate the movements of actors and the camera to a static form, while comics can only suggest motion through panel layout and composition.

My approach to this two-part article will be to focus on the broad similarities between comics and storyboards, particularly the techniques that originated with film and were later adopted by comic book storytelling. This article will cover aspect ratio, shot classification, and camera techniques. Part two will cover the concept of continuity, specifically what it is and how it can be achieved to help an audience follow a story without feeling lost (visually).

Aspect Ratio (Storyboard Frame Size)

The dimensions of storyboard frames are fixed. The reason for this lies with what the frame represents: the movie or television screen. The standard ratio of a frame is 1.85:1 (more commonly known as 16:9). Or to put it in different terms, for each inch of vertical height, a frame gains 1.85 inches of horizontal length.

If you intend to draw a storyboard, either as practice or for whatever reason, use this ratio to set up your frame template. Why a template? You will be creating a number of storyboard frames and you will want to keep them consistent. Pick a height measurement and then multiply it by

1.85 for the width measurement. Photoshop, as with most graphics programs, has rulers within the program that you can use to place your frame border. If you are working analog, try marking off the frame with a physical ruler and cutting a template out of a piece of cardstock.

The Rule of Thirds

Composition is a vital, complex topic. I will be giving it only the most cursory of mentions here (we will delve deeper into it in the future). The goal of proper composition is to structure an image so that the viewer gets all of the necessary information out of it. That’s right — artists manipulate the arrangement of visual elements to make the viewer look at whatever they want!

Principles like the balance of elements within a frame and use of focal points guide the viewer’s attention. Symmetry tends to distract. A handy shortcut to avoiding symmetry is by following the guidelines shown in the second example, above. Avoid the inclination to place a figure or point-of-interest in the center of the frame. Do this by dividing the frame into thirds both horizontally and vertically, and place anything significant or focus-worthy near one of the intersecting points in the grid. This is what’s known as the rule of thirds: dynamic compositions result from asymmetry.

Shot Classification

A shot is what’s referred to as the precise recording made by a camera in a single take. All of the frames in a storyboard correspond to a single shot (sometimes a complex action requires multiple storyboard frames per shot). As such, they are essentially blueprints for where to place the camera and what to point it at.

Now, that may sound incredibly movie-specific, but it’s not. Comic panels are framed in the same way. Envision the panel as a camera lens, looking out upon a scene before you. The scene exists regardless of the position you choose to view it from. Some viewpoints are more effective than others at communicating the story taking place.

As a shorthand, many scripts use terminology to refer to specific shot framing. Primarily, these are an indication of camera distance from the subject of the shot. Familiarize yourself with the following classifications; these terms will continue to pop up in the future.

Wide Shot

This type of shot establishes the location and context for the scene. Such kinds of shots are called “establishing shots.” The subject of the shot is visible from a distance, with the primary focus being on the environment and lighting conditions.

Why lighting conditions? Good hypothetical question. The reason is that the way a scene is lit is one of the first impressions you get of its tone. High-contrast lighting, which is to say a stark contrast between light and dark, instantly establishes a dramatic tone. The scene I have presented in these examples is the opposite — low contrast. As a result, the first impression the viewer gets is of a relaxed, possibly cheerful tone.

Full Shot

The camera appears to be much closer to the subject(s) of the shot, resulting in a narrowing of focus. This is aided by the fact that much of the surrounding environment is cut out of the frame. Full shots, by virtue of the name, allow the entire subject to be seen, head-to-toe.

Medium Shot

The distance from the subjects is further reduced. Everything is cropped out of frame except for the upper torso of the character(s) involved (waist and up). The viewer is drawn further into the situation, not merely an observer, but a participant in the conversation.

This specific example is also referred to as a “two shot”, indicating the number of people in frame. It is also a conversation sequence, meaning it can follow a principle of continuity called “shot/reverse shot.” I will be addressing continuity issues in the second part of this article.

Close-Up

You’ve heard of these before, right? We all have. Close-ups frame a single subject from a short distance. Because only the head, neck, and shoulders are seen, we are invited to focus on the facial expression of the subject. How are they reacting to the situation at hand? The close-up offers answers.

Extreme Close-Up

Pass the Doritos and Mountain Dew! It’s time to get extreme.

This type of shot is the closest you will get to the subject. Usually focused on the eye area of the face, extreme close-ups put you, the viewer, into the place of the character. You are meant to understand the thoughts the character is thinking. Weird? Absolutely.

I say “usually focused” because it’s possible to have an extreme close-up feature something other than eyeballs. Maybe you want to focus on the car keys that were left behind when the character exited the house. The car keys! Look! He’s going to need those! Point the camera at them.

Camera Notations

This leads us to the subject of camera notations. Put simply, these are the notations that indicate how the camera is moving between frames.

I’m going to be straight with you: these don’t translate directly to comic panels. Some refer less to camera movement than they do frame order. Those principles do tie back to comics though, since you can arrange panels on the page however you like.

So why talk about these notations? Cross-pollination of technique has allowed comic artists to benefit from filmmaking. You may not be able to replicate the zoom of a camera or the way in which a shot pans, but as a comic artist you can control eye-movement on the page. The shape and arrangement of panels helps to direct the viewer’s focus in a related way.

Dolly and Zoom

These are terms that refer to increasing or decreasing the apparent distance to the camera from the subject of the shot. This can be achieved by physically moving the camera, in which case the technique is called “dolly (-in or -out).” If the physical distance to the camera remains unchanged and the effect is achieved through focusing the lens it is called “zoom.”

There are various parallels in comics. In a sequence of otherwise identical panels with the same subject, this can be virtually simulated by decreasing the distance to the subject with every panel. A less literal parallel could involve the composite effect of perspective and implied motion within an image to direct the eye.

In this frame, I chose a high vantage point from which to view the street café. The arrow indicates that I intend for the camera to physically move closer to the scene. I already know how the following shot will be framed, so I use a combination of the dolly-in and the movement of the approaching figure as a bridge between Frames 1 and 2.

Pan

After the cut to Frame 2, I continue to follow the right-to-left movement of the approaching figure with a right-to-left pan. The camera — distance unchanged — moves in the direction indicated until the frame marked “B.”

This type of movement is all about transitioning to focus on the desired subject. In a comic page, an unusual panel or large composition might be impossible to comprehend as a whole. The viewer does the work of the camera pan with their eyes.

Side note for artists: make sure that the composition of elements within the frame is strong at every point during the pan.

Cut-In and Cut-Away

Jumping ahead in the frame sequence, let’s talk about the cut-in/away. Visually, the notation is simple. Draw a smaller, inset frame (within the frame) to indicate the position of the extreme close-up to follow. Connect the corners of the inset frame to the corners of the full frame.

This is less about camera movement and more about indicating shot order. Despite the appearance of the notation, the camera doesn’t zoom or dolly.

So why do this? Think of this technique as the visual equivalent of an “aside” in writing. If you want to draw specific attention to something for the sake of clarity without derailing the flow of the scene, use a cut-in/away. The difference between the two hinges on whether the extreme close-up is of an element within the frame, or outside of it. Same frame? Cut-in. somewhere else? Cut-away.

Not everything about storyboarding translates perfectly to making comics. All movement is implied in comics. Although storyboards are technically just as static, film literally captures movement.

Actually, scratch that. Comic panels may not observably move, but in the mind’s eye, they do.

Think about it. Through the composition of the panel, the viewer is forced to move their eye in the direction the artist wants. This may or may not coincide with the implied path that the character will follow out of frame. The size, shape, and sequence of panels determines the pacing of the story for the reader. You can control movement, of a sort.

Since all of that movement only happens in the mind’s eye, it is critical that you avoid doing anything to confuse the reader. There are ways to structure the elements of a panel, as with a sequence of shots in a film, so that the action remains clear and consistent.

Let me tell you about a little something called continuity.

Continuity

By maintaining a consistent direction of character movement and orientation within a scene, the director of a film helps the audience to follow the story without getting lost. This principle of maintaining consistency within shots is called continuity. Even in a small environment, it’s possible to put a camera in dozens of places. Assuming that you point it at the focal character, this still leaves a number of options. Do you film the subject from the front or the back? Is she to the left or right of frame? Which way is she moving? Choices abound.

A continuous scene is comprised of a variety of cuts and angles, so any inconsistency of movement or placement threatens to break the illusion within the mind of the viewer. For instance, the character may travel in the same direction across multiple shots, yet if the camera jumps back-and-forth across her path it will render the sequence visually disorienting.

Continuity of Movement

It’s very important that you remain aware of the direction of character movement when planning the sequence of shots that comprise a scene. Movement on screen comes down to a choice: left-to-right movement or right-to-left movement. Whichever direction the character appears to move at first that is the direction he should continue throughout the sequence, provided that he does not turn around. The camera can be placed at a variety of distances and angles from the subject so long as the apparent direction of character movement is the same across all shots in that scene.

Let’s examine the following sequence of a character exploring an abandoned house to see this concept demonstrated.

It begins with an interior establishing shot from a high vantage point. Chris, the character, swings open the front door and steps forward. His movement appears right-to-left which immediately establishes screen direction — how movement is oriented relative to the screen — for all

successive shots in the scene. For the remainder of the sequence, forward progress equals right-to-left movement.

The second frame features a very different angle. Instead of being positioned in front/above, the camera is behind/below Chris. Fortunately, as he occupies the same area of the screen (i.e. to the right), the audience will already be looking at the correct location when the transition occurs. His movement remains right-to-left, although we may not see a significant change of position for the character. As Chris swings the flashlight to the left our eyes continue in that direction.

This seems like the perfect time to mention a related technique. Notice how Chris always has a buffer of space between himself and the frame border in the direction that he’s moving? That’s referred to as “lead room.” Make sure that you allow for lead room when composing a frame so that the audience can see where the character is going. If you don’t include that space before the character, it’s the equivalent of asking someone to walk through a room without looking in front of them. It’s disconcerting, and the audience will be uncomfortable.

Of course, that may be exactly the reaction you want. Frequently, horror and suspense films will eliminate lead room in their shots so that the audience nervously anticipates all of the things that can’t be seen.

I included frame 3 as an example of “what not to do.” On its own, it’s a perfectly serviceable shot. In sequence with the rest of the scene however, it doesn’t work.

If the reason why isn’t apparent, consider frames 2, 3, and 4 in sequence. On the screen they will replace one another rather than be arranged like this. As the viewer, you would start by looking at Chris in frame-right moving left. Abruptly, in frame three he would jump to frame-left and be moving right. And finally, back to frame-right moving left with the fourth frame. Even though Chris is walking through the environment in the same way with every shot, this sequence is disruptive and confusing.

Which brings us to frame 4. In part one of this article, I mentioned that close-ups and extreme close-ups don’t always have to focus on the face. I composed the shot like this for the following reasons:

I wanted to increase the sensation of claustrophobia and foreboding, so I framed Chris extremely close to the camera.

To maintain continuity of movement, Chris is on screen-right moving left.

This close-up focuses attention on the door at the end of the hallway. Because of the composition, Chris is literally pointing towards it with the flashlight.

Things just got real! A dramatic turn occurs as a ghost chases Chris from the house.

When something significant like this happens, it’s perfectly fine to reverse the direction of movement on-screen. We’ve established that forward progress in this environment means right-to-left movement. Now that a dramatic development has happened, the corollary to that is backwards progress (retreat) means moving left-to-right. As long as you keep the visual logic consistent, it’s fine to change movement direction when the plot calls for it.

In frame 5, the character is seen from a high-angle, canted viewpoint. This reduces the power and control of the subject (why? because we’re looking down on him). The canted, or skewed, orientation of the frame further destabilizes the situation.

Frame 6 shows Chris fleeing the house. It’s another two shot, but this time the camera is much closer to Chris allowing the viewer to see his terror. His movement remains left-to-right.

Dialogue Continuity and Shot/Reverse Shot

Movement continuity is a major concern when composing a frame, but it is not the only continuity concern. Certain scenes have very little on-screen character movement in terms of people changing location. One example would be dialogue scenes where the characters remain seated.

In situations like this, continuity is still very important. I liken it to watching a tennis match. Imagine yourself seated in the bleachers, swiveling your head back and forth to follow a volley — right, left, right, and back again. It’s easy to tell who is who because the position of the athletes remains the same.

Now imagine the same tennis match, except every time you turn your head left or right the player positions are randomized. You wouldn’t be able to follow who was doing what.

That’s what dialogue continuity establishes: consistent character positions. In the examples below, imagine the invisible line connecting the two seated characters. This line splits the room into two halves. After choosing what side of the line you want the camera on, it needs to remain on that side for the duration of that sequence (cut-aways are an exception). The camera can move freely within one side of that invisible line, but if the camera jumps to the opposite side? That would throw the screen position of the characters into disarray.

This sequence is called “shot/reverse shot”, and it’s extremely effective. After establishing the scene, the shots ping-pong back and forth. The camera frames both participants of the conversation, alternating who is the focal character depending on what reaction is the most relevant.

Frame one is a standard establishing shot that sets up the positional relationship and context for the characters in the environment. Note the high-contrast lighting, indicating dramatic stakes in this conversation.

Frame two is the first part of this sequence, the “shot.” Both characters are framed in a medium shot so that nothing distracts from the conversation. Whichever character has the focus — in this case the younger man — that is the character facing the camera. Note: the focal character does not always have to be the one speaking.

Frame three depicts the “reverse shot” in this sequence. The camera flips positions to show the reaction of the other character, who now becomes the focus. This alternating focus would continue throughout the conversation as the characters react to one another.

Further Study

If it’s not already apparent, storyboarding technique informs a lot of the approach to how comic artists compose and arrange panels. I tried to cover all of the salient points in this two-part article, but there is so much more to discuss and learn. I would highly recommend that you locate a copy of Framed Ink: Drawing and Composition for Visual Storytellers by Marcos Mateu-Mestre (available through Design Press). I read multiple books to research this article, and that was, by far, the best resource I could find.

Additionally, it’s a good idea to watch films by critically-acclaimed directors in order to deconstruct how they tell a story visually. The medium may differ from comics, but you should steal techniques from it anyway.