An SFL Analysis of Two Genres

An SFL Analysis of Two Genres 1

Running head: An SFL Analysis of Two Genres

Press Releases and News Articles:

A Systemic Functional Linguistics Analysis of Two Genres

B.A. Hodges

Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics

School of Linguistics and Applied Language Studies

Carleton University

December 20, 2006


Introduction

The inspiration for this text analysis was to determine through systemic functional

linguistics (SFL) how press releases and newspaper articles differ, and whether and how

press releases might be considered a genre in their own right. During seven years as a

newspaper reporter in the United States, a large number of press releases passed through

this author’s hands (usually for only a few seconds before finding their way to the

recycling bin). I was continuously struck by how similar to newspaper articles their

writers attempted to make them appear, and yet at the same time, how contrived and

artificial they seemed.

Traditional terminology of the journalism profession, such as inverted pyramid

style (arrangement of news in an article from most important to least important) and lede

(first sentence of an article, which generally includes the who, what, where, when, why,

and how) cannot be easily accounted for through SFL. Nevertheless, many SFL concepts

can help link the lexicogrammatical and semantic levels with the register and genre, in an

attempt to show how one press release differs from a news article.

Through SFL, this contrastive text analysis will compare one press release and

one news article about the same topic, published within one day of one another (see

Appendices A and B). The press release is from Wal-Mart, a well-known, U.S.-based

chain of stores with global reach. It is essentially an announcement of the company’s plan

to sell generic drugs at its in-store pharmacies for four dollars. The news article also

provides an account of the drug plan.


Theory

SFL is an approach to studying language which considers how language

accomplishes tasks through various choices. SFL breaks from the linguistic tradition of

Chomsky by not only considering linguistic structures, but the social context within

which language takes place. Halliday (1985) has long been credited as the founder of

SFL.

Within the SFL system, a series of choices in language are referred to as a text (be

it written or spoken). Texts exist within a context that includes field, tenor, and mode,

which together are known as register. Mode simply refers to the interactive role that the

text plays. At its most basic level, mode includes written and spoken texts (visual versus

aural). Tenor describes the role of the participants, which includes power differentiation,

frequency of contact, and level of affective involvement. (Consider the differences

between formal and informal conversations.) Field considers the context of external

activity surrounding the use of the text (e.g., a conversation during a basketball game

versus a discussion during a geology course.)

Aside from register, SFL also considers the role of culture within texts (genre),

which is what we are foremost concerned with in this paper. This important consideration

reminds us that meaning is not static; we are in fact constantly recreating and redefining

meaning through culture. For a text to belong to a genre, it has to share what Eggins

(2004) describes as a genre’s cultural purpose. In other words, every text occurs within a

context that itself determines to some degree its meaning and reason for existence.

Similarly, according to Martin (1984, p. 25), a text’s generic identity requires that it be a

“staged, goal-oriented, purposeful activity in which speakers engage as members of our

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culture.” It is important to note that texts of the same genre inevitably have similar

registerial characteristics, and share similar progressions. We will examine these in this

study.

Finally, SFL describes language in three semantic categories of meaning: textual,

ideational, and interpersonal. Choices within each of these three semantic categories are

further described through choices within three categories at the lexicogrammatical level.

For example, theme, coherence, cohesion, ellipsis, reference, substitution, and

conjunction all provide textual meaning. Clause structure, including hypotactic and

paratactic clauses, relate to ideational meaning. Mood, modality and verbal processes

relate to interpersonal meaning.

Review of Literature

Lassen (2006) considers the contextual setting of press releases, which, before the

widespread use of the Internet, meant that they existed only on paper and were shared

only with media outlets. According to Jacobs (1999, xi): “the only raison d’être of the

press release is to be retold…as accurately as possible, preferably even verbatim, in news

reporting.” (While Lassen notes that today companies can post such texts to their Web

sites, evidence that such sites are as widely read or viewed as objective as newspapers is

hard to find.)

Lassen (2006) suggests a distinction between context-derived and text-derived

rhetorical objectives, which seems to counter the basis of SFL: contextual features of a

text can be exemplified through textual ones. Lassen defines context-derived objectives

as “objectives that are socially motivated but cannot be read off the text immediately

available to the reader or analyst” (p. 505). Lemke (1985, p. 276, cited in Lassen) adds

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that such context-derived objectives create “relevant contexts for each other’s

interpretation.”

The study by Lassen (2006) included eighteen Internet press releases on Web sites

“all showing an interest in biotechnology and all with a link named either press releases

or news releases” (p. 511). A year earlier, McLaren & Gurau (2005) studied

approximately 50 press releases published by biotechnology companies in the United

Kingdom. These authors also attempted to find a relationship between textual

conventions and contextual features of the press release genre by studying purpose and

audience. Through the comparison of a press release and a newspaper article, the present

analysis differs from these previous two studies.

Methodology

Since genre comparison can potentially involve all of the various systems of SFL,

this study includes a side-by-side comparison of the two texts using most of the major

systems. According to Eggins (2004),

The higher the contextual dimension involved in the problem, the greater the

number of analyses ‘at risk.’ For example, interest in generic variation between

two texts will almost certainly involve analysis of a number of systems, since

genre is realized through configurations of all the register variables, which means

all the cohesive and lexicogrammatical systems are likely to be influenced. (p.

331)

Before conducting the analysis, the author made the following hypotheses:


1. Generically, press releases are modeled after news articles through the same

structural series. Consequently, press releases will appear similar to news

articles in ideational features, such as clause complex and use of adjuncts.

2. In the press release, it is predicted that hypotaxis will more frequently convey

positive benefits of a company’s actions, goods, or services. In a news article,

hypotaxis is more likely to show contrast.

3. Interpersonally, both texts will employ many similar verbal processes.

However, press releases will differ greatly from news articles in the roles

modals play, and contain less negative polarity.

Analysis

Registerial-Situational Analysis

1. Field.

Press releases serve as many purposes as the messages that companies and

institutions seek to convey to the public, including not only announcements about new

goods and services for sale, but political messages and “human interest” stories. In our

selections, the field involves prescription drug prices. Evidence of this can be found in

the lexical choices made in each. For example, drug appears seven times in the press

release, and twenty-one times in the news article.

2. Mode

The two texts’ modes are written and generally used as one-way communication

devices. This explains why, in tenor, contact and affective involvement are low to none.


3. Tenor

In each text, the power relationship between the author and audience is unequal.

This is evidenced by the mood analysis (see Table 2), in which clauses were noted to be

entirely declarative. However, it is an unstated fact that press releases are often written

with the hope that they will be used verbatim (i.e., with minimal editing) as a news

article. They have a clear purpose to persuade the reader to agree to an opinion or take an

action (e.g., vote for a particular candidate, contribute money to a particular organization,

purchase a particular product or service). In contrast, news articles typically exist for the

sake of informing the public, as well as for selling more copies of newspapers and

attracting more online readers, which in turn allow publishers to attract more advertisers

and raise their rates for advertising space. For this reason, the tenor relationships between

the author and the audience differ.

Generic Analysis

The press release includes quotes from key stakeholders and a closing paragraph

providing basic information about the company. In contrast to many corporate press

releases, it also includes quotations from two outsiders—politicians in both cases, one

Democrat, the other, Republican. To be sure, comments from both are positive (see Table

1). Unlike the news article, the press release lacks an author.

The news article also includes sources from the company, as well as from industry

and financial analysts. However, its content differs from the press release in that it also

speculates about consequences—both positive and negative—of the company’s

announcement.


A paragraph-by-paragraph analysis is helpful in comparing the generic structure

of the two texts. The two appear similar in terms of an opening announcement with a

time marker (today, Thursday), as well as frequently alternating quoted and non-quoted

information. Apart from that, however, they differ greatly. The news article contains the

author’s name; the press release does not. All of the quotations in the press release are

supportive of the original announcement; some of those in the news article are not. The

news article contains much more contextual information not directly related to the

company or the announcement, as well as more sources of information. Many of the news

article’s contrasts are notable through the use of conjunctive adjuncts such as however

and although. The speculation in contextual paragraphs is often marked by modals such

as could and may (see Table 3).

Table 1. Generic structure potential of the two texts. Press Release - Stages News Article - Stages Headline Headline Date last updated Byline (author’s name) Subhead Dateline / location Paragraph 1: Announcement Paragraphs 1-2: Announcement Paragraph 2: Supportive quotation Paragraph 3: Advantages Paragraphs 3-4: Context Paragraph 4: Supportive quotation Paragraph 5: Advantages Paragraphs 5-6: Supportive and critical quotation Paragraph 6: Supportive quotation Paragraph 7: Supportive quotation Paragraph 7: Disadvantages Paragraph 8: Advantages Paragraphs 8-9: Countering quotation Paragraph 9: Advantages Paragraph 10: Supportive quotation Paragraph 10: Supportive quotation Paragraph 11: Context, disadvantages Paragraph 11: Supportive quotation Paragraph 12: For more information… Paragraphs 12-15: Context Paragraph 13: About the company Paragraph 16: Advantages and disadvantages Paragraph 17: Context Paragraph 18: Supportive quotation Paragraphs 19-20: Critical quotation Paragraphs 21-22: Countering context Paragraph 23: Contributors


Lexicogrammatical Analysis

1. Mood Analysis

All ranking and embedded clauses in the two texts were categorized by their basic

mood class. (See Table 2). Declarative statements are the only mood structure present in

both texts, clearly indicating that the primary purpose of both texts is to provide

information, as well as uneven power relationship already described in Tenor.

Table 2. Mood Analysis. Mood Class Press Release News Article offer 0 0 statement 68 64 command 0 0 question 0 0 However, the texts differ significantly in modality (see Table 3, which includes a

complete list of modals found in both texts). For example, in the press release, will is

used more frequently for promises and to express certainty: The $4 pricing will, The

program will, This act of good corporate citizenship will. The modal will is employed a

total of twelve times in the thirteen paragraphs in the press release.

The modal can is repeatedly used to state the options of customers, who are the

recipients in every case, whether present or not. (Note that customers are also the

audience in the tenor relationship). In three out of five cases, customers are the actor: they

can afford, they can treat illness, and customers can call. In the two other cases, the

relationship is more subtle: a prescription from a doctor that can be filled with a covered

generic medicine, and more information about Wal-Mart can be found.

Table 3. Modalization, Modulation, and Negation. Press release News article Modalization Each day, annually, typically likely Modulation should, will, will, will, will, will,

will, will, will, will, will, will, will, may, can, can, can, can, can

could, would, would, would, wouldn’t, will, will, may, may

Negation not, not not, n’t, n’t, n’t, n’t


In contrast, the news article contains many examples of modals used for

speculation (would, could, and may). For example, in the second paragraph, would was

used two times instead of will: Executives didn't say when consumers in Georgia would

see a drop in prices, but they told reporters in a conference call that they would take the

new pricing to "as many states as possible" next year.

The news article also contains more negative polarity (not and n’t). In the press

release, not is employed only two times at the end: At this time, the $4 prescriptions are

not available by mail order and are available on-line only for in-person pickup in the

Tampa Bay, Fla. area. Not all generics in each therapeutic category are included.

Interestingly, while each text contains only two conjunctive adjuncts, the two in the news

article are contrastive while the two in the press release indicate cause and addition (see

Table 4).

Table 4. Textual Adjuncts. Press release News article because, in addition however, although 2. Transitivity Analysis

According to Eggins (2004, p. 249), “Transitivity patterns represent the encoding

of experiential meanings: meanings about the world, about experience, about how we

perceive and experience what is going on.” When each clause of the two texts was

analyzed for process type (see Table 5), far more material processes were noted than

other categories. However, within these material processes, the press release appears to

convey a sense of altruism through the use of help (used three times), as well as benefit,

ensure, and provide, in which Wal-Mart, the program, or good corporate citizenship are

actors. In contrast, the news article contains no such processes in which the company is

the actor and customers are the goal. Finally, the two texts share similar verbal processes


(e.g., announced and said). This is typical of both press releases and news articles, which

frequently attribute information and quotations to people.

Table 5. Transitivity. Process Type Sub-Type Press release News article Material Event and

Action cuts, to take, to be launched, will be expanded, struggle, are helping, to ensure, get, will be accepted, covers, are used, to treat, manage, to take, has hurt, to take, do, will help, alleviate, have fallen, find, will help, chose, to launch, will benefit, to shape, will follow, provides, may avoid, estimates, will save, costs, saves, can treat, can manage, can stay, are eating up, brings, cost

will chop, unleashed, is rolling out, to expand, would take, could have (a major impact), puts, to lower, flocking, may be forced, to follow, is going to hurt, don’t offer, will buy, wouldn’t be sold, has used, to knock out, declined, would cost, was not pressuring, to reduce, to do, are applying, spent, follow, shaved, closed, fell, fell, to give, is trying, to overcome, are forced, to pick up, turn, deflected, allowed, contributed

Mental Perception see would see, is looking at, was perceived, may have been looking for

Cognition aims, intends, noted, need, can afford, is encouraging, need

plans, is expected

Affection -- Verbal announced, said, said, said,

said, should ask didn’t say, told, said, said, told, to say, said, said, said, said, said, said, say, contend, announced, has announced

Relational Attributive (irreversible, w/ adjective)

to be (available), will be (available), will be (available), will be (available), will be (available), have been (absent), are (excited), am (pleased), are (effective), is (available), is (right), are not (available), are available

are (uninsured), are (higher), are (higher), are (able), is ($28.74), are (chemically identical), are (cheaper), don’t have (the research and marketing costs), seemed (worried), was (a buying opportunity), to get (prescriptions)

Identifying (reversible, w/ noun)

is (a real solution), is (a pretty darn good deal), represents (a nearly 50 percent savings), are (medicines), are included, are included, contain

include (common medicines), is (a positive), start, represents (customer savings)

Possessive has (the ability) Causative will make (available) Existential -- -- Behavioral -- --


2. Clause complex analysis

Comparing hypotactic and paratactic roles between clauses within the two texts, it

was noted that many examples of hypotactic projection occur through attribution to

quotations and information from the company and various people. (A complete count of

clauses by type has not been included as this did not seem beneficial in explaining their

purpose.) Several examples of hypotaxis exist that show the benefits of Wal-Mart’s drug

plan. One example is in the first, non-finite clause of this sentence: By cutting the cost of

many generics to $4, we are helping to ensure that our customers and associates get the

medicines they need at a price they can afford. That’s a real solution for our nation’s

working families. A second is in the following sentence: The program will help alleviate

a major challenge for seniors who have fallen into the “doughnut hole” coverage gap in

their Medicare Part D prescription drug plans and now find themselves responsible for

paying 100 percent of their prescription medicine costs.

In contrast, the news article frequently employs hypotaxis in order to speculate on

possible outcomes: "That's going to hurt them business-wise because [profit] margins are

higher on generic drugs than they are on branded drugs." Another example is in the

following sentence, which includes hypotactic clauses of projection and expansion: By

selling the generics at prices that don't offer much, if any, profit, Wal-Mart is likely

looking at the drugs as yet another "loss leader," analysts said, wooing customers away

from competing pharmacy chains with the hope that shoppers will buy products in other

departments.


Conclusion

Since the present study has only attempted to compare one press release and one

news article, it should not be used to deduce that all press releases and news articles

follow similar patterns in all cases. Furthermore, while many other systems that SFL

offers could have been analyzed within the two texts (e.g., theme and lexical collocation),

this study has attempted to address those with the most potential for illustrating potential

differences. At the registerial level, tenor appeared to be the most likely to show potential

differences. Consequently, at the lexicogrammatical level, the study primarily sought to

address mood.

In contrast to the first hypothesis of the author in Methodology, the patterns of

stages within the generic structure of each text indeed appeared to differ. Further

evidence of how they differ was found in the role of the textual adjuncts, as well as in the

actors and goals of the material processes. The second hypothesis, that hypotaxis would

more frequently convey positive benefits of a company’s actions, goods, or services

while showing contrast and speculation in the news article, appeared to be the case. The

third hypothesis, that both texts would employ many of the same verbal processes, also

appeared to be true. In addition, modals served different purposes, and the press release

contained less negative polarity than the news article.


Appendix A - Press Release (Wal-Mart cuts generic prescription medicines to $4, 2006)

Wal-Mart Cuts Generic Prescription Medicines to $4 Last Updated: Monday, September 25, 2006

Nearly 300 Generics to be Available in Tampa on Friday; Florida Statewide by January; Company Aims to Take Nationwide

BENTONVILLE, Ark. – Sept. 21, 2006 – As part of its ongoing commitment to providing more affordable healthcare for America’s working families, Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. (NYSE: WMT) today announced that it will make nearly 300 generic drugs available for only $4 per prescription for up to a 30-day supply at commonly prescribed dosages. The program, to be launched on Friday, will be available to customers and associates of the 65 Wal-Mart, Neighborhood Market and Sam’s Club pharmacies in Tampa Bay, Fla. area, and will be expanded to the entire state in January 2007. “Each day in our pharmacies we see customers struggle with the cost of prescription drugs,” said Wal-Mart CEO H. Lee Scott, Jr. “By cutting the cost of many generics to $4, we are helping to ensure that our customers and associates get the medicines they need at a price they can afford. That’s a real solution for our nation’s working families.” Key components of the program include:

• The $4 pricing will be available to all pharmacy customers with a prescription from a doctor that can be filled with a covered generic medicine.

• This program will be available to the uninsured. • Insurance will be accepted. • The program presently covers 291 generic medications from many of the most

common therapeutic categories. • The medicines represented are used to treat and manage conditions including

allergies, cholesterol, high blood pressure and diabetes. Some antibiotics, antidepressants, antipsychotics and prescription vitamins are also included.

• The program will be available statewide in Florida in January 2007. • Wal-Mart intends to take the program to as many states as possible next year.

“Competition and market forces have been absent from our healthcare system, and that has hurt working families tremendously,” Scott said. “We are excited to take the lead in doing what we do best – driving costs out of the system – and passing those savings to our customers and associates.” The program will help alleviate a major challenge for seniors who have fallen into the “doughnut hole” coverage gap in their Medicare Part D prescription drug plans and now find themselves responsible for paying 100 percent of their prescription medicine costs. “This act of good corporate citizenship will help consumers manage healthcare costs, while benefiting Florida’s growing population,” said Florida Governor Jeb Bush. “In addition to providing a great service, Wal-Mart is encouraging important conversations between patients and their doctors about the cost savings associated with generic prescriptions. I am pleased Wal-Mart chose Florida to launch this initiative where our large population of seniors will greatly benefit.” “Fifty-bucks for a year’s supply of prescription drugs is a pretty darn good deal for consumers,” said U.S. Senator Bill Nelson (D-FL), an outspoken proponent of giving people access to lower-cost prescriptions. “Because Wal-Mart has the ability to shape the market, maybe other retailers will follow suit.”


In addition, the program provides a solution for the nearly 2.7 million uninsured Floridians whomay also avoid filling prescriptions and remain untreated. Wal-Mart estimates that the program will save the state’s Medicaid program hundreds of thousands of dollars annually. In announcing the program, Bill Simon, executive vice president of the Professional Services Division for Wal-Mart, noted that purchasing a 30-day supply of the popular diabetes drug, Metformin, for $4 represents a nearly 50 percent savings from the cost of the brand name version of the drug. In addition, purchasing a 30-day supply of the brand name blood-pressure drug typically costs $12. Getting the generic, Lisinopril, for $4 saves customers nearly $100 annually. “These are medicines for diabetes, cardiovascular disease, asthma, colds and infections – the kinds of medicines that working families need so they can treat illness, manage conditions and stay well,” said Simon. “Rising healthcare costs are eating up more and more of families’ budgets, so this program brings a lot of value to our customers, associates and communities.” Generic medications contain the same active ingredients as their “brand-name” counterparts and are equally effective, but cost significantly less. Consumers interested in saving money on prescriptions through the program should ask their doctor if a generic is available for their prescription and is right for them. At this time, the $4 prescriptions are not available by mail order and are available on-line only for in-person pickup in the Tampa Bay, Fla. area. Not all generics in each therapeutic category are included. For further information on the program, customers can call 1-800-WALMART or visit their Tampa area Wal-Mart, Neighborhood Market or Sam’s Club to discuss the program with their pharmacist or pick up a brochure that explains program details. About Wal-Mart Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. operates Wal-Mart discount stores, supercenters, Neighborhood Markets and SAM’S CLUB locations in the United States. The company operates in Argentina, Brazil, Canada, China, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Germany, Guatemala, Honduras, Japan, Mexico, Nicaragua, Puerto Rico, South Korea and the United Kingdom. The company’s securities are listed on the New York Stock Exchange and NYSE Arca, formerly the Pacific Stock Exchange, under the symbol WMT. More information about Wal-Mart can be found by visiting www.walmartfacts.com. Online merchandise sales are available at www.walmart.com.

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Appendix B - News Article (Bond, 2006) SECTION: NEWS; Pg. 1A LENGTH: 772 words HEADLINE: WalMart will chop prices of generic drugs BYLINE: PATTI BOND; Staff BODY: Wal-Mart will chop prices of generic drugs Wal-Mart unleashed more ammunition in its retail domination strategy Thursday, slashing prices on generic drugs to $4 for a month's supply. The discount giant is rolling out the new program at pharmacies in the Tampa Bay area today and plans to expand the price cut to all of its Florida stores by January. Executives didn't say when consumers in Georgia would see a drop in prices, but they told reporters in a conference call that they would take the new pricing to "as many states as possible" next year. The nearly 300 drugs involved include common medicines used to treat asthma, cholesterol, diabetes and high blood pressure, as well as antidepressants and antibiotics. The move by the world's largest retailer could have a major impact both on consumers --- particularly those who are uninsured --- and on competitors. "Anything that puts pressure to lower prices on prescription drugs is a positive for consumers. . . . If people start flocking to Wal-Mart, though, [other retailers] may be forced to follow," said Richard Monks, senior editor of industry publication Chain Drug Review. "That's going to hurt them business-wise because [profit] margins are higher on generic drugs than they are on branded drugs." By selling the generics at prices that don't offer much, if any, profit, Wal-Mart is likely looking at the drugs as yet another "loss leader," analysts said, wooing customers away from competing pharmacy chains with the hope that shoppers will buy products in other departments. However, Bill Simon, executive vice president of Wal-Mart's professional services division, told reporters in a conference call that the drugs wouldn't be sold at a loss, a strategy that Wal-Mart has used to knock out competitors in the toy business, for example. He declined to say how much the price-cutting program would cost Wal-Mart, but he said that the retailer was not "pressuring" drug makers to reduce their prices. "We're able to do this by using one of our greatest strengths as a company. . . our ability to drive costs out of the system," Simon said. "In this case, we're applying that business model to health care." The reduced pricing represents customer savings of up to 70 percent on some drugs, Wal-Mart said. The average monthly cost for a generic drug prescription is $28.74, compared with $96.01 for a branded drug, according to the National Association of Chain Drug Stores. Generic drugs are chemically identical to their branded counterparts, but they are cheaper because generic manufacturers don't have the research and marketing costs of developing the drugs.


Consumers spent $53.2 billion on generic drugs last year, according to the National Association of Chain Drug Stores, and that amount is expected to rise as more blockbuster name-brand drugs lose their patent protection in coming years. Consumers spent $184.6 billion on branded drugs last year, according to the association. Although Wal-Mart's announcement was perceived as good news on the consumer front, Wall Street seemed worried about the impact on profits industrywide if other retailers follow suit. Investors shaved more than 8 percent off shares of CVS Corp., which closed at $32.47 a share Thursday. Walgreen shares fell 7 percent to $46.28. Wal-Mart shares fell less than 1 percent, closing at $48.46. John Heinbockel, an analyst at Goldman Sachs, said the stock drop was a buying opportunity, noting that the wave of generic drugs coming on the market over the next couple of years is expected to give retailers a lift. Wal-Mart, under fire for its employee health benefits, may have been looking for another type of lift with the announcement, some retail observers said. Critics said Wal-Mart is trying to overcome an image problem stemming from an employee health insurance program that some say is stingy. Critics contend that taxpayers are forced to pick up costs when Wal-Mart workers turn to state-funded health care programs, such as Medicaid. Wal-Mart deflected some of the criticism in April when it announced a new benefit that allowed employees to get prescriptions for $3. The retailer has also announced a string of changes to its health care benefits, relaxing eligibility requirements and extending coverage to children of part-time employees. Dow Jones News Service and The Associated Press contributed to this article.


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An SFL Analysis of Two Genres

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