An Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology professor edit

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

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Jason LaPres

Lone Star College—North Harris

1 An Introduction to

Anatomy and

Physiology__professor

edit


An Introduction to Studying the Human Body

• You must be able to define anatomy and

physiology, describe the origins of anatomical and

physiological terms

• Explain the relationship between anatomy and

physiology, and describe various specialties of

each discipline.

• Identify the major levels of organization in

organisms, from the simplest to the most

complex, and identify major components of each

organ system.

• Explain the concept of homeostasis.



• Learning Outcomes

• Describe how negative feedback and positive

feedback are involved in homeostatic regulation,

and explain the significance of homeostasis.

• Use anatomical terms to describe body

sections, body regions, and relative positions.

• Identify the major body cavities and their

subdivisions, and describe the functions of each.



• Classification of Living Things

• Humans and many other animals are vertebrates

• Characterized by a segmented vertebral column

• Homeostasis

• The goal of physiological regulation and the key to

survival in a changing environment


1-1 Anatomy and Physiology Directly Affect

Your Life

• Anatomy

• Is the oldest medical science

• Physiology

• Is the study of function


1-2 Good Study Strategies Crucial for Success

• Study Strategies

• Attend all lectures, labs, and study sessions

• Read your lecture and laboratory assignments before going to class or lab

• Devote a block of time each day to your A&P course

• Set up a study schedule and stick to it

• Do not procrastinate

• Approach the information in different ways

• Develop the skill of memorization, and practice it regularly

• As soon as you experience difficulty with the course, seek assistance


1-2 Good Study Strategies Crucial for Success

• Learning Outcomes

• Illustrations, Tables,

and Photos

• Pronunciation Guides

• Checkpoint Questions

• Tips & Tricks

• Clinical Notes

• Arrow Icons

• End-of-Chapter

Study and Review

Materials

• Systems Integrators

• Colored Tabs

• End-of-Book

Reference Sections

• Important Features of the Textbook—use what is available to you!


1-3 Anatomy and Physiology

• Anatomy

• Describes the structures of the body

• What they are made of

• Where they are located

• Associated structures

• Physiology

• Is the study of:

• Functions of anatomical structures

• Individual and cooperative functions


1-4 Relationships between Anatomy and

Physiology

• Anatomy (macroscopic vs microscopic)

• Gross anatomy, or macroscopic anatomy, examines

large, visible structures

• Surface anatomy: exterior features—superficial

markings

• Regional anatomy: body areas-neck, head

• Systemic anatomy: organ systems

• Developmental anatomy: from conception to death

• Clinical anatomy: medical specialties (anatomical

features change when you are in a diseased state)



Physiology

• Anatomy

• Microscopic anatomy examines cells and molecules

• Cytology: study of cells and their structures

• cyt- = cell

• Histology: study of tissues and their structures



Physiology

• Physiology

• Cell physiology: processes within and between cells

• Organ physiology: functions of specific organs

• Systemic physiology: functions of an organ system

• Pathological physiology: effects of diseases


1-5 Levels of Organization

• The Chemical (or Molecular) Level

• Atoms are the smallest chemical units

• Molecules are a group of atoms working together

• The Cellular Level

• Cells are a group of atoms, molecules, and organelles working

together

• The Tissue Level

• A tissue is a group of similar cells working together

• The Organ Level

• An organ is a group of different tissues working together



• The Organ System Level

• An organ system is a group of organs working together

• Humans have 11 organ systems

• The Organism Level

• A human is an organism


Figure 1-1 Levels of Organization

Chemical and Molecular Levels

Cellular Level

Atoms in combination

Complex protein molecule Protein filaments

Heart muscle cell


Figure 1-1 Levels of Organization

Tissue Level Organ Level

Cardiac muscle tissue

The heart

The cardiovascular

system

Organ system

level

Organism

level



• The Organ Systems

• Integumentary

• Major Organs

• Skin

• Hair

• Sweat glands

• Nails

• Functions

• Protects against environmental hazards (eyelashes help

protect our eyes from debris;thick skin on our heels and soles of

our feet)

• Helps regulate body temperature (sweating helps us cool off)

• Provides sensory information (sensitive skin on our hands)




• Skeletal

• Major Organs

• Bones

• Cartilages

• Associated ligaments

• Bone marrow

• Functions

• Provides support and protection for other tissues (rib cage protects our vital organs)

• Stores calcium and other minerals (osteoporosis)

• Forms blood cells




• Muscular

• Major Organs

• Skeletal muscles and associated tendons

• Functions

• Provides movement

• Provides protection and support for other

tissues

• Generates heat that maintains body

temperature


1-5 Levels of Organization • The Organ Systems

• Nervous

• Major Organs

• Brain

• Spinal cord

• Peripheral nerves

• Sense organs

• Functions

• Directs immediate responses to stimuli (Removing your hand from touching a hot plate)

• Coordinates or moderates activities of other organ systems (how dose your brain control your muscular organ system when you are working out?)

• Provides and interprets sensory information about external conditions (You brain interprets what you smell, touch, hear)



• Endocrine

• Major Organs

• Pituitary gland

• Pancreas

• Gonads

• Endocrine tissues in other systems

• Functions

• Directs long-term changes in the activities of

other organ systems

• Adjusts metabolic activity and energy use by the body

• Controls many structural and functional changes during

development (think about how your body changes during

puberty/growth spurt!)

• Thyroid gland

• Adrenal glands





• Cardiovascular

• Major Organs

• Heart

• Blood

• Blood vessels

• Functions

• Distributes blood cells, water and dissolved

materials including nutrients, waste

products, oxygen, and carbon dioxide

• Distributes heat and assists in control of

body temperature


1-5 Levels of Organization • The Organ Systems

• Lymphatic

• Major Organs

• Spleen

• Thymus

• Lymphatic vessels

• Lymph nodes

• Tonsils

• Functions

• Defends against infection and disease (think about

why the doctor feels for swollen lymph nodes in your

neck when you are sick)

• Returns tissue fluids to the bloodstream




• Respiratory

• Major Organs

• Nasal cavities

• Sinuses

• Larynx

• Trachea

• Bronchi

• Lungs

• Alveoli




• Respiratory

• Functions

• Delivers air to alveoli (sites in lungs where

gas exchange occurs)

• Provides oxygen to bloodstream

• Removes carbon dioxide from bloodstream

• Produces sounds for communication

(talking)




• Digestive

• Major Organs

• Teeth

• Tongue

• Pharynx

• Esophagus

• Stomach

• Small intestine

• Large intestine

• Liver

• Gallbladder

• Pancreas




• Digestive

• Functions

• Processes and digests food

• Absorbs and conserves water

• Absorbs nutrients

• Stores energy reserves




• Urinary

• Major Organs

• Kidneys

• Ureters

• Urinary bladder

• Urethra

• Functions

• Excretes waste products from the blood

• Controls water balance by regulating volume of

urine produced (hydration versus dehydration)

• Stores urine prior to voluntary elimination

• Regulates blood ion concentrations and pH




• Male Reproductive

• Major Organs

• Testes

• Epididymides

• Ductus deferentia

• Seminal vesicles

• Prostate gland

• Penis

• Scrotum




• Male Reproductive

• Functions

• Produces male sex cells (sperm),

suspending fluids, and hormones

• Sexual intercourse




• Female Reproductive

• Major Organs

• Ovaries

• Uterine tubes

• Uterus

• Vagina

• Labia

• Clitoris

• Mammary glands




• Female Reproductive

• Functions

• Produces female sex cells (oocytes)

and hormones

• Supports developing embryo from

conception to delivery

• Provides milk to nourish newborn infant

• Sexual intercourse


1-6 Homeostasis

• Homeostasis

• All body systems working together to maintain a

stable internal environment (remember by

thinking you are comfortable at home)

• Systems respond to external and internal changes

to function within a normal range (body

temperature, fluid balance)


1-6 Homeostasis • Mechanisms of Regulation

• Autoregulation (intrinsic)

• Automatic response in a cell, tissue, or organ to some environmental

change

• Ex: When cells within a tissue need more oxygen, they release chemicals

that cause an increase in blood flow to the area, providing more oxygen to

the region.

• Extrinsic regulation

• Responses controlled by nervous and endocrine systems

• Ex: When you are exercising, your nervous system issues commands that

increase the heart rate so that blood will circulate faster.

• The nervous system reduces blood flow to organs, such as the digestive

tract, that are relatively inactive (oxygen in circulating blood is thus saved for

the active muscles.)


1-6 Homeostasis

• Receptor

• Receives the stimulus

• Control center

• Processes the signal and sends instructions

• Effector

• Carries out instructions


Figure 1-2 The Control of Room Temperature

Normal

condition

disturbed

Information

affects

RECEPTOR

Thermometer

HOMEOSTASIS

STIMULUS:

Room temperature

rises

Normal room

temperature

RESPONSE:

Room temperature

drops

CONTROL CENTER

(Thermostat)

Normal

condition

restored

EFFECTOR

Air conditioner

turns on

Sends

commands

to

20° 30° 40°

In response to input from a receptor (a thermometer), a thermostat

(the control center) triggers an effector response (either an air condi-

tioner or a heater) that restores normal temperature. In this case,

when room temperature rises above the set point, the thermostat

turns on the air conditioner, and the temperature returns to normal.

With this regulatory system, room

temperature fluctuates around the

set point.

Air

conditioner

turns on

Air

conditioner

turns off

Time

Ro

om

tem

pe

ratu

re (°

C)

22 Normal range


1-7 Negative and Positive Feedback

• The Role of Negative Feedback

• The response of the effector negates the stimulus

• Body is brought back into homeostasis

• Normal range is achieved


Figure 1-3 Negative Feedback in the Control of Body Temperature

Normal

temperature

disturbed

Information

affects

RECEPTORS

Temperature sensors in skin

and hypothalamus

HOMEOSTASIS

STIMULUS:

Body temperature

rises

Normal body

temperature RESPONSE:

Increased heat loss,

body temperature

drops

CONTROL

CENTER

Normal

temperature

restored

EFFECTORS

• Sweat glands in skin increase secretion • Blood vessels in skin dilate

Sends

commands

to

Events in the regulation of body temperature, which are

comparable to those shown in Figure 12. A control center

in the brain (the hypothalamus) functions as a thermostat

with a set point of 37°C. If body temperature exceeds

37.2°C, heat loss is increased through enhanced blood flow

to the skin and increased sweating.

The thermoregulatory center keeps

body temperature fluctuating

within an acceptable range, usually

between 36.7 and 37.2°C.

Vessels

dilate,

sweating

increases

Vessels

constrict,

sweating

decreases

Time Bo

dy t

em

pera

ture

(°

C)

37.2 Normal range 37

36.7

Thermoregulatory

center in brain



• The Role of Positive Feedback

• The response of the effector increases change of the

stimulus

• Body is moved away from homeostasis

• Normal range is lost

• Used to speed up processes


Figure 1-4 Positive Feedback: Blood Clotting

Clotting

accelerates

Positive

feedback

loop

Blood clot Chemicals

This escalating process

is a positive feedback

loop that ends with the

formation of a blood clot,

which patches the vessel

wall and stops the bleeding.

As clotting continues,

each step releases

chemicals that further

accelerate the process.

The chemicals start chain

reactions in which cells,

cell fragments, and

soluble proteins in the

blood begin to form a clot.

Damage to cells in the

blood vessel wall releases

chemicals that begin the

process of blood clotting.

Chemicals



• Systems Integration

• Systems work together to maintain homeostasis

• Homeostasis is a state of equilibrium (equal)

• Opposing forces are in balance

• Dynamic equilibrium — continual adaptation

(always changing to reach a balance)

• Physiological systems work to restore balance

• Failure results in disease or death


Table 1-1 The Roles of Organ Systems in Homeostatic Regulation

Know some examples from each column. (1) Name a

system involve a system involved in regulating body

temperature. (2) What is the systems function? (1)

Integumentary (2) heat loss by sweating


1-8 Anatomical Terminology

• Superficial Anatomy

• Locating structures on or near the body surface

• Anatomical Landmarks

• Anatomical position: hands at sides, palms forward

• Supine: lying down, face up

• Prone: lying down, face down



• Superficial Anatomy

• Anatomical Landmarks

• References to tangible structures

• Anatomical Regions

• Body regions

• Abdominopelvic quadrants

• Abdominopelvic regions

• Anatomical Directions

• Reference terms based on subject


Figure 1-5a Anatomical Landmarks

Cephalic or head

Frontal or

forehead

Cranial or skull

Facial or face

Oral or mouth

Mental or chin

Axillary or armpit

Brachial or arm

Antecubital or front of

elbow

Umbilical or navel

Trunk Abdominal (abdomen)

Mammary or breast

Thoracic or thorax, chest

Cervical or neck

Buccal or cheek

Otic or ear

Nasal or nose

Ocular, orbital or eye

Anterior view

I will not ask you to label these on a

model, but I will use anatomical

landmarks when referring to

quadrants, regions, and directions.

So you must at least know the terms.

Ex: Is the carpal superior or anterior

to the palmar?


Figure 1-5a Anatomical Landmarks

Antebrachial or forearm

Carpal or wrist

Palmar or palm

Pollex or thumb

Digits (phalanges)

or fingers (digital or phalangeal)

Patellar or kneecap

Crural or leg

Digits (phalanges) or toes (digital or

phalangeal)

Tarsal or ankle

Anterior view

Hallux or great toe

Pedal or foot

Femoral or thigh

Pubic (pubis)

Inguinal or groin

Manual or hand

Pelvic (pelvis)

Trunk


Figure 1-5b Anatomical Landmarks

Acromial or shoulder

Olecranal or back

of elbow

Dorsal or back

Upper limb

Cervical or neck

Cephalic or head

Posterior view


Figure 1-5b Anatomical Landmarks

Posterior view

Lumbar or loin

Gluteal or buttock

Popliteal or back of knee

Sural or calf

Calcaneal or heel of foot

Plantar or sole of foot

Lower limb

Upper limb


Figure 1-6a Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions

Abdominopelvic quadrants. The four

abdominopelvic quadrants are formed by two

perpendicular lines that intersect at the navel. The

terms for these quadrants, or their abbreviations,

are most often used in clinical discussions.

Right Upper Quadrant

(RUQ)

Right Lower Quadrant

(RLQ)

Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ)

Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ)

L and R refer

to the subject,

not the

observer!

Appendicitis

Gall Bladder or

Liver problems


Figure 1-6b Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions

Right hypochondriac

region

Right lumbar region

Right inguinal

region

Abdominopelvic regions. The nine abdominopelvic

regions provide more precise regional descriptions.

Left hypochondriac region

Left lumbar region

Left inguinal region

Epigastric region

Umbilical region

Hypogastric (pubic) region


Figure 1-6c Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions

Stomach

Spleen

Urinary bladder

Liver

Gallbladder

Large intestine

Small intestine

Appendix

Anatomical relationships. The relationship between

the abdominopelvic quadrants and regions and the

locations of the internal organs are shown here.


Table 1-2 Directional Terms


Figure 1-7 Directional References

Cranial

Posterior

or dorsal

Anterior

or ventral

Caudal

A lateral view.

Superior Right Left

Lateral

Proximal

Medial

Proximal

Distal

Distal Inferior

An anterior view. Arrows

indicate important directional

terms used in this text;

definitions and descriptions

are given in Table 12.



• Sectional Anatomy

• Planes and sections

• Plane: a three-dimensional axis

• Section: a slice parallel to a plane

• Used to visualize internal organization and

structure

• Important in radiological techniques

• MRI

• PET

• CT


Figure 1-8 Sectional Planes

Frontal plane

Transverse plane

Sagittal plane


Table 1-3 Terms That Indicate Sectional Planes


1-9 Body Cavities

• Essential Functions of Body Cavities

1. Protect organs from accidental shocks

2. Permit changes in size and shape of internal organs

• Ventral body cavity (coelom)

• Divided by the diaphragm

• Thoracic cavity

• Abdominopelvic cavity


Figure 1-9 Relationships among the Subdivisions of the Ventral Body Cavity

• Provides protection

• Allows organ movement

• Linings prevent friction

Ventral Body Cavity

Thoracic Cavity

Surrounded by chest wall and

diaphragm

Surrounds right lung Contains the

trachea, esophagus,

and major vessels

Mediastinum Right Pleural Cavity

Peritoneal Cavity

Surrounds left lung

Subdivides during development into

Surrounds heart

Pericardial Cavity

Contains many

digestive glands

and organs

Abdominal Cavity

Abdominopelvic Cavity

Extends

throughout

abdominal cavity

and into superior

portion of pelvic

cavity

Pelvic Cavity

Contains urinary

bladder,

reproductive

organs, last

portion of

digestive tract

Left Pleural Cavity


1-9 Body Cavities

• Serous Membranes

• Line body cavities and cover organs

• Consist of parietal layer and visceral layer

• Parietal layer — lines cavity

• Visceral layer — covers organ


1-9 Body Cavities

• The Thoracic Cavity

• Right and left pleural cavities

• Contain right and left lungs

• Mediastinum

• Upper portion filled with blood vessels, trachea,

esophagus, and thymus

• Lower portion contains pericardial cavity

• The heart is located within the pericardial

cavity


Figure 1-10a The Ventral Body Cavity and Its Subdivisions

POSTERIOR ANTERIOR

Pleural

cavity

Pericardial

cavity

Thoracic

cavity

Peritoneal

cavity

Abdominal

cavity

Pelvic

cavity

Diaphragm

Abdominopelvic

cavity


Figure 1-10b The Ventral Body Cavity and Its Subdivisions

Visceral

pericardium

Pericardial

cavity

Parietal

pericardium

Heart Air space

Balloon


Figure 1-10c The Ventral Body Cavity and Its Subdivisions

Spinal cord

Mediastinum

Parietal pleura

Pleural cavity

Pericardial cavity

Right lung

POSTERIOR

Left lung

ANTERIOR


1-9 Body Cavities

• The Abdominopelvic Cavity

• Peritoneal cavity: chamber within abdominopelvic

cavity

• Parietal peritoneum: lines the internal body wall

• Visceral peritoneum: covers the organs


1-9 Body Cavities


• Abdominal cavity — superior portion

• Diaphragm to top of pelvic bones

• Contains digestive organs

• Retroperitoneal space

• Area posterior to peritoneum and anterior to muscular

body wall

• Contains pancreas, kidneys, ureters, and parts of the

digestive tract


1-9 Body Cavities


• Pelvic cavity — inferior portion

• Within pelvic bones

• Contains reproductive organs, rectum, and bladder

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