i

An Instrumental Case Study: Examining the Impact of Coaching on Building

Middle School Teacher Agency

by

Mark A. Spilman

A doctoral thesis submitted to the department of Curriculum and Instruction,

College of Education

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Education

in Literacy Studies

Chair of Committee: Dr. Laveria Hutchison

Co-Chair of Committee: Dr. Cameron White

Committee Member: Dr. Leah McAlister-Shields

Committee Member: Dr. Margaret Hale

University of Houston

May 2021

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Copyright 2021, Mark A. Spilman

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Dedication

To my spouse, Jaime, and our sons, Jacob and Luke: I dedicate this body of work

to you. I love you all more than life itself. Like the Bryan Adams song says,

“Everything I do, I do it for you.”

In honor of my parents, thank you for always encouraging me to be the best that I

can be. I might not have realized it then, but your steadfast support provided a path to a

successful life.

In memory of my grandparents, I know you are cheering and square dancing

across heaven. Thank you for your unconditional love and eternal support.

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Acknowledgment

I would like to thank Dr. Laveria Hutchison for serving as my dissertation

committee chair and Dr. Cameron White, Dr. Leah McAlister-Shields, and Dr. Margaret

Hale for serving on the committee. Your continued support, guidance, patience, and

meticulous feedback have been invaluable.

To all of my colleagues, past and present, thank you for shepherding and guiding

me and allowing me to learn alongside you. Many thanks to Dr. Dawn Westfall who

served as my mentor and first coach. Without your example, I would not be the teacher

and coach that I am today.

Thank you to the participants in this study. Our frank conversations helped guide

this study and without you, it would not have happened.

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Abstract

Background: According to Noonan (2014) and Calvert (2016), agency gives teachers

the capacity to direct their professional growth in ways that positively influence student

achievement. Agency is the combination of one’s belief in their effectiveness, or self-

efficacy, and their actual knowledge and skills. Teachers who have acquired agency can

identify ways to enhance their professional growth and positively impact student

learning. As teachers develop their agency by finding effective ways to advance their

professional learning, it is also important for school leaders to contribute to the

improvement of teacher agency through coaching and development. The need for this

support by school leaders is critical to ensure that teacher agency is acquired for the

purpose of assisting with effective instruction for all learners in school settings. This

research study is significant due to its focus on matters of literacy at the middle-school

level. Literacy is the essential foundation for learning across the educational continuum.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to investigate how sustained coaching develops

teacher agency. Research Question: The proposed study addressed the following

question: What is the impact of instructional coaching on building agency among middle

school literacy teachers? Methods: The qualitative instrumental case study was used to

determine the impact of instructional coaching in developing teacher agency. This

research design was appropriate because the research focused on the impact of

instructional coaching provided for teachers who focus on literacy skills (Creswell,

2018). The convenience sampling strategy was used to select participants from schools

that have received instructional coaching from the researcher. Teachers who accepted

invitations to participate in the study partook in one (1) one-on-one semi-structured

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interview and one (1) focus group using the interview guidelines outlined by Creswell

(2018). Qualitative data consisted of interview data and researcher journal entries and

instructional artifacts. This data was analyzed utilizing constant comparative method for

interview data, focus group, and content analysis for document data (journal entries and

instructional artifacts) to identify emerging themes and key concepts. To ensure

objectivity for this research study, a former NASA research methodologist was utilized

for data review and analysis. This individual is adept at deriving common themes from

standardized methods of inquiry and had no direct contact with any research participants.

Findings: The study found that coaching significantly impacts teacher agency, teacher

retention, and student achievement. Research data revealed five emerging themes: 1)

coaching positively impacts teacher knowledge acquisition; 2) coaching positively

impacts instruction delivery; 3) coaching positively impacts the way teacher’s viewed

themselves (self-confidence); 4) coaching positively impacts teachers’ beliefs in their

ability to deliver quality instruction (self-efficacy); and 5) coaching positively impacts

student achievement. Conclusion: Instructional coaching has a significantly positive

impact on building teacher agency.

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Table of Contents

Chapter Page

I Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 1

Situating the Researcher in Multiple Contexts ........................................... 2

Statement of the Problem ............................................................................ 5

Purpose of the Study ................................................................................... 5

Context for the Study .................................................................................. 6

Significance of the Study .......................................................................... 11

Definition of Terms................................................................................... 12

Research Question .................................................................................... 13

II Review of Literature..................................................................................................... 14

Introduction ............................................................................................... 14

Instructional Knowledge of Middle School Literacy Educators ............... 14

Instructional Support of Middle School Literacy Educators .................... 15

Educational Learning Theory Related to Zone of Proximal Development

................................................................................................................... 16

Educational Theory Related to Continuity ............................................... 18

The Process of Education.............................................................. 19

The Process of Knowing. .............................................................. 19

The Process of Discovery. ............................................................ 20

Instructional Constructs Related to Middle School Literacy .................... 20

Coaching and Mentoring........................................................................... 24

III Methodology ............................................................................................................... 34

Research Approach ................................................................................... 34

Narrative Stance ........................................................................................ 34

Selecting Participants ................................................................................ 37

Data Collection Procedures and Instrumentation ..................................... 37

Interview Protocol. ........................................................................ 38

Narrative Inquiry Analysis. ........................................................... 40

Summary ................................................................................................... 41

IV Results......................................................................................................................... 42

Case Study Context ................................................................................... 43

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Keywords, Codes, and Categories ............................................................ 44

Coding Rubric ........................................................................................... 44

Theme One: Knowing .................................................................. 46

Discussion of Theme One: Knowing ........................................... 48

Theme Two: Thinking ................................................................. 49

Discussion of Theme Two: Thinking .......................................... 50

Theme Three: Development ........................................................ 51

Discussion of Theme Three: Development .................................. 53

Theme Four: Support ................................................................... 54

Discussion of Theme Four: Support ............................................ 57

Theme Five: Change .................................................................... 58

Discussion of Theme Five: Change ............................................. 60

Summary ................................................................................................... 61

V Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 63

Overview of the Study .............................................................................. 63

Perceptions of Teachers on Instructional Coaching.................................. 64

The Model of Instructional Coaching ....................................................... 65

Limitations and Future Research .............................................................. 65

Recommendations for Administrators ...................................................... 66

Recommendations for Teachers ................................................................ 67

Recommendations for New Teachers ....................................................... 68

Conclusion ................................................................................................ 68

References ......................................................................................................................... 70

Appendix A University Approval .................................................................................... 76

Appendix B Recruitment Letter ....................................................................................... 79

Appendix C Interview and Focus Group Questions ........................................................ 82

Appendix D Coaching Scaffold ....................................................................................... 85

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List of Tables

Table Page

1. Texas Education Agency 2018-2019 School Report Card Student Profile Data -

Klostermann Middle School…………………………………………………………...7

2. Texas Education Agency 2018-2019 School Report Card, Klostermann Middle

School………………………………………………………………………………….8

3. Texas Education Agency 2018-2019 School Report Card Student Profile Data -

Stockwell Middle School………………………………………………………………9

4. Texas Education Agency 2018-2019 School Report Card, Stockwell Middle School.10

5. Instrumentation and Data Collection Techniques…………………………………...39

6. Keywords, Codes, and Categories…………………………………………………...44

7. Coding Rubric…………………………………………………………………….….45

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List of Figures

Figure Page

1. Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development………………………………………….17

2. Dewey’s Theory of Experience………………………………………………………18

3. Albert Humphrey’s SWOT Analysis……………………………………………….…24

4. Coaching Scaffold……………………………………………………………………32

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List of Photos

Photo Page

1. John Carew Photography, Katy Little League, Rangers, 1978……………………….2

2. Progress Show, The Katy Times, February 12, 1986…………………………………3

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Chapter I

Introduction

Classroom teachers across the United States are constantly being held to higher

standards with fewer resources and support. Teaching can be a lonely business without

the collaboration of colleagues and school leaders. In smaller neighborhood schools, it

might be that a teacher is the only one in their grade level and content area, thus, forcing

the teacher into isolation. Many of my former colleagues shared that being the one and

only teacher of a content and grade level is difficult because there is no one to collaborate

with that is teaching the same grade level and content area.

In the summer of 2006, I became a literacy specialist for a pre-kindergarten

through fourth grade elementary school in an urban area of West Houston, following in

the footsteps of a brilliant mentor. I had the opportunity to work with more than 50

teachers in grades pre-kindergarten through fourth grade. My experiences as a teacher at

that time included third and fourth grade, so working with the early childhood teachers

was a new opportunity for me that I eagerly looked forward to undertaking. The

experience of working with early childhood teachers was beneficial due to the learning

and teaching culture of the school. They often took me under their wing and supported

my new learning by sharing books, strategies, and modeling. The countless hours I spent

learning, practicing, and teaching beside primary and elementary teachers helped build

my background knowledge, experiences, and confidence as a literacy specialist at all

levels. This began my journey as a coach and mentor for teachers. Since my first

experiences in an urban school district in West Houston, I have worked alongside and

learned with many teachers from kindergarten to twelfth grade.

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Situating the Researcher in Multiple Contexts

As a young child, my father beginning at age five in Tee-ball coached me. My

father was a great coach and a serious ball player in his own right. That instilled in me, at

an early age, to always do my best. My dad coached our baseball teams for many years

(see Photo 1). When my father coached, he would often get on the field and show us how

to use our glove to catch a ground ball or show us how to keep our eye on the ball when

catching a pop-up fly ball. When it came to batting, he would stand behind us, bending

our legs to improve our stance, propping our arms in just the right spot, and moving our

head to keep our eye on the ball as it came across the plate.

Photo 1

John Carew Photography, Katy Little League, Rangers, 1978

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Because of his coaching, the whole team was better for it. My dad’s hands on approach

would serve as a solid example for how students and teachers learn best.

Later in high school, my grandfather, father, uncle and teachers coached me when

I raised livestock for show and auction. My uncle raised lambs for show and I eagerly

followed his example. My grandfather drove me to a farm in West Texas to help me pick

out my first lamb to raise for show (see Photo 2). He meticulously coached me on the

skeletal structure to look for: erect neck and level back, which would yield the best

placement in a livestock show. His attention to detail would serve me well in the future

when I planned lessons for students and professional development for teachers.

Photo 2

Progress Show, The Katy Times, February 12, 1986

My experiences as an instructional coach turned researcher began with my first

experiences as a third-grade teacher at V.C. Elementary School in Apple Independent

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School District. The instructional coach at V.C. Elementary was a huge support for me;

she scaffolded her support and was eager to model lessons and advise me to when to start

or stop an instructional practice.

When it was time for me to become an instructional coach, I had huge shoes to fill

following six years of coaching and being coached. I immediately fostered relationships

with all the grade level teachers, and they were supportive and welcoming. Since my

experiences had only been upper elementary, the early childhood teachers embraced me

as one of their own and I immediately began to absorb their instructional practices.

In 2010 I moved to Robin Hood Elementary in Winter Branch Independent

School District as a School Improvement Specialist. My role was the same, but on this

campus, I was referred to as a coach. This was my first experience at a small

neighborhood school, but upon reflection, it prepared me for the work I am currently

doing as a literacy consultant.

After returning to the classroom for two years at the middle school level, and

being coached by two brilliant educators, I spent two years at Wood Leader Academy in

the Horstmann Independent School District as the Dean of Instruction for grades pre-

kindergarten through eighth grade. I led four instructional coaches, two at the elementary

level and two at the middle level, across all content areas. This leadership experience

provided me with a wealth of knowledge, and the opportunity to become skilled at the

leadership side of coaching, and it supplied me with the tools needed for the next step in

my career.

In the summer of 2015, I accepted a position as an instructional coach for the

Secondary Literacy Department of Curriculum and Professional Development for

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Horstmann Independent School District. In this role, I provided professional

development and coaching for teachers across the school district in grades six through

twelve. I focused on lesson design, modeling lessons, and designing and implementing

balanced literacy at those grade levels. Teacher coaching and development, and the

coordination of a professional learning community at several middle schools and high

schools across the district, was also in my scope of responsibilities. This role provided an

opportunity to build many relationships with teachers, school administrators, and district-

level leaders that supported my continued growth as a literacy coach.

Statement of the Problem

In the past 21 years, working with many teachers, I have observed large teacher

turnover, teachers leaving the profession after only a few years, and teachers entering the

classroom through an alternative certification program (ACP), with little or no

pedagogical knowledge. The need for a support system for teachers is critical, and the

lack of teacher agency is stunting teachers’ abilities to help some of our most needy

students. Teacher agency creates greater interest, higher goals, and the process is

iterative (Johnston, 2004). According to Noonan (2014) and Calvert (2016), agency

gives teachers the capacity to direct their professional growth in a way that positively

influences student achievement. For the purposes of this research study, agency is the

combination of one’s belief in their effectiveness, or self-efficacy, and their actual

knowledge and skills.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study is to investigate how sustained coaching develops

teacher agency. This study will uncover the power of coaching and how it impacts and

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develops teacher agency. Research feedback is expected to demonstrate that when

agency is developed in teachers, they are more likely to stay in the profession and

ultimately positively impact student learning. Teacher turnover rates are a huge

impediment that schools and school districts struggle with on a yearly basis. For

example, in Houston Independent School District, the largest school district in the State

of Texas, the teacher turnover rate for the 2015-2016 school year was 22%, which

equaled more than 2,500 new teachers (Report: Houston Independent School District

Facts and Figures, 2016). The study addressed the following question: What is the

impact of instructional coaching on building agency among middle school literacy

teachers?

Context for the Study

The context for the study was centered on the coaching of teachers at

Klostermann Middle School and Stockwell Middle School in the Horstmann Independent

School District. The schools are well established in the city and neighborhoods and draw

most of its population from their immediate neighborhoods, even though Klostermann

Middle School is a Horstmann Independent School District Magnet School with a focus

on Fine Arts.

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Table 1

Texas Education Agency 2018-2019 School Report Card Student Profile Data -

Klostermann Middle School

The most recent data available from the Texas Education Agency 2018-2019

School Report Card (see Table 1) for Klostermann Middle School shows that the

ethnicity is equally distributed between African American at 33%, Hispanic at 37% and

Asian/Pacific Islander/White at 27%. According to data provided by the Texas

Education Agency 2018-2019 School Report Card for the student population at

Klostermann Middle School, 80% of students met the Approaches Level in all subjects,

53% of students met the Meets Grade Level in all subjects, and 31% of students met the

Masters Level in all subjects (see Table 2).

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Table 2

Texas Education Agency 2018-2019 School Report Card, Klostermann Middle School

The immediate neighborhood of Klostermann Middle School includes single-

family homes and multi-unit apartment complexes. The participants in the study are

experienced teachers with more than five years of experience at various school districts in

the Greater Gulf Coast Region of Texas. The teachers were well known at the campus;

they are an integral part of the learning community and other teachers, parents, and

students view them as valuable resources. This was the third year that I coached at the

campus and the first time that I worked with the teachers in the study.

The most recent data available from the Texas Education Agency 2018-2019

School Report Card (see Table 3) for Stockwell Middle School shows Hispanic students

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at 76%, African American students at 21% and Asian/Pacific Islander/White students at

3%.

Table 3

Texas Education Agency 2018-2019 School Report Card Student Profile Data - Stockwell

Middle School

According to data provided by the Texas Education Agency 2018-2019 School Report

Card for the student population at Stockwell Middle School, 62% of students met the

Approaches Level in all subjects, 30% of students met the Meets Grade Level in all

subjects, and 12% of students met the Masters Level in all subjects (see Table 4).

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Table 4

Texas Education Agency 2018-2019 School Report Card, Stockwell Middle School

The immediate neighborhood surrounding Stockwell Middle School includes

single-family homes in a historically African American neighborhood. Large portions of

the students are bussed from other surrounding neighborhoods that are predominately

Hispanic. The participants in the study were experienced teachers with more than two

years of experience at various school districts in the Greater Gulf Coast Region of Texas.

The teachers were well known at the campus; they were an integral part of the learning

community and other teachers, parents, and students viewed them as valuable resources.

The researcher had a three-year history at this campus with the seventh-grade team, but it

was the first year coaching the teachers in the study.

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Significance of the Study

Many of the educators encountered by the researcher expressed frustration with

routine professional development without implementation of practices. As a result,

coaching has become a viable alternative to standard professional development

workshops since many traditional forms of professional development have not been

linked to improved instructional practices. An internet blogger (ACSD Guest Blogger,

2018) stressed that instructional coaches can generate a culture of action by supporting

teachers identify their individual needs and set attainable goals.

Many school districts employ instructional coaches to support teachers, yet the

instructional coaching role is constantly evolving. As an instructional coach, my efforts

revolved around building teacher capacity in subset A of educators and shifting to subset

B of educators with the same end goal. If I have successfully coached teachers, they

develop agency, or self-efficacy, and no longer need the same level of coaching support.

Once this occurs, I shift my attention towards other teachers that require coaching

support. When teachers understand how to receive and utilize coaching, and coaches can

successfully develop agency in teachers, the relationship between coach and teacher

becomes symbiotic in nature, and productively impacts student learning. This

interdependent relationship creates a mutually beneficial connection in which

instructional coaches are integral for the development of teacher capacity and instruction

for all learners in school settings.

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Definition of Terms

The following terms were used in this case study of the development of teacher

agency through coaching and are defined below:

Agency. The combination of one’s belief in their effectiveness, or self-efficacy,

and their actual knowledge and skills (Calvert, 2016; Noonan, 2014).

Coaching. An ongoing relationship which focuses on coachees (those who are

being coached) acting toward the realization of their visions, goals, or desires. Coaching

uses a process of inquiry and personal discovery to build the coachee’s level of awareness

and responsibility and provide the coachee with structure, support, and feedback. The

coaching process helps coachees both define and achieve professional and personal goals

faster and with more ease than would be possible otherwise (Reiss, 2007).

Modeling. An ideal way to scaffold knowledge that is most effective when

followed by an opportunity to practice with feedback from the coach (Vogt & Shearer,

2016).

Planning. Guided practice while thinking through processes, which can include

explanations and modeling (Aguilar, 2013).

Scaffolding. The support provided to a learner in helping them move from joint

to independent problem solving (Wink and Putney, 2002).

Self-efficacy. A personal belief in one’s capability to organize and execute

courses of action required to attain designated types of performances (Artino, 2012).

Zone of proximal development. The difference between what learners can do

without help and what they can do with help (Vygotsky, 1996).

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Research Question

The research question for this study was the following: What is the impact of

instructional coaching on building agency among middle school literacy teachers? The

researcher believes that every effort should be made to explore ways to build teacher

agency in order to positively impact student achievement and success. Kraft et al.

(2016) noted in their research that “teacher coaching has emerged as a promising

alternative to traditional models of professional development” (p. 1). This research

question is relevant because if it is determined that a positive correlation exists between

instructional coaching and building teacher agency, it will add to the research regarding

the impact of instructional coaching support in school systems and school districts.

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Chapter II

Review of Literature

Introduction

The purpose of this study was to investigate how sustained coaching develops

teacher agency. When agency is developed in teachers, they are more likely to stay in the

profession and student learning is positively impacted. This study centered on the

development of teacher agency through coaching. The following research question was

explored: What is the impact of instructional coaching on building agency among middle

school literacy teachers?

The literature review seeks to build on the current research on professional

development and coaching while supporting the research of this study with educational

theory. This literature review will be divided into seven sections: instructional

knowledge of middle school literacy educators; instructional support of middle school

literacy educators; educational learning theories related to zone of proximal development;

educational theory related to continuity; educational theory related to cognitive processes;

instructional constructs related to middle school literacy; and literature on coaching and

mentoring.

Instructional Knowledge of Middle School Literacy Educators

Many researchers have questioned the most effective instructional model to

maximize middle school literacy development. The short answer is to clarify the

instructional purpose and utilize strategies to help students meet instructional objectives.

This answer does not consider student demographics (i.e., low socio-economic status,

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illiterate parents, and English language learners) and the various challenges educators

face to deliver instruction methodology that will yield student success. When students

struggle academically, especially in literacy instruction, they also struggle in other

subjects as well. Literacy is the foundational construct that determines how well students

perform along the continuum of their educational journeys.

Jacobs (2017) described the concept of teaching literacy in her article. She

believed that the goal is to present students with content-specific information that is

indicative of the concepts that distinguish academic disciplines. She inferred that it

is essential to determine purposes for teaching literacy in ways that serve specific

kinds of content learning. Jacobs (2017) also described the instructional knowledge

educators need for effective middle school literacy instruction. She referenced

Bloom’s taxonomies as an example, from knowing (rote memorization of

information), to doing (demonstration of skills), to understanding (application of

knowledge and critical thinking ability).

Instructional Support of Middle School Literacy Educators

Kraft et al. (2016) conducted the first meta-analysis of studies examining the

causal effect of teacher coaching on instructional practice and student achievement. They

argued that while schools throughout the United States spend billions on professional

development, information from impact evaluations indicates that professional

development programs “more often than not fail to produce systematic improvements in

instructional practice or student achievement, especially when implemented at-scale” (p.

2). If professional development does not yield desired results, other alternatives must be

considered to provide instructional support to educators.

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Instructional support through teacher coaching can facilitate systematic

improvements because it is more likely to improve an educator’s “ability to translate

knowledge and skills into actual classroom practice” (Kraft et al., 2016, p. 4).

Individualized instructional support offered in coaching includes modeling, observation,

and immediate feedback. This observation and feedback cycle in a perpetual

instructional environment offers continuous opportunities for educator and student

learning. When educators can immediately make instructional adjustments in ways that

foster student achievement, teacher agency improves.

Literacy instruction at the middle school level is more nuanced than it is at the

elementary level. When teaching literacy, we must consider comprehension as a

process that promotes understanding through inquiry. This is an approach that can

target specific-content literacy skills development and foster independent learning

support for other academic subjects. As a result, instructional support in the form of

coaching becomes a more practical and effective developmental tool for middle school

literacy educators.

Educational Learning Theory Related to Zone of Proximal Development

The theorists that have impacted the researcher’s study are Lev Vygotsky (1996),

John Dewey (1938), and Jerome Bruner (1990). The researcher’s study is modeled after

and closely aligned with the research of these theorists.

The work of Vygotsky and his theory on the zone of proximal development

provides an excellent theoretical point of origination for this research study. Vygotsky

suggests that learning can be categorized into three areas: what the learner can do alone,

what the learner can do with others, and what the learner cannot do. What the learner can

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do alone is considered independent. When learners need the support of others, this

requires guidance or collaboration. When learners cannot do something, they enter a

level of frustration when attempting difficult situations. The zone of proximal

development is where optimal learning takes place. “What the [learner] can do in

cooperation today he can do alone tomorrow. Therefore, the only good kind of

instruction is that which marches ahead of development and leads it” (Vygotsky, 1996, p.

188). The goal is for learners to be independent, and Vygotsky’s theory provides that

what learners do through experience, conversation, and support, learners will be able to

do independently in the future. Joan Wink helps us understand that support from a more

capable peer enables us to move to the next developmental level in our learning (Wink

and Putney, 2002). Figure 1 provides a visual to illustrate the difference between the

potential and actual development level as described in Vygotsky’s zone of proximal

development.

Figure 1

Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development

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Educational Theory Related to Continuity

Like Vygotsky, John Dewey’s theory on continuity, the idea that every learning

experience prepares us for the next learning experience, prepares learners for

independence.

...there is some kind of continuity in any case since every experience affects for

better or worse the attitudes which help decide the quality of further experiences,

by setting up certain preference and aversion, and making it easier or harder to act

for this or that end. Moreover, every experience influences in some degree the

objective conditions under which further experiences are had (Dewey, 1938, p.

37).

In addition, Dewey’s theories of temporality and interaction are important to the

researcher’s study: temporality - the ability to view experience from various vantage

points over time; and interaction - that experience is socially based and personal (Dewey,

1938, p. 38-44). Continuity, temporality, and interaction are not separate from each

other, but instead are intertwined and a part of the learning process that enriches our

lives. Figure 2 is Dewey’s (1938) theory of experience.

Figure 2

Dewey’s Theory of Experience

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Similarly, Jerome Bruner believed that education enriches our lives and “stories

of individuals illuminate personal thoughts and actions while they are making sense of

the relationships and developing their [narrative] stance” (Carroll and Wilson, 2008, p.

257). Bruner is considered the father of cognitive thinking, and his three major

contributions have influenced the researcher’s study.

The Process of Education.

“Any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually honest form to any [learner]

at any stage of development,” a contention that is an integral part of teaching and learning

today (Bruner, 1960, p. 33). Bruner supports this claim with three ideas: intellectual

development - the notion that the outcome of cognitive development is thinking (Bruner,

1960, p. 34-46); the act of learning - the notion that learning involves acquisition,

transformation, and evaluation (Bruner, 1960, p. 48); and the spiral curriculum - the

notion that any worthy subject taught helps prepare us later in our learning life (Bruner,

1960, p. 52).

The Process of Knowing.

Bruner believed that learning was a process, not a product. Bruner’s process of

knowing, or the process of sharing an experience, is represented in three ways: enactive

knowing - the notion that we learn by doing. A teacher’s actions will have a specific

result: iconic knowing - the notion that we learn through images, pictures, and graphics.

When teachers can describe a classroom arrangement from memory, they are using iconic

knowing as well as symbolic knowing - the notion that we learn through restatement in

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words. Teachers become adept when they are able to use innovative concepts to

transform future lessons (Carroll & Wilson, 2008).

The Process of Discovery.

Bruner’s four benefits for learning by discovery are: 1) the increase of

intellectual potency - the notion that teachers and learners have high expectations for

learning (Bruner, 1971, p. 86); 2) the shift from extrinsic to intrinsic rewards - the notion

that learning by discovery fosters a greater ability to discover in the future (Bruner, 1971,

p. 92); 3) the learning of the heuristics of discovery - the notion that learners improve

their ability by doing the very thing they are trying to improve (Bruner, 1971, p. 94); and

4) the aid to conserving memory - the notion that learners should construct their own

cognitive processes (Bruner, 1971, p. 95).

Instructional Constructs Related to Middle School Literacy

As the researcher builds the elements of how learners are influenced by their

learning experiences, he is reminded of how a building is erected. The general contractor

begins by planning for a strong foundation, the key to a building that will last

generations. Then beams are attached and surrounded by scaffolding. This scaffolding is

temporary but serves an important role. Without the scaffolding or support, the workers

will struggle, and the building may not be completed. The benefits of scaffolding

become most evident during the transition to middle school.

Teacher learning as a construct influences personal, interpersonal, contextual, and

situational factors as teachers develop agency. This impact builds their narrative

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authority as a character in their own learning (Olson, 1995; Olson & Craig, 2001). As

explained by Lyons and LaBoskey (2002), Olson’s conception of:

narrative authority emerges from the implicit narrative knowledge individuals

develop through experience and shapes the way we choose to author our lives in

relation to others. As we explain to our students, it involves both living and

telling stories in response to the social contexts in which we find ourselves.

(Lyons & LaBoskey, 2002, p. 116).

Our “narrative authority” then impacts how and when we develop agency.

In the same way, exposure to guidance from literacy coaches and peers affects

how and when we develop agency. The researcher studied how language affects learning

by looking closely at the work of Peter Johnston and his book Choice Words, which was

influenced heavily by Lev Vygotsky (1996). Johnston recognizes that any apprenticeship

begins by noticing and naming and is central to communication. “Although noticing and

naming things is a central part of apprenticeship, we also learn things without naming

them or even really being aware of them. Language is the perfect example” (Johnston,

2004, p. 10). A part of the coaching process is noticing and naming for coachees by

communicating importance. This process can also be connected to what we know about

how our brain learns. When learners discover familiarity for learning, “their neural

pathways are more efficient, and when learning is unfamiliar an apprentice will use more

of their brain, but quickly rewires itself” (Jensen, 1998, p. 13).

Grappling with the impediments that make learning challenging allows

educational professions to explore instruction methodology that leads to retention and

content mastery. For example, study habits like underlining and highlighting, rereading,

22

and cramming may create the illusion of mastery, but are often counterproductive.

Brown et al. (2014) described a long-lasting approach to learning that stems from

complex challenges that force the learner through difficulties such as thoroughly

reviewing new material, allowing for some forgetting, then scaffolding skills to ensure

durable learning. In essence, this approach is akin to a teacher’s decision-making on

what to re-teach her students based on their performance on a given objective. One does

not know what they truly know until they accept what they do not yet know and

challenge themselves to learn the uncomfortable concepts and as they hone their skills.

One of the benefits of coaching is that throughout the process the teacher becomes

the student and gains perspective regarding some of the challenges their students face.

These principles are more effective to produce lifelong learning opportunities while

honing skills for retention and future application. In spite of the neurological

underpinnings inherent throughout the continuum of the learning process, these

researchers offer a perspective that may result in learning durability that will narrow

student achievement gaps.

When we create a narrative for teachers that portrays them as successful

protagonists, they can view themselves as strategic learners. This development of agency

is a fundamental human desire (Johnston, 2004). Olson and Craig (2001) illustrate this

as:

By exploring the storied nature of experience, we come to better understandings

of ways in which teachers construct unique personal practical knowledge about

the world as well as the tensions involved in the social transactions continually

23

taking place among multiple educators in the same or different places on the

professional knowledge landscape (Olson & Craig, 2001, p. 669).

This illustration connects the human desire for agency to the nature of experience.

Johnston states, “The concept of agency is not only central for the individual’s sense of

competence and well-being... but also indispensable to democratic living” (Johnston,

2004, p. 41).

Woulfin (2018) conducted a study to examine the relationship between district

policy and instructional coaching. She stated instructional coaching has “a popular lever

to catalyze instructional improvement efforts” (Woulfin, 2018, p. 1). Her research

described the coupling theory as a lens for “analyzing the relationship between forces

from the institutional environment and activities occurring in the technical core of

organizations” (Woulfin, 2018, p. 3). This theory describes interdependent elements in

organizations and allows researchers to determine under what conditions are instructional

practices, such as coaching, matched (or coupled with) district policies and/or

organizational goals.

Dale Schunk’s (2019) research offers a perspective on social cognitive theory that

focus on a student’s cognitive processes, self-regulation, and intrinsic motivation

throughout instruction. Being cognitive throughout the continuum of the learning process

requires a level of awareness that many learners lack. Schunk’s ability to blend theory,

research, and applications offers instructional constructs and a coherent perspective for

diverse educational settings. Schunk’s constructs of beliefs, skills, strategies, and

knowledge provide new specific details regarding memory functionality, including

24

encoding, consolidation, and retrieval. This focus offers future research implications for

gaining a better understanding of how we learn.

Coaching and Mentoring

Coaching teachers is like coaching a sports team. The most effective coaches

perform a variation of an analysis referred to as SWOT (strengths, weaknesses,

opportunities, threats). Albert Humphrey developed this analysis, initially named SOFT,

approximately 55 years ago while he worked at Stanford Research Institute. As one can

see, the SWOT Analysis makes the abstract data attainable through the use of a matrix

(see Figure 3).

Figure 3

Albert Humphrey’s SWOT Analysis

Since all players on a team have strengths and weaknesses, it is the coach’s

responsibility to analyze the players’ abilities and develop them into a cohesive group of

25

athletes that work well together. When coaches begin with a player’s strength, they can

relate what the player knows to what the player needs to learn. “Like athletes, teachers

will put newly learned skills to use - if they are coached” (Joyce & Showers, 1982, p. 5).

This inductive approach to coaching allows the player to build knowledge from the

known to the unknown (Aristotle and Barnes, 2014).

According to Noonan (2014) and Calvert (2016), agency gives teachers the

capacity to direct their professional growth in ways that positively impact student

achievement. In order to move a teacher from novice to expert, a community of learners

must work together to support the learning of the novice teacher. The inclusion of a

literacy coach into the community of learners makes a bold statement about the

importance of learning for everyone (Noonan, 2014). Coaching is an approach designed

to maximize teaching potential.

It is important to develop teacher agency, but it is equally important to create

support systems that provide professional learning for teachers. “As teachers become

aware of the importance of their agency, they must give themselves permission to lean

into their own learning more often and more effectively” (Calvert, 2016, p. 14).

To transform professional learning so that it really supports educator learning,

education leaders will need to pay greater attention to the importance of teacher

agency. In addition to analyzing data, visiting classrooms, and reviewing school

and system goals, leaders must cultivate an environment of continuous learning

that engages teachers in their professional learning at every step of way. They

must understand the intangible, but enormous, value teachers place on being

listened to and involved meaningfully as well as the benefits the school

26

community enjoys when teachers are intrinsically motivated to pursue their

continued development (Calvert, 2016, p. 3).

Instructional coaching is an essential component of any professional development

program. Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development can readily be extended to the

inexperienced teacher. It is imperative that teachers reflect on instructional practices in

ways that identify where their expertise lies as well as areas of improvement, as

referenced in the SWOT analysis. Addressing these factors requires the teacher to

understand what they can do alone, what they can do with others, and what they cannot

do. This level of self-awareness creates the transparent dialogue necessary to maximize

coaching opportunities. It is essential to remember that coaching can, “reinforce

teachers’ and administrators’ practices in ways that support schools, so instruction is

rigorous, delivery is effective, and assessment is appropriate for student learning to

improve. Instructional coaching influences what students learn, increases student

engagement, builds teacher capacity, and helps students and teachers become more

successful learners” (Eisenberg, 2015). Eisenberg goes on to explain the essential

qualities of an instructional coach:

The single most important quality of a coach is the ability to build strong,

collaborative relationships. No one knows everything about content even in one’s

own area of certification. No one knows every strategy or instructional technique

that promises to improve student outcomes. No one knows all there is to know

about his or her students or schoolwide community. What a coach knows,

however, is the power of collaboration and the tremendous influence collective

problem solving has to improve the ongoing teaching and learning that must be

27

present in order for students, teachers, administrators, and schools to be successful

and help prepare our students for society (Eisenberg, 2015).

Coaching provides the opportunity for implementation and may be the most

important part of teacher learning programs (Goodwin, 2011). The Annenberg

Foundation for Education Reform found in their comprehensive study on effective

coaching that it encourages collaboration, allows teachers to apply their learning, and

improves teacher capacity (Annenberg Foundation for School Reform, 2004).

As the Annenberg (2004) study found, coaching can have an unmistakable impact

on schools, teachers, and ultimately students. Effective coaches have a variety of

coaching approaches, including directive, facilitative, and cognitive. The focus of

directive coaching is to change behaviors. This can be described as content area

coaching. Many school districts use directive coaches for the purpose of having experts

assist in the implementation of the written curriculum. Among other supportive roles, a

coach may plan, model, and provide feedback to a group of teachers (Aguilar, 2013).

Regardless of the coaching method used, multiple dimensions of treatment plan

implementation should be evaluated through multimethod, multisource

assessments. A substantial body of literature supports the use of performance

feedback as a primary strategy to increase treatment plan implementation.

Performance feedback may be most effective when combined with one or more

coaching practices, including modeling, live prompting, and behavioral rehearsal

(Garbacz, Lannie, Jeffrey-Pearsall, & Truckenmiller, 2015, p. 271).

Depending on the need of the school district or school, this model may be a part of a

larger professional development program. This approach to coaching, alone, is unlikely

28

to result in building teacher agency because the focus is on the implementation of the

district curriculum and not necessarily on the teacher. Dewey’s theories of temporality

and interaction are applicable when a school district is capable of viewing the experience

of teaching from various vantage points rather than solely from an administrative

perspective. The learning process for students is naturally enriched when the individuals

responsible for delivering quality instruction are able to collaborate to ensure their

academic success.

In contrast, facilitative coaching utilizes reflection, analysis, observation, and

experimentation to build on the teacher’s existing skills, knowledge, and beliefs (Aguilar,

2013). Jim Knight shares:

Instructional coaches are essential for professional learning…Principals provide

leadership, guide the development of the Target, and observe and encourage

teachers as they grow and move toward the Target. [Professional development]

introduces teachers to practices that are in the Target...Coaches help teachers take

all the ideas and practices they are learning and bring them to life. Without

coaching, too often, no significant change occurs (Knight, 2011, p. 91).

This coaching model is dependent upon the use of Vygotsky’s zone of proximal

development, the difference between what learners can do without help and what they

can do with help (Vygotsky, 1996). In order to develop teacher agency, coaches must

know the teachers they are supporting like teachers know their students. The coaches

might ask themselves questions like: Where are the tricky parts? Where is it going to get

hard? What is new (or the same) in this cycle? This will help the coach know where and

how to provide support for the teacher.

29

Like facilitative coaching, cognitive coaching explores the way we think in order

to change behaviors. The goal of cognitive coaching is to encourage reflection and guide

self-directed learning (Aguilar, 2013). The coach and coachee are considered partners in

a conversation, rather than an observing audience member (Knight, 2016). A reflection

on cognitive coaching provides a broad explanation that includes a metacognitive

approach.

Cognitive coaching is a process during which teachers explore the thinking

behind their practices. Each person seems to maintain a cognitive map, only partially

conscious. In cognitive coaching, questions asked by the coach reveal to the teacher

areas of that map that may not be complete or consciously developed. When teachers

talk aloud about their thinking, their decisions become clearer to them, and their

awareness increases (Garmston, Linder, & Whitaker, 1993).

This coaching model is flexible enough to meet the needs of teachers at various

levels and focuses on building teacher agency through reflective conversations. The

transfer of knowledge, skills, and experiences from coach to teacher often leads to

“confident” teaching. Confident teachers are much more likely to facilitate confident

learning in their students. When this occurs, teacher agency is a natural byproduct.

According to an American Psychological Association report (2014), a

combination of approaches should be utilized to improve teacher instruction and student

achievement. One of the approaches in this article includes highlighting the utility and

limitations of a teacher’s instruction methodology. This is an evaluative role that

coaching provides. Bruner’s theoretical processes of education, knowing, and discovery

30

create a cyclical framework that can create a mutually beneficial relationship for the

instructional coach as a mentor and the teacher as a mentee.

Moen & Allgood (2009) performed a study to investigate the impact of coaching

on self-efficacy. These researchers presented the impact of coaching for teachers as

providing the capability to self-evaluate and analyze tasks as they discover their

capacities for learning new tasks. Being coached requires goal setting to acquire desired

skills and developing strategies to ensure success in attaining these goals. Studies

regarding coaching as a process and the effect of self-efficacy led these researchers to

evaluate experimentation approaches for this research study as well as to consider

additional research implications.

A rewarding educational coaching environment is mutually beneficial. Some

benefits for teachers include receiving practical advice, encouragement and support;

increasing academic confidence and empowerment for decision making; improving

communication skills; and focusing on goal development for student achievement.

Equally important are some of the benefits for the coach, including enhanced

communication and leadership skills, reinforcement of content knowledge and

professional and personal fulfillment from assisting other educational professionals.

Salter and Gannon (2015) conducted a research study that focused on

inconsistencies in coaching and mentoring within six disciplines. These disciplines

included executive coaches, coaching psychologists, sports coaches, leadership mentors,

mentors of newly qualified teachers and mentors of young people. The goal of this

research was to identify consistencies that are an impediment to effective coaching and

mentoring in order to meet the expectations of those seeking developmental support in

31

numerous occupations. Results of this study indicated that coaching is most effective

when it is discipline-specific and when scientific-based practices are consistently

implemented. As it relates specifically to the teaching profession, Scherer (2011)

explained that many teachers often exhaust themselves by avoiding help from individuals

who can best provide it. He recommended that one way to alter this avoidance thinking

is through a mindset shift geared toward embracing opportunities for professional

guidance and support.

Mohajeri-Nelson and Negley (2016) offer a “Why Say It When You Can Display

It” approach to building teacher agency. They believe coaching involves extensive

modeling at the onset, which gives the teachers a rare opportunity to observe activities

that promote student engagement and content mastery. During modeling by coaches,

teachers are able to observe to what extent students are meeting achievement goals for

sustainable knowledge transfer (Mohajeri-Nelson & Negley, 2016).

The researcher designed a coaching scaffold that was adapted from a reading

conference scaffold developed by Nancy Allison and her book Middle School Readers, to

use as a conversation starter in coaching situations (see Figure 3 and Appendix D). To

use the scaffold, the coach begins the coaching conference with the three questions at the

top of the page: What are you working on now? How is it going so far? How can I

provide support? These three questions give the coach information about what the

teacher has been working on since the last coaching opportunity. The familiarity of these

questions helps establish the expectation that the coach is there to help. In addition, the

coach is able to discern if the teacher feels successful in the classroom.

32

Figure 4

Coaching scaffold for beginning coaching conversations with teachers.

When the coach gets a positive response to these questions, the coach will

proceed to the left side of the scaffold and focus on objectives, modeling, and workshop

questions. This gives the coach an opportunity to nudge the teacher to move to deeper

levels of understanding about the students and about the content that is being taught. If

the coach gets a negative response to the initial questions, then the coach will proceed to

the right side of the scaffold and focus on engagement and understanding issues. This

gives the coach an opportunity to support the teacher where they may be struggling to

meet the needs of the students. An example of this support may vary from

implementation to text choice. The coaching scaffold is an effective way to create and

33

expand on new coaching opportunities. Once rapport has been established between the

coach and teacher, the scaffold is an invaluable resource to facilitate conversations about

teaching and learning. Just like Allison (2009), this scaffold is intended to meet each

teacher where they are in their particular journey.

Charismatic leadership is paramount when coaching. Coaches must navigate

between making stern recommendations vs. subtle observations in order to cultivate a

relationship that will guide teachers to self-efficacy. Coaching strategies that are

incorporated in the classroom by teachers provide optimal student learning opportunities.

34

Chapter III

Methodology

In this chapter, I share the inquiry approach, introduce my case study, place

myself in the narrative, and summarize the methodology of the study. The purpose of

this study is to investigate how sustained coaching develops teacher agency. The study

addresses the following research question: What is the impact of instructional coaching

on building agency among middle school literacy teachers?

Research Approach

The research approach for participant selection was based on an attempt to

showcase the association between coaching and teacher agency development. A

connection exists in their partnership as teachers at Klostermann Middle School and their

collaboration as members of the faculty. Each of them has their own unique differences,

but they also have a common membership. The narrative begins through collaborative

engagement when they come together as colleagues. The cause and effect element in the

story of how coaching has affected their teacher agency gives me a contextual focus for

research (Creswell and Poth, 2018). Because the participants have similarities and

differences, I will use my research question to identify the relationship that manifests

through the lens of their narrative. As such, my research question is: What is the impact

of instructional coaching on building agency among middle school literacy teachers?

Narrative Stance

The methodological framework for the study comes from a variety of pedagogical

points of view. Creswell and Poth (2018) share that:

35

The procedures for implementing this research consist of focusing on studying

one or two individuals, gathering data through the collection of their stories,

reporting individual experiences, and chronologically ordering the meaning of

those experiences (p. 68).

Even though I will rest on the pedagogical shoulders of others, their idea of making

meaning of experiences will be paramount in my narrative study.

The idea that education is an experience comes from the work of John Dewey

(1938). The temporal nature of education frames the idea that all experiences contribute

to the education of an individual. These experiences move the learner to a new level of

understanding based on how they interpret the experiences as related to self.

Clandinin and Connelly (2000) hypothesize that “life - as we come to it and it

comes to others - is filled with narrative fragments, enacted in storied moments of time

and space, and reflected upon and understood in terms of narrative unities and

discontinuities” (p. 17). Connelly and Clandinin (2000) define narrative inquiry as:

the study of experience as story…is first and foremost a way of thinking about

experience. Narrative inquiry as a methodology entails a view of the

phenomenon. To use narrative inquiry methodology is to adopt a particular

narrative view of experience as phenomena under study (p. 477).

According to Connelly and Clandinin (2006), there are three common places for narrative

inquiry: A. Temporality – the belief that all people and events being studied have a past,

a present, and a future (p. 477); B. Sociality – the belief that narrative inquirers are

concerned with the feelings, hopes, desires, aesthetic reactions, and moral dispositions

that people experience within a particular setting (p. 490); and C. Place – the belief that

36

there are “specific concrete, physical and topological boundaries of place or sequence of

places where the inquiry and events take place (p. 480). Within these three

commonplaces, the narrative inquirer can move backwards and forwards in time and

space, as well as reflect inwardly on their own experiences and outwardly toward the

experiences of others within the narrative as well as across events. Connelly and

Clandinin (2004) describe the negotiation necessary for the researcher to live on the

landscape of the research, and the inherent ambiguity of narrative research, “Narrative

research is a way of understanding experience; it is collaboration between research and

participants over time, in a place or series of places, and in social interactions with

milieus (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000, p. 20).”

Like Dewey, Jerome Bruner believes that education enriches our lives, “stories of

individuals illuminate personal thoughts and actions while they are making sense of the

relationships and developing their [narrative] stance” (Carroll and Wilson, 2008, p. 257).

Carroll and Wilson (2008) proposed that Bruner’s process of knowing, or the process of

sharing an experience, is represented in three ways: “A. Enactive Knowing - the notion

that we learn by doing. A teacher’s actions will have a specific result; B. Iconic

Knowing - the notion that we learn through images, pictures, and graphics. When

teachers can describe a classroom arrangement from memory, they are using iconic

knowing; and C. Symbolic Knowing - the notion that we learn through restatement in

words. A teacher’s use of new idea to transform their future lessons” (p. 257).

Bruner’s understanding of the narrative and the meaning that can be made

perfectly describes the ways in which I want teachers to learn from and learn into their

own teaching realities.

37

Selecting Participants

The convenience sampling strategy will be used to select participants from

schools that have received instructional coaching from the researcher. This sampling

method was used to target participants from schools that have received instructional

coaching directly from the researcher. Teachers who accept the invitation to participate

in the study will partake in one (1) one-on-one semi-structured interview and one (1)

focus group using the interview guidelines outlined by Creswell (2018). Qualitative data

will consist of interview data and content data (journal entries and instructional artifacts

from the researcher). These data will be analyzed utilizing constant comparative method

for interview data and content analysis for document data to identify emerging themes

and key concepts.

Data Collection Procedures and Instrumentation

As a part of the study, I used the interview to collect individualized information

regarding the participants. Each of the participants has unique experiences and stories

that will provide insight into the building of their own teacher agency. Each of the

participants has also received and engaged in the coaching in unique ways, so it is

expected that each will respond differently. Furthermore, I hope that meticulous

excavation through interview transcripts will reveal the effect of coaching on the

participant’s ability to build their own teacher agency.

Starting with the story of my own journey as a learner, I activated a self-reflective

approach on the impact of my journey and the relationships I cultivated along the way

that led to my own growth as an instructional coach. I do this by analyzing my journal

38

entries from experiences with the participants, personal interviews, and my current

experiences as an instructional coach across the Greater Gulf Coast Region of Texas.

My instructional artifacts are a list of resources, manipulatives, and anecdotal

notes that impacted my agency as an instructional coach. It is essential that I review

these to reflect on the successes and setbacks I experienced during my journey from

teacher to instructional coach. As a learner and researcher, I will draw heavily on my

own “narrative authority” (Olson, 1995; Olson & Craig, 2001).

Interview Protocol.

Using the narrative inquiry tools of Connelly and Clandinin, “broadening,

burrowing, and restorying” (Connelly & Clandinin, 1990), I will use journal entries,

anecdotal notes, and instructional artifacts to develop my interview protocol. Instead of

asking specifically about the influence of my coaching and agency of each participant, I

structured the interviews using the following grand tour questions, which were developed

to encourage participants to open up and share their experiences: How do you define

coaching? How do you define agency? What has been the influence of coaching on

your professional teaching career? Why might you have more agency at different times

in your career? When did you notice a change in your agency as a teacher and will you

describe it for me? How have relationships, professional or personal, affected your

agency?

A one-on-one interview that will be conducted by the researcher will ask each

participant open-ended questions developed by the researcher using the above grand tour

questions. Each of the participants will have unique experiences and stories that will

39

Table 5

Instrumentation and Data Collection Techniques

provide a narrative framework regarding their journey to building teacher agency. The

participants have also experienced instructional coaching in unique ways, so they will

each have an opportunity to respond individually before participating in a focus group

Instrumentation and Data Collection Techniques

Research Question: What is the impact of instructional coaching on building agency among middle

school literacy teachers?

Data Collection Process What data did you plan to collect? How did it

help you answer your research question?

Were the

data sets

collected

quantitative,

qualitative,

or mixed?

Utilizing constant comparative

method for the one-on-one

interviews, the researcher coded the

interviews to identify emerging

themes and key concepts.

The semi-structured one-on-one interviews

provided an informal personal opportunity to

gather individual participant responses to the

structured questions but allowed for follow-up

questions as needed based on participant

responses. How has coaching influenced your

teaching career? What prevents teachers from

achieving agency? How have relationships

affected your agency?

Qualitative

Utilizing constant comparative

method for the focus group, the

researcher coded the interviews to

identify emerging themes and key

concepts.

The focus group was a stimulating, dynamic

conversation that enriched the researcher’s

depth of understanding about how coaching

influences the development of agency. Did the

coaching opportunities the teachers

participated in develop their agency? Were

teachers impacted more by building knowledge

or self-efficacy?

Qualitative

Access the researcher’s journals

and instructional artifacts during

the times that the participants were

coached by the researcher using

content analysis to identify

emerging themes and key concepts.

The researcher’s journals and instructional

artifacts documented the collaborations and

self-reflections on instructional strategies and

coaching practices used throughout the year.

When were teachers experiencing low or high

levels of agency? What might have prevented

the development of agency? What were the

topics of PLCs and professional development

throughout the year?

Qualitative

40

interview. Therefore, a focus group interview will be conducted to collect shared

understandings that emerged from the two one-on-one interviews. All interview data will

be audio recorded for accuracy. Responses from one-on-one interviews and the focus

group interview will be analyzed to identify emerging themes. Following the collection

of each data set, data will be entered into a data file for coded analysis of themes, key

concepts, and implications from the collected data by two outside readers established as

experts in the field of analysis (See Table 5). The data coding will provide insight into

the participants’ perceptions about instructional coaching, the characteristics of effective

or ineffective instructional coaching trends, and into the recommended revisions that

could be considered for improving the instructional coaching process.

Narrative Inquiry Analysis.

The researcher collected field notes, lesson plans, and artifacts from group

planning sessions, which were analyzed for the development of questions for the

interviews and to guide the collection and analysis of additional field texts. The

researcher framed the study using Clandinin and Connelly’s (2000) three-step

methodology for conducting narrative inquiry: 1) broadening, generating field texts from

a variety of narrative sources; 2) burrowing, creating interim texts to story and restory the

narrative inquiry from field texts; and restorying; and 3) creating research narratives that

accurately tell the knowledge community stories. To deepen the provisional texts and

support the creation of the interview protocol and questions, I used the technique of

ethnographic research (Creswell & Poth, 2018) to observe, document, interview, and

collect artifacts. Using ethnography to explore cultural phenomena from the point of

view of the subject of the study, the researcher will validate and analyze the interview

41

transcripts with the participants throughout the process to ensure the accuracy of the

interview content. This process is important since each question in succession is

dependent upon the validity of the previous question and response.

Leung (2015) argued that qualitative research is meant to study a specific issue or

phenomenon with a specific population of individuals. As such, it is challenging to

ensure the generalizability of qualitative research findings. Leung recommended

triangulation, comparison, and documentation as one way to assess generalizability.

Korstjens and Moser (2018) described data triangulation as using multiple data sources,

i.e., gathering data from different types of people. For this research study, participants are

a group of different people (teachers, grade level chairs, and mentors).

It is the researcher’s goal to transfer all relevant information gathered in ways

that can result in research implications for additional research toward better

understanding the coaches’ roles and perceptions while assisting in growth and

development of teachers.

Summary

This study examined the influences of sustained instructional coaching on the

development of teacher agency in middle school literacy teachers. It is the researcher’s

goal to elucidate the factors that build teacher agency from the perspective of the teacher.

One-on-one interviews and focus group interviews provide the narrative for how

sustained instructional coaching is to improve teacher confidence, self-efficacy,

instruction methodology, and student achievement.

42

Chapter IV

Results

In this chapter, the researcher presents the findings of the study and offers

discussion of the results. This study centered on coaching and how it affects teacher

agency. The study consisted of one (1) one-on-one interview and a focus group with six

(6) middle school literacy teachers that have been coached by the researcher for at least

one academic school year. The interviews and focus group explored the research

question: What is the impact of instructional coaching on building agency among middle

school literacy teachers? Using the constant comparative method, the data from the

interviews was coded into categories by key words. From the categories, the following

themes emerged:

1. Teachers perceived that coaching positively impacts their knowledge

acquisition.

2. Teachers perceived that coaching positively impacts instructional delivery.

3. Teachers perceived that coaching positively impacts the way they viewed

themselves (self-confidence).

4. Teachers perceived that coaching positively impacts their belief in the

ability to deliver quality instruction (self-efficacy).

5. Teachers perceived that coaching positively impacts student achievement.

A focus group was conducted to provide further opportunities for participant reflection of

emerging themes.

This chapter was organized by presenting each theme and relevant qualitative data

from the interviews and focus group in the form of participants’ responses. These

43

responses were transcribed and are direct quotes from the participants. The researcher

then discussed and analyzed the data following the presentation of data for each theme.

Case Study Context

This study was a case study that explored the impact of instructional coaching on

building agency among middle school literacy teachers. The researcher has coached all

of the participants in the study for at least one academic school year.

A series of online interviews lasting approximately 30 to 40 minutes each was

held individually with the participants. The goal of providing extensive time to answer

the interview questions was to promote sufficient dialogue to determine common themes.

Using the constant comparative method, the responses from these interviews were coded

by keywords into categories. From these categories, themes emerged. Next, a focus

group was held online with all participants as a group for approximately 50 minutes to

allow for reflection on the themes to yield additional qualitative data. To ensure

objectivity for this research study, a former NASA research methodologist was utilized

for data review and analysis. This individual is adept at deriving common themes from

standardized methods of inquiry and had no direct contact with any research participants.

Triangulation and member-checking techniques were utilized to ensure that participants

had an opportunity to provide additional information and make any corrections needed to

fully detail their perceptions and observations. The participants were purposefully

selected from a group to ensure they are varied yet inclusive data sources. The researcher

expressly desired that the information obtained during this case study would result in

improvements for the coaching of teachers to build agency.

44

Keywords, Codes, and Categories

Table 6 below presents the keywords and codes used to categorize data from

interviews.

Table 6

Keywords, Codes, and Categories

Knowing

Knowledge

Learning

Experiences

Thinking

Thought

Consider

Beliefs

Development

Growth

Training

Example

Model

Support

Help

Assist

Affirm

Change

Confidence

Effectiveness

Coding Rubric

Table 7 presents the coding rubric for qualitative data from interviews and focus

group. Note, synonymous terms or matching descriptions of the terms below were used

in coding data.

45

Table 7

Coding Rubric

Category Comment

Code

Comment Codes Code

Total

Category

Total T 1 T 2 T 3 T 4 T 5 T 6

Knowing

115 Knowledge 8 0 1 9 7 17 42

Learning 5 2 7 4 10 8 36

Experience 13 6 2 2 8 6 37

Category Comment

code

Comment Codes Code

Total

Category

Total T 1 T 2 T 3 T 4 T 5 T 6

Thinking

23 Thought 2 2 0 6 2 0 12

Consider 0 0 3 0 0 0 3

Beliefs 6 0 0 0 1 1 8

Category Comment

Code

Comment Codes Code

Total

Category

Total T 1 T 2 T 3 T 4 T 5 T 6

Development

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Growth 5 0 3 0 0 4 12

Training 0 4 0 8 0 0 12

Example 5 1 2 1 2 2 13

Model 6 0 8 4 7 2 27

Category Comment

Code

Comment Codes Code

Total

Category

Total T 1 T 2 T 3 T 4 T 5 T 6

Support

139 Help 26 10 45 19 21 11 132

Assist 0 0 0 1 2 2 5

Affirm 2 0 0 0 0 0 2

Category Comment

Code

Comment Codes Code

Total

Category

Total T 1 T 2 T 3 T 4 T 5 T 6

Change

75 Confidence 7 10 12 6 7 1 43

Effective 11 3 7 2 8 1 32

46

Theme One: Knowing

Teachers perceived that coaching positively impacts their knowledge acquisition.

Thus, coaching provided opportunities for increasing their knowledge in their area of

teaching focus. Based on the coding of qualitative data from teacher interviews, there

were 115 references to knowing concerning the coaching experience.

Teacher 1 noted:

This is a hard career to thrive in and I think coaching helps you to push on in hard

times in the classroom. And I think it just continues to build your knowledge. I

have coaches in different areas. I can pull from their different areas of expertise

and more than I can get in a book because I mean books are great, obviously, but I

think that it also helps to have a really personal candid off-the-cuff version of

what you need to learn. I knew the content, but it was just how to implement it

and believe in myself that I could do that. So, my second year of teaching seventh

grade, I feel that I had the knowledge needed because I was having the top growth

in my grade level, and my students really we're growing all population areas.

Teacher 3 noted:

I would have to say that through most of my career probably after my first four or

five years of teaching I felt knowledgeable. By that time, I was very confident in

what I was doing, and I had taught long enough to where I was knowledgeable

about my content because of coaching experiences. So, it was like a twofold to

where coaching just made me feel good in the classroom. It wasn't like the

apprehension of everyday thinking that you're walking into a situation that is

unfamiliar.

47

Teacher 4 noted:

Coaching has made me a better teacher. I learned a lot through coaching. I wish

that I had had exposure to the coaching earlier because I think that it has made me

a better teacher and it makes me more confident. I know that if I am struggling

with something that I'm trying to teach, I can just contact the coach. I can contact

them and say, look, I'm trying to teach this, and it's not working for me and they

assist me as needed.

Teacher 5 noted:

I did an outside program to become a teacher, so I didn't know anything about

teaching. So coaching was the most influential thing for me because I was new to

everything. I didn't know classroom management well, so it needs to be coached

on that. I know English, but what I learned in English I could pass a test, but I

needed every aspect to be ... I needed knowledge in every aspect. I think that's

what coaching did for me. So, having different people. coach me in different

aspects in different areas was very helpful because without it I don't think I would

have been effective as teacher.

Teacher 6 noted:

Coaching has really transformed my teaching career. In the beginning before I

was coached, I felt like I was kind of on my own. Like, I didn't know what I was

doing. I didn't have the knowledge or anybody who I could, who has already

done this, who I could go and like bounce ideas off of. I just kind of felt like I

was winging it whereas when you're being coached is just like if you play a sport

or like if you know you're on a team. You're learning all these tricks of the trade

48

and these things that you can do. So, like, let's say, for instance, you are, you're in

the middle of a lesson and maybe your students aren't getting it. Well, you've

been coached on all these different types of things before that immediately you

can have A little. Okay, let's do this mini lesson and I already know this mini

lesson because I've been coached on how I can add this to my lessons, so it just

really helps you to be the best version of yourself. It gives you the knowledge

you need. So basically, support you.

Discussion of Theme One: Knowing

The coding of the data revealed 89 references to the words “knowledge” or

“learning,” emphasizing the importance of knowledge and how coaching can affect a

teacher’s knowledge. Teacher 1 suggests that coaching is better for adding to our

knowledge than a book because you can get “in-the-moment” support. This is important

for teachers because it can be hard for them to understand how feedback applies to their

classroom and their students when it is given out of context.

In the panel interview, Teacher 5 shared that she was a new teacher from an

alternative certification program (ACP) and that the coaching was essential to her success

her first year because she had no prior training and depended on the support of the coach.

As an instructional coach that has worked in multiple schools across all grade levels, this

is a common issue that ACP teachers face coming into the field of education with little to

no pedagogy. The panel interview also revealed specific professional development

opportunities that added to their knowledge as a teacher. Teacher 2 noted “I also like

how when you go to those trainings, they make you do the activity that you are actually

going to make the students do.”

49

In reflection, the researcher noted specific professional development opportunities

referenced in the interviews and focus group. All of these opportunities were interactive

and experiential. This connects to the theoretical framework of the study by actualizing

the work of Dewey in that every learning experience prepares us for the next learning

experience.

Theme Two: Thinking

Teachers perceived that coaching positively impacts instructional delivery. The

idea of exchanging thinking, formally or informally, between coach and teacher,

encouragingly influences the teacher’s ability to deliver quality instruction. Based on the

coding of qualitative data from teacher interviews, there were 23 references to thinking

concerning the coaching experience.

Teacher 2 noted:

I feel like when you’re doing the activity and the coach is actually in the room or

the mentor, they see the same issues that you see in the kids that can’t keep up,

that gives me confidence in what I’m doing.

Teacher 3 noted:

I think that sharing thinking with a coach has impacted me because, it is the idea

of bouncing ideas off someone else. And almost thinking out loud and working

through whatever it is that you’re trying to do. Once you have it worked through

in your mind or verbally or even with another person, then that makes you more

confident and it problem solves it for you for things that follow before you

actually do it.

Teacher 4 noted:

50

I found that, but when I have a partner where we get along and we can bounce

things off of each other and everybody’s got their own strengths and weaknesses

and she might have been a little stronger at something and I might have been a

little stronger at something else. And so, when together we make a great you

know we’re like perfect, then we’re building off of each other’s weaknesses and

strengths together and it feels like we’re both better because of it.

Teacher 5 noted:

As a teacher, you know your students well and what’s going on. The coach may

not know as much about individual students. So, you could take what you know

from your classroom, how the students are, what level they’re on, and merge it

with the coach. So, you can do something that’s at the students’ level as well.

Teacher 6 noted:

When exchanging thinking with a coach, it has a positive impact on my

instruction because I am able to have an open discussion about the topic. I am

able to talk with another expert in my field and think through my lesson in steps.

Coaching has allowed me to be purposeful in my planning, instruction, and

growth as a teacher. It has made me more aware of what works and does not

work in my lessons. If something doesn’t work, coaching has allowed me to seek

feedback and support in order to grow in those areas.

Discussion of Theme Two: Thinking

The coding of the data revealed 42 references to the word “thought,” underscoring

the importance of thinking partners in influencing instructional delivery. Teachers 3 and

4 noted that the coaching relationship is one that allows the teacher to bounce ideas off of

51

each other and provides for an opportunity to think aloud with another person that has the

knowledge and ability to help funnel your thinking to be focused and purposeful.

The panel interview revealed that many of the participants viewed the

instructional coach as a person that ideas could be bounced off of to problem solve and

clarify understanding. Teacher 4 shared that teaching is improved when there is a better

teacher and good partner available to share ideas. As an experienced instructional coach,

I have seen countless examples at many schools in which there are untapped resources

among the campus staff. Sometimes the best instructional coach for a teacher is across or

down the hall.

With hindsight, the researcher referenced several journal entries and noted that

several brainstorming and problem-solving sessions with teachers resulted in teachers

leaving the session feeling satisfied and accomplished. The connection to the theoretical

framework from Vygotsky via Wink and Putney (2002), shows that support from a

knowledgeable other or more capable peer can help move us to the next level in our

teaching and learning.

Theme Three: Development

Teachers perceived that coaching positively impacts the way they viewed

themselves. The coaching relationship is viewed as an important part of their

professional development as a teacher and then gave them the confidence they needed to

be successful. Without professional development provided by the coach, teachers felt

less confidence in themselves as teachers. Based on the coding of qualitative data from

teacher interviews, there were 64 references to development concerning the coaching

experience.

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Teacher 1 noted:

So coaching changes lives. I think it definitely has guided my growth as an

instructor. If I didn't have many people speaking into my growth as a professional

and as a teacher. I definitely wouldn't have the results that I've had in just five

years of teaching.

Teacher 3 noted:

Someone did a model lesson for us at a staff development. I was like, how on

earth are we going to take that back to the classroom, and use that with our

students. And so, and she actually sat down with me and took step by step and

said this is what You know, you're going to do. So, she showed me how to do it.

Then I went and actually taught a lesson for two or a couple of periods, and by the

time we had an off period. Then she actually came in. She was like, okay, so

how's it going, and then I was telling her, and she was like, okay, great. And she

was able to even help me kind of adjusted for different classes. So, to me, that

was like one on one. So even though she didn't come in and observe. You know,

then she was able to help me learn how to teach to a different population of

students that I was not familiar with.

Teacher 4 noted:

It's like, here's this training. Now do this the school year. Like the reading

initiative here. I spent a week at one summer training, and then it's like, boom.

Here's your now school starts and I'm still remember if the whole year, because I

know coaching provides you the support for implementation.

Teacher 5 noted:

53

The only reason I probably was effective as a teacher was because I had

somebody that I could reach out to who could help me because without it… Like

I said, I had no experience. So, everything I did was model from somebody else.

It's not like I have my own way of teaching. I had no way of teaching, so

everything has come from somebody else. So, it influenced me because it gave

me like the blueprints, how to be a teacher.

Teacher 6 noted:

What works for me in a coaching relationship is the relationship. Feeling like I

have someone I can go to and ask questions. And it's not like Hey, I got you.

You're doing this wrong. It's a. Let me show you. Let me help you. Let me

guide you on how you can make this work in your classroom and I kind of feel

like when you're being coached by someone who, you know, ultimately is

supporting you and wanting you to grow, then that really helped me.

Discussion of Theme Three: Development

The coding of the data revealed 42 references to the word “model,” stressing the

importance of showing and not just telling. Teacher 1 noted that coaching changes lives

and that it has had a significant influence on her professional growth as a teacher.

Additionally, teacher 4 referenced the importance of having a coach available to support

implementation after attending professional development. Implementation support, often

described as the most important component that influences the professional growth of a

teacher, provides ongoing support once the teacher returns to the classroom.

The focus group interview revealed that many of the teachers appreciated the ‘in-

the- moment” approach that is inherent in the researcher’s approach to instructional

54

coaching. They all stressed the importance of frequent, immediate feedback from a

coach and how that influenced their agency more than waiting a week or more to debrief

with an administrator. What we know about children is that when feedback is frequent

and timely, it has a greater impact on future learning. The same goes for teachers. This

can be likened to baseball. If the pitcher is struggling on the mound, the coach does not

wait until the end of the game to give feedback. Instead, the coach calls a timeout and

huddles up with the pitcher, catcher, and sometimes the whole infield to give timely

feedback that could help them win the game.

In reflection, the researcher’s notes indicated specific implementation planning

sessions scheduled following the professional development referenced by the participants

in the interviews and focus group. The implementation planning sessions, scheduled

once a month for three months following professional development, provided a constant

reminder to the teachers about teaching and learning. The theoretical framework of this

case study is represented here through the work of Bruner and his idea that education

enriches our lives and the idea of a spiral approach to teaching and learning prepares us

for the future.

Theme Four: Support

Teachers perceived that coaching positively impacts their belief in the ability to

deliver quality instruction. The teacher that felt supported by a coach, whether it is

another teacher, principal, or a specialist, and believed they could be successful in the

classroom. Without the support and confidence, many teachers in urban areas

surrounding the schools we studied would not be successful. Based on the coding of

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qualitative data from teacher interviews, there were 139 references to support concerning

the coaching experience.

Teacher 1 noted:

I think that it also helps to have a really personal, candid, off the cuff version of

what you need to learn because there's what you know is on paper and then there's

life too. Also, the belief in my effectiveness was grown because they're affirming

me. And what I'm doing well, and they'll compare it to a lot of times, well this

was my experience with this um I you know think you should maybe go about it

this way. They just help you navigate; they affirm. They know what you're doing

well and then they tell you when you need to maybe switch gears.

Teacher 2 noted:

So, all the schools I've been at I've always had a coach or a mentor that impacted

the way I did things. I first started in a high school and I really was insecure

about being a young teacher in a high school, so I really relied on my experienced

team to help me through that and navigate that and we would kind of get together

and plan something and if it didn't go well, we meet, we always met, we seem to

have met like every day there. And that was always really comforting to me and

it helps me have a lot of confidence to hear an experienced person also struggle

with the same things I had struggled with.

Teacher 3 noted:

So, I would say that coaching is important. I think that it's how you're coached is

basically you know what matters, but I do think coaching is very important

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because it helps you. It helps you learn it helps you grow, and it helps you with

areas that you're struggling with.

Teacher 4 noted:

I kind of like it when I am treated like a student, where the coach is acting like we

are in a classroom. It kind of shows a better way of modeling. I have also liked it

whenever the coach will come into my classroom, watch me do what I'm doing

and then say something like, oh, next period let me show you how I do it. That is

one thing that I find really helpful is in just as me as a teacher. I do not give my

kids a worksheet and just expect them to be able to do it. I show them how

something is done, the way I would do it. And what my response would be to

model that so and so I think that whenever we have coaching that’s the best way

to kind of do the coaching is by showing you exactly how it's done.

Teacher 5 noted:

I had other teachers coach me - instructional specialist assistant principal, outside

people come in and coaching professional development and I believe what I found

the most helpful when it came to all the coaching was when they were able to give

me something that was tangible to take with me. Because some coaching was just

all do this in your classroom without modeling without having something for me

to take with me and I think that's when it was most helpful to me when I was able

to, they're going to show me how to do a photo. They do the photo with me and

go through the steps with me versus just telling you what to do because that's the

type of learner I am.

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Teacher 6 noted:

So, when I came to my school in the beginning I was completely like

overwhelmed because I had never taught writing on the level of the grammar.

The mechanics tie all those pieces in, but then I started with a coach who came in

and I was able to learn all of these strategies and things that I can incorporate in

my classes right away. And that really helped me. As I went from not teaching

writing being intentional with the mechanics, the grammar time all those pieces in

to teach the student I was able to learn all of these different things, which really

built up my capacity as a teacher, and then it made me more confident in my class

when I was teaching my students because I'm not going to lie, I was

overwhelmed. In the beginning, I was like, how am I going to do this? I haven't

really done a grammar lesson in such a long time. How can I make it fluent and

intentional and not like a here is a list of assignments, just do this like I wanted to.

How can I teach the students to do all of these things and make it fluid in their

writing? And so, the coaching that I had for that which was once a week in our

PLCs and also coming into the classroom and modeling with me and giving me

tips and feedback and suggestions that really helped me.

Discussion of Theme Four: Support

The coding of the data revealed 132 references to the word “help,” highlighting

the view that teachers need help or support to feel confident in their role as a professional

educator. Several of the teachers noted that they felt overwhelmed or lost in the

beginning, but through the help of a coach, or knowledgeable other, they were able to

navigate their way through the coaching relationship. Teacher 1 noted that the coach

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affirmed the work they were doing and thereby felt confident and successful. This is not

to say that teachers cannot be self-determined and find their own way, but coaching can

make it come together quicker.

In the panel interview, Teacher 2 was able to connect the need for help with low

agency. It was either when the self-efficacy or confidence was low, or when the content

knowledge was low that teachers sought out help from an instructional coach or support

person on their campus. The help they received was referred to as a confidence boost.

Upon reflection, the researcher documented many references with the words

“help” or “support” in his notes. As an instructional coach, we are eager to help

everyone. As referenced in Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development, it is important

for the instructional coach to provide the appropriate amount of support or help that

develops each individual teacher. This can be difficult for an instructional coach that

does not have a relationship with the teachers they coach. Teachers with no experience or

large amounts of experience can be the most effected and referred to as being under

coached or over coached. This is why it is so important to build solid relationships with

all members of the school community, and intentionally provide support that is

scaffolded and meets the needs of individuals.

Theme Five: Change

Teachers perceived that coaching positively impacts student achievement. The

more knowledge that a teacher acquires, the more prepared students will be. This

preparation results in growth in student achievement. Based on the coding of qualitative

data from teacher interviews, there were 75 references to change concerning the coaching

experience.

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Teacher 1 noted:

Coaching will help you to be more effective. And that you get to hear an outside

opinion, a lot of times, muscle memory happens with teaching you do the same

things, even though research has changed. Even though your students have

changed and getting that outside help, you have what you truly look like when

you're on the stage teaching your kids. I think I'm ... really does help you

overcome that muscle memory those areas that have gotten comfortable but not

effective. Even if the data is okay. It can always be better.

Teacher 2 noted:

So, I felt really good about just being able to run to somebody right down the hall

in between classes, hey, this didn't work this period. What do we have as a

backup? I always felt confident in my fellow teachers. So, my fellow mentor

group or my team always mattered a lot to me. And I think that made me very,

very effective. My agency was more so, leaning toward the ability of myself to

go seek help.

Teacher 3 noted:

Coaching made me effective in the sense that it kind of gave me confidence

because I was thinking that this couldn't be done and that I was in the wrong

place. You know that not only can I be done, but if it can be done. Can be done

by me? You know I was out completely out of my element, and I had been

teaching for years. So being out of my element when you've taught something for

like a decade. And then you're in a situation to where it makes you feel like you

can't teach at all. So, it kind of gave me the confidence that yes, you can do this.

60

You're just going to have to think outside the box and do it a different way from

when you know you’ve done it before. So, it gave me a confidence boost it also

gave me different teaching tools and methods of how to do it. And that's what I

needed.

Teacher 4 noted:

I think that coaching has definitely made me a better teacher. I'm more confident.

Teacher 5 noted:

I think the only reason I probably was effective as a teacher was because I had

somebody that I could reach out to who could help me.

Teacher 6 noted:

I don't believe I probably experienced having agency until about year three, and

year three is really, when I started with being coached for the first time. The first

two years. Like I said, I just, you know, I always think about those students and I

say, I just hope wherever they are, that they are successful in life, because I tried

my best, but I know that I was not effective because I basically did not have the

skill set that I have now.

Discussion of Theme Five: Change

The coding of the data revealed 32 references to the word “effective,”

emphasizing the importance of teachers to feel effective when implementing change.

Teacher 1 mentioned that coaching helped with overcoming muscle memory. In order

for students to be successful, we must be willing to change to meet their needs, and a

coach helps facilitate that change. The coding of the data also revealed 43 references to

the word, “confidence.” Several of the teachers mentioned that coaching gave them the

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confidence they needed to help their students be successful. Confidence in one’s abilities

is an essential component of achieving agency.

The panel interview revealed that change is a favorable thing because it keeps you

sharp and helps use muscles that you did not know you had. Thus, change builds

effectiveness and confidence.

In reflection, the researcher noted anecdotally that when teachers acquired new

knowledge and experienced a boost in confidence, the students also experienced a boost

in confidence and that resulted in growth in student achievement. This connects directly

to this study’s theoretical framework through Dewey’s theory of continuity in that each

learning experience prepares us for the next learning experience.

Summary

This case study revealed the following teachers’ perceptions of coaching and its

impact on building agency among middle school literacy teachers:

1. Teachers perceived that coaching positively impacts their knowledge

acquisition.

2. Teachers perceived that coaching positively impacts instructional delivery.

3. Teachers perceived that coaching positively impacts the way they viewed

themselves (self-confidence).

4. Teachers perceived that coaching positively impacts their belief in the

ability to deliver quality instruction (self-efficacy).

5. Teachers perceived that coaching positively impacts student achievement.

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Based on the results of this case study, the data suggests that through sustained coaching

and professional development, teachers are significantly impacted. One research

implication is that building teacher agency is a gradual process that ebbs and flows

throughout the coaching process. Additional research may be beneficial to explore what

factors determine the time needed to fully develop teacher agency and whether or not

these factors are influenced most by the instructional coach or the coachee.

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Chapter V

Conclusion

The study found that coaching significantly impacts teacher agency, teacher

retention, and student achievement. Research data revealed five emerging themes: 1)

coaching positively impacts teacher knowledge acquisition; 2) coaching positively

impacts instruction delivery; 3) coaching positively impacts the way teacher’s viewed

themselves (self-confidence); 4) coaching positively impacts teachers’ beliefs in their

ability to deliver quality instruction (self-efficacy); and 5) coaching positively impacts

student achievement.

Overview of the Study

Chapter I of this research study provided a detailed argument regarding the need

for a sustained support system for teachers. It described a lack of teaching agency that is

necessary to meet the needs of students who struggle academically. The researcher

established that agency is the combination of one’s belief in their effectiveness, or self-

efficacy, and their actual knowledge and skills. The purpose of the study was to

investigate how sustained coaching develops teacher agency. This case study

investigated the following research question: What is the impact of instructional

coaching on building agency among middle school literacy teachers?

Chapter II of this research study consisted of a review of literature concerning the

theoretical framework of the study, founded on Lev Vygotsky’s zone of proximal

development, John Dewey’s theory of experience, and Jerome Bruner’s process of

education, process of knowing, and process of discovery.

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Chapter III of this research study presented the constant comparative method of a

qualitative case study, with narrative approaches to presentation and analysis. The data

consisted of one semi-structured interview and a focus group interview with six teachers

who had been coached by the researcher for at least one academic school year, to offer

their perceptions based on their unique experiences regarding the research question.

Interview responses were coded by keywords and categorized. From these categories,

themes emerged. Focus group responses provided further qualitative data for discussion.

Chapter IV of this research study consisted of the findings and discussion. From the

interview data, the following themes were found:

1. Teachers perceived that coaching positively impacts their knowledge

acquisition.

2. Teachers perceived that coaching positively impacts instructional delivery.

3. Teachers perceived that coaching positively impacts the way they viewed

themselves (self-confidence).

4. Teachers perceived that coaching positively impacts their belief in the

ability to deliver quality instruction (self-efficacy).

5. Teachers perceived that coaching positively impacts student achievement.

The researcher presented detailed discussion and analysis of each of these themes.

Perceptions of Teachers on Instructional Coaching

Participants in this study perceived that sustained instructional coaching provided

knowledge and experience, opportunities to share thinking, development through

modeling, support, and the confidence needed to build agency as a teacher. The

65

researcher chose to study teachers that he personally coached for at least one academic

school year because these teachers share a common language with the researcher through

demonstrations, modeling, and the professional development he provided. Teachers’

perceptions in this study supported the researcher’s hypothesis that sustained instructional

coaching develops agency in teachers.

The Model of Instructional Coaching

The instructional coaching provided to the participants was grounded in the

theoretical framework of the study, which was founded on Lev Vygotsky’s zone of

proximal Development, John Dewey’s theory of experience, and Jerome Bruner’s process

of education, process of knowing, and process of discovery. The premise that what

teachers do through experience, conversation, and support, teachers will be able to do

independently in the future. When we receive support from a knowledgeable other, we

are able to move to the next level in our teaching and learning. Each learning experience

prepares us for the next learning experience, or the idea that everything is connected to

everything else. In response to the theoretical framework, the researcher developed a

coaching scaffold to establish a relationship with teachers (see Appendix D). The

researcher as a coach approached each teacher as an individual and met their needs

independent of others.

Limitations and Future Research

This case study investigated teachers’ perceptions of how sustained coaching

develops teacher agency. Since the participants in the study were coached by the

researcher, whereby a relationship exists, there is the possibility of bias in the responses.

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The researcher made every effort to mitigate any potential bias by reporting participants’

responses from the focus group questions verbatim.

Possibilities for future research include investigating the perceptions of sustained

coaching of teachers across other content areas and grade levels. Quantitative studies on

the number of sustained coaching sessions and the impact on building teacher agency are

also possibilities. In future data collection, it is suggested to have the interviews

conducted by a professional who is different from the researcher. Establish a theoretical

framework that supports the outcome desired. Future research could also include the

training of coaches using the researcher’s theoretical framework and studying the impact

of sustained coaching building agency in teachers from multiple coaches to include a

district wide program.

Recommendations for Administrators

• Design a campus instructional coaching model around grade bands. For instance,

you might differentiate instructional coaching for K-2, 3-5, 6-8, and 9-12.

• Provide ongoing professional development for instructional coaches.

• Survey teacher’s perceptions of instructional coaching throughout the academic

school year and adjust as needed.

• Reflect on coaches’ perceptions of their effectiveness and provide professional

development as needed.

• Alternatively certified teachers, or teachers that did not go to college to be a

teacher, will thrive in an environment that is rich in experiences, conversation,

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and support. Provide a systematic approach to providing coaching support for

alternatively certified teachers.

Recommendations for Teachers

• When collaborating with others, consider their agency (combination of their

knowledge and self-confidence) and take that into consideration when working

together.

• Sometimes the best coach for teachers is another teacher across or down the hall.

Encourage an introspective approach to coaching where a team of teachers

support each other.

• Experienced teachers can encounter temporary fluctuations in their agency when

revisions are made to the curriculum, remember that knowledge and self-

confidence comprise our agency.

• When teachers change grade levels or content areas, they can experience

quiescence in their overall agency. Seek out professional development and

coaching that responds proactively to change.

• Set goals that work towards building your agency, then reflect frequently on your

knowledge and self-confidence.

• Seek out professional development that provides hand-on learning opportunities.

• Use a journal to document your agency. Reflect monthly or semi-monthly on the

knowledge and self-confidence to be a successful educator in your content area

and grade level.

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Recommendations for New Teachers

• When seeking out your first campus, look for a school district or campus that

supports the coaching of teachers.

• When interviewing with a school district or campus, ask how instructional

coaches support teachers.

• If you are alternatively certified, meaning that you did not go to college to be a

teacher and you lack pedagogy, look for professional development that builds

your foundation through theory.

• Use a journal to document your agency. Reflect monthly or semi-monthly on the

knowledge and self-confidence to be a successful educator in your content area

and grade level.

Conclusion

Sustained coaching of teachers is a uniquely challenging endeavor. Effective

instructional coaching must embrace an adaptive mindset based on their observable

challenges as well as an individualized approach. This work is extremely rewarding for

the coach when it produces teacher growth and development and improvements in

student achievement. The foundation of this study was based on extensive reflection by

the researcher regarding his experiences as a novice teacher and beginner instructional

coach as well as his implementation of the theoretical framework which provides that

what teachers do through experience, conversation, and support, teachers will be able to

do independently in the future, when we receive support from a knowledgeable other, we

are able to move to the next level in our teaching and learning, and each learning

69

experience prepares us for the next learning experience, or the idea that everything is

connected to everything else. Participants in this study perceived that instructional

coaching provided knowledge and experience, opportunities to share thinking,

development through modeling and consistent support, and the confidence-building

practices required to build teacher agency.

The researcher does not purport that this is the only approach to coaching that will

build agency in teachers. Certainly, there are teachers who are self-determined and

require little to no support. This should not be overlooked and may serve as an impetus

for future research. However, the participants in this research study were a diverse

group, from a variety of backgrounds and professional experiences, who expressed a

common sentiment that sustained instructional coaching provided life-altering career

impacts.

70

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Appendix A

University Approval

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Appendix B

Recruitment Letter

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Greetings,

You are being invited to participate in a research project conducted by Mark Spilman

from the Curriculum and Instruction Department at the University of Houston. This

project is part of dissertation research being conducted by Mark Spilman under the

supervision of Laveria Hutchison, Ph.D.

Your participation is voluntary, and you may refuse to participate or withdraw at any

time without penalty or loss of benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. You may

also refuse to answer any question.

The purpose of this study is to investigate how sustained coaching develops teacher

agency. The duration of the study will be approximately thirty days.

A total of 5-7 subjects will be asked to participate in this project. You will be one of

approximately five subjects asked to participate in this project.

You will be asked questions related to the following research question:

Research Question One. What is the impact of instructional coaching on building

agency among middle school literacy teachers?

- Possible follow up questions:

o In what ways did the use of coaching influence your teaching agency?

o Describe the key elements of the coaching used in your particular circumstance.

Every effort will be made to maintain the confidentiality of your participation in this

project. Your name will be paired with a code number by the Principal Investigator (PI).

This code number will appear on all written materials. The list pairing your name to the

assigned code number will be kept separate from all research materials and will be

available only to the PI. Confidentiality will be maintained within legal limits.

While you will not directly benefit from participation, your participation may help

investigators better understand the influence of how sustained coaching develops teacher

agency.

The results of this study may be published in professional and/or scientific journals. It

may also be used for educational purposes or for professional presentations. However,

no individual subject will be identified.

If you agree to participate in this research project, you are asked to sign and return the

informed consent form attached, which will be kept on file at the University of Houston.

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If you have any further questions, please contact the PI, Mark Spilman, by phone at

832-876-0274 or by email at markspilman@gmail.com.

Thank you for your participation,

Mark Spilman

Principal Investigator

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Appendix C

Interview and Focus Group Questions

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Semi-structured Interview Questions

Instead of asking specifically about the influence of my coaching and agency on

each participant, I will structure the interviews using the following grand tour questions,

which encourage participants to open up and share their experiences:

1. Grand Tour Question: [In schools today, it is common for teachers to receive

coaching from a support person with the intention of building teacher capacity

that influences student success.] Can you describe your experiences with

coaching?

i. What has worked/not worked for you in a coaching relationship?

ii. What coaching models are you aware of? Please describe?

2. Grand Tour Question: What has been the influence of coaching on your

professional teaching career?

i. Can you share a specific example?

ii. How did this influence your agency?

3. Grand Tour Question: When have you experienced having agency during your

career as a teacher?

4. Grand Tour Question: How has coaching influenced your ability to enact agency

as a teacher? Possible follow up questions:

i. What adds to or prevents you from having agency?

ii. What caused the change?

iii. What affect did the change have on you as a teacher?

iv. Has there been a time when you thought about leaving the teaching

profession?

v. Has the presence of a coach influenced your decisions to remain in

the teaching profession?

5. Grand Tour Question: How have relationships, professional or personal, affected

your agency?

Possible follow up questions:

i. What caused these relationships to exist?

ii. Where and how did these relationships develop?

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Focus Group Questions

Questions: Please respond as best as you can. If you can share a specific example

with each question, please do so.

1. In what instances has coaching influenced your knowing (being aware or

informed), which influenced you having agency?

2. When you exchange thinking with a coach (formally or informally), what

influence does it have on how/what you teach? How does this influence your

agency?

3. As a teacher, how do different approaches to coaching influence your ability to

have agency?

4. On what occasions do you find yourself seeking support from a coach? How do

these occasions influence you having agency?

5. When has change influenced you having agency?

6. Ending question: Now is an opportunity for you to discuss anything else that you

would like to share about coaching and how it impacts you having agency.

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Appendix D

Coaching Scaffold

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