AN EXAMINATION OF THE INFLUENCE OF PERSONAL VALUES AND ETHNIC

IDENTITY ON BLACK STUDENTS’ SPORT CONSUMPTION BEHAVIOR

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy

in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

By

Jatong Ahmed Baba, M.A.; M.S. Ed.

* * * * *

The Ohio State University 2003

Dissertation Committee:

Dr. Ketra L. Armstrong, Advisor Approved by

Dr. Donna L. Pastore _____________________________ Dr. Pat West Adviser

College of Education

ABSTRACT

Understanding the inclination of groups of individuals to adopt a predictable

behavior in sport consumption is the ultimate aim of bringing the sport product to the

consumer. Sport management professionals need to understand how different people are

attracted to specific sport activities. Previous research has shown that culturally and

ethnically-based consumption phenomena hold important clues for marketing strategy.

Additionally, cultural and ethnic phenomena have been used to explain why minority

ethnic groups respond to product symbolism in their consumption decisions.

The purpose of the study was to further explore the sport behavior of Black

consumers as a culturally based sport consumption community. To do so, this study

examined the manner in which personal values and ethnic identity (predictor variables)

influenced the sport consumption preferences and sport consumption frequencies

(criterion variables) of Black students (n = 229). The instrument used to capture personal

values was Kahle’s (1983) List of Values (LOV) scale (which consisted of two

subdimensions of Internal Values and External Values). Ethnic identity was captured

using Brown, Condor, Mathews, Wade, and Williams’ (1986) Ethnic Identity (EID) Scale

(which consisted of three subdimensions of Self-Definition, Self-Esteem, and Affect).

The study sample was a convenience sample of participants from a Midwestern

university

ii

aged between 17-53 years made up of graduate (12.2%) and undergraduate (87.8%)

students.

Significant correlations were found between ethnic identity and personal values.

Descriptive results revealed that most important personal value was self-respect. The

results of a series of multivariate multiple regressions revealed that influence of personal

values on the participants sport consumption preferences and frequencies was generally

insignificant. In contrast, the dimensions of ethnic identity significantly influenced sport

consumption preferences and frequencies. For example: (a) Self-Definition was a positive

predictor of the participants’ consumption preference and frequency for the sport of

basketball, and (b) Self-Esteem was a negative predictor of the participants’ consumption

preferences and frequency for the sport of football.

Significant correlations were also found between consumption preferences and

consumption frequencies, suggesting that these variables were good measures of actual

consumption behavior. Also, the findings that basketball was the most preferred and

frequently consumed sport, provided support for previous research that identified this

sport as one of the most preferred among Blacks (Bernstein, 1999; Simmons Market

Research, 1994; Armstrong, 2002). Another important finding of the current research was

that gender was not a differentiation factor regarding the influence of personal values and

ethnic identity on sport consumption. The results generally support the infusion of

aspects of culture into the sport behavior inquiry of ethnic minority consumers (as

suggested by Armstrong, 2001; 2002). This study demonstrated the complexity of

understanding the psychosocial dynamics of sport consumption.

iii

DEDICATION

To my wife and son

My mother and Mother-in-law

and

My brothers and sisters

iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I owe a lot of gratitude to several people through whose instrumentality this

dissertation has been brought to fruition.

My sincere thanks go to Dr. Ketra L. Armstrong for being instrumental in shaping

my studies and the key figure whose constructive criticisms and advice contributed

immensely toward the completion of this study. Thank you, Dr. Armstrong, for being an

inspiration and for allowing me ample freedom to conceptualize what I was trying to do

as well as for shinning the beacon to show me the way out of the wilderness. Your

encouragement was always helpful.

I most gratefully acknowledge with thanks the contribution of my dissertation

committee members, Dr. Donna L. Pastore and Dr. Pat West, for their critical reviews,

meticulous analysis of the research process, and continuous encouragement. Dr. Pastore’s

reviews were especially helpful as a critical eye to ensure accuracy. Dr. West’s critical

reviews and her help in the conceptualization of the study focus is appreciated with

thanks.

I acknowledge with thanks the role played by Dr. Packianathan Chelladurai in

getting my colleagues to provide further useful reviews. I found their comments to be

both informational and interesting. My thanks to Dr. Mensah Kutame of the Chicago

State University for his role as the survey administrator and for taking time off his busy

v

schedule to assist in the collection of the questionnaires. Thanks also to Dr. Reginald

Ocansey of SUNY-College at Brockport for his technical support in having the

questionnaires printed for me and to Emmanuel Gyimah for supervising the printing of

the survey instrument at SUNY-Brockport.

Finally, I want to thank my wife, Mariana, and son, Carlos, for their tremendous

support and encouragement through this seemingly never-ending process. Thanks to all

my friends in Ghana, especially Sam Arday, Benson Baba, and Kofi Bonney, for calling

in during this period to offer encouragement.

vi

VITA

January 1, 1955.……………………………................ Born - Bolga, Ghana

1977-1977.……Diploma in Philology (Romanian Language), Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania. 1978-1981.……B. A. (Physical Education & Sport), Institute of Physical Education & Sport (IEFS), Bucharest, Romania. 1981-1982.……M. A. ((Physical Education & Sport), Institute of Physical Education & Sport (IEFS), Bucharest, Romania. 1980- 1982.……Advanced Diploma in Team Handball Coaching, National Council of Physical Education & Sport (CNEFS), Bucharest, Romania. 1982-1983.……Advanced Diploma in Soccer Coaching, National Council of Physical Education & Sport (CNEFS), Bucharest, Romania. 1999-2000.……MS. Ed in Sport Management, SUNY-College at Brockport, New York. 2001-present….Graduate Teaching Associate, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH.

PUBLICATIONS

Armstrong, K & Baba, J. A. (In Progress). The psychosocial study of sport in Ghana, Africa: Implications for sport development. International Journal of Sport Marketing. Paper presented at 73rd Annual OAHPERD Convention in December 4-6, 2002 at Cleveland, OH. Baba, J. A. (2000). An appraisal of the implementation process of sport policy in Ghana. An unpublished dissertation for the award of master of science in education. SUNY-College at Brockport

vii

Baba, J. A. (1997) Psychosocial study of high performance Ghanaian sportswomen. Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 2(1), 47-55 Baba, J. A., Amui, J. C., Boateng, T. A., & Asiamoah, T. (1994). Physical education for Senior Secondary Schools. Bombay: A. Gangram & Sons. Baba, J. A. (September, 1988). Decentralization of sports in Ghana. Super Sports 35, 11-17. Baba, J. A. (June 1988). “Perestroika of Ghana sports. STC Journal, 1(1), 32-45. Baba, J. (September, 1986). An historical and technical perspective of soccer. Sporting Times, 78, 5-11 Baba, J. A. (1982) Measurement of the psychomotor aptitudes of team handball players. Students’ Scientific Research Communication Journal. IEFS

FIELDS OF STUDY

Major Field: Education Physical Activity and Educational Service Studies in Sport Management Minor Field: Sport Consumer Behavior Study

viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page Abstract………………………………..............................................................................ii

Dedication……………………………….........................................................................iv

Acknowledgments………………………………..............................................................v

Vita………………………………...................................................................................vii

List of Tables………………………………...................................................................xiv

List of Figures………………………………..................................................................xvi

Chapters:

1. Introduction……………………………….............................................................1

Consumption Community………………………………...........................3

Culture and Consumption..……………………………….........................4

Values, Ethnic Identity, and Sport Consumption..……………………….8

Personal Values.……….…………….............................................8

Ethnic Identity……………………………….............……………9

Black Consumers and Sport Consumption………………………………11

Importance of Culture to Black Consumers………..……………13

Importance of Personal Values to Black Consumers...………….15

Importance of Ethnic Identity to Black Consumers.…………….18

Values-Attitude-Preference-Behavior Relationship…….….……………20

ix

Values and Attitudes.……………………………….....................20

Attitudes and Preferences………………………………..............20

Preferences and Behavior………………………………..............21

Statement of the Problem………………………………..........................22

Significance of the Study………………………………...........................23

Definition of Terms………………………………...................................24

Assumptions.……………………………….............................................27

Limitations………………………………................................................28

Delimitation………………………………..............................................29

2 Literature Review………………………………..................................................30

Concept of Culture……………………………………............................30

Culture………………………………...........................................30

Subculture……………….……………….....................................32

Culture and Sport Consumption………………………………................48

The Sport Consumption Process.………..……………………....49

Consumption Explained Through Social Identity…….…………………51

Consumption Communities..…………………………….........................53

Black Consumers as a Consumption Community………...……..55

Role of Personal Values in Sport Consumption..…….…….……………59

Role of Ethnicity in Sport Consumption………………………………...60

Conclusion of Literature Review…….………………..............................63

x

The Culture-Sport Consumption Figure…………………………66

3. Methodology……………………………….........................................................72

Research Design……………………………….......................................72

Population and Sample……………………………….............................73

Target Population……………………………….........................73

Sampling……………………………….......................................74

Sample Size………………………………..................................76

Data Collection Procedures………………………………......................77

Instrumentation……………………………….........................................78

Measurement………………………………............................................79

Predictor Variables……………………………….......................79

Criterion Variables……………………………….......................82

Ancillary Sport Consumption Items…………………………….85

Demographic Data………………………………........................85

Validation of Test Instruments.………………………………................85

Face Validity………………………………................................85

Content Validity………………………………...........................86

Reliability of Test Instrument………………………………..................86

Data Analysis Procedures………………………………........................87

4. Results……………………………….................................................................90

Results of the Pilot Test………………………………..........................91

xi

Reliability of Predictor Variables………………………...........91

Validity of Predictor Variables…………….………..................92

Modifications to Questionnaire………………………………..............92

Results of Main Study…………………….…………...........................93

Sample Characteristics…………………….…………..........................93

Descriptive Analyses of the Criterion Variable……………………….95

Sport Consumption Preference for Entire Sample………….…95

Sport Consumption Preferences by Gender……………….…..97

Sport Consumption Frequency for Entire Sample……...….….98

Sport Consumption Frequency by Gender………………….…99

Correlations between Criterion (Sport Consumption) Variables....….100

Motivational Influences on Sport Consumption Decisions……....….102

Analysis of the Predictor Variables………………………….............103

The LOV Scale………………………………........................103

Ethnic Identity (EID) Scale………………………...…….......105

Correlations Between Predictor Variables.……………...………..….106

Regression Analysis of Predictor and Criterion Variables…...…..….108

Tests of Assumptions of Regression Analysis……………..………...115

5 Discussion………………………………........................................................117

Discussion of Sample Demographics…………………...……….......117

Ancillary Motivations for Sport Consumption…………...….119

xii

Discussion of Predictor Variables………………………………........120

Discussions of Criterion Variables……………………………….......124

Managerial Implications……………………………….......................126

Theoretical………………………………................................127

Practical………………………………....................................127

Study Limitations……………………………….................................131

Recommendations for Future Research……………………....……...132

Conclusion……………………………..….........................................135

REFERENCES..……………………………..............................................................138

APPENDIX A - Research Questionnaire……………………….……………..........151

xiii

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

2.1 Schwartz’s Value Types ………………………………......................................35

3.1 The two dimensions of the LOV scale (Kahle, 1983)………………………..…80

3.2 Item categorization of the Ethnic Identity scale (Brown et al., 1986)…………..82

3.3 Variables Constituting the Sport Consumption Behavior (Criterion)………..…83

4.1 Demographic Characteristics of Study Sample………………………...…….....94

4.2 Mean and Standard Deviations of Sport Consumption Preferences Consumption Frequency of Entire Sample………………………………...........96 4.3 Equality of Means for Sport Consumption Preference by Gender……...………98 4.4 Equality of Means for Sport Consumption Frequency by Gender….……….…100 4.5 Mean, Standard Deviation and Correlation Scores of the Criterion Variables………………………………....................................101 4.6 Reliability of subscales of LOV Instrument………………………………........104

4.7 Reliability of subscales of Ethnic Identity Scale……………………………….106 4.8 Means, Standard Deviations, and Bivariate Correlations of the Subscales of the Predictor Variables……………………………….........107 4.9 Results of Multivariate Multiple Regression and Univariate Analyses Predicting Consumption Preferences for Sport Activities from Predictor Variables………………………………......109

xiv

4.10 Results of Multivariate Multiple Regression and Univariate Analyses Predicting Consumption Preferences for Televised Sport from Predictor Variables……………………………….....110 4.11 Results of Multivariate Multiple Regression and Univariate Analyses Predicting Consumption Preferences for Print Media Sport from Predictor Variables…..………...............................111 4.12 Results of Multivariate Multiple Regression and Univariate Analyses Predicting Frequency of Sport Attendance from Predictor Variables……………………………….....................................113 4.13 Results of Multivariate Multiple Regression and Univariate Analyses Predicting Frequency of Consumption of Televised Sport from Predictor Variables………………………………............................114 4.14 Results of Multivariate Multiple Regression and Univariate Analyses Predicting Frequency of Reading Print Media Sport from Predictor Variables……………………………….................115

xv

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

2.1 Schwartz’s Circumplex of Ten Value Types……………………………….....37

2.2 The Impact of Ethnic Identity on the development of Attitudes…………………………………………………….............................43

2.4 The Role of Personal Values and Ethnicity in the Development of Sport Consumption Behavior Among Black in America…………………..70

xvii

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Sport consumption, in the context of this study, refers to the manner in which

individuals consume sport as spectators or participants. It refers to a process of

interdependent practices that focuses on treating consumption as: (a) a continuous

process of self and group articulation and (b) a source of consumer communication.

Accordingly, through the process of consumption, the individual is provided an avenue to

communicate the self to society (Belk, 1988; Stevenson, 1998). Based on this contention,

it may be surmised that the type of sport products people consume and their consumption

pattern would communicate elements of that person’s lifestyle, values, beliefs,

personality, interests, and attitudes to the society.

1

Accordingly, sport consumption is likely to be a symbolic activity which serves

as a vehicle of personal and social communication about the self. For example, a vivid

illustration of the symbolic importance of sport participation is the role that membership

of a national select team (such as an Olympics team) in basketball, soccer, track and field

athletics and other sport activities plays as a status enhancement tool for the participating

athletes. For individuals who are sport spectators, attendance at certain sporting events

can also represent a form of status enhancement depicting not only the consumer’s

attitude towards sport but also their financial and personal success in life. Another typical

example of the symbolic nature of sport consumption is the acquisition and display of

sport merchandise and memorabilia by some consumers as evidence of their affiliation

with the sport product, team, or event. This process of social interaction and

communication of self and collective to others is one way in which members of the

society respond to the environmental stimuli and constitutes the basis of culture.

Therefore, an understanding of the cultural implications of personal and social variates

influencing sport consumption behaviors is paramount to successful sport marketing

because it would help to satisfactorily facilitate the exchange between sport products and

events and sport consumers.

2

A review of current literature shows an increasing interest in identity-constructive

consumption in a global environment because we live in a world in which boundaries

across national and geographic cultures are dissolving. Additionally, consumers are

increasingly seeking and expressing sub-cultural, ethnic, and personal identity in their

consumption patterns. Identity-constructive behavior in sport is manifested in

consumption processes typical of certain cultures (Pons et al., 2001) such as identified in

the consumption of ice hockey by Canadians, soccer by Brazilians, martial arts by

Chinese, or football by Americans. Since sport has many meanings to different cultures,

the values inherent in it carry very different meanings to these different cultures. There is

a growing importance of sport and its association with culture and more research is

needed to identify the impact of cultural variables on the consumption of sport activities.

Consequently, it is important for sport marketers who are seeking to send their messages

to specific ethnic market segments, to identify the cultural elements which can

significantly influence their consumption patterns and behaviors. This study seeks to

further explore the influence of culture on sport consumption by examining the sport

behaviors of Black consumers as a distinct sub-cultural consumer group referred to as a

consumption community.

Consumption Community

The concept of consumption communities was introduced by Shoham and Kahle

(1996) to denote a group of people having common consumption interests. Schouten and

McAlexander (1995) used the term “subculture of consumption” to denote a distinctive

subgroup that self-selects on the basis of a shared commitment to the consumption of a

particular product class or brand. A consumption community is best conceptualized as a

characteristic of society rather than the totality of the society, because the culture of a

consumption community is not exclusively what the community is made up of but also

what members have in common with regard to a particular product/service. In this regard,

a consumption community is understood in terms of its expressive and symbolic aspects

that guide the consumption behavior of members of the community and also provide a

background against which members interpret their consumption experience.

Kozinets (1997) suggested that the intimate relationship between entertainment,

spiritual beliefs, mass commodification and consumption, as exists in the economic

domain, may be transferable to the exploration of other consumption behaviors and

subcultures of consumption such as music and sport. He observed, that the construction

of tastes, for example, “is a key activity of consumption subcultures, defining the

boundaries of their shared interpretations of social reality” (p. 472). The notion of the

3

sport consumption process having a unifying theme for consumers, providing a forum for

ethnic manifestation of cultural values, and contributing to the reinforcement of those

symbols, rituals, and values that are important to the sustenance of the group psyche,

underscores the support provided for the existence of sport consumption communities.

There is a wealth of literature supporting the notion that sport allows for the

manifestation of community spirit, it encourages the formation of distinct communities,

and has a direct impact on consumers’ preferences for specific sport activities or teams.

Consumption communities are formed around subcultures, although they may be based

on values, race/ethnicity, gender, type of sport consumed (such as extreme sports, certain

professional sports, etc.) or any other common or unifying features or characteristics. The

consumption phenomenon which emphasizes the exploration of antecedent conditions

(Witkowski, 1998; Kozinets, 1997; Korf & Malan, 2001) and applied in sport

consumption behavior has evolved as a result of research seeking to compare the

consumption preferences of several consumption communities (Americans, Japanese,

Koreans, Europeans, Chinese, etc.) with national culture as a principal explanatory

variable. Nonetheless, research on Black consumers as a culturally/ethnically-based

consumption community is lacking.

Culture and Consumption

The growing identification of theoretical phenomena such as consumption

differentiation, niche marketing, identity-based consumption symbols, lifestyle

clustering, and sub-cultural consumption or consumption communities are evidence of

the rising need for enhancing the cultural understanding of sport consumer behavior by

4

sport managers and marketing practitioners. Culture has been defined variously as values,

beliefs and symbols shared by members of a group or society. It includes patterns of

behavior, learned responses, basic assumptions, habits and traditional ways of thinking,

feeling, and reacting. McCracken (1986, p. 72) views culture from two perspectives - on

one hand, as a “lens” through which the individual views phenomena and, on the other

hand, as a “blueprint” of human activity that determines the co-ordinates of social action

and productive activity and specifies behavior. In one perspective, culture mediates the

way in which a society responds to environmental stimuli and change; another

perspective is that culture represents an environmental variable that is accommodated by

society. According to Jelinek et al, (1983), culture is both a process and an outcome

because it shapes human interactions and is also the outcome of those interactions. A

distinguishing aspect of culture is that it evolves over time and is therefore rooted in

history, collectively held and sufficiently complex enough to resist attempts at

manipulation.

5

The concept of culture has become increasingly central to the consumer research

literature (Holt, 1997; McCracken, 1986; Schouten and McAlexander, 1995), being

conceptualized as a dynamic collection of diverse practices and transnational flows

reflecting the concept of subcultures (Appadurai, 1990). The core of culture is formed by

values and norms derived from feelings that are often unconscious and rarely discussable,

and are not observable but are manifested in alternatives of behavior. However, the

hybrids of culture (subcultures) assume the role of providing more specific identification

and socialization for their members. One of the most important attributes that

distinguishes one subculture from another is the relative emphasis on social relationships

which produce distinctive patterns of behavior manifested in daily interactions with the

environment. An example of such manifestations is identified in the consumption of sport

activities within different subcultures.

Cultures at any level have two major components: (a) a set of shared beliefs and

values that bind a group of people together and helps them to make sense of their

environments and (b) patterns of behavior that reflect those beliefs and values (Trice &

Beyer, 1983). In order to appreciate and understand the cultural significance of sport, we

need to consider both. Many aspects of sport spectating function as forms of culture

where people express, affirm, and celebrate their cultural beliefs and values. Typically

most sport competitions function as cultural rites because they are enacted repeatedly on

similar occasions as social dramas acted out like parts of a play with well defined roles

for both players and fans to perform. For example, activities such as pre-game rallies,

press conferences, supporters meetings, and organization of supporters’ clubs serve as

cultural manifestations where different rituals are performed.

6

The ceremonial entrance of teams to the field of play, the beating of drums or the

singing of club anthems, prayers on the field of play, the appearance of mascots, and the

routines of the cheerleaders are all accepted forms and procedures through which culture

is enacted (Klapp, 1956). Hearing the club's song, for example, can evoke in fans many

emotions and values associated with the club or the culture within which it originates and

is nurtured and can stir people’s emotions (Beyer & Hannah, 2000). For these reasons,

Hartman (2000) described sport as a contested cultural terrain and a social site where

ethnic images, ideologies, and inequalities are constructed, transformed, and constantly

struggled over. Kluckhohn (1976) hypothesized that competitive sport involvement,

prevalent among African-Americans, was likely to be a culturally determined behavior,

possibly an avenue for social mobility and status or a tradition. This notion has been

confirmed through some research findings (e.g., Armstrong, 2002; 2003; Spreitzer &

Snyder, 1990) that sought to establish the relationships between culture and sport.

Due to the international and multifaceted appeal of sport, the sport consumption

process is a good carrier of cross-cultural interplay and ethnic socialization because: (a) it

is imbued with symbolic psychosocial meaning (as evidenced in the identification and

psychological attachment sport consumers have to sport team logos, mascots, and

rituals), (b) it is rife with a history and tradition full of symbolism (e.g., manifestations at

the opening and closing of Olympic Games and Bowl Games), (c) it offers evidence of

class status (as in the consumption of golf as an elite sport), (d) it relates to personal

expression of identity, belonging, and differentiation, and (e) it has the capacity to

provide a sense of group harmony, spirit, and cooperation (Belk, 1988). While sport

sociologists have long examined the manner in which aspects of a person’s culture may

influence the dynamics of sport participation, a focus on the cultural phenomenon in

sport marketing research is lacking. Therefore, further research on culturally-related sport

consumption behavior is warranted.

Values, Ethnic Identity, and Sport Consumption

7

Several studies have been devoted to determine the impact of cultural variables on

consumer behavior (Wallendorf & Reilly, 1983). For example, Nelson and Shavitt (1997)

explored differences in values and moral obligations between consumers in different

cultural environments (Denmark and USA). They found that while the Danes focused on

individual autonomy and equality, the Americans emphasized autonomy and uniqueness

operating together in the competitive environment. Other studies that examined how

ethnicity and values have a unique impact on consumption behavior (e.g., Holland and

Gentry, 1997; Penaloza, 1994; Reilly & Wallendorf, 1987; Shimp & Sharma, 1987;

Stayman & Deshpande, 1989; Stronman and Becker, 1987) found significant differences

in consumption patterns and values between different ethnic or racial groups. Therefore,

it is important for sport marketers, seeking to send their messages to specific ethnic

market segments, to identify the cultural elements which can significantly influence sport

consumer behavior. The two aspects of culture that are central to this study are personal

values and ethnic identity.

Personal Values

Values represent one of the most critical factors contributing to cultural

influences on a global plane. According to Howard and Woodside (1984), values play a

key role in shaping attitudes and behavior. They are a function of personality,

socioeconomic status, and age (Shoham et al., 1997) and guiding principles that influence

attitudes and shape behaviors (Homer & Kahle, 1988). Values are central to human

behavior and help people to place special importance on what they hold in high esteem

and nurture. They are not imposed but are developed through the accumulation of life

experiences and interaction with other members within the society.

8

Through the process of daily experience each value becomes defined in terms of

the kind of general goal it represents and assumes a place on the scale of an individual’s

value priorities. As a value moves up the scale of priorities it gets classified according to

the interests it serves (Schwartz, 1990). According to Kahle (1983) values can be

grouped into internal and external loci of control which is referred to as the degree to

which a person feels that he/she has control over the environment around them and those

out of their control. Kahle identified six internal-oriented values and three external-

oriented ones. The former include sense of accomplishment, self-respect, self-fulfillment,

warm relationships with others, fun and enjoyment, and excitement while the latter

comprise a sense of belonging, security, and being well-respected.

Ethnic Identity

Ethnicity has been considered by researchers to be a difficult construct to

investigate because many individuals in multicultural environments do not always

conform to a single method of categorization (Ullah, 1987). More common among

children of mixed ethnic parentage is the tendency to consider themselves as members of

two or more ethnic groups since one ethnic label does not quite appropriately describe

them. Hutnik (1991) identified four groups of ethnic categorization: (a) Dissociative -

identification with one’s own ethnic minority group, (b) Assimilative - Identification with

majority ethnic group, (c) Acculturative - identification with both the minority and

majority ethnic groups, and (d) Marginal - no association with either the majority or the

minority ethnic groups.

9

In an attempt to bring further distinctiveness to the concept of ethnic

identification, Verkuyten and Kwa (1996) distinguished between the cognitive act of

classifying and describing oneself or self-labeling (identification of) and a wish to

increase similarity and belonging to an ethnic group (identification with). This distinction

supports Phinney’s (1990) observation that a person’s sense of belonging may differ from

that person’s self-labeling in ethnic terms. For instance, individuals from mixed

parentage may use a single ethnic label even though they may consider themselves to be

members of more than one ethnic group. Tajfel (1978) opines that since a person’s social

identity is part of his/her self-concept, then individuals with strong awareness of their

ethnic group membership would often describe themselves in terms of their ethnic origin.

From the social identification perspective, therefore, a strong awareness of ethnic group

membership (self-definition) would provoke a high level of in-group preference

(Verkuyten, 1992). It is therefore expected that individuals high in own-group

identification would be high in own-group-oriented patterns of preferences (Affect) since

such a manifestation represents a confirmation of the level of their self-esteem.

According to Brown et al. (1986), three facets of ethnic identity are: awareness of group

membership (which contributes to self-definition), evaluation (which relates to self-

esteem) and affect.

10

As implied previously, culture is a comprehensive construct. Therefore, it is

likely that cultural variables such as values and ethnic identity influence and are

influenced by each other. For example, a number of studies (e.g., Holland and Gentry,

1997; Penaloza, 1994; Reilly & Wallendorf, 1987; Shimp & Sharma, 1987; Stayman &

Deshpande, 1989; Stronman and Becker, 1987) have examined the interactive manner in

which cultural variables of ethnicity and values impact consumption behavior. Such

research revealed significant differences in consumption patterns and values between

different ethnic or racial groups. Research evidence has linked the concept of group

differentiation to social identity theory (Tajfel, 1978) and self-categorization theory

(Turner, 1987). According to Tajfel (1978), social identity is part of an individual’s self-

concept which is derived from knowledge about their membership of a social group

together with the value and emotional significance attached to that membership. This

suggests that the collective values that an individual holds as personal and nurtures, such

as a sense of belonging, self-esteem, and self-fulfillment, help define self-worth and

reinforce group membership. As Tajfel (1978) purports, identification with an ethnic

group means an acknowledgment and confirmation of those collective values that have

been internalized as personal values reinforcing the self-concept and increasing similarity

and belonging to the ethnic group. From this perspective it is likely that, while values and

ethnic identity are distinct constructs, they may also be significantly related.

Black Consumers and Sport Consumption

The Black community in the US (which comprises of Africans, African-

Americans, and Blacks from the West Indies/Caribbean and Latin America) constitutes

less than 15% of the American population, yet they represent an important and lucrative

target segment. Black consumers are an important target for sport marketing because they

wield substantial purchasing power in a variety of traditional products and services such

as automobiles, financial services, sport and sport products, communication, computers,

fashion, and music. The Black subculture, as a major economic and social force (Pitts et

al., 1989) is different from Whites in its consumption patterns, media habits and reaction

to advertisements (Stronman & Becker, 1987). Research evidence, however, shows that

Blacks are more emotionally and behaviorally involved in sport than Whites (Armstrong,

1998), although their attendance rates at professional and collegiate sport events

deceptively indicate a low percentage of active consumption. There has arisen the need,

11

therefore, to identify the consumption pattern of Blacks in the US to provide an

opportunity for sport marketers to develop specific and targeted marketing-mix strategies

that would satisfy the needs of this cultural entity.

Blacks are members of a “distinct subculture that possesses a complex set of

behaviors, traditions, languages, values, and icons that is unique, profound, and distinct

from the white subculture" (Pitts et al., 1989; p. 322). In fact, Black culture places high

premium or value on their traditions, symbols, accomplishments, struggles, and

experiences. An important aspect of the cultural experience, the struggle for fulfillment,

social mobility and status, belongingness, accomplishment, and respect in a White

dominated hegemonic culture are an important part of Black consciousness and reflects

how they would perceive any message targeted at them. For example, Pitts et al. (1989)

found a depth of difference in Black and White responses to culturally based messages.

They also found that, although the personal values of both Blacks and Whites were

12

similar, yet Black respondents responded with strong comprehension and perception of

the Black culturally rich value information.

The choice of a specific sporting event or an orientation toward a specific sport

carries a strong cultural meaning in every culture. From the sport consumption

perspective, the cultural import of some sport activities seems to have specific

attractiveness to Black people (e.g., basketball, football, soccer, boxing, track and field).

Bernstein (1999) provided evidence of Black consumers’ affinity for professional

football, basketball, and tennis while Armstrong (1998) revealed that they are avid

consumers of sport offered by historically Black colleges/universities (HBCU). The

exhibition of such unique attitudes and behavioral tendencies in the sport consumption

process are meant to serve as informational cues and reference points for the self-image

of the Black culture. While some ethnic groups in this multiethnic and multicultural

environment are becoming increasingly disconnected from a sense of community due to

changing lifestyles and technological innovations, Black ethnic groups continue to use

sport as a mode of expression of personal and collective values, ethnic identification, and

a vehicle for economic and social mobility.

Importance of Culture to Black Consumers

The Black population in America comprise of indigenous African-Americans,

Africans, Black immigrants from the Caribbean/West Indies or Latin America, and Black

immigrants from other parts of the world. Some anthropologists and politicians have

opined that, due to strong ancestral rights and spiritual connections, Blacks everywhere

13

live and behave in like manner. Nkrumah (1964) and Nobles (1998) observed that even

the circumstances of enslavement and years of colonialism have not succeeded to destroy

the ancestral rights and spiritual connections of Black people anywhere. Although this

conclusion may sound parochial, most keen observers of Black history believe that

Blacks all over the world are African people, and those living in America are simply

African people in the USA.

Many Blacks all over the world have persisted in celebrating their ancestry and

maintaining spiritual connections among themselves as part of their racial identity. This

spiritual bonding is probably a manifestation of the extended family system, manifested

across time, space, and place (Nobles, 1998), that remains a “trademark” of Black culture

(Azibo, 1998) and has contributed immensely to the formation and consolidation of the

Black culture. The growing attention being paid to the Black self-concept is based on the

assumption that cultural factors such as ethnic identity, personal/collective values, and

beliefs are in most cases dominant factors in the self-concept of youngsters from ethnic

minorities (Sellers et al., 1998). The self-concept is a central factor in the global self-

esteem of Black people and is powerful enough to influence social behavior and

collective identity (Azibo, 1998; Stevenson, 1998; Verkuyten, 1992).

A major concern of the present study, therefore, was to examine the significance

of two components of culture (personal values and ethnic identity) to Blacks’

consumption of sport. One of the methodological approaches used in research to identify

the persistence of ethnic-oriented behaviors has been to focus on the personal values that

14

are important to the individual’s self-concept or identity. Research evidence has provided

evidence of a strong relationship between self-definition, self-esteem, and affect as

important components of ethnic identity (Brown et al., 1986; Korf & Malan, 2001;

Umana-Taylor, 2003); components that can also be used in the categorization of values

(Driedger, 1976). One assumption this research makes a priori is that both personal

values and ethnic identity are in most cases a dominant factor in the self-concept of

Blacks. These variables, therefore, should be important constructs to consider when

examining Blacks’ sport consumption patterns. Examining the influence of personal

values and ethnic identity to Blacks’ sport consumption is particularly warranted since

these variables often serve to project this social group as a unique entity (Armstrong,

1998; 2002) as well as a consumption community.

Importance of Personal Values to Black Consumers

Schwartz defined personal values as “people’s conceptions of the goals that serve

as guiding principles in their lives” (1990: 142). Values, from this perspective, may be

considered as internalized normative beliefs that can guide behavior (O’Reilly, Chatman,

& Caldwell, 1991). Values vary in importance and transcend specific situations, while

expressing the interests of individuals and the groups they belong to. They are universal

motivational concerns (Maslow, 1954) and are cognitive representations of three types of

universal human requirements (Schwartz, 1990): (a) biological needs of individuals, (b)

requisites of coordinated social interaction, and (c) survival and welfare needs of groups.

Individuals are born into this reality and have to recognize and withhold, practice, and

15

communicate these requirements to others. The values that individuals cherish are those

that would benefit them if acted upon. For example individuals who assert that security is

an important principle in their lives would contribute to the attainment of group harmony

and stability. Kahle (1983) conducted extensive research to identify the salience of

personal values to the consumption process. Consequently, the choice of the sport

consumption process for this study assumed that there is something about sport events

that promote involvement and make consumers self-segregate or display the propensity to

construct a series of symbolic boundaries to identify each other.

Values are fundamentally linked to the psychological process of identity

formation in which individuals seek a social identity that provides meaning and

belongingness (Ashforth & Mael, 1989). They provide the starting point for group

socialization and individuals will identify strongly with group processes if there is

congruency between their personal values and those of the social group they are affiliated

to. A substantial body of research evidence has shown that when individuals do classify

themselves into social categories such as race, ethnicity, gender, and other social

affiliations, they do so with intent to use those categories to define themselves. The

central role played by personal/collective values is manifested in research on culture

which often begins with a set of values and assumptions (O’Reilly, Chatman, &

Caldwell, 1991; Schein, 1985), which typically act as the defining elements around

which norms, symbols, rituals, and other cultural activities revolve.

16

Existing research findings provide evidence linking personal and collective

values to the consumption process (based on collective conventions which allow for

shared responses). Sport manifestations have been identified as evidence for some

cultural/ethnic communities to build their own “communitas” (defined as "transcending

camaraderie of status equality" and communion with others (see Belk, Wallendorf, &

Sherry, 1999: p. 7), based on their members’ shared values, beliefs, and rituals. As a

result, consumers’ devotion to any sport activity would depend on their ability to

continually identify value-commonalities to justify the need for the communitas (refer to

formation of communitas among Mexican immigrants by Penaloza, 1994). So, when

individuals become involved with a product they are influenced by its attributes and

situational variables as well as their past experiences with the product and the strength of

relevant personal values (Richins & Bloch, 1986).

The high frequency in which Black consumers flock regularly to attend HBCU

sport events, suggests that these events provide themes that help promote Black

consumers’ sense of belonging. It is likely also that those events provide culturally

attractive opportunities salient to Black consumers or foster a distinct sport environment

(resplendent with elements of Black culture and traditions) that are quite different from

“mainstream” sports. The concomitant Afrocentric atmosphere triggers a chain effect of

cultural emotions and behavior that increase the excitement of the sport experience of

Black consumers (Armstrong, 2002). The resultant sport experiences at these events do

not just become simple recordings of the events in consumers’ mind but complex

17

reconstructions (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980) that shape their attitudes and influence their

repurchase decision making. According to Kahle (1983) values such as a sense of

belonging, security, and being well-respected are family-oriented and provide avenues

for social integration. The sport consumption environment at HBCU sport events

provides opportunities for the manifestation of these values alongside those of fun and

enjoyment, and those that reinforce Black social identity.

Research on the influence of personal values and Blacks’ sport consumption is

lacking. Nonetheless, it is likely that Black consumers’ preference for and frequency of

sport consumption will be influenced by their personal values that are being promoted

(by the sport event or represented by the team/athletes).

Importance of Ethnic Identity to Black Consumers

Ethnicity implies a sense of common descent (Deshpande et al, 1986) or paternal

ancestry (Alba & Moore, 1982). The concept of ethnicity is operationally defined in this

study as the retention of the culture of a group of people expressed through similar

attitudes, values, behaviors, rituals, symbols and taboos, religious manifestations, and

food preferences. This concept simply means that one’s culture of origin has been

reinforced and has become highly independent to the extent that it is able to withstand the

acculturative impact of the social interaction process with dominant culture or other

cultures. It means that the several dimensions of the culture of origin are continually

being reinforced, rather than isolated and eliminated or traded for the host culture traits,

through social interaction. Ethnic identity from this perspective is the manner in which a

18

person is known by himself/herself and by others as belonging to a distinct ethnic group

including features that distinguish that person from others (Sellers et al., 1997). It is an

identity that defines the person from the perspective of a social group with a distinct

culture in terms of similar attitudes, values, behaviors, rituals, symbols, taboos, and

preferences. Despite the increase in research on culture, limited research has addressed

how ethnic identity affects Blacks’ sport consumption patterns.

The categorization of Africans, African-Americans, and others of African descent

from the Caribbean and Latin America into a single ethnic group usually helps to

enhance the perception of similarities among members of the Black community and to

highlight the group’s distinctiveness to out-group members, although this would tend to

create in-group distortions on a few dimensions. Previous categorization (for national

census purposes) has also contributed to decrease the psychological distance between

several Black ethnic cultures and has facilitated the arousal of in-group empathy. In the

sport environment, Blacks have also been identified as a single ethnic entity in terms of

sport production and consumption. It can be surmised from this categorization that there

exists a unique set of consumption attitudes and behaviors among all people of African

descent to warrant the classification. As a result, it would seem to members of the Black

community that ethnic identity is an important construct that may define their unique

characteristic and the social interaction between in-group members.

Previous research findings have provided evidence showing the preference and

consumption pattern of Black consumers. Bernstein’s (1999) evidence of Black

19

consumers attraction to professional football, basketball, and tennis; Armstrong’s (1998)

evidence of Black consumers’ affinity for consumption of HBCU sport; or even the

Simmons Market Research report (1994) acknowledging Black consumer’s high

consumption of basketball, are evidence of a Black consumption preference and sport

consumption behavior. Although the results about the consumption pattern have been

mixed, yet it is the evidence provided by Armstrong (2000 & 2002) showing the

perception of relevance/importance of sport and the inherent product extensions bothered

on Black culture that seem to positively influence the sport consumption behaviors of

Blacks. Research has shown that a stronger identification with an ethnic group may lead

to engaging in behaviors that will offer identity affirmation opportunities (Penaloza,

1994; Richins & Bloch, 1986). Armstrong (2003) concludes that “the ethnic

representations found at HBCU sport events may have a particular influence on the sport

attendance decisions of Black consumers who are highly identified with African

ancestry/ethnicity” (p. 271). Therefore, it is likely that the degree to which Black

consumers identify with their ethnic group will influence their sport consumption

preferences and frequencies.

Values →Attitude→Preference→Behavior Relationship

Values and Attitudes: Rokeach (1973) defined values as “guides and

determinants of social attitudes and ideologies on one hand and social behavior on the

other” (p.24). From this perspective, the values-behavior relationship involves attitudes,

20

preferences, and behavioral intentions. The construct “attitude” serves as a moderator of

the value-behavior relationship (Homer & Kahle, 1988).

Attitudes and Preferences: An attitude may be defined as a relatively enduring

evaluative orientation toward some object of experience (Schellenberg, 1993). Attitudes

are relatively enduring, have a positive or negative character, and have direction. Objects

of attitudes are those features of experience with some recurring importance to the person

concerned. Social psychologists commonly distinguish three components of an attitude:

cognitive, affective, and behavioral. The cognitive component consists of the set of

beliefs that an individual holds about an object. The affective component consists of

the feelings an individual has toward the object while the behavioral component consists

of the predisposition to behave in a particular way in relation to the object.

Preferences and Behavior: An attitude is primarily an internalized predisposition

to act in a particular way manifested either through action or through the expression of an

opinion. One cannot know about an attitude except through its behavioral manifestation

such as through preferences for attitude objects, expression of opinions, or a consumption

behavior (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980; Blackwell et al., 2001; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975;

Reibstein, 1978). However, because of the directional nature of an attitude, it is first

manifested in the form of a preference for one attitude object over another leading to an

action (behavior). Reibstein (1978) believes that behavior is preceded by a “behavioral

intention”, therefore preference is a predictor of the intention to act. According to

Blackwell et al. (2001), the intent to act is not a perfect predictor of actual behavior but it

21

may accurately predict behavior under the right circumstances. In consumer behavior

literature, consumers with positive attitudes toward a product are more likely to hold

favorable consumption intentions and, under specific situations, purchase and consume

the product. Satisfaction with the purchase decision will reinforce attitude toward the

product leading to favorable repurchase intentions.

It can be surmised that Black consumers’ attitude toward their African heritage,

culture, and traditions has led to an increase preference and vicarious consumption of

HBCU sport. Therefore, the attitude-sport consumption behavior of Blacks may be

moderated by their preference for sport with elements that reflect the African heritage,

culture, and tradition. Consequently, sport consumption preference may have a strong

relationship to consumption behavior manifested through frequent attendance at sport

events and/or frequency of consumption of electronic and print media sport.

Statement of the Problem

Black culture in America is diverse, constituting people from many locations in

the world, many age and demographic groups, and many ethnic backgrounds (African-

Americans, Africans, and Black immigrants from the Caribbean and Latin America). The

current focus of this research is to investigate the sport behaviors of Black consumers as

a consumption community in the US, identified not by skin color but by the salience of

their personal values and ethnic identity. Notwithstanding the growing sociological and

economical importance of Black consumers to the sport industry (Armstrong, 1998;

22

2002), a gap exists, as research on the manner in which culture influences the sport

behaviors of Black consumers is lacking.

The study proposes to fill the gap on sport consumer behavior by contributing a

cultural perspective to the emerging field of consumption communities. In so doing, this

study seeks to help address the challenges of reaching Black consumers as a consumption

community in a multicultural and multiethnic environment. Such information could

inform the marketing mix strategies sport organizations employ to reach Black

consumers. Additionally, understanding culturally-driven behaviors (as manifested or as

influenced by personal values and ethnic identity) can also assist researchers in

developing culturally-appropriate instruments to better understand the theoretical premise

of Blacks’ consumption of sport in the context of contemporary consumer behavior.

There is very little research and few theories or models specifically depicting and/or

predicting how aspects of culture such as personal values and ethnic identity may

influence Blacks’ sport consumption preferences and frequencies. As such, the research

questions explored in this study were as follows:

Research Question 1: Are personal values and ethnic identity significantly

correlated?

Research Question 2a: Do personal values significantly influence Black

consumers’ sport consumption preferences?

Research Question 2b: Do personal values significantly influence Black

consumers’ sport consumption frequencies?

23

Research Question 3a: Does ethnic identity significantly influence Black

consumers’ sport consumption preferences?

Research Question 3b: Does ethnic identity significantly influence Black

consumers’ sport consumption frequencies?

Research Question 4: Are Black consumers’ sport consumption preferences and

their sport consumption frequencies significantly correlated?

Significance of the Study

Previous studies in the area of culture and formation of consumption communities

(e.g., Armstrong, 1998; Fisher, 1998; Rokeach, 1973; Schein 1985; Shoham & Kahle,

1996) have generally identified cultural values as important in determining the

consumption behavior of individuals. However, as Cohen and Bailey (1997) and

Armstrong (1998) pointed out, previous research in sport has failed to view sport

consumption as being impacted upon by shared cultural beliefs and values, given the

salience of sport to Black culture. Although some recent studies have tried to correct the

flaws of prior research, the difference in sport consumption behavior in terms of ethnicity

has still been under-examined. The current scholarly orthodoxy on ethnic identity

indicates that although ethnicity is widely used to identify cultural differences, the

relationship between ethnicity, culture, and consumption may be more complex than

usually stated. Secondly, although the process of identification with an ethnic group is an

enduring and systematic communication of culture with the capacity of making a culture

24

distinct and unique, yet it portrays ethnic identity as a very complex construct to

investigate. Several researchers believe that all aspects of culture should be studied at the

level of social interactions (such as in sport consumption). This study is significant in that

it has made an attempt to investigate the relationships between two aspects of culture

(personal values and ethnic identity) at a certain level of social interaction (sport

consumption) to establish the predictive capacity of the former in sport consumption

behavior.

Definition of Terms

African-American: The term is used in this study to refer to those individuals of

African descent who have received a significant portion of their socialization in the

United States (Sellers et al., 1998). These individuals share a heritage and set of shared

values which are related to their common historical experiences in American society.

Blacks: This term is used in the context of this research from a more Pan-African

perspective to define all persons of African descent resident in the United States of

America (Nobles, 1998). The use of “all members of the Black race” could most

appropriately characterize this concept to collectively include African-Americans,

Africans, Blacks from the Caribbean/West Indies and Latin America, etc.

Consumer Ethnocentrism: This term represents a strong belief held by a group of

consumers about the need to consume local events and products irrespective of the

fascination and superiority of the quality of competing external products and events.

Ethnocentric sport consumers believe that consuming sport products produced by and

25

within the local community gives them a sense of identity, feelings of belongingness, an

acceptable form of consumption behavior (Han, 1988), and enhances group identity

(Grant, 1992).

Consumption Community: Shoham and Kahle (1996) defined this term as a

society of people with common consumption interests in terms of expressive and

symbolic behavior of the consumption experience.

Culture: This term is defined in this study as a pattern of shared values, beliefs,

and symbols that help individuals understand group functioning and provide them with

norms for acceptable behavior as well as habitual and traditional ways of thinking,

feeling, and reacting characteristic of members of the group (Schein, 1985; Sheridan,

1992; Spreitzer & Snyder, 1990).

Ethnicity: In the context of this study, ethnicity refers to the retention of the

culture of a group of people expressed through similar attitudes, values, behaviors,

rituals, symbols, taboos, religious manifestations, and food preferences (Smedley, 1993)

Ethnic Identification: This term refers to the cultural practices that serve to

distinguish members of a social group as having a distinct identity from members of

othersocial groups (Ullah, 1987). Ethnic identification is the degree to which an ethnic

group membership affects an individual’s self-definition, self-esteem, and affect (Brown

et al., 1986). Put another way, ethnic identification refers to a psychological and

behavioral attachment or adaptation to one’s ethnic group.

Ethnic Socialization: This term is defined in this study as a developmental process

by which people acquire the behaviors, perceptions, values, and attitudes of an ethnic

26

group and come to see themselves and others as members of such groups (Rotheram &

Phinney, 1987).

Identity: Used in the context of this study, this term is defined as the manner in

which a person is known by himself/herself and by others including features that

distinguish any person from others (Sellers et al., 1997).

Identity-Constructive Behavior: The term is used in this study as a reference to

the actions associated with consumption of symbols, artifacts, rituals, and myths by an

individual seeking to express distinctive subcultural, ethnic and personal identity (Schein,

1985; Schouten & McAlexander, 1995).

Situational Ethnicity: This term is defined in this study as the image a person has

of himself or herself and of the role he or she is playing in a particular situation (Stayman

& Desphande, 1989).

Sport Consumption: Used in this study, it refers to the personal and social process

through which individuals consume sport products/services through attendance at sport

events, participation in sport activities, or consume sports through the electronic and print

media (e.g., newspapers, sport magazines, internet sport news, television sport)

Social Identity: This term refers to that part of an individual’s self concept which

derives from knowledge of their membership of a social group (or groups) together with

the value and emotional significance attached to that membership (Tajfel, 1978; p. 63).

Values: In the context of this study, a value is an enduring belief that a specific

mode of conduct is personally or socially preferable to other modes of conduct (Rokeach,

27

1973) and when adhered to can provide a basis of behavior (Rose, Shoham, Kahle, &

Batra, 1994).

Assumptions

A number of assumptions were made in this research study. First, ethnicity has

been assumed to be a one-directional construct. For example, in the context of this study,

identity with the Black ethnic group does not specifically accommodate individuals in

which one parent is not Black. It has been assumed that all respondents would fall within

a single directional racial category although some individuals may fall into a multiracial

category. Nonetheless, this categorization was necessary because an individual’s sense

of belonging to a particular group and the affect component accompanying that sense of

group membership (Tajfel & Turner, 1986) was important to the objectives of the study.

Secondly, it has also been assumed in the context of this study that results of the

study could be generalizable to the population frame under study since sport has become

interwoven in the lives of Black consumers (Armstrong, 1998). Therefore, the sport

consumption behavior of the research sample would be reflective of the research

population.

Lastly, it has also been assumed for the purpose of this study that ethnic identity

and personal values are in most cases dominant factors in the self-concept of the research

participants. Therefore, Brown et al’s. (1986) EID and Kahle’s (1983) LOV scales were

deemed adequate measures to capture the dimensions they purport to represent and,

therefore, appropriate for an exploratory investigation such as the current study.

28

Limitations

There are a number of limitations of this study that tempered the methodology,

results, discussions, and implications. The use of a criterion-based selection procedure in

determining the subjects for the study constituted a limiting factor to the external validity

of the data to be collected and has, therefore, imposed some limitation to the study.

Additionally, the sample selection procedure compromises the generalizability of the

findings to a broader Black population.

A major conceptual limitation of the statistical procedures (e.g., regression

techniques) is that one can only ascertain relationships, but never be sure about

underlying causal mechanisms. Additionally, the study utilized only two predictor

variables of sport consumption behavior; therefore some amount of variance may go

unexplained. Other factors such as religion, language, sport rituals, ethnic involvement,

salience of ethnic identification, etc., were uncontrollable extraneous variables that could

limit the generalizability of study results. Lastly, limitations imposed by time and

financial constraints on student dissertations can result in lack of pursuit of

somunexplained variances which were likely to occur and could pose challenges to the

validity of the data obtained. This limitation was minimized by the constant evaluation

and supervision of the research process by independent experts and collaboration with the

data collection administrator.

29

Delimitations

There were a number of delimitations imposed by the research. First, the study

has been delimited to studying the sport consumption phenomenon on a student

population rather than on the general Black population. This decision was made

primarily because of the pervasiveness of vicarious consumption and high involvement of

most college students in sport (Fisher, 1998). Secondly, the study also focused on college

and professional sports rather than high school and recreational sports, which may have

different levels of consumption. A third delimitation involved the sample selection. The

sample for the study was delimited to undergraduate and graduate students from a

predominantly urban Midwestern university who agreed to participate and had been

assured of their confidentiality. The data did not therefore reflect the whole population of

Black students or the entire Black population in the US. To minimize the impact of the

convenient sampling procedures employed, data were collected from a cross section of

students of the respective university.

30

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Drawing from social-psychological and cross-cultural literature, the first part of

this chapter discusses constructs relevant to Blacks’ consumption of sport. Included in

the review of literature will be information on culture, ethnicity, consumption

community, sport consumption, and Blacks in America as a culturally unique sport

consumption community (i.e., influenced by heritage, customs and traditions, history,

racial discrimination, and access to resources). The particular focus on ethnic identity in

this chapter is warranted because of the influential role that ethnic identification could

play in the segmentation of the Black community into a unique subculture that

differentiates it from other ethnic groups. The chapter critiques existing literature and

concludes with a figure depicting the expected relationship between the predictor

variables (personal values and ethnic identity) and Blacks’ sport consumption behaviors

(preference and frequency of consumption of sport activities).

The Concept of Culture

Culture:

Culture can be defined as a collection of values, beliefs, and symbols shared by

members of a group or society. It includes patterns of behavior, learned responses, basic

31

assumptions, habits and traditional ways of thinking, feeling, and reacting characteristic

of the way members of a specific group or society meet and solve their problems.

McCracken (1986, p. 72) views culture from two perspectives - on one hand, as a “lens”

through which the individual views phenomena and, on the other hand, as a “blueprint”

of human activity that determines the co-ordinates of social action and productive activity

and specifying behavior. In one perspective, culture mediates the way in which a society

responds to environmental stimuli and change. Another perspective is that culture

represents an environmental variable that is accommodated by society. According to

Jelinek, Smircich, and Hirsch (1983), culture is both a process and an outcome because it

shapes human interactions and is also the outcome of the interactions. Pineda and

Whitehead (1997) review several definitions of culture in socio-anthropological literature

and concludes by showing support for Kroeber and Kluckhohn’s (1952: p. 181)

definition:

culture consists of patterns , explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups, including their embodiments in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional (i.e. historically derived and selected) ideas and especially their attached values (p. 32)

The definition above identifies “behavior” occurring within “human groups” as

the basis for identifying the elements of individual action within a cultural system. The

society that people grow up in shapes their values, beliefs, and norms. For example the

American belief of giving to charity is a core belief that has been passed on from one

generation to another and is reinforced by several social institutions such as schools,

churches, organizations, the government, neighborhoods, and family. A distinguishing

32

aspect of culture is that it evolves over time and is therefore rooted in history,

collectively held and sufficiently complex enough to resist attempts at manipulation. At a

deeper level it represents the ‘soul’ of a group of people because it is rooted in tradition.

Postmodernist researchers conceptualize culture as “a dynamic constellation of

diverse practices and transnational flows” (Appadurai, 1990) reflecting the concept of

hybridization (subcultural units) to portray a given cultural form as a localized

confluence of cultural elements that have been diffused, spatially and temporally. In other

words, every society consists of hybrid cultures or subcultures, that is, various groups

with shared values emerging from their special life experiences or circumstances (Kotler,

1991). For example, Generation X youth represent a subculture whose members share

common beliefs, preferences, and behaviors that have been sufficiently integrated to

represent a unique hybrid of general culture.

Subculture:

The construct of culture and subculture have become increasingly central to the

consumer research literature (Holt, 1997; Kotler, 1991; McCracken, 1986; Schouten &

McAlexander, 1995). The Weberian perception of culture as a shared way of life and

system of meanings that are indigenous to a specific geographically bounded and

nationalized way-of-life, uniquely adapted to a specific set of socio-economic conditions,

is a modernist assumption that pervades literature. Although the postmodernist

perspective offers a critical rethinking of many classic sociological analysis and

assumptions about specific socio-cultural orders, this view presents a different theoretical

33

framework by which to understand culture in other ways other than only in terms of a

national or geographic grouping (Thompson & Tambyah, 1998).

The existence of cultural hybrids or subcultures in modern society is a result of

cultural dynamics that contributes to the understanding of the flexibility, adaptability to

diversity, and tolerance of culture. Based on this concept, Kotler (1991) identified four

types of cultures distinguished by: (1) nationality (e.g., Italian, Jamaican, Namibian, etc.)

in which people live in large communities and exhibit distinct ethnic tastes and

proclivities, (2) Religion (e.g., Catholic, Mormon, Hindu, Muslim, Jew, etc.) through

which people are distinguished by specific cultural preferences and taboos, (3) Race (e.g.,

black, oriental, Caucasian, etc) which distinguishes people by cultural styles and

attitudes, and (4) Geographic area (e.g., Deep South, New England, etc) which

distinguishes people by their distinct lifestyles.

In pluralistic nations with several subcultures, members of different subcultures

bring the values and norms of their respective ethnic groups into the community and try

to identify value commonalities to reinforce the formation of new cultural hybrids in

which both dominant and minority cultures continue to recognize their own

independence (Tajfel, 1982). Language, religion, and race often serve as catalysts for

both integration and separation among community group members and, although within

the sport consumption environment these variables may appear to be irrelevant, they do

have significant impact on the socialization process. For example, despite differences in

language and religion, members of different Black cultural groups always seem to have

developed a persistent trend toward the maintenance of ethnic identity (Pineda &

34

Whitehead, 1997) in any environment even when members continually experience

pressure to assimilate into the social and political life of other dominant cultures. One

aspect of this behavior is associated with their development of common interpretations of

the environment and events in terms of members’ social knowledge (i.e., they develop

idiosyncratic explanations and understandings) or the encouragement of continued

reinforcement and development of shared knowledge of the social world through member

contact (Wilkins & Ouchi, 1983).

The creation of different subcultures is a result of different sets of values which

Schwartz (1990) categorized into three types of universal human requirements: (a) those

values that satisfy the needs of the individual as a biological organism, (b) those that

provide the requisites of coordinated social interaction, and (c) those that sustain the

survival and welfare needs of groups. Values and norms form the core of culture. They

are derived from feelings that are often unconscious and rarely discussable and are not

observable but are manifested in alternatives of behavior (Nelson & Quick, 1997). The

strength of values and norms depend on the level of people’s identification and

commitment to the cultural or subcultural group.

Personal Values: Schwartz (1990) defines values as “people’s conceptions of the

goals that serve as guiding principles in their lives” (p. 142). Rokeach (1973) argues that

a value refers to only a single belief of a specific kind that guides actions, attitudes,

judgments, and comparisons across specific objects or situations. The several values that

an individual holds constitutes a value system which Rokeach (1973) defines as “an

enduring organization of beliefs concerning preferable modes of conduct or end states of

35

existence along a continuum of relative importance” (p. 5). Values vary in importance

and express the interests of individuals and collectives. They transcend specific situations

and refer to a finite number of universal motivational concerns. Accordingly, Schwartz

made the theoretical assumption about the nature and sources of values as cognitive

representations of three types of universal human requirements: (a) needs of individuals

as biological organisms, (b) requisites of coordinated social interaction, and (c) survival

and welfare needs of groups.

Value Type Definition

Power

Achievement Personal success through demonstrating competence according to social standards

Hedonism Pleasure and sensous gratification for oneself (e.g., comfortable life, pleasure)

Stimulation Excitement, novelty, and challenge in life (e.g., a varied life, exciting life, daring)

Self-direction Independent thought and action - choosing, creating, exploring (e.g., creativity,

Universalism Understanding, appreciation, tolerance, and protection for the welfare of all people

Benevolence Preservation and enhancement of the welfare of the people with whom one is in

Tradition Respect, commitment and acceptance of the customs and ideas that traditional culture

Conformity Restraint of actions, inclinations, and impulses likely to upset or harm others and violate

Security Safety, harmony, and stability of society, of relationships, and of self (e.g., family and

Social status and prestige, control or dominance over people and resources

and for nature (e.g., broadminded, world of beauty, wisdom, mature love)

frequent personal contact (e.g., equality, social justice, forgiving, helpful, loving, honest)

or religion impose (e.g., respect for tradition, accepting my portion in life, devout)

social expectations or norms (e.g., obedient, clean, politeness, self-discipline)

(e.g., sense of accopmplishment, successful, ambitious, capable)

(e.g., authority, social power, wealth, preserving one's public image)

independent, imaginative, intellectual, logical)

national security, social order, sense of belonging)

Table 2.1: Schwartz’s Value Types (Schwartz, 1992)

36

An individual may hold several values, but these values are likely to be

complementary to each other (Schwartz, 1992). In support of this observation, Schwartz

analyzed relationships among 56 values which yielded 10 clusters of values or value

types (Table 2.1) which were found to be arranged in a circular manner (Figure 2.1).

According to Figure 2.1, value types adjacent to each other are highly correlated to or

compatible with each other than to those on opposite side of the circle. These 10 clusters

of value types form 4 quadrants defining 2 dimensions. The first dimension is concerned

with people and things which contrast with a concern for enhancing the self (self-

transcendence vs. self-enhancement). The second dimension contrasts the value types of

self-direction and stimulation with the value type of conformity, tradition, and security

(Openness to Change vs. Conservation).

A typology of the motivational concerns of values by Schwartz (Table 2.1), which

are expressed as types of values, is grounded in one or more types of universal

requirements. According to the typology, hedonism, achievement, self-direction, social

power, and stimulation values serve the self-interests of the individual but not necessarily

the interests of any collectivity. An individual who attains pleasure, success,

independence, status, and excitement may not damage any other person’s interest. These

values may be promoted by socializing agents as group goals although the focus will be

on serving self-interests. The second set of values are prosocial, restrictive conformity,

security, and tradition values that focus on promoting the interests of others because the

collective benefits from the individual’s concern for the group, self-restraint, security of

37

the group, and respect for shared traditions. The maturity value serves both individual

and collective interests because a person’s appreciation, understanding, and acceptance of

reality benefit the self as well as the collective of whom the individual is a member (see

Table 2.1 & Figure 2.1).

Conformity

Tradition

Self-transcendence

ConservationOpenness to

Change

Self-enhancement

BenevolenceUniversalism

Self-direction

Stimulation

Hedonism

Achieve-ment

Power

Security

Individualism

CollectivismMixed

Figure 2.1: Schwartz’s Circumplex of Ten Value Types.

38

Although a value is something personal and internal to an individual, values are

not totally individualistic. Socializing factors (e.g., family, peers, neighborhood, society)

have a very influential role in the transmission of values. North Americans, for example,

hold similar values regarding sports (e.g., pursuit of excellence, competition, continual

striving, pleasure, equality, recognition, etc.) although allowing for individuals to hold

divergent views of these values. As another example, while most people place value on

equality, there are divergences in values applied to the distribution of resources to male

and female sport programs. Most of these values are internalized and predispose people

to be interested in the outcome of competitive situations. An awareness of one’s personal

values and value system is important in dealing with any situation (Chelladurai, 1999)

because it allows for any marked differences between individuals to be taken into

account before any action is contemplated.

Values→Behavior Relationship: Values have been used synonymously with

attitudes. However, while an attitude refers to the organization of several beliefs around a

specific object or situation, beliefs generate values that an individual holds leading to the

formation of attitudes toward persons, objects, or events. While values are relatively

fewer, deeply held and more enduring, attitudes are several depending on the number of

objects and situations one is exposed to. One single value may however generate several

attitudes, although Schwartz (1992) argues that values do not have influence on attitudes

and behaviors unless in the presence of value conflicts. He further argues that, while the

acquisition of certain values (e.g., wisdom) are important goals to the individual whose

39

pursuit guides behavior in most societies, the attainment of such goals serves in-group

interest as well.

Values embody three essential components: (a) cognition about desires, (b)

affection and association with emotions, and (c) a behavioral component (Rokeach,

1973). Values may or may not be shared among people within the same society, but

those values with the highest preference (socially) may be used as standard norms of the

society. Rokeach identified two kinds of socially preferred values: (a) terminal values -

which are either social or personal, and (b) instrumental values - which are modes of

conduct relating to morality or competence. Accordingly, the immediate function of

values is to guide human action and ultimately to give expression to basic human needs

in the long-term. In other words, values have a strong motivational component serving

the functions of adjustive, ego-defensive, knowledge, and self-actualization (Rokeach,

1973; pp. 15-16). This conclusion was based on evidence generated to support Maslow’s

(1954) theory of motivation. Rokeach generated further support through the use of a

value scale (Rokeach Value Scale) which has been employed by several researchers in

marketing, consumer behavior, and advertising (e.g., Lascu et al., 1996; Rustogi et al.,

1996).

In support of Rokeach’s (1973) Value Scale (RSV), Schwartz (1992) developed a

new value scale proposing ten motivational types of values, arranged in circular structure

(Figure 2.1), that would have influence on attitudes and behavior only under conditions

of value conflicts. Accordingly, compatible value types sharing similar motivational

orientations are placed adjacent to each other according to the circular structure while

40

those in conflict are placed in opposite positions within the circle. For example tradition,

conformity, and security (Conservation) emphasizing submissive self-restriction,

preservation of tradition and protection of stability are in direct conflict with self-

direction and stimulation (Openness to Change) that favor change, independent thought,

and action. The Schwartz Value Scale (SVS) has been used in several studies seeking to

link personal values to consumer behavior (e.g., Burgess & Steenkamp, 1999; Grunert &

Juhl, 1995).

Kahle (1983), however, introduced an alternate measurement instrument, the List

of Values (LOV) Scale, derived primarily from social adaptation theory. In Kahle’s view,

values are a type of social cognition which primary function is social adaptation since

individuals develop their personal values through life experiences and social interaction

and adjust to social roles through the development and fulfillment of values. Kahle

(1983) identified nine values extracted mainly from Rokeach’s Value Scale (1973) and

Maslow’s (1954) hierarchy of values. These values are: sense of belonging, being well-

respected, security, self respect, fun and enjoyment, excitement, self-fulfillment, warm

relationship with others, and a sense of accomplishment. The values of fun and

enjoyment and excitement have often been collapsed together because the former

subsumes the latter. Further research using the LOV scale has established its reliability in

measuring values (see Homer & Kahle, 1988; Kahle, Beatty, & Homer, 1986), linking

values to attitudes (see Homer & Kahle, 1988; Madrigal & Kahle, 1994; Pitts et al.,

1989), and identifying or describing personality (see Kahle et al., 2001; Rose et al.,

1994). Research by Kahle,

41

Rose, and Shoham (1999) acknowledge, however, that values do not partition

individuals

along geographic lines since people from different geographic locations can endorse the

same values although with different intensities.

Ethnic Identity: Ethnicity can be used as an analytic term to refer to a group of

people seen by others and themselves as having distinct cultural features and a clearly

defined socio-cultural history (Smedley, 1993). The term “identity” used in relation to an

ethnic group denotes a type of association with a socially or geographically defined

group, such as a national or religious group. The community, social class, kinship,

religion, family, sport team, etc., are social structures that an individual encounters and

which help define his or her identity. Used in isolation, however, identity is part of the

extended self (Stevenson, 1998; see Fig. 2.3) as such one can have a long list of identities

limited by the number of structured role relations involved in (Stryker, 1980). Thus, an

individual can have several identities within a community (such as engineer, mother,

basketball player, volunteer fire fighter, Republican, civil rights leader, Black person,

Hispanic, etc.) which, taken together, comprise the extended self. These identities are,

however, structured in a hierarchical order with that more frequently invoked defining

identity salience.

42

The term ethnic identity suggests an emphasis on cultural behavior patterns,

beliefs, and customs associated with being a member of a distinct ethnic group. It

provides a mechanism by which people can define themselves in the context of other

people and also a means by which they can decide who they are within their society

(Sellers et al., 1997; 1998). Used within the context of this study, ethnicity is

43

operationally defined as the retention of an individual’s culture of origin even when that

person is assumed to have acquired some other traits of the host culture (LeVine &

Campbell, 1972). This concept simply means that one’s culture of origin has been

reinforced and has become highly independent enough to withstand the impact of social

interaction with members of other cultures. It does not, however, focus on the cognitions

and attitudes associated with the individual’s attempt at integrating their national status

into their self-concept but rather recognize the behavioral consequences for these

cognitions and attitudes (Smith, 1989).

The strength of ethnic identity can be expressed through attitudes, values,

behaviors, language, rituals, maintenance of symbols and taboos, religious affiliation, and

food preferences. These dimensions of culture are continually being reinforced, rather

than isolated and eliminated or traded with traits of other cultures through the social

interaction process. Members who have a very strong level of identification with their

ethnic group are more likely to resist any attempts to trade off their ethnic traits for traits

of other ethnic groups. Instead, they are most likely to maintain both the original traits

and those of other ethnic cultures. In other words, the strength of ethnic identification is

likely to influence the manner in which individuals seek to maintain a strong association

with their ethnic value system. Therefore, ethnicity if often internalized and thus it

predisposes individuals to manifest strong affect (feelings and emotions) and attitudes

(perceptions and judgments) towards other people, objects, or situations (Figure 2.2).

Understanding the significance and meaning of ethnic identity in an individual’s self-

44

concept enables one to better predict the way s/he is likely to behave in certain specific

situations.

Strength of EthnicIdentity

Affect

Strong Attitude

Figure 2.2: The impact of ethnic identity on the development of attitude

Important Dimensions of Ethnic Identity: Why is there a need to investigate

ethnic identity? Four reasons can be attributed to current interest in ethnic identity and

the desire to provide explanations for significant differences in the manner in which

different people differ in their perceptions, attitudes, and behavior. Literature has

provided four distinct reasons for the investigation of this construct: (a) importance of

culture to an individual, (b) the complexity of multi-cultural society, (c) identification

with different cultural contexts (e.g., adolescents being caught between their parents'

ethnic beliefs and values, and that of the mainstream society), and (d) implications for

adjustment and understanding of the way culture affects perception, attitudes, and

behavior. 45

46

A body of research on the influence of ethnicity on consumption emerged in the

1980’s (Hirschman, 1981, 1983; Stayman & Deshpande, 1989) concerning the impact of

assimilation (Wallendorf & Reilly, 1983), media usage (O’Guinn & Meyer, 1983) impact

of perceived ethnic affiliation (Deshpande, Hoyer, & Donthu, 1986), and situational or

felt ethnicity (Stayman & Deshpande, 1989). Currently, there is a growing trend of

research geared toward international and intercultural research (Pineda & Whitehead,

1997) due to increased globalization and the challenges of addressing and responding to

cultural diversity in multicultural societies, as well as the increase in migration and the

rediscovery of more people of their cultural heritage. To meet the challenges posed by

ethnic diversity, it has become increasingly important to identify the major characteristics

of ethnic identity and to determine the real effects of ethnic group culture on the

socialization process.

Ethnic identification is an awareness of self within a specific group, which is

followed by a great sense of respect and pride, constituting a base for the development of

a healthy self-concept (DeVos & Romanucci-Ross, 1982). Identity is multifaceted and

relates to aspects of personality such as self-concept, self-esteem, self-motivation,

cultural-self, self-aspirations, physical-self, etc. Ethnic identity is the integration of

ethnicity or race into one's self-concept or self-image (Christian et al., 1976). It is related

to one’s capacity to empower oneself and represent one’s ethnicity in the most

constructive way (Rotheram & Phinney, 1987). Ethnic identity can be divided into two

categories in terms of observability: internal and external. The external category can be

47

perceived directly by an outsider and include characteristics such as physical appearance,

language, folklore, religion, manifestations of customs and traditions, etc. The internal

category is difficult to observe directly by an outsider because they are concerned with

self-perceptions, attitudes, and ways of thinking, etc., and reside in the irrational domain

of a person (Liebkind, 1989).

More comprehensive research is needed to identify the components of ethnic

identity including cultural practices and participation in activities specific to an ethnic

group. Ethnic identity is therefore a complex construct that cannot be examined in its

entirety although several research efforts have been made to measure a range of

characteristics of the construct to understand it better. Most researchers agree, however,

that self-esteem and self-definition are very salient components of ethnic identity (Brown

et al., 1986; Phinney, 1990; Ullah, 1987; Umana-Taylor, 2003).

Self-esteem: Membership of social structures involves a sequence in role

performance, such as manifested in team identification, and the concomitant

internalization of the role as well as taking on an appropriate subcultural identity

(Donnelly & Young, 1988). Research has concluded that when one has an identity,

he/she must be cast in the shape of the social subject by the acknowledgment of their

involvement or membership in some social relations or risk being ostracized and/or

banished from the community. The greater the commitment to identity, the higher the

satisfaction obtained through role performance (Serpe & Stryker, 1987). Accordingly,

ethnic self-esteem can motivate the elevation of a social identity as well as its outcomes

48

(Lantz & Loeb, 1998) and, therefore, a threat to the collective goal can increase the

salience of social identity.

Ethnic identity remains intact even when some of its dimensions such as language

and lifestyle, which have the tendency to change over time, do so as a result of social

interaction with other social groups. For example, although ethnic minorities are prone to

being assimilated into majority cultures, most people from minority cultures retain a

strong sense of their own ethnicity. One reason for this persistence is that, in a

multicultural environment, minority ethnic cultures have adopted several options for

ethnic redefinition by creating new categories of social identification (Verkuyten & Kwa,

1996). The adoption of redefined ethnicities such as Italian-American, Polish-American,

Irish-American, African-American, or Japanese-American are examples of the strong

resistance to complete acculturation or absorption into mainstream or dominant cultures.

The redefinition enhances group self-esteem as well as the desire to express unique

differences in perception, attitudes, and behavior. One social-psychological perspective is

offered by the social identity theory (Tajfel, 1978) which proposes that a potentially

important component of people’s identities derives from their group membership which

promotes a cognitive involvement with the group process and enhances the self-concept.

Self-definition: Identity and self-definition are intricately related. This partially

explains the strong negative reactions to ethnic and racial groups when they are defined

by others through labels they do not acknowledge (Asamoah, Garcia, Hendricks, &

Walker, 1991). In discussing the issue of self versus external definition, each individual

49

stresses the impact and importance of culture/ethnicity in the process. In order to

understand what a group of people chooses to call itself, consideration is given to their

common unique experiences. According to Asamoah et al (1991), it is for this reason that

the preferred terminology for African-Americans has changed over the years from

“colored’ to “Negro” to “Black” to “African-American” as they continued to gain more

social, political, and cultural awareness. This may partially be explained to the rise of

Pan-Africanism, Civil Rights movement, and a new appreciation of the interdependence

of Black people. The term “African-American” is probably used as an attempt to

acknowledge the uniqueness of this ethnic entity under the umbrella term “African“.

Members of this population are able to make specific distinctions between their

“Americanness” and “Africanness” by providing a clue to the salience of ethnic identity

to Blacks.

In ethnic identification, the cognitive component of group membership has

primacy (Verkuyten, 1992). A person’s identity is part of his/her self concept derived

from their knowledge of membership of a social group together with the value and

emotional significance attached to that membership (Tajfel, 1978). If the definition of

identity is salient, an individual’s needs, beliefs, values, and motives would primarily

determine behavior (Turner, 1987). Thus the salience of ethnic identity shapes how a

person perceives, evaluates, and responds to situations and to others. Self-definition is,

therefore, important only to a person who is satisfied with his identity and needs to

belong and share a sense of similarity with others. Perceiving one’s ethnic group in a

50

positive manner satisfies the need for belongingness and distinctiveness although this

leads to intergroup bias and to ethnocentrism, at the highest level.

From the self-definition perspective, ethnicity is an identity, an allegiance to a

group and its history, rather than a holding on to a unique set of beliefs, attitudes, and

behavioral inclinations (Longress, 1991). The unique feature of Black culture defies the

above assumption because, to members of this culture, recognition of common history

also entails an attachment to those values, believes, traditions, and rituals that bind

members together. The term “Black” identity reflects the definition of a proud heritage

that provides the basis of self-esteem of persons of African descent with different

subcultures under a single umbrella nomenclature Therefore, the self-defining nature of

ethnic identity entails the recognition of both personal and collective values defining the

uniqueness of the social interaction process.

Culture and Sport Consumption

Competition in sport is seen as a struggle for power, control, and dominance. The

paradox of this struggle is that sport offers opportunities and possibilities for the

construction or reconstruction of culture and the manifestation of superiority, because its

organizational structure, dynamics, and struggles carry with them broad cultural import

and significance (Hartman, 2000). Sport consumption is both a personal and a social

process because it relates to expressing identity, belonging, and differentiation. There is

an increasing interest in identity-constructive consumption in a global environment;

51

however, there are only a few studies on consumption and identity negotiation among

sport fans as consumption communities. Phenomena such as consumption differentiation,

niche marketing, identity-based consumption symbols, lifestyle clustering, and sub-

cultural consumption or consumption communities are beginning to assume center stage.

The significance of these concepts rests largely in their ability to carry and communicate

cultural meaning.

Variables of culture such as values and ethnic identity can be linked to

consumption behavior (Pons et al., 2001) and consumption can be considered a partially

cultural phenomenon (McCracken, 1986). Accordingly, the choice of a specific sport

event or an orientation toward a sport event carries a strong cultural meaning for an

individual because it allows them to identify with a particular sport culture and to

communicate this to others. It is in this context that specific sport activities have been

identified as being specifically ethnic-based, such as soccer to the Italian and Brazilian,

rugby to the British, gymnastics to the Russian, baseball to the American, team handball

to the Swede, Ice Hockey to the Canadian, Horse-riding to the Mongolian, Taekwondo to

the Korean, or boxing to the Cuban.

To Blacks in Africa and those in the Caribbean and South American

countries, sport activities such as soccer, boxing, basketball, track and field activities, and

traditional wrestling are highly preferred and consumed. Therefore, a strong national or

ethnic identity induces the consumption of certain sport events by people of certain

cultures in certain social environments. According to Campanelli (1991) and Delener and

52

Neelankavil (1990), ethnic target marketing has increased due to the realization that there

exist consumption differences among various ethnic groups.

The Sport Consumption Process. Consumers personify brands (Aaker, 1997)

demonstrating that they readily assign dispositional characteristics to brands. In another

perspective, consumers think of and relate to the organization of people that market the

product or services bearing the brand name and consider it as a social group sharing the

same goals, motives, and values. Sport consumers infer the goals, motives, and values of

the sport organization or team from the discernible and symbolic qualities of the

product/service, the athletes and coaches, the public message or actions, etc. In a sense

sport creates a culture of human relations. Aaker (1997) suggested that brands frequently

take on characteristics of a “personality which serves a symbolic function that reflects

how people feel about the team behind the product or brand. Once a sport team’s

personality has been defined, consumers know what to expect from it.

A variety of antecedents may affect the magnitude and direction of a consumer’s

sport consumption pattern, however, the consumer’s strength of identification with his or

her ethnic background is an important factor (Deshpande, Hoyer, & Donthu, 1986;

O’Guinn & Meyer, 1983). Previous research has provided evidence that consumers with

strong ethnic identification do notice and respond to the use of ethnic cultural symbols in

advertisements (Koslow et al., 1994). Pitts et al. (1989) reported a positive correlation

between brand evaluations and affect while Whittler (1989), Schlinger and Plummer

(1992) and Szybillo and Jacoby (1974) measured affect associated with consumption

53

among Blacks. It was concluded from these findings that, in the absence of a strong

identification with the ethnic group, it is unlikely that ethnic group membership would be

a predictor of consumption behavior.

Some researchers described the phenomenon of sport consumption as a vehicle

for promoting social integration, cooperation, and understanding between and within

societies, although, beyond the display of national or team colors and role of participants,

lie a “dormant volcano” of cultural, racial, and political differences intended to establish

a tradition of consumption behavior that distinguishes one group of consumers from

another. This explains why some of the macro-level motivations of sport fans behaviors

(such as at the opening ceremonies of Olympic Games, Bowl Games, Intercollegiate

Sports competitions, international sport competitions, etc.) are derived from the

manifestations of cultural and ethnic-related activities that herald the competitions.

In sport consumption literature, the pattern of consumption differentiation leads to

the formation of sport consumption communities or fandom which are identified in

general by a complex, contradictory, and fascinating culture involving a wide range of

social behaviors, including consumer behavior. Grossberg (1992) defined sport

consumption by these communities of fans simply as groups of people who care about

some element of popular culture and use their association to construct an identity. Social

sentiment is constructed through such consumption interactions and expressed

metaphorically through overt manifestations, with the sport environments being the

referent points that frame consumers’ cultural experiences. A consumption community is,

54

therefore, the development of a subculture of sport consumption as "a distinct subgroup

of society that self-selects on the basis of shared commitment to a particular sport

product, class, brand, or consumption activity" (Schouten & McAlexander, 1995: p. 43).

While the sport consumption process is collective, the meaning of sport is no longer

individually defined but is negotiated, enforced communally and presumably intensified -

through consumption-related exchanges.

Consumption Explained Through Social Identity: According to Tajfel (1978), the

self-concept is comprised of both personal and social identity, with social identity being

“that part of an individual’s self-concept which derives from his [or her] knowledge of

his [or her] membership of a social group together with the value and emotional

significance attached to that membership” (p. 63). Tajfel (1982) argues that individuals

are unable to form self-images in the absence of social identities derived from group

affiliations. These group affiliations affect a variety of consumption choices ranging

from, for example, the purchase of merchandise which identify us as fans of a sport, a

specific sport team, or an athlete, to the defense of the group concept. Social identity

theory (Hogg & Abrams, 1988; Tajfel & Turner, 1979, 1986) provides a general

framework for describing the dynamics of group membership and behavior in the sport

context. Because group membership contributes to the self-concept and self-esteem, the

individual is motivated to maintain a positive social identity by engaging in social

comparison that preserve the favorability and distinctiveness of members of the group

relative to individuals outside the group.

55

If negative social identity results from such comparison, as is most often the case

within the sport environment, then according to Tajfel and Turner (1979), individuals

may adopt a number of strategies such as social mobility (move to support teams that

promote their self-esteem), social creativity (engage in comparisons on dimensions that

are favorable to the in-group), and social competition (attempt to elevate the status of the

in-group). The choice of the strategy will depend on an individual’s subjective beliefs

about the nature of the inter-group context (Cameron & Lalonde, 2001). According to

Hogg and Abrams (1988), social identity theory offers a framework for conceptualizing

the “group in the individual” (p. 17) as well as the psychological mechanisms underlying

collective behavior. In social identity literature, there is agreement that group

identification is a multidimensional construct that incorporates both cognitive and

affective elements (Hinkle et al., 1989; Tajfel, 1978).

Consumption Communities

The concept of consumption communities was introduced by Shoham & Kahle

(1996) to denote a group of people having common consumption interests. Schouten and

McAlexander (1995) used the term “subculture of consumption” to denote a distinctive

subgroup that self-selects on the basis of a shared commitment to the consumption of a

particular product class or brand. A consumption community can best be conceptualized

as a characteristic of society rather than the totality of the society. Contrary to the general

view that any given society is likely to comprise of multiple consumption communities,

56

however, as a system of meanings and learned ways of product or service consumption,

some ethnic communities do manifest distinct common consumption patterns of sport

products/services which influence their members’ consumption behaviors.

From this perspective, consumption is seen as an independent variable

endogenous to the community consisting of beliefs, values, and commitment to certain

sport products/services developed by and within the community. Therefore, the culture of

a sport consumption community is not exclusively what the community is made up of but

also what members have in common with regard to a particular sport product/service. In

this regard, a consumption community is understood in terms of its expressive and

symbolic aspects that guide the consumption behavior of members of the community and

also provide a background against which members interpret their consumption

experience. Ethnic communities in multicultural environments provide their members

with a system of value commonalities that influence typical attitudes and behaviors for

the development of a unique consumption community and the consumption of typical

sport and sport events associated with their culture of origin.

An important argument in consumer behavior revolves around the notion of

regional or ethnic differences in consumption patterns. Perhaps the strongest argument

supporting this concept is offered by Hawkins et al. (1980), who hypothesized that

geographic subcultures can be an important determinant of both consumption and non-

consumption behaviors. To the extent that different ethnic sport consumption behaviors

exist and to the extent that they are due to some perceived value differences (e.g., self-

respect, self-fulfillment, security, fun and enjoyment, relationship formation, sense of

57

accomplishment, sense of belonging, etc.), there would exist differences in consumption

experiences and social interactions among consumers.

When consumers realize the advantages and benefits from their consumption

experiences, as long as they derive satisfaction, they are more likely to continue to invest

trust in their relationship with the product/service and with individuals who either

produce or consume the product/service. Although the benefits consumers seek from the

consumption of certain products (e.g., sports, fitness, recreation) are nonfunctional in

nature, the product/service may serve as a symbolic device for self-image projection.

When certain brands are associated with being consumed by a certain group of people,

thus serving to reflect a certain “brand” of values and traits, then consuming such a brand

is a means by which an individual can communicate to others the type of person he/she

is, would like to be, or would like to be associated with. It is reasonable to assume that

such consumer behavior would control the selectivity of attention in perceptual

processes. It could also lead to the formation of a particular cognitive structure regarding

the product as well as the affect toward the product thereby linking consumption

behavior with ethnocentrism (Shimp & Sharma, 1987).

Black Consumers as a Consumption Community

The world is increasingly saddled by multinational corporations, advanced

communication networks, and efficient logistic systems with increasing pressure for

consumer homogeneity (Levitt, 1983). Consumers in many different locations are being

offered the same global brands and marketers are tempted to utilize standardized global

marketing mixes as a cost saving measure. However, increasing backlash against certain

58

products, corporations, and media images in different parts of the world has occurred

within a larger context of resurgent ethnic identity and ethnocentrism (Costa & Bamossy,

1995). A resurgence of national identities has caused many multinational corporations to

replace their promotional strategies with new campaigns emphasizing symbols reflecting

those identities (Dunn, 1976). Current marketing mix strategies need to target consumers

who have high levels of nationalistic, ethnic, or racial feelings, who live in developed

countries, and who feel economically vulnerable. These consumers are more likely to

constitute themselves into consumption communities with high levels of consumer

ethnocentrism positively associated with age (Shimp & Sharma, 1987) and negatively

associated with education and income (Sharma, Shimp & Shin, 1995; Shimp & Sharma,

1987).

Several reasons have been given why Black consumers are a viable market

segment. Black culture in America is diverse, constituting people from many locations in

the world, many age and demographic groups, and many ethnic backgrounds (indigenous

African-Americans, Africans and other people of African descent - from the Caribbean,

Latin America, and other parts of the world). People who classify themselves as Black or

African-American in the United States constitute about 34.6 million (12.3%) of the

national population according to data released after the 2000 census. A distinguishing

feature of the spread of the Black population in America is that Blacks are more likely

than non-Hispanic Whites to live in metropolitan areas (86% compared to 77%) with

majority of the former (55%) living in central cities of metropolitan areas (US Census

Bureau, 1999). Current census data also reveals other bits of information that are

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particularly important in understanding the growing influence of Blacks in the politics

and economics of the US as well as to marketers as they plan their marketing mix

strategies and to industries as they plan the expansion and location of their businesses

and other services.

Evidence shows that Blacks households, for instance, were the only race or ethnic

group to experience an increase in real median income between 1993 and 1996. Their

median income rose from $20,032 in 1993 to $23,482 in 1996 while poverty rates

dropped gradually beginning with about 2.5% between 1993 and 1994 (US Census

Bureau, 1996). This growth is heightened by a decrease from 51% in the percentage of

Black adults, 25 and over, earning at least a high diploma, to 34% in 1966. Over 16% of

Black men and 22% women aged over 16 worked in managerial and professional

specialty jobs (e.g., engineers, dentists, teachers, lawyers, and reporters). According to

population projections, the Black population is expected to grow more than twice as fast

as the White population by the year 2050 (US Census Bureau, 1998).

With a total personal income estimated at over $205 billion dollars annually,

Blacks in America have a buying power that would rank them 12th in the free world if

they were a separate nation (Kotler, 1991). With the growth in affluence and

sophistication, with high expenditures on clothing, personal care, home furnishings,

fragrances, and transportation, and by being considered more brand loyal than Whites,

Blacks in America constitute a target market for several large companies such as Sears,

McDonald, Proctor & Gamble, and Coca Cola (Kotler, 1991). These indices of growth

within the Black population in the US is an indication of growing consciousness, cultural

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emphasis, and an emphasis to make use of all available opportunities offered through

democratic governance. The Black subculture is therefore recognized as a major

economic and social force (Pitts et al, 1989) and Blacks are different from Whites in their

consumption patterns, media habits and reaction to ads (Stronman & Becker, 1987).

What are the key characteristics of Black consumption practices and how do they

extend and inform our knowledge of contemporary consumer behavior? With the

exception of a few (e.g., Armstrong, 1998; Spreitzer & Snyder, 1990; Stronman &

Becker, 1987), current research in consumer behavior has failed to demarcate distinctions

in sport consumer behavior of persons of African descent as a distinct consumption

community in the US. To people of African descent in the US, sport consumption has a

unifying theme providing a forum for national and/or ethnic manifestation of cultural

values, an arena where several African value systems are reconciled, a place to confront

some of the obstacles that confront Black people, and a place where African symbols,

rituals, and values are reinforced. To Black people, the sport arena is not only a place for

physical activity but also one for social integration and exuberance.

In most Black communities, spiritual beliefs and mythologies are evident. This is

carried over to the sport context. Living in a hyper-rational and scientific society, many

crave the excitement and energy that unexplained phenomena of sport can inspire. The

embodiment of this notion finds rational expression in several artifacts provided in sport

such as club rituals (anthems, songs, logos, mascots, colors, and pregame manifestations)

which have meanings deeper in culture and history. These rituals intensify the spiritually

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fulfilling experience of sport, deepening both fans' feelings and devotion to the team and

the community.

The categorization of several ethnic Black groups into a single group classified as

Black has helped to enhance the perception of similarities with in-group members

emphasizing social differences to out-groups and the group’s distinctiveness. However,

such categorization has tended to create in-group distortions on several dimensions. This

categorization has also contributed to decrease the psychological distance between

several Black ethnic cultures and has facilitated the arousal of in-group empathy. Blacks

in America share a common cultural heritage and history, therefore theories and

hypothesis that attempt to explain Black consumer behavior must emphasize the

important role of values and ethnic identity among members of the Black race. The

creation of a dual identity model for Blacks in America (African and American) has

helped to create in-group harmony and a much stronger bonding among Blacks/African-

Americans (Nobles, 1998). The bi-level model of identity also defends the idea that an

individual can simultaneously acquire and maintain traits of two cultures (McFee, 1968).

Role of Personal Values in Sport Consumption:

Values are guides and determinants of social attitudes (Rokeach, 1973) and social

behavior (Homer & Kahle, 1988). Internalized values provide a sense of order and help

us to make a sense of our environment and the different social interactions. Research

literature indicates that preferences, behavioral intentions, and behaviors are strongly

influenced by our personal values. By the nature of its definition, a personal value

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represents a social or personal preference for a specific mode of conduct over another

mode of conduct. According to Stoner and Freeman (1992), values are the answers to the

“why” questions underlying our attitudes and behaviors.

Values are located with a culture’s belief system and are considered major

influences of behavior as well as providing standards for the judgment of behavior.

(Rokeach, 1973). They are believed to be formed through social interaction. Current

research literature has provided evidence linking values to consumption behavior

(Howard & Woodside, 1984; McCracken, 1986; Pitts et al., 1989). According to Pitts et

al. (1989), “values provide the foundation upon which personal and social consequences

of product attributes are evaluated by the consumer through marketing communications.”

(p. 314).

One concept that has high validity and can contribute to the consumption

behavior of sport fans is the theory of reasoned action (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). The

theory proposes that one can predict an individual’s intention to perform a specific

behavior from the attitudes held toward that behavior and from a measure of subjective

norms. Accordingly, sport preference may have high relationship with community

identity as well as the community’s value system. Consequently, the manner in which

individuals judge the quality and performance of a sport team or quality of a sport event

may be directly impacted upon by the individuals’ own value system which would be

greatly influenced by their past experiences, their attitude towards sport (Yamaguchi,

1987), and their ethnic identity. Consequently, it can be surmised that sport consumption

behavior

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and the satisfaction derived from the consumption experience would be strongly

influenced by the personal values system of the consumer.

Role of Ethnicity in Sport Consumption:

The role of sport and sport events in the cultural reality of the individual in a

multicultural and multiethnic environment is important in helping individuals to identify

themselves with a particular culture and to communicate this identity to others. Findings

by Pons et al. (2001) support the concept of sport as a means of social classification or a

means of affirming self-worth. This brings to fore the reason why a specific sport can be

identified as being ethnically or culturally specific such as martial art to the Chinese or

basketball to African-Americans. Despite the increase in research on culture and

ethnicity, limited research has addressed how ethnicity affects Black consumer

information processing (with the exception of Armstrong, 2000, which revealed a latent

influence of ethnicity on Black students’ responses to race as a source cue) and how they

are constructed and developed, spatially and temporally. Accordingly, it is likely that

some sport product preference of Black consumers ( e.g., basketball, football, baseball,

soccer, track & field, boxing) may correlate well with high level of identification with

their communities and the values that are held dear by members of these communities.

The dual role of sport and sporting events in the cultural reality of a sport

consumer facing a multicultural context is an important challenge to sport marketers

(Pons et al., 2001).The choice of a specific sporting event or an orientation toward a

specific sport carries a strong cultural meaning among Black consumers. To members of

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this community, some specific sports are identified as being ethnically specific. Black

immigrants continue to consume sport products similar to those of their original cultures

(e.g., soccer and boxing) while a strong acculturation has induced the consumption of

products similar to those generally consumed by African-Americans. For example, there

is a strong affiliation of Africans with soccer and boxing because of the pageantry and

buoyant atmosphere associated with their manifestation reminiscent of traditional African

religious manifestations. It appears that the cultural import of certain sport activities seem

to have specific attractiveness to Black people irrespective of the influence of the host

culture. Consequently, sport consumption activities where athletes and fans are allowed

to exhibit continual vociferous celebration or fans are permitted to provide traditional

musical interludes and other activities which are deemed product extensions that enhance

the consumption experience of fans (such as in basketball, football, soccer, boxing, track

and field) seem to be more culturally conducive to Black culture.

Although ethnicity implies a sense of common descent (Deshpande et al., 1986)

or paternal ancestry (Alba & Moore, 1982), its definition must be in keeping with

anthropologists’ view of this construct extending beyond kinship, politics, common

customs, language, religion, values, morality, and etiquette. Despite the increase in

research on culture and ethnicity, limited research has addressed how cultural and ethnic

differences affect Black consumer information processing. It is the contention of this

researcher, guided by the core concept of Afrocentrism (Ladson-Billings, 1994) that the

“whats” and “how’s” of Foucauldian thinking cannot be answered by Black people if

their existence is characterized by loss of absolute ethnic frame of reference. Accordingly

65

it is predicted that sport product preference of Blacks would correlate highly with their

consumption frequency of sport activities under conditions of a strong ethnic identity. It

is also expected that the nature of specific sport activities would be more attractive to

Blacks than others because of the values that they help to enhance in Black consumers.

Consequently, the manner of judgment of sport product quality, sport team performance,

the attraction to any type of sport, or judging the consumption behavior of other

consumers may be a reflection of the strength of identification of the consumer’s personal

values and strength of ethnic identity.

It is assumed that Blacks would exhibit distinct attitudes and behavioral

tendencies in the sport consumption process that serve as symbolic cues and reference

points for the self-image of the Black culture because ethnic Black consumers differ in

their value orientations which are a function of the African/Black personality (Nobles,

1998; Stevenson, 1994). This study sought to demonstrate, through sport events

consumption, that consumers of African descent in America do not only use sport as a

socializing and cultural phenomenon but also to maintain traits of some cultural traits, in

the consumption process. This will not only help marketers to understand the

distinctiveness of Black cultures, but also to increase their understanding of market

segmentation strategies based on unique culturally-rooted consumption patterns.

Conclusion of Literature Review

Sports products have a significance that goes beyond their commercial value.

Their significance resides largely in their ability to communicate cultural meaning.

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Several scholars have made the cultural significance of consumer products the focus of

renewed academic study (Hirshman, 1980). Some of these scholars have established a

sub-field devoted to increasing the clarity of the person-object relationship. This new

area of study has identified groups of people segregated by product preferences and

consumption patterns which have been referred to as consumption communities. This

study proposes to contribute to this emerging sub-field by showing that ethnicity and

personal values could be important variables in the formation of sport consumption

communities because some individuals attach cultural meaning to the consumption of

certain sport products and use such products for purposes of differentiation.

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Sport has many meanings to different cultures and the values inherent in it carry

very strong meanings to different cultures. There is a growing importance of sport events

and their connections with culture, and more research is needed to identify the impact of

ethnic adaptation variables on the consumption of sport events. Black consumers are an

important target for sport marketing because they wield substantial purchasing power in a

variety of traditional products and services such as automobiles, financial services, sport

products, communication, computers, fashion, and music. Although the Black community

in the US constitutes only 12.3% of the population (US Census Bureau, 2001), it

represents an important and lucrative target market segment. Yet, although research

evidence shows that Blacks are more emotionally and behaviorally involved in sport than

Whites are (Armstrong, 1998), attendance rates at professional and collegiate sport

events indicate a lack of active consumption of these sport events. The lack research

explaining the current pattern of Blacks’ sport consumption behaviors infer a need for

additional

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explorations of the factors influencing Blacks’ sport consumption preferences and

frequencies.

Some individuals identify with sports or sport teams and consume some sport

events for what they represent (e.g., a university, a country, a city/town, an organization,

an age-group competition). Wann and Branscombe (1990) found significantly higher

tendencies to bask in the reflected glory of team success (phenomenon of BIRGing) and

lower levels of distancing or cutting off the reflected failure of a team (phenomenon of

CORFing) for persons who were highly identified with the respective teams. Cialdini et

al (1976) believed that both these characteristic behaviors are rooted in the self-concept.

If self-esteem is derived from specific consumption behavior, then threats to self-identity

may also lead to certain behaviors. Therefore, since ethnicity is a component of an

individual’s sense of self, it is likely that consumption derived from one’s ethnic identity

may also influence sport behaviors.

An interesting aspect of Black consciousness is the ability of members to accept

and celebrate their “Americanness” without sacrificing their “Africanness” (Jackson,

1976). The advantage of this situation to Blacks in America is that they are presented

with several options from which to satisfy their group affiliation needs. Although

religion, socio-economic status, political affiliation, etc., constitute some aspect of the

self, Black ethnic identity helps members frame their value system, aesthetics, social

interactions, or personal conduct and to maintain and celebrate core values that are

resilient to change.

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The phenomenon of identity can be used to explain why people respond to

product symbolism in their purchasing decisions (Sirgy, Johar, Samili, & Claiborne,

1991). Sport consumers seek some congruity between a sport, sport team, or sport

product’s symbolic image and their own self image just as much as they seek congruity

between functional attributes of these products and their own needs. These two forms of

congruity can have direct influence on their pre- and post-purchase behavior. There has

arisen the need to document the differences in consumption pattern of Blacks because

this would provide opportunity for sport marketers to develop specific, targeted,

marketing-mix strategies to satisfy the needs of this population. While some ethnic

groups in developed societies are becoming increasingly disconnected from a sense of

community due to changing lifestyles and technological innovations, this does not seem

to hold true

for Black ethnic groups who hold sport as a key expression of community and racial or

ethnic identity and an avenue to defend those values that are dear to the Black culture.

Like culture, the term ethnicity refers to a group and a social physical context

based upon common experiences that in time help distinguish one group from another.

Smedley (1993) suggested defining ethnicity as a group of people seen by others and

themselves as having distinct cultural features and a clearly defined socio-cultural

history. From this perspective, ethnicity can be used to make socio-cultural inferences

about a person’s ascribed membership in a designated group. Carter and Boyd-Johnson

(1998) observed that ethnicity can denote national origin, religious affiliation, or other

types of

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socially or geographically defined groups. Accordingly, ethnicity is concerned with

similarity in a combination of some or all of the following: (a) physical similarities, (b)

history, (c) culture, (d) social experiences, and (e) social conditions experienced.

According to Kahle (1983) individuals internalize their shared values, which

constitute the very core of who a person is both publicly and privately. Accordingly,

people manifest internalized attitudes because the behaviors reflect their most deeply

rooted beliefs (Homer & Kahle, 1988). The internalization of values can be a strong,

long-lasting motivating force in sport consumption (Kahle, Kambara, & Rose, 1996),

therefore consumers who differ in their value orientations may also differ in their

consumption patterns (Shoham, Rose, Kropp, & Kahle, 1997).

The Culture-Sport Consumption Figure

Sellers et al. (1998) indicated their preference for using the term racial identity for

Blacks rather than ethnic identity for three reasons. One reason is that the concept race

has and continues to be the defining construct in distinguishing African-Americans from

other members of the American society. This is so because the classification as a member

of the Black race in American society caries implications for an individual’s educational

opportunities, health outcomes, and employment opportunities. A second reason is that

African-Americans have unique historical and cultural influences which impact upon the

qualitative aspect of their racial identity. This is so because the form of slavery that

Africans experienced in the US did not provide them many opportunities for

demonstration or expression of traditional African culture. A third reason Sellers et al.

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(1998) prefer the term racial identity over ethnic identity are based on the important

differences in the implications of the two terms. While ethnicity suggests an emphasis on

cultural behavior patterns, beliefs, and customs, racial identity focuses more on

cognitions and attitudes.

Growing awareness in society of differences associated with ethnic group

membership (e.g., in occupational attainment) may have led to increased ethnic

consciousness and pride (Laosa, 1984). Phinney (1990) concludes that attitude towards

one’s ethnicity are central to the psychological functioning of those who live in societies

where their group and its culture are poorly represented (politically, economically, and in

the media) and discriminated against. Breakwell (1986) observes that the concept of

ethnic identity provides a way of understanding the need to assert oneself in the face of

threats to identity.

The present study identifies literature supporting two observations: (a) the terms

ethnicity, ethnic identity, or ethnic identification are necessary for understanding

behavioral consequences for cognitions and attitudes, and (b) contrary to Sellers et al.’s

(1998) assertion, a clear distinction has to be made between being African-American and

being Black. The Black reference group they refer to is not made up of African-

Americans only. The Black population is homogeneous because of a common heritage

and a common set of shared values related to members’ common historical experiences.

This classification, however, ignores the presence of some in-group distortions brought

about by the different socialization processes in the US. Phinney (1990) suggests that the

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use of ethnic identity or Black nomenclature would place African-American identity

within a larger theoretical framework which allows for the examination of universal

processes associated with group identity.

Levy’s (1981) study of the correspondence between food types and cultural

categories of sex and age is an example of the way in which demographic information

can be carried in goods. For example, clothing communicates culture, gender, age and

other demographic variables, just as football communicates aggression, masculinity, and

passion. The same way, it is expected that other sport products and services should

communicate some of these variables too, although the gender or masculinity boundaries

for most sport is currently blurred. Accordingly, consumers with different value

orientations would differ in their consumption pattern (Shoham et al., 1997).

Consequently, consumers’ personal values and beliefs which are the foundation of their

ethnicity and culture would play a central role in shaping their attitudes and behavior.

Delineating the role of the consumption process in the cultural reality of Black

consumers in America shows the importance that this study attaches to the adaptation

process and the cultural meaning that sport events carry in this context. The following

figure (Figure 2.3) depicts the thesis of this study regarding personal values, ethnic

identity, and sport consumption of Black consumers, as a consumption community.

In the sport consumption environment, sport events allow individuals to identify

themselves with a particular culture and to communicate the group concept through the

consumption process to others. Since certain sports have been identified to be culturally

73

specific, a strong ethnic identity is capable of inducing a specific consumption pattern

that distinguishes one group of consumers from others. Figure 2.3 is based on the notion

that, at a high level of identification with one‘s ethnic group, people can have

preconceived notions about sport teams and sport events based on stereotypes derived

from their ethnic and personal value systems. This level of ethnic identity would affect

their opinion about sport activities and people associated with them stemming from

congruence or incongruence between product environment and their own self-esteem and

affect.

Frequency

Sport ConsumptionPreferences SPORT CONSUMPTION BEHAVIOR

Sport Consumption

African-Americans,Africans & Other BlackImmigrants

BLACK CONSUMPTIONCOMMUNITY

CULTUREBrown et al's (1986) EID scale

from LatinAmerica, Caribbean, etc.

ValuesKahle's (1983) LOV scale

Ethnic Identity

Figure 2.3: Personal Values, Ethnic Identity, and Sport Consumption Behavior among

Blacks.

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The strength of ethnicity or group identity has the tendency to result in ethnic- or

culturally-based consumption patterns, prompting specific preferences and consumption

frequency of sport activities. The attitudes and interests of social group members in the

consumption of many products such as music, theater, fashion, and sport (for instance)

would be mediated by the similarity of consumers’ personal values and ethnic identity

and the values that these activities seek to promote in the consumption process.

Promotional activities that ignore the need for perceived similarity of values between

fans and their favorite sport teams may be sending ineffective messages even if the team

produces quality performances.

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CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

This research is an exploratory study to examine the manner in which Black

participants’ responses to the two dimensions (personal/internal and collective/ external)

of Kahle’s List of Values scale and the three dimensions of Brown et al.’s Ethnic Identity

scale (self-definition, self-esteem, and affect) influenced their sport consumption

preferences and frequencies. The purpose of this chapter was to specify the

methodological procedures employed to test the hypotheses presented in Chapter 1. The

section describes the research instrument and the sample characteristics. It also provides

a description of the statistical procedures that were employed to analyze the data.

Research Design

The main objectives of the current study were to examine the cultural phenomena

associated with sport consumption behavior, and to gain new insights into the sport

behavior of Black consumers as a culturally/ethnically based consumption community.

Since the research focus was exploratory, the descriptive approach was used to

understand the relationship between values, ethnic identity, and sport consumption

behavior among Black students. This approach was used in combination with the

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predictive correlational approach, since another objective of the study was to examine

the relationship between the predictor and criterion variables. According to Fraenkel and

Wallen (2003), the major purpose of correlational research is to clarify the understanding

of important phenomena by identifying relationships among variables.

The study design allowed for the collection of data through the survey procedure

from a sample rather than from the entire population of Blacks. The intangible constructs

measured in this study were not directly observable but inferred from the responses

participants made to a self-reported questionnaire. According to Ary, Jacobs, and

Razavieh (1996) the most challenging about surveys is when one seeks to measure

intangibles such as attitudes, opinions, values, or other psychological and sociological

constructs. Since the variation needed for studying relationships comes from differences

between the same participants at a single point in time, the between-subjects approach

recommended by Cook and Campbell (1979) was adopted. The design includes multiple

dependent variables. The multivariate design, therefore, was appropriate for this study

(Bordens & Abbott, 1996) since this correlational research simultaneously measured 6

criterion variables.

Population and Sample

Target Population

A research population comprises all the cases (units or elements) that conform to

some designated set of specifications. If one is to generalize the sample findings to the

population, it is essential that the sample selected be representative of that population. In

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the current research the nonprobability sampling technique was employed involving the

use of a nonrandom procedure for selecting the members of the sample. The sampling

frame was determined based on convenience and accessibility. The convenience

sampling procedure was used to select the participants for the study. The target

population for the study was the Black population at a Midwestern university in Chicago

while the accessible population were Black students enrolled for undergraduate and

graduate courses in that university. Fisher (1998) recommends the use of students in

sport-related survey research because of their high involvement in sport and their

vicarious consumption patterns.

Sampling

A sample is a list of elements from the population to be observed and/or

measured. A convenience sampling procedure was utilized in this study. Questionnaires

were administered in-class to a convenience sample of only Black graduate and

undergraduate students of African descent (African-Americans, Africans, Blacks from

the West Indies/Caribbean Islands, and Black Hispanic-Americans) of the same

university. The sampling frame was selected based on secondary data obtained from US

Census Bureau. Analysis of the secondary data showed that about 6 in 10 people

reporting as Black or African-American reside in 10 states with Chicago being one of

two cities with the largest Black populations. Chicago was deemed ideal for this study

because it is one of the ten places reporting the largest population of Blacks in the US

with a 38% Black population density. It was also considered an ideal sample frame

because it has the largest

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concentration of Blacks (1.06 million out of a total of 1.2 million) in one county alone

(Cook County), second only to New York City.

A strong reason for selecting the respective university was because it had an

undergraduate and graduate student population made up of 74% women and 26% men

most of whom were Black (constituting about 90%) coming from 12 American states and

territories, and 8 other countries. The university’s multiracial student body reflected the

demographics of the Chicago metropolitan because two-thirds of the student population

are drawn from the Chicago metropolitan area. A substantial population of the students of

this university was from low income backgrounds with many of them older than the

traditional college age. Most of the foreign students were Blacks coming from 5 countries

in Africa. It was expected that this composition would provide a variety of sub-ethnic

groups among members of the Black community. Students were also deemed appropriate

for the study since it had been assumed that they constitute highly experienced

consumers of the electronic and print media programs and products.

Respondents’ relative homogeneity on characteristics such as age, race, and

education were deemed important to the conduct of the present study. The homogeneity

of these demographic indicators served as a control in this exploratory study. Elements of

the study sample were expected to include both male and female students between the

ages of 18 and 26 years with most of them being physical education students (selected

merely for convenience). This part of the sample frame was chosen because of the

acceptance of an assistant professor of the Department of Health, Physical Education, &

Recreation of the selected university) to be the questionnaire administrator. The

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participants considered in this study were not expected to differ from the general

population demographics of Black students in terms of race, ethnicity, and gender, but

were not entirely representative of the Black population in America in terms of SES

variables, geographic region, and preference for sport.

Data for the pilot study were collected from 44 participants from the accessible

population comprising students from the College of Education and College of Continuing

Education registered for the second semester courses (2003) at the Department of Health,

Physical Education, and Recreation of the selected university. Data for the main study

were collected from 230 participants enrolled for the second semester (2003) at the

Departments of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, Mathematics and Computer

Science, and Educational Leadership, Curriculum and Foundations.

Sample Size

Estimating the size of a study sample is of critical importance to the data

collection process. Hair et al. (1998) recommend that, analyses such as used in this study

be based on samples large enough to allow for 15-20 observations per

independent/predictor variable or a sample size of 200 as a rule of thumb. The minimum

acceptable sample size for a correlational study is considered by most researchers to be

no less than 30 (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003: p. 345). To be accurate, multiple correlations

need to be based on large sample sizes (200 or more) especially if three or more predictor

variables are involved (Hopkins & Glass, 1978). It has been suggested that for multiple

regression tests the sample size must be at least 50 times greater than the number of

predictors (Hopkins & Glass, 1978). This study had two predictor variables, one with two

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dimensions (personal values) and the other (ethnic identity) with three dimensions. As

such, a sample of 230 was appropriate for the analyses because it satisfied the parameters

recommended by Hair et al. (1998) and Hopkins and Glass (1978).

Data Collection Procedures

Human subjects’ approval was secured for use of the sample under consideration

from the Human Subjects Review Committee before the data collection process.

Questionnaires were administered with the help of an Assistant Professor at the selected

university who was personally contacted and agreed to give students credit to complete

them. The questionnaires were expected to be administered in-class to only students of

African descent enrolled for the second semester (2003) courses at the university.

Participants were expected to complete the entire instrument within a 15-20

minutes period or requested to complete them out of class and return them within a week

to the questionnaire administrator. They were requested to read a short cover sheet

(Appendix 1) which outlined the objectives of the study as well as provided assurance of

participant confidentiality. Participants answered the questions in the survey instrument

in relation to their ethnic identity, personal value system, preferred sport events and

frequency of attendance at sport activities (from a list of choices) as well as sport media

preferences and consumption frequency. They were also requested to provide some

demographic data.

For those classes where the questionnaire was administered out-of-class,

participants were requested to return them within a week to the test administrator. It had

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been anticipated that any participant who lost their questionnaires would be provided a

second set of the instrument and encouraged to complete them in-class under supervision

of the test administrator. Approximately 76% of the questionnaires administered were

duly returned. The physical activity classes of the Department of Health, Physical

Education, and Recreation of the accessible population were primarily targeted because

enrollment for these courses comprises a diverse sample of students from the five

colleges of the university.

Instrumentation

The self-reported questionnaire administered included the LOV instrument

employed by Kahle (1983), the Ethnic Identity scale of Brown et al. (1986), representing

the attribute or predictor variables. These two instruments were established measures

used and validated in previous studies. Bordens and Abbott (1996) advised the use of

previously validated instruments to avoid spending precious time in the validation

process, especially when one is new to a research area. Fraenkel and Wallen (2003)

conclude that knowledge of what variable is actually being measured in a prediction

study is not essential if it works as a predictor. It was therefore expected that the two

predictor variables would be able to predict the criterion variables individually or

together. The dependent variables consisted of 6 behaviors representing preferences for

sport consumption and frequency of sport consumption. The questionnaire was designed

to provide data representing the measures of ethnic identity, values, and sport

consumption behaviors and the demographic profiles of sample participants. Instructions

on how

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participants were required to answer each of the six sections of the questionnaire were

provided in order to minimize measurement error.

Measurement

Values influence one’s attitude to an entity and are personal to the individual

although various individuals are mostly influenced by family, peers, community, and

society (Stevenson, 1998). Consumers are, however, aware of their own personal value

systems before action of any sort is contemplated (Chelladurai, 1999) because “values

occupy a more central position than attitudes within one’s personality make-up and

cognitive system and are therefore determinants of attitudes as well as behavior”

(Rokeach, 1973; p. 18). Ethnic identity was the other predictor variable in the study that

is believed to provide an individual a sense of distinctiveness (Rodriguez & Gurin, 1990)

and an association with a social group. Following is a discussion of how these two

variables were measured in the context of this study.

Predictor Variables

Two sets of attribute or predictor variables were measured. The two variates of

culture selected as the main focus of this study were: (a) values (consisting of two levels -

internal and external values) and (b) ethnicity (consisting of 3 levels - self-definition,

self-esteem, and affect). Values were measured through a 9-item LOV scale (Kahle,

1983) using a 9-point Likert scale. Ethnic identity, on the other hand was captured

through a 10-item ethnic identity scale (Brown et al., 1986) using a 5-point Likert scale.

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The LOV scale: This scale was used to measure participants’ personal values.

The first section of the questionnaire involved an initial value profile of respondents and

the evaluation of personal values to be measured using the list of values (LOV) proposed

by Kahle (1983) which have been demonstrated to be an efficient and reliable measure of

values (Shao, 2002). Reliability alphas of .77 and .79 were obtained by Shao (2002) for

two independent samples using the same scale. Kahle (1983) categorized the 9 items

comprising the scale into internal (personal) and external (collective) loci of control, as

shown in Table 3.1.

Locus of Control

Internal External

Excitement Being well-respected by others

Fun and enjoyment Security

Self-fulfillment Sense of belonging

Self-respect

Sense of accomplishment

Warm relationships with others

Table 3.1: The two dimensions of the LOV scale (Kahle, 1983) The nine items comprising the LOV scale are self-respect, excitement, fun and

enjoyment in life, self-fulfillment, sense of accomplishment, and warm relationships with

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others, sense of belonging, security, and being well-respected by others. The LOV

instrument had been found to be more reliable (Shao, 2002) in a cross-cultural setting

than other value scales attributed to Rokeach (1973) and Schwartz (1990 & 1992).

Participants were requested to indicate the importance of each value to them. The

questionnaire included a list of these values that may have been stressed to respondents

when they were young and are probably still important to them. Participants were

requested to indicate the extent to which each item was important in their daily lives,

using a scale ranging from 1 (Least Important to me) to 9 (Most Important to me). They

were also required to choose only one item deemed the most important of the 9 values to

them.

Ethnic Identification Scale: Items that measure the identification variable have as

their basis the level of identification with one’s ethnicity reflecting the extent to which

the individual defines himself or herself with the three constructs constituting the Ethnic

Identity scale (Brown et al., 1986) - self-definition, self-esteem, and affect. These

identity dimensions are considered powerful referents with the capacity to induce strong

attachment, boost self-esteem, generate affect and promote very strong situational

identity formations (Breakwell, 1986). The ethnic identity scale developed by Brown et

al. (1986), based on an original scale of ethnic identity devised by Driedger (1976), is a

10-item inventory which consists of five items affirming group identification and five

denying it.

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The items also attempt to measure the three aspects of identity they identified

from the definition of the social identity theory. The scores of the negative items were

reversed for analysis to give a possible range of 10-50 individual scores for the entire

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scale. Accordingly, self-definition/awareness was tapped by 2 items, self-

esteem/evaluation by 4 items, and affect by 4 items (Table 3.2). Brown et al.’s (1986)

analysis of the scale yielded a Cronbach’s alpha of .71 indicating a fair measure of inter-

item correlation. Factor analysis also yielded an oblique solution with three

intercorrelated factors.

Categorization of Items

Self-definition (SDEF) SDEF 1: I am a person who identifies with the Black group

SDEF 2: I an a person who sees myself as belonging to the Black group Self-esteem (SEST) SEST 1: I am a person who considers the Black group important SEST 2: I am a person who criticizes the Black group SEST 3: I am a person who makes excuses for belonging to the Black group SEST 4: I am a person who tries to hide belonging to the Black group Affect (AFFT) AFFT 1: I am a person who is glad to belong to the Black group AFFT 2: I am a person who feels strong ties with the Black group AFFT 3: I am a person who is annoyed to say I’m a member of the Black group AFFT 4: I am a person who feels held back by the Black group

Table 3.2: Item categorization of the Ethnic Identity scale (Brown et al., 1986)

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Criterion Variables

Various sport consumption preferences and behaviors were the criterion variables

in this study. They focused on participants’ preferences for selected sport activities and

consumption opportunities and frequency of sport attendance, viewing of televised sport,

and reading about sport from the print media (magazines and newspapers). The study

adopted a design of the same nature as that employed by of Shao (2002) for these three

dichotomous sections. For example, while her design employed many varied sport

activities (baseball, basketball, boxing, football, ice hockey, golf, badminton, etc.), the

current design for the dependent variables employs only four collective professional

(basketball, baseball, football, soccer) and two college sport activities (basketball and

football).

Preference for Attendance Professional Baseball Professional Basketball Professional Football Professional Soccer College Football College Basketball

Frequency of Consumption Professional Basketball Professional Football Professional Soccer Professional Baseball College Basketball College Football

Preference for Watching Televised Sport Professional Baseball Professional Basketball Professional Football Professional Soccer College Football College Basketball

Freq. of Watching Televised Sport Professional Baseball Professional Football Professional Basketball Professional Soccer College Basketball College Football

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Preference for Reading Print Media Sport Baseball Basketball Football Soccer

Freq. of Reading Print Media Sport Baseball Basketball Football Soccer

Table 3.3: Variables Constituting the Sport Consumption Behavior (Criterion)

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Items measuring the criterion were covered by three sections of the questionnaire.

Section 3 contained items to measure preference for and frequency of attendance at six

sport events. Section 4 measured the preference for and frequency for viewing sport

programs on television while Section 5 measured the preference for and frequency of

reading sport from the print media. Table 3.3 summarizes the different sport activities

and consumption opportunities selected for the study. Some items included in the fifth

section required respondents to identify their preferences from a list of sport magazines

and newspapers those that respondents preferred and to indicate their frequency of

consumption. Section 6 of the questionnaire was designed to gather demographic

information about the respondents requiring the following characteristics: age, gender,

marital status, educational level, annual income, and sub-ethnic category.

Sport consumption “preferences” were measured by using a 9-point Likert scale

ranging from 1 (Not Preferable At All) to 9 (Very Preferable). Participants were required

to respond by indicating their preference for a specific sport and their preferences for

televised sport and print media sport from newspapers and magazines. Sport consumption

“frequency” was measured with a 9-point scale ranging from 1 (Never) to 9 (Very

Frequently). Participants were required to respond to the frequency in which they

watched televised sport programs using the 9-point Likert scale. Choice of specific sport

activities frequently attended by participants was limited to professional sport events

(soccer, baseball, basketball, and football) that have professional team franchises in

Chicago (e.g., Chicago Fire, Chicago Cubs, Chicago White Sox, Chicago Bulls, Chicago

Bears) and two

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popular college sport events (basketball and football) represented by the “Cougars” of the

Chicago State University. The Cougars was specifically chosen because all participants

for this study were either undergraduate or graduate students and are therefore familiar

with college sport programs.

Ancillary Sport Consumption Items

Two ancillary items were included in the questionnaire. One ancillary item requested

participants to provide additional motives for their sport consumption. A second (and

related) ancillary item requested the participants to identify the major factors that

influenced their sport consumption behavior.

Demographic Data:

A set of demographic data (consisting of age, gender, income level, educational level,

marital status, and sub-ethnic group) was collected from the respondents. Only gender

was used in the MANOVA analyses to identify whether demographic differences

significantly influenced the participants’ responses to the predictor and criterion

variables.

Validation of Test Instrument

Validity refers to the appropriateness, meaningfulness, and usefulness of specific

inferences made from test scores (Messick, 1989). There are various procedures used to

gather evidence about test validity. Although the current instruments had been validated

in previous studies (Brown et al., 1986; Kahle, 1983; Robbins, 1992; Shao, 2002) they

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had not been applied to the Black population specifically. Two forms of validity for the

research instrument were examined to address specific aspects of the scales.

Face Validity: Face validity was the simplest kind of validity used to determine

the appropriateness of the instrument used in this study. It shows how well a test appears

to measure what it was designed to measure. Since instruments can sometimes elicit

biased or incorrect responses because of lack of face validity, members of the

researcher‘s dissertation committee and a group of independent persons (doctoral

students of the Ohio State University, Department of Sport Management) examined the

appeal and appearance of the instrument to determine if it measured what it was supposed

to measure and whether it appeared valid to the targeted respondents who would

complete it.

Content Validity: The second type of validity check was content validity.

Content validity was determined subjectively by a thorough examination of the

instrument by a panel of expert judges (members of the dissertation committee). Content

validity examines whether test items are a representative sample of the total domain of

content to be measured. The panel of experts examined whether the items logically fit the

domain to which it belonged. The feedback from the panel of experts produced a juried

instrument which was later pilot tested with a small population similar to the proposed

population.

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The instrument was pilot tested in-class to a small sample of 44 students. The

participants of the pilot test were drawn from the same research population, with similar

demographic and psychographic characteristics, but were excluded from being part of the

final research sample. The results of the pilot test were use to refine, reword, and re-

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arrange items included in the instrument and to make them more appropriate and

understandable to increase validity.

Reliability of Test Instrument

The degree to which random error occurs in measurements indicates the relative

reliability of the measuring instrument and data produced. This study sought to examine

the manner in which predictor variables would influence criterion variables. Therefore,

central to this study was the reliability of the predictor variables. Reliability was

established using Cronbach’s alpha because almost all test items had multiple response

categories. Reliability alpha provides a measure of the extent to which items are

positively intercorrelated and working together to measure a trait or characteristic (Ary,

Jacobs, & Razavieh, 1996). Nunnally (1967) stated that where results of a test are to be

used as a basis for making decisions only instruments with a reliability of .80 or more is

required while for making decisions about a group or for research purposes, a lower

reliability coefficient in the range of .50 to .60 is acceptable. An overall reliability

coefficient of .70 for the LOV and Ethnic Identity scales was considered relatively high

enough to draw accurate conclusions about the population being studied (Nunnally,

1978) and may even be lowered to .60 in exploratory research (Robinson, Shaver, &

Wrightsman, 1991).

Data Analysis Procedures

After receiving the final questionnaires from the sample participants, the data

were checked for completeness of responses and unusable questionnaires were discarded.

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The questionnaire information was then coded numerically and converted to a data file

using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) 11.5 computer software.

Descriptive and correlational analyses were performed on the criterion variables. A

descriptive analysis of the ancillary sport consumption items was also performed. Prior

to performing the primary analysis, reliability coefficients (Cronbach’s alpha) were

computed for the predictor variables. Descriptive statistics (i.e., frequencies, means, and

standard deviations) of the data were also calculated for the predictor variables and

frequency polygons were plotted to examine their normality and skewness. To examine

whether the participants’ responses to the predictor variables differed based on their

gender, a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was performed.

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As stated previously, the primary focus of this investigation was to examine the

manner in which the predictor variables of personal values and ethnic identification

influenced the sport consumption preferences and behavior frequency (i.e. preferences

for sport, televised sport and print media sport; and frequency of sport attendance,

televised sport viewing, and print media sport consumption). To accomplish this purpose,

six simultaneous multivariate multiple regressions were performed: two for sport

attendance preference and frequency, two for electronic sport media consumption

preference and frequency, and two for print media consumption preference and

frequency. Multiple regression enabled the determination of correlations between the

criterion/dependent variables and the best combination of the two predictor variables

(Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003). Since a sequence of multivariate multiple regressions was

performed, it was necessary to adjust the alpha level by the Bonferroni inequality to

decrease the probability

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of any Type I error (Hair et al., 1998). For this study, the alpha level of .05 was adjusted

to .01 because a total of six regressions (three for preferences and three for behavioral

frequency) were performed. The assumptions for regression analysis (such as normality,

linear relationship between the independent and dependent variables, homoscedasticity,

etc.) were also examined to determine the appropriateness of the regression procedure for

this investigation. Lastly, to examine the extent to which the respondents’ sport

consumption preferences were related to their sport consumption behavior frequency,

correlational analyses were performed. Each of the hypotheses presented in this study

were also tested statistically by comparing critical and calculated values.

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CHAPTER 4

RESULTS

The results of the study are presented in six sub-sections in this chapter. The first

section reports data analyses of the pilot test administered to establish the reliability of

the measuring instruments. The second section contains the analysis of demographic

characteristics of the sample participants. The third section presents descriptive analysis

of the criterion variables of sport consumption preferences and frequencies. Gender

differences in the criterion variables will also be discussed. Correlation analyses between

the criterion variables of sport consumption preferences and frequencies are also

presented in this section. The fourth section of this chapter presents an analysis of the

predictor variables. It reports on the reliability of the LOV and EID scales, and the

Multiple Analysis of Variances (MANOVA) procedures used to test for gender

differences for the overall scales and their components. This section also reports the

correlations between the predictor variables (personal values and ethnic identity). The

fifth section of this chapter presents results of the six multiple regression analyses testing

the independent, interactive, and linear effects of the two predictor variables on sport

consumption behavior.

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Results of the Pilot Test

A pilot test was conducted with Black university students from the same sample

population selected for the study who were not participants in the final study. This

approach was employed as an attempt to determine the reliability and validity of the

research instrument. To obtain a sample of participants to pilot the data collection

instrument, questionnaires were distributed to 70 students from the university that served

as the sample frame. However, only 44 of the participants (34% male and 66% female)

returned the questionnaires yielding a 62.9% return rate. Three graduate (7%) and 41

undergraduate (93%) students completed the questionnaire and returned them. Time

constraints did not permit additional sampling to increase the number of participants

included in the pilot sample.

The participants ranged in age between 19-33 years with 73% of them under 30

years of age. Only 16% reported annual incomes greater than $30,000 while 41%

reported incomes under $10,000. Others reported incomes of between $10,000 - $20,000

(25%) and $20,000 - $30,000 (13%). Two participants failed to report their annual

income. Thirty-one of the participants were single (70.5%), 6 were married (13.6%) wile

the rest were living with significant others (15.9%).

Reliability of Predictor Variables

LOV Scale: Analysis of the data yielded by the LOV scale produced a Cronbach’s

alpha of .89. This coefficient was higher than in previous studies which yielded .71

(Kahle, 1983) and .79 (Shao, 2002).

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EID Scale: Reliability analysis was performed on the Ethnic Identity (EID) scale

yielding a Cronbach’s alphas of .91. This was considered highly satisfactory since

previous research by Brown et al., (1986), Robbins (1992), and Korf & Malan (2001)

yielded .71, .80, and .86 alpha coefficients, respectively.

Validity of Predictor Variables

Based on the feedback obtained from the panel of experts, the predictor variables

included in the data collection instrument were deemed to have an acceptable face and

content validity. Fraenkel and Wallen (2003) suggest that, since validity refers to the

degree of evidence needed to support the making of inferences based on data, validation

should be based on “the inferences about the specific uses of an instrument … not the

instrument itself” (p. 158). From this analysis, validity depends on the amount and type

of evidence needed to support the interpretations made concerning data gathered.

Content-related evidence of validity was provided by the panel of experts and doctoral

students of the Department of Sport Management (Ohio State University) by examining

the content and format of the research questionnaire.

Modifications to Questionnaire

The results yielded in the pilot test led to a slight modification of the layout of the

items constituting the entire questionnaire. It was realized, especially with the EID scale

that the layout of the test items had not been arranged in random order and, therefore,

allowed for participants to circle items in groups rather than separately on each individual

item. This could lead to participants not reading the items carefully before giving honest

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answers. Therefore, the items for the main study were rearranged in a random order,

rather than being grouped according to its subscale. A second modification to the

questionnaire subsequent to the pilot test concerned an ancillary item regarding the most

important value (among the values listed in the LOV scale) to the participants. Some of

the participants selected more than one most important value, making it difficult to

analyze the data provided on that item. Therefore, the directions in the main study were

revised to indicate that the participants should select only one item (emphasized) as the

most important personal value to them.

Results of Main Study

Sample Characteristics

Of the 300 questionnaires distributed, 229 completed ones were received from 71

male and 158 female respondents representing a 76.3% return rate. The sample was

relatively middle age with respondents’ ages ranging from 17-53, majority (54.4%) of

whom were above the pre-study expected age range (18-26 years). The administrator of

the questionnaires reported difficulty in administering the instrument in-class since

respondents were in their final week of classes and therefore requested to complete them

out of class and to return them within one week. While some of the undergraduate

participants were given extra credit for completing the survey, graduate participants

volunteered to participate.

Table 4.1 presents a summary of the demographic profile of participants

comprising the study sample. The gender composition of the sample (69% female and

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31% male) reflects the demographic profile of the population of Black students in the

university (70% female and 30% male). The mean age of the participants was 28.41 years

(SD = 7.73). With regard to the annual income, 53.3% of the participants reported an

annual income above $15,000 with 20.5% within this category reporting incomes greater

than $30,000. The majority of the respondents (87.8%) were undergraduate students

while the remaining (12.2%) were graduate students. Over sixty-five percent of

respondents were not married, 18% were married, 7.9% divorced, 7.9% living with

significant others and only two respondents were widowed.

102

Demographic Characteristics N %

Gender Male

Female Age

17-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 > 40

Educational Level Undergraduate

Graduate Annual Income

Less than $5,000 $5,000-10,000

$10,001-15,000 $15,001-20,000 $20,001-25,000 $25,001-30,000

More than $30,000 Marital Status

Single Married Divorced

Living with Significant Other Widowed

71 31.0 158 69.0 23 10.1 81 35.5 46 20.2 35 15.3 24 10.6 19 8.3 201 87.8 28 12.2 42 18.3 36 15.7 28 12.2 26 11.4 29 12.7 20 8.7 47 20.5 150 65.5 42 18.3 18 7.9 17 7.4 2 .9

Table 4.1: Demographic Characteristics of Study Sample

The ethnicity of respondents was highly skewed toward the African-American

population constituting about 86.9% from an institution whose population is 90% Black.

Jamaican-Americans constituted 5.6% of the percentage of respondents. The sub-ethnic

sample also contained two Trinidadians, nine Africans and four others who chose to

describe themselves simply as “American”. The total of the sub-ethnic sample of

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participants, other than African-Americans, made up 13.1% of the entire sample of

participants.

Descriptive Analyses of the Criterion Variables

The criterion variables in this study were three behavioral outcomes of actual

sport involvement: (a) preference for the selected sport activities and actual frequency of

attendance, (b) preference for watching sport on television and frequency of watching

sport programs on television, (c) preference for reading about sport from the print media

and frequency of reading about sport in the print media. The purpose of these measures

was to identify the level of involvement as manifested in actual consumption behavior.

Sport Consumption Preference for Entire Sample

Participants were asked to rate their sport consumption preferences on a scale

ranging from 1 (not preferable at all) to 9 (most preferable). The results (see the

“Preferences” in Table 4.2) indicated that Professional Basketball was the most preferred

by respondents in terms of mean scores (M = 6.45, SD = 2.79) followed by College

Football (M = 5.81, SD = 2.77). Regarding preferences for televised sport activities, the

104

results showed a higher mean score for participants’ preference for Professional

Basketball (M = 6.32, SD = 2.83) followed by College Basketball (M = 5.38, SD = 2.98).

Preferences Frequency

Sport Consumption Activities Mean σ Mean σ Sport Attendance Professional Baseball Professional Basketball Professional Football Professional Soccer College Basketball College Football Electronic Media Sport Consumption Professional Baseball Professional Basketball Professional Football Professional Soccer College Basketball College Football Print Media Sport Consumption Baseball Basketball Football Soccer

4.03 6.45 5.61 2.96 5.05 5.81 3.61 6.32 5.51 2.35 5.38 3.61 2.86 4.94 4.25 1.93

2.84 2.79 2.88 2.55 2.79 2.77 2.78 2.83 3.02 2.09 2.98 2.52 2.63 3.28 3.24 1.80

2.95 3.61 2.93 1.67 3.96 3.35 3.39 5.83 5.10 1.99 4.84 4.31 2.73 4.65 3.98 1.82

2.34 2.79 2.52 1.64 2.78 2.59 2.69 2.81 2.99 1.84 2.94 2.94 2.52 3.19 3.15 1.71

Table 4.2: Mean and Standard Deviations of Sport Consumption Preferences and Consumption Frequency of Entire Sample

Analysis of print media consumption preferences showed that the majority of

participants preferred to read about basketball (M = 4.94, SD = 3.28) and football (M =

4.25, SD = 3.24). Professional Soccer was by far the least preferred sport activity in

105

terms of the mean scores reported for the sport itself (M = 2.96, SD = 2.55), its

televised programs (M = 2.35, SD = 2.09), and print media information (M = 1.93,

SD = 1.80). Overall, the preference for the consumption of college basketball on

television was higher (M = 5.38) than actual preference for that activity (M = 5.05).

In other sport activities, the mean preferences for actual activity were higher than mean

preferences for electronic media consumption.

Sport Consumption Preferences By Gender

Table 4.3 presents the mean differences in sport consumption preferences (and

frequencies) based on the gender of the participants. The table shows that there were

significant differences in the consumption preferences as reported by the significant F-

values. Significant differences were reported between males and females in terms of the

preferences for all the sport activities at p < .01 level except in soccer. Interestingly,

while there was not a significant gender difference in the participants’ preference for

attending professional soccer, F(1, 227) = .98, p >.05 or watching professional soccer on

television, F(1, 227) = 2.78, p >.05. There was a significant gender difference for the

participants preference for print media consumption of soccer, F (1, 227) = 6.14, p < .05.

106

Sport Consumption Activities

Preferences Men Women Mean σ Mean σ F-value

Sport Attendance Professional Baseball Professional Basketball Professional Football Professional Soccer College Basketball College Football Electronic Media Sport Professional Baseball Professional Basketball Professional Football Professional Soccer College Basketball College Football Print Media Sport Baseball Basketball Football Soccer

5.08 2.92 3.65 2.75 14.89*** 7.49 2.24 5.99 2.89 15.10*** 7.27 2.28 4.87 2.82 39.55*** 3.20 2.79 2.84 2.43 .98 6.94 2.42 5.30 2.77 18.45*** 6.38 2.44 4.46 2.74 25.78*** 4.61 3.01 3.16 2.55 13.91*** 7.42 2.14 5.83 2.97 16.49*** 7.20 2.48 4.75 2.94 37.15*** 2.69 2.37 2.20 1.94 2.78 6.72 2.50 4.78 2.99 22.70*** 5.96 2.80 3.78 2.84 28.95*** 4.15 3.08 2.27 2.17 27.99*** 6.76 2.70 4.12 3.19 36.64*** 6.18 3.04 3.38 2.94 43.35*** 2.37 2.28 1.73 1.50 6.14*

F (1, 227) ***p < .001; **p < .01; *p < .05

Table 4.3: Equality of Means for Sport Consumption Preference by Gender

Sport Consumption Frequency for Entire Sample

The sport activities most frequently consumed, in terms of the mean values

reported on the frequency of attendance for the entire sample (see “Frequency” in Table

4.2), were College Basketball (M = 3.96, SD = 2.78), Professional Basketball (M = 3.61,

SD = 2.71), and College Football (M = 3.35, SD = 2.59). The sport activities actually

watched most frequently on television were Professional Basketball (M = 5.83, SD =

2.81), Professional Football (M = 5.10, SD = 2.99), and College Basketball (M = 4.84,

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2.94). Very low frequencies were reported in terms of the mean values reported for

frequency of attendance and consumption of both electronic and print media sport.

Despite the generally low frequencies of attendance reported at most sport events, the

frequency of consumption of televised Professional Basketball (M = 5.83, SD = 2.81) and

Professional Football (M = 5.10, SD = 2.99) was high compared to the other sport

activities. Professional Soccer events (M = I.67, SD = 1.64) and its televised programs

(M = 1.99, SD = 1.84) were the least frequented or consumed by the participants.

Generally, the consumption frequencies of electronic media sport were higher than the

actual game attendance frequencies for all sport activities.

Sport Consumption Frequency By Gender

The results of the preferences for sport consumption based on the participants’

gender are presented in Table 4.4. The results revealed that males were generally more

frequent sport consumers (regarding attendance, sport media consumption, and print

media consumption). Moreover, the results also revealed that the participants generally

consumed a sport via electronic media more frequently than they attended that actual

sport event or read about the respective sport in print media. The only sport in which

there were not significant gender differences was soccer. No significant differences were

found between the males and females on their soccer attendance (F (1, 227) = .33, p >

.05), electronic media consumption of soccer, F(1, 227) = .85, p > .05, or their print

media consumption of soccer, F(1, 227) = .57, p > .05.

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Sport Consumption Activities

Frequency Men Women Mean σ Mean σ F-value

Sport Attendance Professional Baseball Professional Basketball Professional Football Professional Soccer College Basketball College Football Electronic Media Sport Professional Baseball Professional Basketball Professional Football Professional Soccer College Basketball College Football Print Media Sport Baseball Basketball Football Soccer

3.65 2.75 2.64 2.07 9.38** 4.37 3.09 3.27 2.58 7.84** 4.03 3.00 2.43 2.10 21.43*** 1.76 1.76 1.63 1.59 .33 4.99 2.96 3.49 2.58 14.88*** 4.14 2.80 3.00 2.42 9.83** 4.27 2.98 3.00 2.45 11.37** 7.01 2.54 5.29 2.77 19.89*** 6.63 2.79 4.41 2.81 30.75*** 2.15 2.07 1.91 1.73 .85 6.14 2.79 4.26 2.83 21.78*** 5.72 2.99 3.68 2.70 25.86*** 3.79 3.02 2.25 2.10 19.60*** 6.37 2.91 3.87 3.01 34.11*** 5.83 3.15 3.15 2.78 41.82*** 1.94 1.94 1.76 1.59 .57

F (1, 227) ***p < .001; **p < .01; *p < .05

Table 4.4: Equality of Means for Sport Consumption Frequency by Gender

Correlations Between Criterion (Sport Consumption) Variables

Patterns of correlations between the 6 sets of criterion measures were examined.

Table 4.5 present the correlation coefficients between the criterion measures. Results

showed moderate to very strong correlations between the variables suggesting that all the

variables measure a similar construct (sport consumption behavior). Examination of the

coefficients indicated that all consumption frequencies of sport consumption frequencies

correlated significantly with the consumption preferences.

109

Criterion Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6

1. Preference for Sport Attendance

2. Frequency of Sport Attendance

3. Preference for Televised Sport

4. Frequency of Viewing Televised Sport

5. Preference for Reading about Sport

6. Frequency of Reading about Sport

Mean

SD

------

.774** ------

.774** 1.00** ------

.687** .864** .864** ------

.626** .767** .767** .741** ------

.584** .717** .717** .805** .808** ------

4.99 4.60 4.60 4.24 3.49 3.29

2.08 2.13 2.13 2.12 2.21 2.13

**p < .01

Table 4.5: Mean, Standard Deviation and Correlation Scores of the Criterion Variables

Closer inspection of the pattern of coefficients suggested identical patterns of

linear relationships between most of variables. For example: (a) the frequency of sport

attendance and frequency of viewing televised sport programs (r = .86) and (b)

preference for televised sport and frequency of viewing televised sport programs (r = .86)

were identical. The same pattern was revealed also between (a) frequency of sport

attendance, and preference for reading about sport from the print media (r = .77) and (b)

preference for televised sport and preference for reading about sport from the print media

(r = .77). The relationships between (a) frequency of sport attendance and frequency of

reading about sport from the print media (r = .72) and (b) preference for televised sport

and frequency of reading about sport from the print media (r = .72) were also identical.

This 110

111

pattern revealed the frequency of sport attendance and preference for televised sport

playing the same pivotal role in the relationships between variables. This pattern can be

explained from the identical mean and standard deviation scores (M = 4.60, SD = 2.13)

of these two indicators. The results also revealed a perfect positive relationship between

the frequency of sport attendance and preference for viewing televised sport activities (r

= 1.0).

Motivational Influences on Sport Consumption Decisions

112

Participants were asked what factors generally influenced their frequency of

consumption of the selected sport activities. The majority of them (26.03%) claimed

friends or significant others were the most influential in their decision for attending

sporting events in Chicago. Approximately 19% claimed time availability played the

most significant influence in their attendance frequency while almost 16% reported

money availability as exerting the greatest influence on their decision to attend sport

events. Regarding the participants’ decision to watch televised programs of the selected

sport activities, friends or significant others (27.4%), time availability (19.7%), and

significance of the event (17.4%) were the most influential in the participants’ decision.

When asked about the factors that most influenced their decision to read news about the

selected sport from magazines and newspapers, 22.3% of participants reported time

availability, 20.1% reported the significance of the news, and almost 20% reported

friends/significant others. Participants’ reading habits and interest, with regard to their

preference for the selected newsprint in the city in which data collection took place,

could not be adequately measured. Several participants (75%) failed to report their

preferences

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for the selected newspapers and magazines even when they were required to identify any

other print media sources that had not been included in the questionnaire.

Analysis of the Predictor Variables

The LOV Scale

Reliability Measures: The first step in the analysis of the predictor variables was

to calculate Cronbach’s alpha for the Likert scales to assess the quality of the measures.

To establish the reliability of the entire scale a Cronbach’s alpha was calculated reporting

a reliability coefficient of .87.

A subscale reliability analysis (Table 4.6) was also undertaken to find out the

internal consistency of the two dimensions of the LOV and their contribution in

explaining the overall scale. The two dimensions of the LOV instrument comprised an

Internal Values subscale with the following items: sense of accomplishment, self-

fulfillment, self-respect, fun and enjoyment in life, warm relationships with others, and

excitement; while the External Values subscale comprised 3 items: security, sense of

belonging, and being well-respected. Reliability alphas for the 2 subscales of the LOV

yielded .83 (for internal values) and .67 (for External values). Although the reliability of

the External Values dimension was moderate (.67), moderate Cronbach’s alphas of .60

are deemed acceptable in exploratory research (Robinson, Shaver, & Wrightman, 1991)

and should not constitute grounds for rejecting an instrument. The moderate to high

reliability coefficients obtained was probably due to the cultural heterogeneity of the

study sample.

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Dimensions M σ Cronbach’s α

Internal/Personal

External/Collective

7.46 1.46 .83

7.97 1.02 .67

Table 4.6: Reliability of subscales of LOV Instrument

Most Important Value Items: In the LOV instrument, participants were requested

to rate the level of importance of 9 personal values to them on a Likert scale, ranging

from 1 (Least important to me) to 9 (most important to me) and to indicate, from the list

of values, the single most important value to them. The most frequently denoted items

from the list of values (i.e., items with the highest percentage of frequencies) were:

security (10.5%), self-fulfillment (19.7%), a sense of accomplishment (21%), and self-

respect (27.5%). The least important values to majority of participants were excitement

(2.2%) and being well-respected (1.7%). A study of the distribution of the data regarding

participants’ choices of the most important values to them indicates a normal distribution

with the value of skewness lower than 2.0 degrees (Bollen & Long, 1993).

Gender Differences for LOV: A MANOVA test was performed to examine

whether the responses to the LOV differed based on the participants’ gender. Results of

the MANOVA test examining gender effects on participants’ responses to the list of

values showed the Multivariate F value to be marginally significant at the p = .051 level

with the entire LOV scale (F (9, 219) = 1.92, p = .051). Multivariate F value for the

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Internal Values subscale comprising excitement, warm relationships with others, self-

fulfillment, fun and enjoyment in life, self-respect, and a sense of accomplishment,

reported a less significant value (F (6, 222) = 1.13, p = .35). Univariate F analysis,

however, yielded significant main effect for excitement only (F (1, 227) = 5.15, p = .02).

Significant Multivariate F value on gender effects were reported on the External Values

subscale comprising sense of belonging, being well-respected, and security (F (3, 225) =

2.87, p =.04) without any significant univariate F values on the individual subscale items.

Ethnic Identity (EID) Scale

The Ethnic Identity scale by Brown et al., (1986) was used to determine the

influence of ethnicity on sport consumption behavior. Data was analyzed, as usual, using

the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS).

Reliability Measures: Reliability was established using Cronbach’s alpha because

all test items were answered based on a 5-point Likert scale starting from 1 (Never) to 5

(Very Often). The scale has five items denying ethnic group identity and five items

acknowledging ethnic group identity. Previous reliability analyses of the EID instrument

yielded reliability coefficients of .71 (Brown et al., 1986), .80 (Robbins, 1992), and .86

(Korf & Malan, 2001). A moderate reliability coefficient of .78 was reported from the

data obtained from the current research sample.

Table 4.7 presents the mean and standard deviation scores and results of subscale

reliability analysis. High mean scores (approximate average of 4.5 out of a maximum of

5) were recorded for all the three subscales. Cronbach’s alphas of .78 (Self-definition),

.64 (Self-esteem) and .70 (Affect) were reported for the subscale items. These moderate

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coefficient alpha values were deemed acceptable in an exploratory setting (Robinson,

Shaver, & Wrightman, 1991).

Dimensions M σ Cronbach’s α

Self-definition

Self-esteem

Affect

4.54 .78 .78

4.48 .55 .64

4.53 .62 .70

Table 4.7: Reliability of subscales of Ethnic Identity Scale

Gender Differences for EID: A MANOVA was performed to examine whether

the responses to the EID differed based on the participants’ gender. The results of the

MANOVA test on the entire scale showed no significant effect of gender on ethnic

identity (F (10, 218) = 1.09, p = .37). Subsequent univariate analyses of the effect of

gender on the three dimensions of this predictor variable showed a significant univariate

F value for the items constituting the Affect subscale (F (4, 224) = 2.56, p = .04). There

were no other significant univariate F values for the individual items comprising the three

subscales.

Correlations Between Predictor Variables

Table 4.8 shows the bivariate correlations between the subscales of the predictor

variables (Personal Values and Ethnic Identity) for the study, as well as the means and

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standard deviation scores for each subscale. Patterns of correlations between the

subscales of the two predictor variables were examined. An examination of the

correlation matrix indicated significant correlations between the Self-definition subscale

of the EID and all other subscales of the predictor variables, although the correlation

coefficients established with the subscales of personal values were below .35 indicating

very slight relationships (Fink, 1995).

Subscales of Predictor Variables

1 2 3 4 5

1. Self-definition 2. Self-esteem 3. Affect 4. Internal Values 5. External Values Mean SD

--------

.319** --------

.449** .470** --------

.173** .079 .123* --------

.172** .103 .060 .755** -------- 4.54 4.48 4.53 7.46 7.97 .78 .55 .62 1.46 1.02

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level Table 4.8: Means, Standard Deviations, and Bivariate Correlations of the Subscales of the Predictor Variables The Self-esteem subscale of the EID also reported a similarly very slight

relationship with the Self-definition subscale (r = .32), although its relationship with the

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Affect subscale was moderate (r = .47). Self-esteem did not correlate significantly with

the two subscales of personal values. The Affect and Internal Values subscales were

significantly correlated (r = .12). There was no significant relationship between Affect

and the External Values subscales. While some of the correlations coefficients between

the subscales of the predictor variables may be considered significant at p < .01, their

moderate level suggest the manifestation of only slight relationships (Fink, 1995;

Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003) thereby confirming that the two variables measure different

constructs.

Regression Analysis of Predictor and Criterion Variables

A series of stepwise multivariate multiple regression analyses were performed

with the various dimensions of preference for sport, frequency of sport attendance,

preference for televised sport programs, frequency of viewing televised sport programs,

preference for reading about sport from the print media, and frequency of reading about

sport from the print media, as dimensions of the criterion variables. The predictor

variables entered in the analyses were the 2 components of personal values and the 3

components of ethnic identity. Results of the multivariate regression and univariate

analyses of predictor variables on consumption preferences (Tables 4.9 – 4.11) and

consumption frequencies of sport activities (Tables 4.12 – 4.14 ) are reported. The

regression approach was used to reveal if personal values and ethnic identity influenced

sport consumption behavior preference and frequency. Since a sequence of 6 multivariate

multiple regression analyses were involved, the Bonferroni conversion was used to

reduce

119

the chances of committing a Type I error (Hair et al., 1998). For the current analyses, the

alpha level of .05 was adjusted to .01 for all the regression analyses performed.

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Consumption Activities/Predictors ∆R² F β t-value

Preference for Pro Baseball

Self-definition Self-esteem Affect Internal Values External Values

Preference for Pro Basketball

Self-definition Self-esteem Affect Internal Values External Values

Preference for Pro Football

Self-definition Self-esteem Affect Internal Values External Values

Preference for Pro Soccer

Self-definition Self-esteem Affect Internal Values External Values

Preference for College Basketball

Self-definition Self-esteem Affect Internal Values External Values

Preference for College Football

Self-definition Self-esteem Affect Internal Values External Values

.004 1.20

.015 -.204 -.115 -1.512 .026 .326 .172 1.697 -.083 .812

.015 1.68

.165 2.192* -.106 -1.408 -.017 -.206 .127 1.256 -.151 -1.496

.035 2.63*

.020 .267 -.217 -2.907** .102 1.286 .189 1.886 -.096 -.959

.003 1.12

.035 .469 -.051 -.666 .026 .323 .179 1.754 -.057 -.556

.012 1.54

.106 1.410 -.073 -.959 -.054 -.671 .189 1.866 -.219 -2.163*

.000 1.02

.050 .665 -.095 -1.249 -.019 -.241 .155 1.523 -.069 -.678

**p < .01; *p < .05

Table 4.9: Results of Multivariate Multiple Regression and Univariate Analyses Predicting Consumption Preferences for Sport Activities from Predictor Variables

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Consumption Activities/Predictors ∆R² F β t-value

Pref. for TV Viewing of Pro Baseball

Self-definition Self-esteem Affect Internal Values External Values

Pref. for TV Viewing of Pro Basketball

Self-definition Self-esteem Affect Internal Values External Values

Pref. for TV Viewing of Pro Football

Self-definition Self-esteem Affect Internal Values External Values

Pref. for TV Viewing of Pro Soccer

Self-definition Self-esteem Affect Internal Values External Values

Pref. for TV Viewing of College Basketball

Self-definition Self-esteem Affect Internal Values External Values

Pref. for TV Viewing of College Football

Self-definition Self-esteem Affect Internal Values External Values

.006 .72

.087 1.151 -.066 -.860 -.056 -.693 .112 1.098 -.094 -.916

.021 1.99

.198 2.649** -.065 -.861 -.064 -.803 .147 1.457 -.164 -.164

.009 1.42

.063 .839 -.164 -2.166* .068 .842 .124 1.222 -.100 -.981

.015 1.68

.146 1.943 -.023 -.309 -.057 -.712 .189 1.867 -.099 -.981

.007 1.30

.160 2.115* -.051 -.672 -.058 -.716 .119 1.175 -.145 -1.424

000 .99

.115 1.517 -.097 -1.271 -.053 -.654 .096 .940 -.070 -.682

**p < .01; *p < .05

Table 4.10: Results of Multivariate Multiple Regression and Univariate Analyses Predicting Consumption Preferences for Televised Sport from Predictor Variables

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Consumption Activities/Predictors ∆R² F β t-value

Preference for Reading about Baseball

Self-definition Self-esteem Affect Internal Values External Values

Preference for Reading about Basketball

Self-definition Self-esteem Affect Internal Values External Values

Preference for Reading about Football

Self-definition Self-esteem Affect Internal Values External Values

Preference for Reading about Soccer

Self-definition Self-esteem Affect Internal Values External Values

.015 .35

.065 .849 -.074 -.960 -.016 -.193 .018 .173 .007 .071

.014 .39

.062 .817 -.077 -1.001 .024 .293 .034 .327 .000 .005

.001 1.06

.058 .768 -.151 -1.986* -.004 -.045 .041 .406 .012 .116

.004 1.20

.094 1.240 -.012 -.158 -.018 -.221 .025 .245 .104 1.023

*p < .05

Table 4.11: Results of Multivariate Multiple Regression and Univariate Analyses Predicting Consumption Preferences for Print Media Sport from Predictor Variables

The purpose of these analyses was to determine whether any of the subscales of

the two predictor variables significantly influenced specific sport consumption

preferences or frequencies. Reports indicated that only with the Preference for

Professional Football games was the Multivariate F value significant (F (5, 223) = 2.63, p

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< .05). Univariate analyses showed that Self-definition (a component of ethnic identity)

significantly influenced the Preference for Professional Basketball games (β = .165),

Televised Professional Basketball games (β = .198), and Televised College Basketball

games (β = .160). Another component of ethnic identity, Self-esteem, significantly

influenced the Preference for Professional Football games (β = -.217), Preference for

Televised Professional Football games (β = -.164), and Preference for Reading about

Football from the Print Media (β = -.151). Only one component of Personal Values

(External Values) made any significant impact on the Preference for College Basketball

games (β = -.219). The most significant influence was the contribution of the predictor

variables in explaining 3.5% of the variance accounted for by participants’ Preference for

Professional Football Games.

The multivariate F values obtained from the regression analyses showed that the

subscales of the LOV were weak predictors of all the criterion variables, with the

exception of the External Values subscale contributing to the consumption preference for

college basketball. The EID scale performed slightly better in explaining some amount of

variance in the 6 dimensions of the criterion variables.

Tables 4.10 – 4.12 present the results of multiple regression analyses to determine

the effect of the 2 predictor variables on consumption frequency. None of the multiple

correlation values were significant at p = .01. The univariate analyses, however, indicated

significant beta values with Frequency for TV Viewing of College Basketball (β = .172)

and Pro Football (β = -.167). Only 2 subscales of the EID scale contributed to explain

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variance in consumption of 2 sport activities. The subscales of the LOV scale did not

significantly influence any of the components constituting frequency of consumption.

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Consumption Activities/Predictors ∆R² F β t-value

Freq. of Attendance for Pro Baseball

Self-definition Self-esteem Affect Internal Values External Values

Freq. of Attendance for Pro Basketball

Self-definition Self-esteem Affect Internal Values External Values

Freq. of Attendance for Pro Football

Self-definition Self-esteem Affect Internal Values External Values

Freq. of Attendance for Pro Soccer

Self-definition Self-esteem Affect Internal Values External Values

Freq. of Attendance for College Basketball

Self-definition Self-esteem Affect Internal Values External Values

Freq. of Attendance for College Football

Self-definition Self-esteem Affect Internal Values External Values

.006 .73

.047 .620 -.091 -1.198 .093 1.152 -.059 -.581 .097 .946

.012 .48

-.002 -.020 .009 .123 .069 .848 -.020 -.191 -.063 -.619

.019 .13

.025 .322 -.054 -.702 .023 .285 -.028 -.276 .006 .059

.003 .86

.089 1.176 .018 .235 -.080 -.987 .003 .034 .090 .884

.015 .32

.005 .064 -.023 -.303 -.025 -.312 .056 .547 -.106 -1.029

.008 .63

-.024 -.317 -.029 -.377 -.068 -.835 -.061 -.598 .013 .130

Table 4.12: Results of Multivariate Multiple Regression and Univariate Analyses Predicting Frequency of Sport Attendance from Predictor Variables

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Consumption Activities/Predictors ∆R² F β t-value

Freq. of TV Viewing of Pro Baseball

Self-definition Self-esteem Affect Internal Values External Values

Freq. of TV Viewing of Pro Basketball

Self-definition Self-esteem Affect Internal Values External Values

Freq. of TV Viewing of Pro Football

Self-definition Self-esteem Affect Internal Values External Values

Freq. of TV Viewing of Pro Soccer

Self-definition Self-esteem Affect Internal Values External Values

Freq. of TV Viewing of Coll. Basketball

Self-definition Self-esteem Affect Internal Values External Values

Freq. of TV Viewing of Coll. Football

Self-definition Self-esteem Affect Internal Values External Values

.006 .72

.087 1.151 -.066 -.860 -.056 -.693 .112 1.098 -.094 -.916

.004 1.19

.126 1.670 -.056 -.742 .009 .107 .146 1.438 -.118 -1.157

.011 1.49

.045 .595 -.167 -2.205* .100 1.243 .113 1.112 -.045 -.441

.011 .52

.101 1.333 .013 .168 -.009 -.105 .029 .278 -.011 -.109

.009 1.40

.172 2.279* -.036 -.473 -.096 -1.189 .119 1.172 -.126 -1.243

.006 1.29

.130 1.727 -.086 -1.139 -.061 -.754 .091 .893 -.002 -.020

*p < .05

Table 4.13: Results of Multivariate Multiple Regression and Univariate Analyses Predicting Frequency of Consumption of Televised Sport from Predictor Variables

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Consumption Activities/Predictors ∆R² F β t-value

Frequency of Reading about Baseball

Self-definition Self-esteem Affect Internal Values External Values

Frequency of Reading about Basketball

Self-definition Self-esteem Affect Internal Values External Values

Frequency of Reading about Football

Self-definition Self-esteem Affect Internal Values External Values

Frequency of Reading about Soccer

Self-definition Self-esteem Affect Internal Values External Values

.013 .44

.000 -.002 -.096 -1.249 .074 .905 -.059 -.579 .080 .782

.014 .36

-.005 -.071 -.042 -.545 .101 1.240 .004 .044 .011 .106

.015 .32

-.011 -.142 -.086 -1.129 .070 .863 .012 .113 .010 .096

.009 1.40

.132 1.753 .026 .337 -.099 -1.235 .130 1.284 -.028 -.273

Table 4.14: Results of Multivariate Multiple Regression and Univariate Analyses Predicting Frequency of Reading Print Media Sport from Predictor Variables

Tests of Assumptions of Regression Analysis

The use of regression analyses assumed that the variables would be normally

distributed. Non-normally distributed variables (highly skewed) could distort

relationships and significance tests. Most researchers advise simple procedures to test the

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assumption of normal distribution of variables. A visual inspection of data plots,

skewness, and P-P plots were performed to provide information about normality. An

examination of skewness statistics, for example, indicated that almost all values were

below 2.0 providing evidence of normal distribution of data. Effort was made to identify

outliers through visual inspection of histograms, Normal Q-Q plots, and frequency

distributions tables. Multicollinearity was checked through screening of the VIF and

Tolerance values in regression. These gave a quick summary of the degree of

independence of each predictor variable from the others. All the Tolerance values were

less than 1. The VIF values were less than 4 which was the level assumed for significance

thereby providing evidence of lack of collinearity. The tests revealed no significant

violation of the assumptions for regression analysis.

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CHAPTER 5

DISCUSSION

The current study focused on several activities as components of the sport

consumption experience of Black students. In the context of this study, consumption

included the direct sport experience obtained through attendance at sport events as well

as the consumption of sport via electronic and print media sources. The general focus of

this study was to determine whether predictor variables of personal values and ethnic

identity could significantly predict Black students’ sport consumption behaviors. This

chapter will discuss the results of the findings. Although causal relationships are beyond

the focus of this study, attempts are made to provide occasional explanations and draw

theoretical linkages for the purpose of understanding the results of the phenomena under

examination.

Discussion of Sample Demographics

Data was obtained from a sample of 229 participants from a Mid-western

university comprising an unequal sample of 158 female (69%) and 71 male (31%)

participants who were administered a questionnaire designed by slightly modifying 2

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previously validated instruments - a 9-item List of Values scale (Kahle, 1983) and a 10-

item Ethnic Identity scale (Brown et al., 1986). This proportion of male and female

participants in the sample closely reflected the gender composition of the college which

was 24% and 76%, respectively. Another close observation of the demographic

characteristics of sample participants showed that the sample was highly representative

of the population under study in terms of age ranging between 17 to 53 years. The

majority of participants (86.9%) were African-American students, while the rest (13.1%)

belonged to the other ethnic members of the Black population. Most of the participants

were undergraduate students (87.8%), unmarried (65.5%), and earning average annual

incomes above $30,000 (20.5%). The high income range indicated that the majority of

them could be part time workers as well.

The current sample’s demographic and consumption characteristics were both

different from and similar to those of previous research in some areas. For example, from

the perspective of sample differences in comparison to related research of values and

sport consumption, the sample of participants used by Shao (2002) comprised 200

participants, 89 of whom constituted an American sample of which 75% were White and

only 10.9% Black. Also, the gender representation of the Shao’s American sample was

about 54% female and 46% male with the average age of 21 years. From the perspective

of similarities to Shao’s (2002) study: (a), the mean value for consumers’ preference for

basketball in the Shao’s (2002) American sample (M = 6.43, SD = 2.45) was practically

the same as found in this current study on the same characteristic (M = 6.45, SD = 2.79);

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and (b) the frequency of media consumption of basketball was a mean of 5.88 in Shao

(2002) and 5.83 in this present study. Therefore, the similarities and differences between

this study and previous research further offer insight into the manner in which sport

consumption may differ based on consumers’ demographic profiles

Ancillary Motivations for Sport Consumption

Regarding ancillary motivations for sport consumption, the findings revealed the

important role played by family, friends, and significant others as being the most

influential in participants’ decision for attending sport events (26.03%) and watching

televised sport programs (27.43%). This provided support for the “social networks/

support” motive influencing sport consumption (Schurr et al., 1988). It also lends support

to the compliance theory (Kahle et al., 1996) that consumers might attend sporting events

in order to conform publicly to a reference group’s norms.

Time availability was also an important factor that either hindered or motivated

participants to watch televised sport programs (19.7%) or read sport publications

(22.3%). This factor did not affect their reading frequency for basketball and football.

Since many of the participants (34%) reported annual incomes below $10, 000.00, it may

be surmised that lack of sufficient financial resources by some participants might have

influenced the low frequency of attendance without significant influence on their

consumption preferences. Therefore, it is likely that (in addition to the participants’

personal values and ethnic identity) a myriad of other social and or demographic

constraints may have also influenced the students’ consumption of sport.

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Discussion of Predictor Variables The most noteworthy finding revealed in the correlations between the predictor

variables of values and ethnic identity was that the self-definition dimension of ethnic

identity was significantly correlated with both the internal and external dimensions of the

LOV (value scale). Therefore, in response to Research Question 1, the results suggested

that a significant relationship existed between the two constructs.

The LOV Scale

A significant relationship was reported between the internal and external

components of personal values (r = .76). The higher mean score (7.97 out of a maximum

of 9) on the external values subscale (which included the items a sense of belonging,

being well-respected, and security) meant that participants placed high premium on these

values. This also means that the presence or absence of these values within the sport

consumption environment may induce high or low consumption frequencies. However,

the high mean scores for sport consumption preferences and the corresponding low mean

scores for sport consumption frequencies leads one to surmise that the sport consumption

environment may not have provided the participants opportunities for the external values

that these participants consider important in their lives to be manifested and nurtured.

MANOVA analyses to determine gender effects on the two dimensions of

personal values revealed a significant difference based on gender for the External Values

(sense of belonging, being well-respected, and security). No significant gender

differences were revealed for the Internal Values. Additionally, the MANOVA revealed

that the only one LOV item that differed based on the participants’ gender was the

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Excitement value. Generally, the results revealed that, for Black consumers, gender was

not a differentiating factor regarding the influence of personal values on sport

consumption. Since the study also revealed significant differences between Black male

and female sport consumption preferences and frequencies, it is likely that such

behaviors were probably influenced by factors other than the participants’ personal

values.

Although Internal Values were important (M = 7.46) and participants were

motivated to attend by friends, family, and significant others, the low attendance

frequencies posted by these participants suggests that the consumption atmosphere in

Chicago may not be providing adequate opportunities for reinforcing and promoting the

personal values of Black sport consumers. The importance attached to External Values by

this population showed a marked difference in saliency with the American sample of

mostly White participants by Shao (2002) which placed more importance on internal-

oriented values. However, as in previous studies, self-respect, self-fulfillment, a sense of

belonging, and self-accomplishment were the most important personal values (Kahle,

1983; Verkuyten, 1992). The high mean score on External Values and the choice of self-

respect by majority of participants as one of the most important values to them, showed

the importance of group self-definition to Blacks. This may be due to the importance that

Black ethnic group members place on collective self-preservation emphasizing cohesion,

group harmony and ethnic sensitization (Kahle, 1983). In other words, some of the sport

activities selected for this study may not have been ethnically defining activities

(Armstrong, 2003) for these participants.

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Multivariate regression analyses yielded an insignificant Multivariate F value for

this predictor variable on sport consumption behavior. Further univariate analyses

yielded only one significant univariate F value for External Values (β = -.219) having

effect on Preference for College Basketball games. One of the reasons why External

Values may impact on the Preference for College Basketball can be explained through

the obligation theory (McPherson, 1976) which postulates that a strong sense of

belonging may induce people to college sport events so that they may be socialized into

the sport consumer role through peers and family. In the current study, the significant

negative relationship between External Values and preference for college basketball may

be due to the poor performance of the basketball program which may weigh heavily

against participants’ feeling of any obligation to attend game activities. According to

Kahle et al, (1996) obligation may be used to explain sport consumption but not

necessarily attendance.

In response to Research Questions 2a and 2b, the results of the study revealed that

personal values did not significantly influence the participants’ sport consumption

preferences and frequencies.

The EID Scale

Results of the intercorrelations among the subscales of the EID indicated that the

Self-Esteem and Affect subscales were moderately correlated with one another (r = .47).

The Self-Definition subscale, with the highest mean score (M = 4.54) reported only

relatively moderate correlation coefficients with the Self-Esteem (r = .32) and the Affect

(r = .45) subscales. Thus, individuals who reported moderate levels of self-definition

135

regarding their ethnicity tended to report much lower levels of self-esteem and affect.

This finding provides support for some previous premise that individuals' awareness of

who they are may be accompanied by either positive or negative affect and/or higher or

lower self-esteem (Verkuyten, 1990)

Due to the correlational nature of the analyses, it was not possible to determine

whether self-esteem influenced participants’ affect or whether individuals’ strength of

ethnicity was more influenced by self-definition than by self-esteem and affect factors. It

is quite possible that the relationship is bi-directional. Theoretically, one would expect

that individuals who score high on self-perceptions (i.e., those who have a strong view of

their ethnicity) should also score high on personal self-esteem (Shoham et al., 1997).

Consequently, one would expect a high correlation between the Self-Definition and Self-

Esteem dimensions of ethnic identity. This expected relationship was not strongly

manifested in the current study as participants scored higher in self-definition than in

self-esteem. This observation supports the theoretical view by Verkuyten (1990) that not

all the components of the self-concept are equally important to a person. Therefore, the

salience of the components of ethnic identity to a person would determine whether that

component would have a predominant influence on his or her consumption behavior.

Generally, Self-Definition was associated with the consumption of basketball

while Self-Esteem was associated with the consumption of football. The analyses

revealed that only the Self-Definition subscale played significant predictive capacity for

the consumption preference of basketball (i.e., pro basketball, televised college

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basketball, and televised pro basketball games). In contrast, Self-Esteem negatively and

significantly influenced all aspects of consumption preferences for football (i.e.,

preference for professional and college football, preference for televised college and

professional football games, and preference for print media reports on football). Similar

findings were revealed for actual consumption frequencies. For example, Self-Definition

was a positive and viable predictor of attendance frequency at college basketball games

(β = .172), while Self-Esteem was a negative and viable predictor of attendance

frequency at pro football games (β = -.167).

The mean ethnic identification score (4.52 out of a maximum of 5) indicated very

high identification to participants’ ethnic group. Nevertheless, all sport consumption

frequencies were not significantly influenced by the degree to which the participants

identified with their ethnic group. In summary, the results revealed that two (Self-

Definition and Self-Esteem) of the three dimensions of ethnic identity significantly

influenced the participants’ sport consumption behaviors. Moreover, only two sport

consumption behaviors (preferences and frequencies of attending basketball and football

games) were significantly influenced by ethnic identity. Additionally, ethnic

identification exerted both a positive effect (for basketball consumption) and a negative

effect (for football consumption). Therefore, regarding Research Questions 3a and 3b,

ethnic identity did significantly influence the participants’ sport consumption preferences

and frequencies. However, based on the nature of the influence of ethnic identity on

sport consumption, additional research is warranted.

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Discussions of Criterion Variables

Moderate to very high correlations were obtained between the dimensions of the

criterion variables suggesting that consumption preferences and frequencies were good

measures of the sport consumption behaviors of the participants. The results revealed a

perfect positive correlation between frequency of sport attendance and frequency of

viewing televised sport. It can be surmised from this observation that individuals who

scored high in sport attendance frequency also scored high on their preference for

televised sport activities. Except for the preference and frequency of reading sport

magazines and newspapers, other consumption preferences and frequencies (for

attendance and watching televised sport) were equally scored high among the

participants. For example, the mean score for sport attendance preferences (4.99 out of 5)

meant that sport was a highly preferred activity for Black consumers. The findings also

revealed that Basketball was a preferred and frequently consumed sport among the Black

participants, whereas soccer was not. These findings were in accord with previous

research on sport consumption such as Simmons Market Research (1994).

The findings also revealed that gender differences existed in the consumption patterns

(with the exception of soccer). These results contrasted the results of Armstrong (2002;

2003) which did not reveal any pronounced gender differences among sport consumption

patterns of Black consumers. Moreover, the gender differences in this study were similar

regarding the participants’ sport consumption preferences and sport consumption

frequencies. For example, men scored higher in consumption preferences and frequencies

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than women with the exception of soccer where there were no significant differences.

The relatively low consumption of pro soccer by this group of participants was

interesting, from a marketing perspective, especially when the US Soccer Federation is

housed in Chicago, home of one of the best soccer franchises in the country - Chicago

Fire.

The findings in this study also revealed that electronic media consumption was

higher than actual sport attendance and print media consumption. Such findings were

also revealed by Armstrong (2002; 2003). Although the consumption frequency of

televised sport was not as high as the preference for televised sport, the choice of time

availability constraints as one of the most important influences for consumption may

account for the differences in mean score as well as in the low preference and frequency

of print media consumption. Most notably, time constraint influenced the consumption

frequencies of electronic and print media sources.

The significant relationships between the criterion variables provided sufficient

response to Research Question 4, suggesting that the participants’ sport consumption

preferences and frequencies were significantly correlated. The findings provide support

for the attitude→preference→behavior relationship (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980); however,

it may not be concluded that there is a guarantee that behavior (consumption frequency)

always follows one’s attitudinal inclinations (consumption preference).

Managerial Implications

Exploring the effects of ethnic identity and personal values on the sport

consumption behavior of Blacks in America is critical, in a world that is moving toward

139

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greater ethnic diversity and behavioral tolerance associated with the consumption of

sport. Minority ethnic groups are important market segments whose consumption pattern

is oftentimes culturally based. This current study has important theoretical and practical

implications that will benefit sport marketers and managers.

Theoretical Implications

From a theoretical perspective, this study offers insights regarding the (cultural)

validity of some commonly used assessment instruments of personal values and ethnic

identity to Black students. The findings of several insignificant relationships between the

predictor and criterion variables in the study suggest that, perhaps the scales may have

different meanings for Black consumers. Therefore, difficulties with the interpretation of

some of the findings within the cultural context may arise. For example, the low scores

on self-esteem may be interpreted as indicating low self-esteem, but it may also indicate

that participants view their personal self-esteem as a less important factor regarding their

sport consumption. As such, further exploration of the underlying factor structures of the

constructs representing personal values and ethnic identity is warranted.

It was beyond the scope of this study to determine how consciously personal

values and ethnic identity perceptions factor into Blacks’ self-concept. Nonetheless, it is

important for marketing managers and researchers to increase their understanding of the

latent and manifested meanings of culture, regarding its influence on consumer behavior.

The presence of a strong association between ethnic identity and personal values, as

aspects of culture, suggests that the effects of ethnic group culture are complex and yet

may also be subtle.

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Practical Implications

From a practical perspective, the study demonstrated the importance of the

external value, a sense of belonging, which significantly influenced these Black

participants’ sport consumption patterns. The findings, therefore, suggest that sport

managers and marketers may seek to create sport environments that accommodate Black

consumers’ desire for a psychosocial involvement in the sport consumption process

(Armstrong, 2002). Based on the results of this study a sport environment that helps to

promote the sense of belonging may induce increased consumption preferences and

intentions, thereby leading to higher consumption frequencies among Black consumers.

Kahle et al, (1996) suggested that for consumers who are motivated to attend sport events

primarily for camaraderie, “flexible pricing for group purchases or improved logistics for

group consumption, such as seating, parking, transit, and multiple-unit pricing” (p. 58)

would be beneficial. Therefore (based on the findings of this study regarding the salience

of sense of belonging to the participants’ sport behaviors) sport marketers could adopt

promotional schedules emphasizing family seating and/or ticket pricing in combination

with give-a-ways and other promotions emphasizing fun and enjoyment with significant

others at the games to influence Blacks’ sport consumption patterns.

The high preference for sport and yet concomitant low consumption frequency

among this group of participants also have implications for marketing strategies. One

way of activating the consumers’ decision making process is to establish a need or want

for the respective activity. Therefore, sport marketers seeking to attract Black consumers

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may need to design a strategy to first appeal to their preferences and then design

marketing mix strategies targeted at increasing their frequency of actual attendance at

their preferred sport activities. For example, the results revealed that the participant’s

sport consumption behaviors were greatly influenced by friends and significant others.

From a managerial perspective, promotional campaigns that stress the popularity of going

to sport events with significant others or communications and sales promotions

emphasizing family and peer group consumption may influence Black consumers’ sport

consumption preferences. Also, based on the results of this study, print and electronic

slice of-life advertisements (featuring Black spokespeople and “actors”) and in-arena

activities for basketball events should make a concerted appeal to the self-definition

opportunities afforded the participants by the basketball consumption experience. In

contrast, print and electronic advertisements and in-arena activities for football events

should not seek to make a concerted appeal to the self-esteem properties offered by the

football consumption experience (based on the negative Beta values revealed). Such

strategies will enable sport marketers to appeal to the aspect of ethnic identification that

is likely to exert a positive influence on the consumers’ sport consumption behaviors.

As discussed previously, the high consumption of HBCU sport events by Blacks

may be a result of inherent cultural attractions (Armstrong, 1998, 2003) that comprise the

sport experience. Therefore, marketing strategies seeking to influence the sport

preferences and frequencies of Black consumers may also use promotions and in-arena

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activities to emphasize the nuances of Black culture and traditions. Although, the results

of this study revealed that preference and frequencies were significantly related, there are

a number of factors that may prevent actual consumption despite consumer preferences.

Based on the financial status of the sample participants, it is likely that limited financial

resources influenced their sport consumption frequency. Therefore, as mentioned

previously, one strategy to promote attendance frequency (i.e., translating preferences

into

frequencies) would be for sport marketers to provide family or multi-game ticket

discounts.

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The findings for the participants’ low preference and infrequency of soccer

consumption were noteworthy. The low consumption preferences and frequencies of

professional soccer were somewhat expected since the sport is fairly new in the country.

However, although soccer is a relatively new sport in Chicago (the city in which the data

were collected), it has made a big impact in the city. Not only does Chicago host one of

10 pro soccer franchises in the country, it is also home to US Soccer House (headquarters

of the US Soccer Federation). Chicago Fire became a Middle League Soccer (MLS)

franchise in 1998 and blazed through its first season winning both the MLS Cup and the

Lamar Hunt US Open Cup Championship. This unique performance is expected to have

created an avenue for increased promotions to bring more fans to the stands. The

moderate consumption preference and low consumption frequency for soccer among the

students in this sample presents a significant segment for increased consumption of

soccer. In an environment with several sport offerings, as in the city of Chicago,

increased

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television coverage from the media to increase soccer’s popularity, coupled with the

marketing of star athletes (Williamson, 1988), and attempts at increasing the perceptions

of the relative merits of attending the game as an “event” rather than mere attendance

(Kahle et al., 1996) may increase the consumption pattern of students because of their

vicarious sport consumption patterns (Fisher, 1998). As previously discussed, these

strategies can be complemented with special promotions targeting students such as

student ticket discounts, multi-group ticket purchases, give-a-ways, and special (self-

defining) product extensions for Black consumers.

Study Limitations

The results of this study must be interpreted with a few caveats in mind. The use

of personal values and ethnic identity has multiple advantages, although this study was

not designed to identify the salience of these variables to the participants. Because the

study sample included only college students, the findings may not be generalizable to a

non-college population. As Fisher (1998) contends, college students tend to be more

highly involved in sports than the general populace. In addition, since participants were

undergraduate and graduate students at a large predominantly Black institution in the

Midwest, results of this study may not be generalizable to Black students in

predominantly White institutions. Moreover, most of the participants were students

enrolled in physical education classes and participated in a group administration of the

study. Thus, participation with classmates and acquaintances may have had an unknown

impact on the results of the study. Another sample-related issue is that the results of the

146

study may have been influenced negatively or positively by the small number of African,

Caribbean/West Indian, and Black Hispanic students in the sample.

The characteristic of the test administration was a source of measurement error

since some participants were administered the instrument in-class while others took it

home. Some questionnaires were administered a week prior to the end-of-semester

examinations while others were administered during the period of the examinations and

this could impact the performance of some or all test takers.

The study proceeded from available literature’s assumption that group identity

was an important variable for Black ethnic groups because of their similar life and

sociocultural experiences, and historical perspectives. None of the instruments used in

the study verified the strength and salience of ethnicity to participants. Therefore,

because the current study also involved non-U.S. Blacks, there is the need for caution

regarding the instrumentation. Additional research is needed to determine the cross-

cultural relevance of the instrument used in this study with regard to their predictive

capacity of sport consumption behavior.

Only two predictor variables were examined in the study, leaving some amount of

variance to go unexplained. Other factors such as religion, language, sport rituals, ethnic

involvement, salience of ethnic identification, etc., might have influenced the sport

consumption behavior of the research participants. Lastly, because the criterion variables

were limited to only a few specific collective sport events, the consumption behavior of

participants in individual sport activities (e.g., tennis, golf, track and field, boxing,

147

swimming, gymnastics) could not be accounted for. It is possible that different sports

would produce different patterns of motivation. Likewise, since the study did not

specifically focus on women sports, another limitation of the study is that the frame of

reference used by the participants for sport consumption most likely was male sports.

Recommendations for Future Research

It is possible that the factor structure of ethnic identity and personal values may

vary from one culture to another due to varied experiences and meanings associated with

these constructs. Some ethnic groups may portray ethnic-specific values that are strong

enough to influence consumption behavior but which may not have been captured by the

LOV scale. Future studies should include large and diverse enough sub-samples of Black

ethnic groups to find out whether the factor structure is valid across the Black culture.

The findings of this study support the need for cross-cultural investigation of differences

among ethnically diverse consumers, since the current results might have been influenced

by the ethnicity of this sample. It is, therefore, suggested that exploratory factor analysis

be used with minority ethnic group samples to further explore and validate the current

factor structures of the LOV and EID scales. Additionally, confirmatory factor analysis

should be used to refine or confirm the constructs as adequate scales for measuring

personal values and ethnic identity of different ethnic populations. The investigation of

gender differences was entirely exploratory and should also be replicated in future

studies, with a much larger sample.

148

The positively significant beta value of self-definition associated with preference

for pro basketball (β = .165) revealed support for previous research (Bernstein, 1999;

Simmons Market Research, 1994) which identified Black consumers with the

consumption of basketball and football. However, the negatively significant beta values

of self-esteem associated with the consumption of football meant that an increase in self-

esteem led to an equal decrease in consumption frequency of football (β = -.167). Such

inconsistencies in expected consumption patterns with previous findings suggest that the

relationship between ethnic identity, personal values, and sport consumption behavior

may be more complex than past research evidence has revealed. Therefore, there is a

need for further research into specific consumption communities by examining ethnic-

related attitudes and behaviors among Black consumers and other ethnic minority

populations.

It is strongly suggested that future studies include both qualitative and

longitudinal methods (Phinney, 2000; Umana-Taylor, 2003) in order to better understand

the nature of current dimensions of the ethnic identity and values scales. For example,

qualitative work would better inform us of the substantive issues associated with each

classification as they relate to the salience of group membership, ethnic identity, and

personal values of sport consumers. This may help for a better understanding of the

relationship between the predictor variables (ethnic identity and personal values) and the

variables constituting the criterion (sport consumption preference and frequency) in this

study. The inclusion of a longitudinal method would provide evidence of how elements

149

of socialization influence the changes or affirmation of personal values and ethnic

affiliation.

Another issue relevant for future research is the effect of ethnic identity and

personal values on the evaluation of sport product extensions. Based on Black

consumers’ reported affinity to the product packaging of HBCU sports, it would be

interesting to see how dimensions of ethnic identity and personal values affect

consumers’ evaluations of product extensions and promotional activities. It would also

be important to examine such influences on the branding process.

As discussed previously, this study examined only two of the myriad of predictor

variables that may influence sport consumption. Future research could also include

examinations of contextual factors such as religion, language, sport rituals, ethnic

involvement, salience of ethnic identification, level of acculturation, etc. that are capable

of influencing the sport consumption behavior sport consumers. Also, because the

criterion variables were limited to specific collective sport events, the consumption

behavior in individual sport activities (e.g., tennis, golf, track and field, boxing,

swimming, and gymnastics) can not be accounted for. It is recommended that future

questionnaire designs incorporate individual sport activities to cater for a wide range of

sport interests. Similarly, future research should also specifically address the

consumption of women’s sports.

Conclusion

Armstrong (2001; 2002) revealed the need for sport marketers to increase their

understanding of the factors that may influence sport consumption behaviors of ethnic

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minority sport consumers and how they differ from majority cultures. To address this

concern, this study proceeded from the notion that personal values and perceived ethnic

identity would lead to the formation of culturally directed sport consumption behaviors.

The infusion of culture into sport consumer behavior inquiry may provide sport

researchers with another avenue for unraveling the lack of congruency between the

attitude→behavior relationships in sport consumption. Research evidence shows that a

number of factors have a systematic impact on attitude→behavior relationships, but

problems have arisen when researchers have tried to understand and predict the

frequency of repeated behaviors (see Reibstein, 1978; Shao, 2002) such as regular

consumption of the sport product. It is likely that a latent effect of culture is influencing

the attitude→behavior relationship.

Previous studies have linked values to the consumption of some products such as

food (Homer & Kahle, 1988), fashion (Rose et al., 1994), and netnography (Kozinets,

1997). Personal values are very important to every individual in the consumption

process. Research evidence has led to the conclusion that people consume according to

the salience of their personal values. For instance individuals who endorse the value of

self-fulfillment would be prone to be brand loyal in their purchase behavior; while those

who place value on fun and enjoyment are likely to be brand conscious (Kahle et al.,

2001). Previous studies have also linked the personal value of self-respect with the desire

of individuals to cultivate personal relationships based on respect for traditional values.

Kahle (1983) described self-respect as the all-American value. Therefore, the choice of

151

self-respect by the majority of the participants in this study as the most important value to

them is consistent with results of previous studies. Surprisingly, personal values (as

captured in this study) were not as influential as expected. This does not mean that

personal values did not influence the sport behaviors of the participants in this study.

Instead, since personal values and ethnic identity were highly correlated, it is likely that

there was latent influence of personal values in the construct of ethnic identification (i.e.,

as revealed in the significant and high correlations between the Self-Definition dimension

of ethnic identification and the Internal and External value dimensions).

Previous research (such as Armstrong 2002) has revealed a need for increased

examinations on the psychosocial influence of ethnic identification on Black consumers’

sport behaviors. The results of this study affirm the need for examining how ethnicity

may influence sport consumption. Moreover, this study is significant in that it suggests a

need to explore the multidimensionality of ethnicity, as different dimensions of a

person’s ethnic self, may exert differing influences on their behaviors. As such, this

study highlighted the need for further research into ethnic consumers as culturally based

sport consumption communities.

The primary focus of this study was on Black consumers because previous

research has not adequately addressed the consumption pattern of this group from a

socio-cultural perspective. Previous research has also not related their sport consumption

behavior to the salience of the dimensions of personal values and ethnic identification as

used in this study. The findings of this study are not specific to Black consumers, as they

152

offer insight into sport consumer behavior in general. The present study suggests that

understanding the relationships between personal values, ethnic identity, and sport

consumption preferences and frequencies is a complicated task. Nevertheless,

notwithstanding the limitations noted, the findings of this study offer plausible responses

to the research questions posed. This study offered valuable insight into the complexity

of the cultural dynamics that may undergird the sport behaviors of consumers in general,

and Black consumers in particular. Herein lies the significance of this study.

153

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APPENDIX A

Research Questionnaire

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COVER LETTER

April 15, 2003 Dear Student, I am undertaking a study examining the role of culture in determining the sport

consumption behavior of individuals of African descent in America. Students represent

an important subcultural group of the Black population who will continue to define the

behavior parameters and characteristics of people of African descent in American

society. I will appreciate your contribution in identifying plausible theory on Black

ethnic identity so that marketers can adopt better strategies in reaching out to Black

consumers. As a Black student myself, I am inviting you to participate in the research to

examine this important topic. Your input is critical in assisting with this valuable

research project.

This dissertation is being supervised by Dr. Ketra Armstrong (The Ohio State

University, Department of Sport Management), Dr. Donna Pastore (The Ohio State

University, Department of Sport Management), and Dr. Pat West (The Ohio State

University, Fisher College of Business). Participation in this study is voluntary but

restricted only to Black students of African descent. You may withdraw from the study at

any point without penalty or you may refuse to answer any questions that make you feel

uncomfortable. Agreement to participate is implied if you complete and return the

questionnaire. You will not receive any reward for participation but your responses will

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contribute in expanding the sport management knowledge base. It is anticipated that the

questionnaire will take not more than 20 minutes to complete.

Each questionnaire will be kept entirely confidential by use of a numbering

system and will be securely maintained with limited access. Individual information

obtained will be treated as privileged and confidential, and questionnaires will be

destroyed through shredding after the completion of the project. Your answers will be

used in combination with those of other respondents in the sample to develop a

composite view of the phenomenon under study. If you have any questions regarding

your rights at any time, please contact Dr. Mensah Kutame (Chicago State University in

the Department of Physical Education & Recreation at telephone #: 773-821-2826) or

contact me directly by phone or email.

Please complete and return the questionnaire within a week to Dr. Kutame who

has graciously accepted to collect and post all returned questionnaires back to me by May

10, 2003. Your participation is deeply appreciated. Thank you.

Sincerely, Jatong A. Baba Doctoral Candidate in Sport Management The Ohio State University Tel. #: 614-291-1744 E-mail: baba.6@osu.edu

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Section 1: The following is a list of personal values. Some may be more important than others. Please, study the list carefully and then rate each value on how important it is in your daily life, using the scale ranging from 1 (Least important to me) to 9 (Most important to me).

Please circle the appropriate number Least Most

Important Important to me to me

1. Sense of belonging (to be accepted and needed by our family, friends, and community) 2. Excitement (to experience stimulation and thrills) 3. Warm relationships with others (to have close companionships and intimate friendships) 4. Self-fulfillment (to find peace of mind and to make the best use of your talents) 5. Being well-respected (to be admired by others and to receive recognition) 6. Fun and enjoyment in life (to lead a pleasurable, happy life) 7. Security (to be safe and protected from misfortune and attack) 8. Self-respect (to be proud of yourself and confident with who you are) 9. A sense of accomplishment (to succeed at what you want to do) 10. Please write down the most important personal value from the above 9 items. Select only ONE item.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ________________________________________

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Section 2: Indicate the degree to which you agree with the statements below using the following rating system: 1 = Never (N) 2 = Seldom (S) 3 = Sometimes (ST) 4 = Often (O) 5 = Very Often (VO)

Please circle the appropriate number N S ST O VO

11. I am a person who identifies with the Black group 12. I am a person who considers the Black group important 13. I am a person who tries to hide belonging to the Black group 14. I am a person who sees myself as belonging to the Black group 15. I am a person who criticizes the Black group 16. I am a person who feels held back by the Black group 17. I am a person who makes excuses for belonging to the Black group 18. I am a person who feels strong ties with the Black group 19. I am a person who is annoyed to say I’m a member of the Black group 20. I am a person who is glad to belong to the Black group

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

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Section 3: This section pertains to your preference for and frequency of attending sporting events

21-A. Please indicate the extent of your PREFERENCE for attending the following sporting events as a spectator by circling the appropriate numbers. Not

Preferable Most At all Preferable

a. Professional Baseball b. Professional Basketball c. Professional Football d. Professional Soccer e. College Football f. College Basketball

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

21-B. Please indicate the extent of your FREQUENCY of attending the following sporting events as a spectator by circling the appropriate numbers.

Very

Never Frequently

a. Professional Basketball b. Professional Football c. Professional Soccer d. Professional Baseball e. College Basketball f. College Football

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

21-C. Which of the following is the most influential in your decision for attending sporting events in Chicago? Please circle the corresponding number(s) that apply to you. a. Friends/Significant others b. Money availability c. Time availability d. Quality of sport facility or its location e. Majority of athletes participating are Black f. I am a sport fan g. Significance of game (e.g., rivalry, play-off) h. Presence of Black spectators i. Other ___________________________

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Section 4: The following section pertains to your preference for and frequency of watching sport programs on TV.

22-A. Please indicate your PREFERENCE for watching the following sports on TV by cycling the appropriate numbers that apply to you.

Not

Preferable Most At all Preferable

a. Professional Baseball b. Professional Basketball c. Professional Football d. Professional Soccer e. College Football f. College Basketball

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

22-B. Please indicate the extent of your FREQUENCY of watching the following sports on TV by circling the appropriate numbers that apply to you.

Very

Never Frequently

a. Professional Baseball b. Professional Football c. Professional Basketball d. Professional Soccer e. College Basketball f. College Football

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

22-C. Which of the following is the most influential in your decision for watching sport programs on TV? Please circle the appropriate number(s) that apply to you. a. Friends/Significant others b. The quality of sport performances c. Time availability d. Significance of game (e.g., rivalry, play-off) e. Majority of athletes competing are Black f. I am a sport fan g. Other ___________________________

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Section 5: This section pertains to your preference for and frequency of reading sport from magazines and newspapers.

23-A. Please indicate your PREFERENCE for reading sports from the following magazines and newspapers by circling all the appropriate numbers that pertain to you.

Not Preferable Most

At all Preferable

a. Sport Illustrated b. ESPN The Magazine c. USA Today d. Chicago Tribune e. Sporting News f. Inside Sports g. USA Today Baseball Weekly h. Internet i. Other __________________

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

23-B. Please indicate the extent of your PREFERENCE for reading about the following sports from magazines and newspapers by circling the appropriate numbers that pertain to you.

Not Preferable Most

At all Preferable

a. Baseball b. Basketball c. Football d. Soccer

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

23-C. Please indicate the extent of your FREQUENCY of reading about the following sports from magazines and newspapers by circling the appropriate numbers.

Very

Never Frequently

a. Baseball b. Football c. Basketball d. Soccer

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

23-D. Which of the following is the most influential in your decision for reading sport from the magazines and newspapers? Please circle the corresponding numbers of your choice. a. Friend/Significant others b. The quality of the news reporting c. Time availability d. News about Black athletes e. Significance of the news f. Other _________________

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Section 6: This section is designed to gather information about you

24. What is your age? ____________________________ 25. What is your educational level? Please circle the corresponding number. 1. Undergraduate 2. Graduate 26. What is your sex? Please circle the corresponding number. 1. Male 2. Female 27. What is your marital status? Please circle the corresponding number. 1. Single 2. Married 3. Living with partner or significant other 4. Divorced 5. Widowed 28. What is your ethnicity? Please circle the corresponding number. 1. African-American 2. Jamaican-American 3. African Immigrant 4. African 5. Black Hispanic-American 6. Other (Please specify) __________________________ 29. What is your annual income including support from scholarship and parents? Please circle the corresponding number. 1. Less than $5,000 2. $5,001 - $10.000 3. $10,001 - $15,000 4. $15,001 - $20,000 5. $20,001 - $25,000 6. $25,001 - $30,000 7. Above $30,000

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In the space provided below, please list any other factors that influence your sport consumption behavior and attitudes

Thank you for your assistance!

The Ohio State University School of Physical Activity and Educational Service

Sport & Exercise Management 337 West 17th Avenue

Columbus, OH 43201-1284