AN EXAMINATION OF THE IMPACT OF TRAINING ON THE EMOTIONAL ... · A thesis submitted in fulfilment...

AN EXAMINATION OF THE IMPACT OF TRAINING ON THE EMOTIONAL

INTELLIGENCE OF INDIVIDUALS

Jane P. Murray

B.Com (Hons 1)

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Department of Management

Griffith Business School

Griffith University

September, 2009

i.

Statement of Originality

This work has not previously been submitted for a degree or diploma in any university.

To the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously

published or written by another person except where due reference is made in the thesis

itself.

__________________________

Jane Murray

September, 2009

ii.

Acknowledgements

They say a journey of a thousand miles starts with a single step and I would most

definitely class the Ph.D process as my own thousand mile journey. For the most part

there have been blue skies and a clear path ahead. There have however, been times

where storms have brewed, I’ve been a little lost and needed to pluck up courage to

climb large mountains. It was at these times that the love, support and guidance I have

received really helped me. There are many people whom I wish to thank for this. Some

of you have been with me for the entire journey, whilst others have joined me at various

intersections along the way. Each of you has contributed in different, but no less

important ways. I would like to take this opportunity to thank you all.

First of all I would like to thank my supervisors Dr. Peter Jordan and Dr. Neal

Ashkanasy. You are wonderful role models. Your contributions to this thesis are greatly

appreciated and will not be forgotten. Peter, your continual guidance and encouragement

has always kept me on track and helped me to appreciate what a career in academia

entails. Your door is always open – thank you. Neal, your wealth of knowledge, your

upholding of core concepts, and your eye for detail have been integral to the shaping of

this thesis – thank you for all of the time and effort you have given.

I would also like to thank my Ph.D comrades (and now great friends) Sara

Branch, Sally Russell, Anne Christie, Heather Gray, Jamal Twati, and Melissa Fender.

We have shared many experiences together and I shall forever cherish the supportive

environment we created. I am so glad to call each one of you a friend. I am a better

person for knowing you all.

To my husband Scott, you are my rock. Through it all you have provided me

with support, patience, understanding and most of all love – I thank you and I love you.

To my sister Sue, who is now undertaking her own PhD journey, thank you for all of

your caring and support. I look forward to reciprocating. To the remainder of my

family, thank you all for always providing me with encouragement along the way and an

escape when I have needed one – I love you all.

Finally, I would like to thank Paul Connors and all of the participants from the

Department of Main Roads that participated in my training programs and research.

Without you all, this thesis would not have been possible.

iii.

Abstract

Over the last decade the Emotional Intelligence (EI) construct has been

promoted as a tool that can be used to provide positive individual, team and

organisational outcomes in the workplace. Researchers have demonstrated links

between EI and organisational variables including organisational change, leadership,

performance, conflict, interpersonal skills (IS), citizenship performance and goal setting.

As a result organisations are now actively seeking ways to improve EI in the workplace.

Currently there are a variety of interventions being offered for organisations to

increase individual EI. These range from basic IS programs to specific emotions-focused

interventions. An issue is, however, that many programs have not been subjected to

theoretical justification and open empirical testing. Therefore, academic research

should be conducted to ascertain the efficacy of training emotional intelligence within

organisations. It is this research opportunity that forms the basis of this thesis and in

particular, the following research questions:

1. Can individual emotional intelligence be increased through training in:

a. Emotional Intelligence Skills?

b. Interpersonal Skills?

2. What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and:

a. Organisational Citizenship Behaviours?

b. Goal Setting?

To answer these questions, I develop and empirically test a theoretically-driven

EI focused training program and determine whether EI, citizenship performance and

goal setting can be improved through training. These results were then compared to the

results from a basic IS training program and a normative group data collection.

Interventions were conducted within a large Australian public sector organisation

A quasi-experimental design in an organisational setting and was utilised to

conducted the three studies. Study 1 sampled a normative group of organisational

participants at three equally spaced points in time over an eighteen-month period. This

analysis ensured that the measures used were valid and reliable (Chapter 4), and enabled

iv.

testing of the relationships between EI, citizenship performance and goal setting

(Chapter 5) to be conducted.

Study 2 examined the impact of a theoretically constructed EI training program.

Study 3 then explored the outcomes of a basic IS training program. The procedure for

these studies included the completion of pre- and post-training measures of EI,

citizenship performance and goal setting, and a training intervention. Study 2

participants received two days and Study 3 participants received one day of training.

Both interventions included a half-day follow-up session two weeks later.

Analysis of Study 1 (Chapter 4) demonstrated no significant changes in overall

EI, citizenship performance or goal setting for the normative group, providing

confidence that Study 2 outcomes could be attributed to the training provided.

Additional analysis (Chapter 5) found relationships between EI and citizenship

performance and goal setting suggesting that EI training may have additional benefits in

these organisational contexts.

Data collected within Studies 2 and 3 were analysed simultaneously (Chapter 6).

Contrary to the hypotheses, Study 2 data demonstrated that EI training did not increase

overall citizenship performance or goal setting. The training, however, did lead to an

increase in overall EI and the three related sub-scales of ‘Awareness of Others’

Emotions’, ‘Ability to Manage Own Emotions’ and ‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’.

Analysis of Study 3 revealed that citizenship performance and goal setting did not

improve as a result of IS training. Overall EI, ‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’ and

‘Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions’ did however, increase from pre- to post-training.

A reanalysis of all data were conducted in Chapter 7 to determine whether an

individual’s pre-training EI impacted training outcomes. Data were trichotomised and

revealed that the EI training led to a large increase in overall EI and moderate increases

in four EI abilities for low EI participants. The moderate EI participants saw only small

increases in two EI abilities. High EI participants showed a small decrease in one EI

ability. Analyses on the IS participant data revealed large increases in overall EI, and

two EI abilities for participants with low EI. No changes were found in the moderate EI

group and the high EI group for overall EI. The high EI group returned a moderate

decrease in one EI ability from pre- to post-training.

Overall, the research presented in this thesis has contributed to theory by

developing a theoretical framework that links related work competencies to specific

v.

training methods. Broad training programs have been developed and tested to increase

EI skills in self and others. The findings from these programs contribute to the current

EI training efficacy debate and demonstrate that there is a reasonable explanation for

improvements in EI following a training regime specifically designed to extend those

abilities. Through showing that EI skills and abilities can be trained, this research also

contributes to theory by providing evidence that EI is a crystallized intelligence.

The research contributes to practice through broadening our knowledge of the

practical outcomes of training EI and IS in organisations. In addition, the importance of

assessing training programs for content and selecting training appropriate to the skills

that require development have been demonstrated. Finally, the requirement to assess

individuals prior to training was also revealed as those with low EI were shown to have

the greatest benefit from the training. To conclude, the limitations and potential future

research directions including a formal experimental design, alternate measures of the

dependent and independent variables, and alternate forms of training delivery are

presented in Chapter 9.

vi.

Table of Contents

STATEMENT OF ASSISTANCE ..................................................................................................1

Work Published in the Course of the Research ...............................................................................1

Editorial Assistance .........................................................................................................................3

CHAPTER ONE..............................................................................................................................4

Introduction .....................................................................................................................................4

Philosophical Underpinnings...........................................................................................................6

Post-positivism – A Critical Realist Ontology ............................................................................7

Post-positivism – A Modified Objectivist Epistemology............................................................7

Post-positivism – A Modified Experimental Methodology ........................................................7

Methodological Approach and Design ............................................................................................8

The Research Procedure ..................................................................................................................8

Research Design Justification..........................................................................................................9

Thesis Outline................................................................................................................................10

Chapter Summary ..........................................................................................................................11

CHAPTER TWO...........................................................................................................................13

Literature Review ..........................................................................................................................13

Overview ...................................................................................................................................13

Defining Emotional Intelligence....................................................................................................13

Goleman’s Mixed Model...........................................................................................................14

Measuring Goleman’s Model ................................................................................................15

Bar-On’s Mixed Model .............................................................................................................16

Measuring Bar-On’s Model...................................................................................................17

Overall Criticisms of the Mixed Model Approach....................................................................18

Mayer & Salovey’s Ability Model ............................................................................................18

The Four-branch Model of Emotional Intelligence ...................................................................19

Awareness of Emotions .........................................................................................................20

Facilitation of Emotions ........................................................................................................21

Understanding Emotions .......................................................................................................21

Managing Emotions...............................................................................................................22

Measuring Mayer & Salovey’s Four-branch Model ..................................................................22

Self-Report Tests of the Ability Model of Emotional Intelligence ...........................................23

Emotional Intelligence Research ...................................................................................................25

Organisational Change, Structure and Learning Research ........................................................25

vii.

Team Research ..........................................................................................................................28

Leadership Research..................................................................................................................29

Performance Research ...............................................................................................................32

Conflict and Negotiation Research............................................................................................34

Interpersonal Skills Research ....................................................................................................35

Emotional Intelligence and Training .............................................................................................36

Chapter Summary ..........................................................................................................................40

CHAPTER THREE .......................................................................................................................42

The Skills of Emotional Intelligence, Their Relationship to Emotional Intelligence Abilities and Their Link to Work Competencies...........................................................................42

Overview ...................................................................................................................................42

Exploring Emotional Intelligence Branch Abilities ......................................................................43

Awareness of Emotions .............................................................................................................43

Facilitation of Emotions ............................................................................................................45

Understanding Emotions ...........................................................................................................48

Managing Emotions...................................................................................................................51

Linking Emotional Intelligence Abilities to Work Situations .......................................................53

Emotional Intelligence and Conflict Resolution........................................................................53

Emotional Intelligence, Teamwork and Working with Others..................................................55

Emotional Intelligence and Coping with Work Demands.........................................................57

Emotional Intelligence and Dealing with Organisational Change.............................................58

Emotional Intelligence and Work-Family Conflict ...................................................................61

Summary of Work Situations Requiring EI Skills ........................................................................62

The Training Program....................................................................................................................62

Chapter Summary ..........................................................................................................................65

CHAPTER FOUR .........................................................................................................................67

Study 1 – Analysis of the Normative Sample Factor Analysis using Repeated Measures ANOVA.........................................................................................................................................67

Overview ...................................................................................................................................67

Justification for the Selection of Additional Dependent Variables ...............................................67

Citizenship Performance............................................................................................................67

Goal Setting ...............................................................................................................................68

Method...........................................................................................................................................69

Procedure ...................................................................................................................................69

Pilot Study .................................................................................................................................70

viii.

Sample .......................................................................................................................................70

Measures....................................................................................................................................71

Citizenship Performance........................................................................................................72

Emotional Intelligence...........................................................................................................72

Goal Setting ...........................................................................................................................74

Data Screening & Cleaning .......................................................................................................75

Factor Analysis ..............................................................................................................................76

Citizenship Data – Times 1, 2 and 3..........................................................................................76

Reliabilities and Correlations – Citizenship Performance.........................................................80

Emotional Intelligence Data – Times 1, 2 and 3 .......................................................................80

Reliabilities and Correlations – Emotional Intelligence............................................................86

Goal Setting Data – Time 1, 2 and 3 .........................................................................................87

Reliabilities and Correlations – Goal Setting ............................................................................91

Test-Retest Results ....................................................................................................................92

Repeated Measures ANOVA.....................................................................................................92

Planned Comparisons ................................................................................................................93

Chapter Summary ..........................................................................................................................93

CHAPTER FIVE ...........................................................................................................................96

Study 1 – Analysis of the Normative Sample Exploring the Relationship between Emotional Intelligence, Citizenship Performance and Goal Setting .............................................96

Overview ...................................................................................................................................96

Hypothesis Development...............................................................................................................96

Hypotheses for Emotional Intelligence and Citizenship Performance Variables ......................96

Hypotheses for Emotional Intelligence and Goal Setting Variables .........................................97

Method.......................................................................................................................................97

Results – Emotional Intelligence and Citizenship Performance....................................................98

Bivariate Analyses .....................................................................................................................98

Multivariate Analyses................................................................................................................99

Results – Emotional Intelligence and Goal Setting .....................................................................102

Bivariate Analyses ...................................................................................................................102

Multivariate Analyses..............................................................................................................103

Examination of Panel Data ......................................................................................................105

Results – Panel Data ....................................................................................................................106

Bivariate Analyses ...................................................................................................................106

Multivariate Analyses..............................................................................................................109

ix.

Discussion....................................................................................................................................117

Emotional Intelligence and Citizenship Performance .............................................................117

Emotional Intelligence and Goal Setting.................................................................................118

Limitations...................................................................................................................................120

Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................................121

CHAPTER SIX............................................................................................................................122

A Comparison of Emotional Intelligence (Study 2) and Interpersonal Skills (Study 3) Training on the Emotional Intelligence of Individuals ................................................................122

Overview .................................................................................................................................122

The Training Programs................................................................................................................123

Hypothesis Development – Emotional Intelligence Training......................................................124

Awareness of Emotions ...........................................................................................................125

Facilitation of Emotions ..........................................................................................................126

Understanding Emotions .........................................................................................................126

Managing Emotions.................................................................................................................127

Citizenship Performance..........................................................................................................128

Goal Setting .............................................................................................................................128

Hypothesis Development – Interpersonal Skills Training...........................................................129


Goal Setting .............................................................................................................................130

Emotional Intelligence.............................................................................................................130

Method.........................................................................................................................................131

Emotional Intelligence Sample................................................................................................131

Emotional Intelligence Training Procedure.............................................................................131

Interpersonal Skills Training Sample ......................................................................................132

Interpersonal Skills Training Procedure ..................................................................................133

Measures......................................................................................................................................134

Data Screening and Cleaning.......................................................................................................134

Results .........................................................................................................................................134

Means, Standard Deviations, Reliabilities and Correlations – Emotional Intelligence Training ...................................................................................................................................134

Means, Standard Deviations, Reliabilities and Correlations – Interpersonal Skills Training ...................................................................................................................................137

Repeated Measures MANOVA ...............................................................................................139

Results – Emotional Intelligence Training ..................................................................................141

x.

Test-Retest Results ......................................................................................................................141

Repeated Measures ANOVA...................................................................................................141



Goal Setting .............................................................................................................................142

Results – Interpersonal Skills Training........................................................................................143

Test-Retest Results ......................................................................................................................143

Repeated Measures ANOVA...................................................................................................143


Goal Setting .............................................................................................................................144


Discussion – Emotional Intelligence Training ............................................................................144


Awareness of Emotions .......................................................................................................145

Facilitation of Emotions ......................................................................................................146

Understanding Emotions .....................................................................................................146

Managing Emotions.............................................................................................................147


Goal Setting .............................................................................................................................148

Discussion – Interpersonal Skills Training..................................................................................148


Goal Setting .............................................................................................................................149


Limitations – Emotional Intelligence Training............................................................................151

Limitations – Interpersonal Skills Training.................................................................................152

Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................................153

CHAPTER SEVEN .....................................................................................................................154

A Reanalysis of Initial Emotional Intelligence Levels on Training Effectiveness ......................154

Overview .................................................................................................................................154

Hypotheses...................................................................................................................................154

Method.........................................................................................................................................157

Results .........................................................................................................................................157

Descriptive Statistics ...............................................................................................................157

Low Emotional Intelligence Scores.....................................................................................157

xi.

Moderate Emotional Intelligence Scores.............................................................................159

High Emotional Intelligence Scores ....................................................................................160

A Discussion of Regression to the Mean.....................................................................................161

Comparison Between Groups at Time 1..................................................................................163

Repeated Measures MANOVA ...............................................................................................163

Low Emotional Intelligence.................................................................................................163

Moderate Emotional Intelligence ........................................................................................165

High Emotional Intelligence................................................................................................167

Normative Sample ANOVA Results (Study 1) .......................................................................169

Planned Comparisons ..............................................................................................................171

Low Emotional Intelligence Scores.....................................................................................171

Moderate Emotional Intelligence Scores.............................................................................173

High Emotional Intelligence Scores ....................................................................................173

Emotional Intelligence Training ANOVA Results (Study 2) ..................................................176

Interpersonal Skills Training ANOVA Results (Study 3) .......................................................178

Discussion....................................................................................................................................180

Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................................182

CHAPTER EIGHT ......................................................................................................................184

Integrating the Studies .................................................................................................................184

Overview .................................................................................................................................184

Summary of Theoretical Development........................................................................................184

Summary of Research..................................................................................................................185

Normative Sample Outcomes (Study 1) ..................................................................................185

Emotional Intelligence Training Outcomes (Study 2) .............................................................188

Interpersonal Skills Training Outcomes (Study 3) ..................................................................188

Outcomes of the Low, Moderate and High Group Comparisons ............................................189

Discussion of Overall Results......................................................................................................189

Point of Interest 1 – Awareness of Own Emotions..................................................................191

Point of Interest 2 – Self-Awareness the Main Outcome of Interpersonal Skills Training for Low EI Participants .............................................................................................191

Point of Interest 3 – EI Training Has the Greatest Impact for Emotions-Focused Training Participants with Low Emotional Intelligence..........................................................192

Point of Interest 4 – Ability to Discuss Emotions Improved For All Groups .........................193

Point of Interest 5 – Emotions Focused Training Yielded the Greatest Impact Overall .........194

Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................................194

xii.

CHAPTER NINE ........................................................................................................................195

Contributions, Limitations, Future Directions and Conclusions .................................................195

Overview .................................................................................................................................195

Research Contributions................................................................................................................195

Contributions to Theory...........................................................................................................195

Contributions to Practice .........................................................................................................196

Research Limitations ...................................................................................................................198

Future Research Directions..........................................................................................................202

A Formal Experimental Research Design ...............................................................................202

Alternative Measures of the Independent and Dependent Variables.......................................203

Alternative Delivery Options for the Interventions .................................................................204

Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................................205

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................207

APPENDIX A..............................................................................................................................231

The Positivist and Post-Positivist Paradigms ..............................................................................231

References ...................................................................................................................................233

APPENDIX B..............................................................................................................................234

The Emotional Intelligence Intervention .....................................................................................234

Training Awareness of Emotions ............................................................................................234

Awareness of Own and Other’s Emotions at Work.................................................................234

The JOHARI Window.............................................................................................................235

Reflective Diaries ....................................................................................................................236

Organisational Storytelling......................................................................................................237

Training Facilitation of Emotions................................................................................................237

Emotional Contagion...............................................................................................................238

Generating Emotions ...............................................................................................................239

Perspective Taking ..................................................................................................................240

Training Understanding Emotions...............................................................................................240

Plutchick’s Continuum of Emotions .......................................................................................241

Emotional Progressions ...........................................................................................................241

Emotional Cycles.....................................................................................................................242

Emotions and Change..............................................................................................................243

Training Management of Emotions .............................................................................................245

Emotional Repair.....................................................................................................................245

xiii.

Building Resiliency .................................................................................................................246

Techniques to Manage Emotions ............................................................................................247

References ...................................................................................................................................248

APPENDIX C..............................................................................................................................250

Emotional Intelligence Training Slides .......................................................................................250

APPENDIX D..............................................................................................................................260

The Interpersonal Skills Intervention ..........................................................................................260

Supportive Communication.....................................................................................................260

Conflict Resolution..................................................................................................................261

Goal Setting .............................................................................................................................263

References ...................................................................................................................................265

APPENDIX E ..............................................................................................................................266

The Interpersonal Skills Intervention Slides................................................................................266

APPENDIX F ..............................................................................................................................271

Emotions in the Workplace .........................................................................................................271

Participant Information Sheet ..................................................................................................271

APPENDIX G..............................................................................................................................273

Emotions in the Worlplace Survey..............................................................................................273

APPENDIX H..............................................................................................................................278

Focus Group Outcomes ...............................................................................................................278

Focus Group ............................................................................................................................278

Notes From Session 1 – 10.00am (Six Participants) ...............................................................278

Notes from Session 2 – 1:30pm (Four Participants)................................................................281

Session 1......................................................................................................................................284

Survey Feedback......................................................................................................................284

Session 2......................................................................................................................................287

APPENDIX I ...............................................................................................................................289

Emotions in the Workplace Survey .............................................................................................289

Feedback On Results – Sample Report ...................................................................................289

xiv.

List of Tables

Table 1 Summary of Skills Related to EI Abilities .......................................................................46

Table 2 Constructing the EI training program...............................................................................64

Table 3 Workgroup EI Profile Subscales (Jordan et al., 2002) .....................................................74

Table 4 Goal Setting Subscales (Locke & Latham, 1984) ............................................................75

Table 5 Time 1, 2 & 3 Exploration of the Citizenship Rating Scale using Principal Axis Factoring and Varimax Rotation ...................................................................................................79

Table 6 Descriptive Statistics, Coefficient Alphas, and Correlations among Citizenship Scale and Subscales (Time 1) ........................................................................................................80



Table 9 Time 1 (n=320) Exploration of the WEIP-6 Scale using Principal Axis Factoring and Varimax rotation.....................................................................................................83

Table 10 Time 2 (n=256) Exploration of the WEIP-6 Scale using Principal Axis Factoring and Varimax Rotation ...................................................................................................84

Table 11 Time 3 (n=225) Exploration of the WEIP-6 Scale using Principal Axis Factoring and Varimax Rotation ...................................................................................................85

Table 12 Descriptive Statistics, Coefficient Alphas, and Correlations among WEIP-6 Scale and Subscales (Time 1 – 24 items) ......................................................................................86



Table 15 Time 1, 2 & 3 Exploration of the Goal Setting Scale using Principal Axis Factoring and Varimax Rotation ...................................................................................................90

Table 16 Descriptive Statistics, Coefficient Alphas, and Correlations among Goal Setting Scale and Subscales (Time 1 – 24 items)..........................................................................91



Table 19 Wilks’ Lambda, F-Statistics, Significance and Effect Size (d) for Citizenship, EI and Goal Setting Time 1, 2 and 3 Repeated Measures ANOVAs (n = 89) ..............................92

Table 20 F-Statistics, Significance and Effect Size (d) for Citizenship, EI and Goal Setting from Time 1 to Time 3, and Time 2 to Time 3 (n = 89) ...................................................94

Table 21 Times 1, 2 and 3 Correlations between EI and Citizenship Performance......................99

xv.

Table 22 Time 1, 2 & 3, Standard Regression Analyses between Citizenship Performance (DV) and EI variables (IVs) ...................................................................................100

Table 23 Correlations between EI and Goal Setting (Time 1) ....................................................103

Table 24 Standard Regression Analyses between Goal Setting (DV) and EI variables (IVs).............................................................................................................................................104

Table 25 Correlations between EI and Citizenship Performance (Panel Data n = 88) ...............107

Table 26 Correlations between EI and Goal Setting (Panel Data n = 88) ...................................108

Table 27 Coefficients of Variation between Citizenship Performance (DV) and EI (IV) Panel Data (n = 88)......................................................................................................................109

Table 28 Coefficients of Variation between Goal Setting (DV) and EI (IV) Panel Data............111

Table 29 Standard Regression Analyses between Goal Setting (DV) and EI variables (IVs) (Panel Data n = 88).............................................................................................................112

Table 30 Descriptive Statistics, Coefficient Alphas, and Correlations among WEIP-6 Scale and Subscales – EI Training (Time 1, 24 items, n=161)....................................................135

Table 31 Descriptive Statistics, Coefficient Alphas, and Correlations among WEIP-6 Scale and Subscales – EI Training (Time 2, 24 items n=161).....................................................135

Table 32 Descriptive Statistics, Coefficient Alphas, and Correlations among Citizenship Scale and Subscales – EI Training (Time 1, n=161) ...................................................................136

Table 33 Descriptive Statistics, Coefficient Alphas, and Correlations among Citizenship Scale and Subscales – EI Training (Time 2, n=161) ...................................................................136

Table 34 Descriptive Statistics, Coefficient Alphas, and Correlations among Goal Setting Scale and Subscales – EI Training (Time 1, 24 items, n=161) .......................................136

Table 35 Descriptive Statistics, Coefficient Alphas, and Correlations among Goal Setting Scale and Subscales – EI Training (Time 2, 24 items, n=161) .......................................136

Table 36 Descriptive Statistics, Coefficient Alphas, and Correlations among WEIP-6 Scale and Subscales – IS Training (Time 1, 24 items, n = 81)....................................................137

Table 37 Descriptive Statistics, Coefficient Alphas, and Correlations among WEIP-6 Scale and Subscales – IS Training (Time 2, 24 items n = 81).....................................................138

Table 38 Descriptive Statistics, Coefficient Alphas, and Correlations among Citizenship Scale and Subscales – IS Training (Time 1, n = 81) ...................................................................138

Table 39 Descriptive Statistics, Coefficient Alphas, and Correlations among Citizenship Scale and Subscales – IS Training (Time 2, n = 81) ...................................................................138

Table 40 Descriptive Statistics, Coefficient Alphas, and Correlations among Goal Setting Scale and Subscales – IS Training (Time 1, 24 items, n = 81) .......................................138

Table 41 Descriptive Statistics, Coefficient Alphas, and Correlations among Goal Setting Scale and Subscales – IS Training (Time 2, 24 items, n = 81) .......................................139

Table 42 Repeated Measures MANOVA Interaction Effects (Within-subjects – All Groups) for Citizenship, EI and Goal Setting including Wilks’ Lambda, F-Statistics, Significance and Effect Sizes (η2)...............................................................................................139

xvi.

Table 43 Repeated Measures MANOVA Effects for Time (Within-subjects – All Groups) for Citizenship, EI and Goal Setting including Wilks’ Lambda, F-Statistics, Significance and Effect Sizes (η2)...............................................................................................140

Table 44 Repeated Measures MANOVA Main Effects for Groups (Between-subjects – All Groups) for Citizenship, EI and Goal Setting including Significance and Effect Sizes (η2) ..............................................................................................................................................140

Table 45 Wilks’ Lambda, F-Statistics, Significance and Effect Size (d) for Citizenship, EI and Goal Setting Repeated Measures ANOVAs (EI Training, n = 161) ................................142

Table 46 Wilks’ Lambda, F-Statistics, Significance and Effect Size (d) for Citizenship, EI and Goal Setting Repeated Measures ANOVAs (IS Training, n = 81) ..................................143

Table 47 Means and Standard Deviations for Normative Sample (Low EI)...............................158

Table 48 Means and Standard Deviations for EI Training Sample (Low EI) .............................158

Table 49 Means and Standard Deviations for IS Training Sample (Low EI)..............................159

Table 50 Means and Standard Deviations for Normative Sample (Moderate EI).......................159

Table 51 Means and Standard Deviations for EI Training Sample (Moderate EI) .....................160

Table 52 Means and Standard Deviations for IS Training Sample (Moderate EI) .....................160

Table 53 Means and Standard Deviations for Normative Sample (High EI) ..............................161

Table 54 Means and Standard Deviations for EI Training Sample (High EI).............................161

Table 55 Means and Standard Deviations for IS Training Sample (High EI).............................161

Table 56 Interaction Effects (Within-person) – MANOVA comparing Normative, EI and IS Training ............................................................................................................................164

Table 57 Main Effects for Time (Within-person) – MANOVA comparing Normative, EI and IS Training ............................................................................................................................164

Table 58 Main Effects (Between-persons) – MANOVA comparing Normative, EI and IS Training...................................................................................................................................165







xvii.

Table 65 Wilks’ Lambda, F-Statistics, Significance and Effect Size (d) for Citizenship Performance, EI and Goal Setting Repeated Measures ANOVAs for Normative Sample (Low EI, n = 21) ..........................................................................................................................170

Table 66 Wilks’ Lambda, F-Statistics, Significance and Effect Size (d) for Citizenship Performance, EI and Goal Setting Repeated Measures ANOVAs for Normative Sample (Moderate EI, n = 47) ..................................................................................................................170

Table 67 Wilks’ Lambda, F-Statistics, Significance and Effect Size (d) for Citizenship Performance, EI and Goal Setting Repeated Measures ANOVAs for Normative Sample (High EI, n = 19)..........................................................................................................................171

Table 68 F Statistics and Effect Size (d) for Citizenship Performance, EI and Goal Setting for T1, T2 & T3 (Low EI – Normative Sample) .............................................................172

Table 69 F Statistics and Effect Size (d) for Citizenship Performance, EI and Goal Setting for T1, T2 & T3 (Moderate EI – Normative Sample) .....................................................174

Table 70 F Statistics and Effect Size (d) for Citizenship Performance, EI and Goal Setting for T1, T2 & T3 (High EI – Normative Sample) ............................................................175

Table 71 Wilks’ Lambda, F Statistics, Effect Size (d) and Power for Citizenship Performance, Goal Setting and EI from Pre- to Post-program for EI Training Sample (Low EI, n = 41) ..........................................................................................................................177

Table 72 Wilks’ Lambda, F Statistics, Effect Size (d) and Power for Citizenship Performance, Goal Setting and EI from Pre- to Post-program for EI Training Sample (Moderate EI, n = 82) ..................................................................................................................177

Table 73 Wilks’ Lambda, F Statistics, Effect Size (d) and Power for Citizenship Performance, Goal Setting and EI from Pre- to Post-program for EI Training Sample (High EI, n = 38)..........................................................................................................................178

Table 74 Wilks’ Lambda, F Statistics, Effect Size (d) and Power for Citizenship Performance, EI and Goal Setting from Pre- to Post-program for IS Training Sample (Low EI, n = 20) ..........................................................................................................................179

Table 75 Wilks’ Lambda, F Statistics, Effect Size (d) and Power for Citizenship Performance, EI and Goal Setting from Pre- to Post-program for IS Training Sample (Moderate EI, n = 41) ..................................................................................................................180

Table 76 Wilks’ Lambda, F Statistics, Effect Size (d) and Power for Citizenship Performance, EI and Goal Setting from Pre- to Post-program for IS Training Sample (High EI, n = 20)..........................................................................................................................180

Table 77 Summary of All Results for Normative Sample ..........................................................187

Table 78 Summary of Main Results............................................................................................190

Table 79 Popper’s Distinctions of Positivism and Post-positivism ............................................232

Table 80 Philosophical Differences between Positivism and Post-positivism............................232

Table 81 Eight Elements of Supportive Communication............................................................261

Table 82 Conflict Resolution Styles............................................................................................263

xviii.

List of Figures

Figure 1 Relationship – WEIP-6 to Mayer and Salovey’s Four-branch Model of EI...................73

Figure 2 Citizenship Scale Time 1 Scree Plot ..............................................................................77

Figure 3 WEIP-6 Scale Time 1 Scree Plot ...................................................................................81

Figure 4 Goal Setting Time 1 Scree Plot ......................................................................................88

Figure 5 The Ladder of Inference ...............................................................................................262

1.

STATEMENT OF ASSISTANCE

Work Published in the Course of the Research

The following papers and presentations have been completed during the course of

the thesis preparation:

1. Murray, J.P. (2003). Emotional intelligence skills training. Poster presented at

the First Brisbane Symposium on Emotions and Worklife, Brisbane, Australia.

2. Murray, J.P. (2003). Improving team performance: The role of emotional

intelligence in training. Paper presented at the Fifth Annual Research Students

Colloquium, Brisbane, Australia.

3. Murray, J.P., Jordan, P.J., Ashkanasy, N.M. (2004). A comparative study of the

effects of training on emotional intelligence. Poster paper presented at the

Second Brisbane Symposium on Emotions and Worklife, Brisbane, Australia.

4. Murray, J.P., Jordan, P J., Ashkanasy, N.M., & Hall-Thomspon, S.V. (2004). A

preliminary investigation of the links between interpersonal skills training, team

emotional intelligence and team performance. Paper presented at the Annual

Meeting of the Australian and New Zealand Academy of Management, Dunedin,

New Zealand.

5. Murray, J.P., & Jordan, P.J. (2004). Emotional intelligence, work skills and

training. Paper presented at the Annual Meetings of the Academy of

Management, New Orleans, Louisiana.

6. Murray, J.P., Jordan, P.J., & Ashkanasy, N.M. (2004). The link between

emotional intelligence and work skills: Identification of training interventions.

Paper presented at the Fourth International Conference on Emotions and

Worklife, London, U.K.

7. Murray, J.P., Jordan, P.J., & Hall-Thompson, S.V. (2005) Can emotional

intelligence be Increased through training?: An experimental study. Paper

presented at the Annual Meetings of the Academy of Management, Honolulu,

Hawaii, USA.

8. Murray, J.P., Jordan, P.J., Ashkanasy, N.M., & Connors, P. (2005). Can training

increase emotional intelligence?: Presenting the framework of three studies.

2.

Poster presented at the 19th Annual conference of the Annual Meeting of the

Australian and New Zealand Academy of Management, Canberra, Australia.

9. Murray, J.P. & Jordan, P.J., & Ashkanasy, N.M. (2005). Increasing emotional

intelligence: Presenting the results of a training intervention. Poster paper

presented at the Third Brisbane Symposium on Emotions and Worklife, Brisbane,

Australia.

10. Murray, J.P. & Ashkanasy, N.M. (Chairs). (2006). Emotional intelligence and

workplace training interventions. Symposium presented at the Annual Meeting of

the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP), Dallas, Texas,

USA.

11. Murray, J.P., Ashkanasy, N.M., & Jordan, P.J. (2006). Emotional intelligence

training: theoretical and practical issues. In J.P. Murray and N.M. Ashkanasy

(Chairs), Emotional intelligence and workplace training interventions.

Symposium to be presented at the Annual Meeting of the Society for Industrial

and Organizational Psychology, Dallas, Texas.

12. Murray, J.P., Jordan, P.J., & Ashkanasy, N.M. (2006). Training emotional

intelligence abilities: Results from an experimental study. In G. Matthews

(Chair) Finding the Intelligence in ‘Emotional Intelligence’. Symposium

presented at the Twenty-Sixth International Congress of Applied Psychology,

Athens, Greece.

13. Murray, J.P., Jordan, P.J., & Ashkanasy, N.M. (2006). Training emotional

intelligence: Presenting the results of an experimental study. Visual Presentation

presented at the Thirty-Fifth Annual Conference of the Society for Australasian

Social Psychologists, Canberra, Australia.

14. Murray, J.P., Jordan, P.J., & Ashkanasy, N.M. (2006). Utilising self-report and

perceived change methods to assess the efficacy of an emotional intelligence

training program. In N.M. Ashkanasy (Chair), Applications of Social Psychology

in Organisational Behaviour. Symposium presented at the Thirty-Fifth Annual

Conference of the Society for Australasian Social Psychologists, Canberra,

Australia.

15. Murray, J.P. & Jordan, P.J. (2006). Improving emotional intelligence and

performance through emotions focused training interventions. Paper presented at

the Annual Meetings of the Academy of Management, Atlanta, U.S.A.

3.

16. Murray, J.P. & Lawrence, S.A. (2006). Using a self-report measure to determine

whether emotional intelligence can be Trained. In J. Gooty (Chair), Emotional

intelligence and emotional competencies: Where are we and what does the future

hold? Symposium presented at the Annual Meetings of the Academy of

Management, Atlanta, U.S.A.

17. Murray, J.P. & Jordan, P.J. (2008). Further examinations of the impact of

training on emotional intelligence. Paper presented at the 3rd Asia-Pacific

Symposium on Emotions in Worklife, Newcastle, Australia.

18. Murray, J.P. & Branch, S. (2008). Tackling workplace bullying through

training. Paper presented at the Australian and New Zealand Academy of

Management Conference, Auckland, New Zealand.

19. Jordan, P.J., Murray, J.P., & Lawrence, S.A. (2009). The application of

emotional intelligence in industrial and organisational psychology. In C. Stough,

D. Saklofske, & J. Parker (Ed.) Advances in the Measurement of Emotional

Intelligence.

Editorial Assistance

The services of a copy editor were used in the final preparation of this thesis. As

per Griffith University Guidelines (https://intranet.secure.griffith.edu.au/research-

higher-degrees/thesis/preparation/editorial-assistance), editorial assistance was restricted

to proofreading and advice relating to the conventions of grammar.

The copy editor used was Mr Tony Roberts (ABN 30 676 583 834), P.O. Box

6331, Upper Mount Gravatt, Qld, 4122, Australia, telephone 07 3343 1850. Mr

Robert’s services were found on the Queensland Society of Editors website and can be

found at http://www.editorsqld.com/freelance/register_rst.htm#roberts.

4.

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

The use of emotions in organisations is an area of increasing interest for

researchers (Ashkanasy, Härtel, & Daus, 2002). Emotions provide insights to a broad

range of issues including understanding organisational behaviour (Smith & Sharma,

2002), organisational change (Carr, 2001), improving performance (Barsade, Ward,

Turner, & Sonnenfeld, 2000), job satisfaction (Kafetios & Zampetakis, 2008) and

moderating stress (Styhre, Ingelgard, Beausang, Castenfor et al., 2002). In particular, the

construct of Emotional Intelligence (EI) is increasingly being highlighted as a tool that

organisations can harness to improve individual (Cherniss, 2000) and team performance

(Jordan, Ashkanasy, Härtel, & Hooper, 2002).

Owing to the infancy of the field, there has been an ongoing debate on whether EI

is a construct in itself or is simply comprised of existing constructs rebadged (Landy,

2005; Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 2008; Antonakis, Ashkanasy, & Dasborough, 2009).

Despite the criticisms, over the past decade a significant amount of research has

accumulated demonstrating that EI does, in fact, meet the requirements to be classed as

an intelligence (Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 1999). In particular, this research supports

the use of the ability model of EI in both the organisational and social sciences (Daus &

Ashkanasy, 2005; Fiori, 2008). As a result of the legitimation of EI as a useful construct,

particularly in the workplace, organisations have sought ways of improving EI in their

employees. One way of doing this has been through training.

Methods of training EI have been diverse. These range from offering Interpersonal

Skills [IS] training as EI training (Cherniss & Adler, 2000; Lynn, 2002; Tucker, Sojka,

Barone, & McCarthy, 2000) to full-blown emotions-focused interventions (Brown,

2003; Nelis, Quoidbach, Mikolajczak, & Hansenne, 2009; Slaski & Cartwright, 2002,

2003; Wasseveld, Overbeeke, & Dersken, 2007). However, few of these training

programs have been justified on theoretical grounds (Palmer, Walls, Burgess, & Stough,

2001) or have been empirically tested. To complicate matters further, a debate exists

over whether EI is an innate ability or can be learned (Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, &

Sitarenios, 2001). This has significant ramifications for organisations that are presently

allocating training budgets dedicated to EI training.

5.

Until the late 1990s, training in organisations focused on creating productive

behaviour in individuals through self-awareness and IS training (Garavan, Barnicle, &

Heraty, 1993; Gist, Stevens, & Bavetta, 1991; Nurick, 1993). Typically, major training

programs offered included active listening skills, time management, conflict resolution,

negotiation, assertiveness, self-awareness and communication skills (Hayes, 2002;

Robbins & Hunsaker, 2003). These training programs were generally identified directly

from training needs analyses (TNA) linked to core job competencies. The process of

imparting these skills was primarily achieved by raising the cognitive awareness of these

skills through experiential exercises. The focus was in developing competencies that

directly relate to organisational outcomes. Competency limitations highlighted within

the training needs analysis were then resolved through training (Smith & Hayton, 1999).

However, more recent research reveals that peoples’ experiences at work involve

more than reflecting on situations in a cold and objective fashion (Fineman, 1993).

Leading organisational scholars now agree that emotions in the workplace are central to

obtaining a richer understanding of work motivation (George & Brief, 1992, 1996; Isen

& Baron, 1991; Locke & Latham, 1990; Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996). At work, we are

subject to a range of emotions including jealousy, love, hate, anger (Fitness, 2000;

Fitness & Fletcher, 1993), shame (Bagozzi, Verbeke, & Gavino, 2003; Verbeke &

Bagozzi, 2002), envy (Bedeian, 1995; Patient, Lawrence, & Maitlis, 2003), enthusiasm

(Lewis, 2000), and fear (Ashkanasy & Nicholson, 2003; Fineman, 1993). Sometimes,

jobs require us to display emotions that are at odds with how we actually feel

(Ashkanasy & Daus, 2002; Ashkanasy et al., 2002; Hochschild, 1979). However, there

are few training interventions that go beyond surface level emotions to deal specifically

with how we engage with emotions at work (Hopfl & Linstead, 1997). Over the last

decade, there have been increasing attempts to bridge this gap (see Bagshaw, 2000;

Slaski & Cartwright, 2002, 2003 for examples). The research described in this thesis

will add to this body of work through conducting empirical research that tests the

efficacy of EI training.

Following the success of Goleman’s (1995) book ‘Emotional intelligence: Why it

can matter more than IQ’, ambitious claims have been made in the management

literature about the contribution of EI to success and performance (Dulewicz & Higgs,

2000). EI incorporates the perception or awareness of emotions, the ability to facilitate

emotions, the understanding or knowledge of emotions and the management or

6.

regulation of emotion in one’s self and others (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). These abilities

have been promoted by a number of writers as providing performance benefits to

employees (Cherniss & Adler, 2000; Goleman, 1998; Mayer & Salovey, 1997). Writers

in this genre have predicted that individuals with high EI perform better in all aspects of

management. This, in turn, has increased the organisational focus on emotions and, in

particular, EI training.

The aim of this research program is to construct an EI-focused training program to

examine the impact of EI training in the workplace. Because IS training has been used

as a method of training EI, an examination of this type of training and its impact on EI is

empirically tested. The research conducted is based on the following research questions:

1. Can individual emotional intelligence be increased through training

in:





b. Goal Setting?

Data were collected from a large Australian public sector organisation, with the

program of research being funded by an Australian Research Council Linkage Grant

(LP0346916) administered through Griffith University, The University of Queensland

and The Queensland Department of Main Roads (the industry partner).

Philosophical Underpinnings

To successfully answer the research question, a variety of data collection

techniques were employed within the theoretical framework of post-positivism. The

understandings in this paradigm were developed from the works of Lincoln, Guba and

Phillips (Guba, 1990; Guba & Lincoln, 1994; Lincoln & Guba, 2000; Phillips, 1990).

However, it is acknowledged that there are often misunderstandings and disagreements

about what constitutes the post-positive paradigm. Therefore, an overview of the key

7.

differences between the positivist and post-positivist paradigms is presented in

Appendix A.

Post-positivism – A Critical Realist Ontology

Post-positivism advocates a critical realist ontology (Crotty, 1998; Lincoln &

Guba, 2000) asserting that reality can never be perfectly apprehended, because, as

human beings, we are fundamentally flawed. However, critical realism does assert that

we are able to continually move closer to apprehending reality (Guba, 1990; Kwan &

Tsang, 2001; Lincoln & Guba, 2000; Locke, Spirduso, & Silverman, 2000; Mir &

Watson, 2001). As a result of these imperfections, researchers need to ensure that they

are critical about the research they undertake and admit to any pre-suppositions they

may have. Post-positivists contend that only after extensive critical examination of, (a)

the research and, (b) the researchers have been undertaken, can research itself move

closer to apprehending reality — but only imperfectly (Guba & Lincoln, 1994; Lincoln

& Guba, 2000; Mir & Watson, 2001).

Post-positivism – A Modified Objectivist Epistemology

In terms of epistemology, post-positivism supports a modified dualistic/objectivist

epistemology (Guba, 1990; Lincoln & Guba, 2000). This view proposes that there is no

way researchers can fully detach themselves when conducting research (Chia, 2002;

Guba, 1990; Lincoln & Guba, 2000; Neuman, 2006). In this way, objectivity can never

be achieved absolutely, but can be attained reasonably closely if the researchers ensure

that they conduct their research as neutrally as possible. To do this, the researchers must

honestly report their own predispositions and how these biases impact the research itself

(Guba, 1990).

Post-positivism – A Modified Experimental Methodology

Post-positivists attempt to falsify hypotheses (Guba & Lincoln, 1994). This is

because propositions are always open to the possibility of falsification at some point in

the future (Guba & Lincoln, 1994; Johnson & Duberley, 2000). Therefore, the post-

positive methodology favours the experimental manipulation of positivism, but uses

8.

both qualitative and quantitative methods to capture as much of reality as possible

(Denzin & Lincoln, 1994; Lincoln & Guba, 2000). This technique is known as critical

multiplism (Cook, 1985). Critical multiplism allows researchers to, conduct their

research in more natural settings (as is the case with this research project), reintroduce

discovery into inquiry and contribute to grounded theory (Guba & Lincoln, 1994;

Letourneau & Allen, 1999). An implicit characteristic of critical multiplism is that there

can be no one scientific method that can claim to be perfect, because all methods,

quantitative or qualitative, have their limitations (Blankertz, 1998; Greene, 1990; Houts,

Cook, & Shadish, 1986).

Methodological Approach and Design

The primary methodological approach to be used within the study is a quasi-

experimental research conducted within a field setting. Although quasi-experimental

and true experimental research designs share many of the same characteristics (control

and experimental groups), a major difference is that quasi-experiments lack the random

assignment of participants (Shadish, Cook, & Campbell, 2001). In addition, laboratory

experiments are highly controlled types of experimentation conducted in an artificial

environment, whereas field experiments are conducted in the ‘real world’ setting where

the researcher has less control over the experimental conditions (de Vaus, 2001; Gill &

Johnson, 1997; Neuman, 2000). Because random assignment was not possible within

this study, a non-equivalent comparison group (referred to in this thesis as a normative

group) design (Christensen, 2007) was employed. This was due to the organisational

constraints surrounding the recruitment of individuals and teams. Despite this, efforts

were made to ensure that the differences between the normative and experimental

groups were minimised. The training groups were constituted to gain the maximum

variation and a complete ‘picture’ of the organisation itself, and to ensure that any

differences between the experimental and control groups were small and occurred

through chance (Bickman, Rog, & Hedrick, 1998; Neuman, 2000).

The Research Procedure

The program of research presented in this thesis was undertaken in two major

studies. Study 1 examined data collected from a normative group of participants. The

9.

purpose of this study was to provide a baseline measurement of EI within the research

organisation and to provide evidence that the changes in EI in Study 2 occurred as a

result of the interventions and not due to other reasons. Data were collected from this

sample at three equal points in time over a period of 18 months. An 18-month period

was chosen to ensure that the data continued to be collected from this group while the

two other studies were being undertaken.

Study 2 provided and assessed the impact of specific EI skills training. As

Research Question 1a outlines, the purpose of this study was to determine whether

training EI could increase participant EI. The program consisted of two full training

days followed by a half-day follow-up session approximately two weeks later.

Participants completed a measure entitled ‘Emotions in the Workplace Survey’ prior to

commencing training, and after the follow-up session had been completed. Study 3

focused on examining the impact of an IS training program on a third cohort of

organisational participants (Research Question 1b). The training included skills

prescribed by Dick (1991) and Locke & Latham (1984). This intervention consisted of

one full day training, followed two weeks later by a half-day follow-up training session.

As with the emotions training, participants completed the survey pre- and post-training.

Research Design Justification

A quasi-experimental methodology in a field setting was a sound methodological

choice that enabled the research questions to be explored and answered. Perhaps the

most obvious advantage of conducting quasi-experimental field research is that it

enabled cause-and-effect relationships to be examined (Balnaves & Caputi, 2001;

Bickman et al., 1998; Judd, Smith, & Kidder, 1991; Neuman, 2006). A second

advantage of this type of research is that field experiments have high external validity,

meaning that the results are more generalisable than laboratory research (Mook, 1983;

Neuman, 2000). In particular, the demand characteristic threat to validity does not pose

as great a threat within field experiments compared with laboratory experiments

(Robson, 2001). A final important advantage that justified the research design is subject

availability. Undertaking the entire research program with one organisation (employing

3500 staff in a variety of geographic locations and positions) enabled the successful

recruitment of normative and experimental groups (Robson, 2001).

10.

Thesis Outline

This thesis contains nine chapters. In Chapter Two, I present a detailed review of

the current literature pertaining to my research. First, an overview of the EI construct is

presented, including its origins and development. This is then followed by an overview

and explanation of the mixed and ability models of EI. From there, the research that has

been conducted to date within the realm of EI is presented and discussed. Next, the

details of the current research on EI interventions that are being offered to organisations

are then examined. This review illustrates a gap in the literature relating to EI training

success and justifies the importance of the research presented in this thesis.

In Chapter Three, I proceed to develop a theoretical framework for the research

project that identifies the specific work skills and abilities that relate to EI. In particular,

these work skills and abilities will be linked to Mayer and Salovey’s (1997) four

branches of EI (awareness, facilitation, understanding and management of own and

others’ emotions). Following the identification of specific emotions focused skills and

abilities, an illustration of how these work skills link to specific work functions, and

could benefit from EI training, are proposed.

In Chapter Four, I present the first of the results from the data analysed in Study 1.

In this chapter, I report the results of the factor analysis on the data collected from a

normative group of research participants. The results of these analyses provide a

structure on which the data in the remainder of this thesis is conducted. A full

description of the analyses undertaken and the results obtained are presented.

In Chapter Five, longitudinal panel data from the Study 1 normative sample are

examined to explore the relationships between citizenship performance, EI and goal

setting. Specific hypotheses relating to the relationships between these variables are

outlined. Statistical techniques, including bivariate correlations, will test these

hypotheses. The purpose of this chapter is to establish a baseline for judging the efficacy

of different training regimes completed during Studies 2 and 3.

Chapter Six then focuses first on presenting the results from the group of

participants that received the EI focused training program. The purpose of Study 2 was

to determine whether or not an intervention specifically designed and facilitated around

Mayer and Salovey’s (1997) four-branch model of EI could lead to increases in EI.

Training was developed specifically for the research project and was facilitated over a

two-day period, followed approximately two weeks later by a half-day follow-up

11.

program. Second, I then assess the impact of the basic IS training (Study 3) on the EI of

individuals. The IS training program was tailored specifically to the organisation and

was facilitated over a period of eighteen months. Similar to the EI intervention, IS

training consisted of a full-day training program, followed two weeks later by a half-day

refresher program. The skills developed within this study included supportive

communication, conflict resolution and goal setting skills.

The purpose of Chapter Seven is to reanalyse the three data collections conducted

for the normative (Study 1), EI (Study 2), and IS (Study 3). In particular, I conducted

analyses by categorising the participants from each of the studies into low, moderate or

high EI groups prior to training (at Survey 1 collection). The data for each of these sub-

groups were then reanalysed to explore the impact of training on the participants that

commenced the training with low, moderate or high EI. A full discussion of the results

is provided.

Next, an integration of the three studies conducted and presented in Chapters

Four, Five, Six and Seven is presented in Chapter Eight. This chapter commences with a

short overview of each aim in the three separate studies. The chapter then goes on to

discuss the similarities and differences between the three studies and how this

information can be used to provide an overall ‘picture’ of the outcomes of the research

project.

Finally, in Chapter Nine, I provide conclusions, implications and suggestions for

future research. In this chapter, the implications and limitations are discussed and a

summary of the theoretical contributions that this research project makes to our

understanding of EI training is provided. In addition to presenting the contributions, this

research provides for theory; I discuss the implications for practice. In summary, this

research project develops an original training program aimed at increasing the individual

EI. The thesis presents a series of significant empirical studies that will provide greater

insights into the importance of EI training within organisations.

Chapter Summary

This chapter provides an introduction to the program of research undertaken for

this thesis. A brief overview of the current interest in the area of EI is outlined and the

importance of conducting research to determine the efficacy of training EI skills has

12.

been established. The overarching research question that I sought to answer was

presented, followed by a discussion of the philosophical underpinnings, the

methodological approach, the justification for the research design and the thesis outline.

In summary, the research presented in this thesis will provide a range of contributions to

theory and practice.

The theoretical contribution of this thesis is the development of a link between the

EI construct (Mayer & Salovey, 1997) and skills-based training interventions that I have

identified that enhance EI. In particular, I identify a broad training program that can be

used to develop the skills and abilities of EI in the workplace. This is achieved by firstly

linking the specific emotions-focused skills that have the potential to be trained in the

four-branches of EI. Next, I demonstrate how emotions-focused skills could link to

valued generic workplace skills. These skills include, working with others and in teams,

dealing with change, balancing work and life demands, and dealing with organisational

change. These specific emotions-focused skills are incorporated into a training program

and tested in an applied setting to determine their impact on individual EI. A series of

generic IS are identified and trained in the same organisational setting to determine their

impact on individual EI.

The practical contribution of this thesis is the empirical research that is conducted

to test these links. Specifically, a quasi-experimental research design is employed to

provide a greater understanding of the types of training that can be used by organisations

to improve EI. Analyses will be conducted on data collected from participants who

either receive EI training, IS training, or no training at all (the normative group) to

determine whether EI can be trained. Through an in-depth assessment of two different

training programs, this research will provide evidence of what content should be trained

to improve EI and who the target audience of this training should be for the training to

have its’ greatest impact.

13.

CHAPTER TWO

Literature Review

Overview

In this chapter, I provide a comprehensive review of the literature relating to the

EI construct. First, a brief definition of EI will be presented. This is followed by an

examination and discussion of the two construct definitions of EI, the mixed and ability

models. After presenting a case for using the ability model of EI within this research

project, a full description of the four-branch ability model of EI (Mayer & Salovey,

1997) is provided. Next, a review of the existing EI research will be presented to

provide a complete picture of the field. The review will include research that has been

conducted using both ability and mixed model measures in areas such as, leadership,

teams, organisational change, performance, conflict resolution, negotiation,

interpersonal relations and job satisfaction. Because this thesis seeks to examine the

efficacy of training to increase EI, the final section of this literature review will identify

the gaps in the literature where new empirical research can be conducted. In summary,

this review of the literature provides the foundation from which the three studies

presented in this thesis can extend the existing knowledge of the efficacy of EI in

workplace settings.

Defining Emotional Intelligence

The term EI was first proposed in 1985 in a doctoral thesis (Payne, 1985),

whereby a framework for the concept was explored. Shortly after, Mayer DiPaolo and

Salovey (1990) extended Payne’s work and defined EI as the ability to accurately

appraise, appropriately express and successfully regulate emotions in self and others to

enhance an individual’s life. Since this initial definition, interest in the EI construct has

gained considerable popularity, resulting in what some authors now term the ‘EI

bandwagon’ (Daus, 2006; Murphy & Sideman, 2006, p. 41) owing to the construct

being discussed in newspapers (Goleman, 1998), magazines, (Druskat & Wolff, 2001),

books (Cherniss & Adler, 2000) and academic journals worldwide (Ciarrochi, Chan, &

Caputi, 2000; Dulewicz & Higgs, 2000). The significant interest in the concept has led

to a host of differing definitions of EI being used in academic and practitioner circles

14.

(Jordan, Ashkanasy, & Härtel, 2003; Mayer, Roberts, & Barsade, 2008; Mayer, Salovey,

& Caruso, 2000). These definitions can be broadly classified within the mixed or ability

construct definitions of EI. Broadly speaking, mixed models propose that EI is

comprised of various emotional and social competencies, including empathy, social

skills, assertiveness, social responsibility and motivation (Bar-On, 1997; 2005;

Boyatzis, Goleman, & Rhee, 2000; Goleman, 1998). In contrast, proponents of the

ability model propose that an individual’s EI is comprised of a set of distinct emotion

and cognition-related abilities (Mayer & Salovey, 1997; Rivers, Brackett, Salovey, &

Mayer, 2007).

According to Mayer et al. (2004; 2008), the presence of many differing opinions

of what constitutes EI has led many academics to criticise and call into question the

validity of the construct and even its place in academic research (see Antonakis, 2003,

2004; Becker, 2003; Conte, 2005; Ciarrochi et al., 2000; Landy, 2005; Locke, 2005;

Matthews, Emo, Roberts, & Zeidner, 2006). Ashkanasy and Daus (2005, p. 26) have

stated that if this were to occur, we would risk ‘throwing the baby out with the bath

water’. Despite the debate (Antonakis et al., 2009) and controversy (Jordan, Ashkanasy,

& Daus, 2008), Jordan et al. (2003) have welcomed these criticisms as a necessary

factor in the developmental process of a new academic construct. Furthermore, Huy

(2002) states that all the scepticism and grandiose claims should not deter academics

from researching the area. Mayer et al. (2008) state that research in the area will help to

clarify what EI is, and is not. Fortunately, researchers have heeded Huy’s (2002)

assertion with a range of research being undertaken using both the mixed and the ability

models. While the field continues to mature, the efficacy of EI (particularly the ability

model) in organisational research is being established (Jordan, Ashkanasy, & Ascough,

2007). According to Elfenbein (2007, p. 364) the challenge is now ‘to maintain

scientific standards in the face of the incentives that accompany mass popularisation’.

Prior to an examination of how the validity of the ability model has been established, a

critical examination of the most popular mixed models of EI will first be presented.

Goleman’s Mixed Model

Possibly the most well known definition of EI in the popular press is the definition

proposed by Goleman (1995; 1998; 2001a; 2001b). Goleman (1998, p. 317) defines EI

15.

as ‘the capacity for recognising our own feelings and those of others, for motivating

ourselves, and for managing well in ourselves and in our relationships’. In his book

entitled Working with Emotional Intelligence, Goleman (1998) proposed a mixed model

of EI comprising 25 separate competencies, sorted into five clusters. These clusters

include self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy and social skills (Boyatzis

et al., 2000; Goleman, 1998).

Self-awareness includes the competencies of emotional awareness, accurate self-

assessment and self-confidence. Cluster two (self-regulation) includes self-control,

trustworthiness, conscientiousness, adaptability and innovation. The third cluster

(motivation) is comprised of achievement drive, commitment, initiative and optimism.

Fourth is the empathy cluster incorporating understanding others, developing others,

service orientation, leveraging diversity and political awareness. Finally, the fifth

emotional competency cluster is the social skills cluster. This cluster contains influence,

communication, conflict management, leadership, change catalyst, building bonds,

collaboration and cooperation, and team capabilities competencies (Boyatzis et al.,

2000; Goleman, 1998).

Despite the public popularity of Goleman’s work, many academic researchers do

not endorse this mixed model of EI (see Ashkanasy & Daus, 2006; Caruso & Wolfe,

2001; Daus & Ashkanasy, 2003, 2005; Jordan et al., 2003; Mayer et al., 2008) because it

lacks a primary focus on EI (Mayer et al., 2008) and covers everything beyond IQ itself

(Sternberg, 1999). Jordan and his colleagues (2003) together with Caruso and Wolfe

(2001) refute Goleman’s model as an EI model because it incorporates many personality

traits that are clearly not emotional in format (conscientiousness, service orientation and

political awareness). Indeed, Antonakis (2004) states that the Goleman approach to EI

has raised too many expectations and has such little sound empirical support and that it

has actually significantly damaged the field.

Measuring Goleman’s Model

Despite the criticism, Goleman’s model of EI continues to be popular in

commercial fields with a number of scales being developed to measure its related

competencies. First, Boyatzis, Goleman and Rhee (2000) created the 360-degree

Emotional Competency Inventory (ECI). Theoretically based on Goleman’s original

16.

competencies and clusters, the ECI was developed and validated using factor analysis

and now measures (though self and other reports) 19 competencies within four clusters.

The Emotional Intelligence Appraisal™ (Bradbury & Greaves, 2003) self-report

measure has also been developed based on Goleman’s definition of EI. The measure

assesses four factors (self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and

relationship management) and contains 28 items. Once completed, the respondents

receive an overall EI score, plus a score for each of the four factors (Bradbury &

Greaves, 2003).

A further EI measure based on a combination of the Goleman and Mayer-Salovey

models is the Six Seconds Emotional Intelligence Assessment (SEI) (Freedman, Ghini,

& Fiedeldey-Van Dijk, 2005). The SEI is a 104 item self-report that measures eight

competencies within three clusters. Cluster 1 is entitled ‘Know Yourself’ and consists of

two competencies (enhance emotional literacy and recognise patterns). Cluster 2,

‘Choose Yourself’, combines the four competencies of apply consequential thinking,

navigate emotions, engage intrinsic motivation, and exercise optimism. Finally, cluster

3, ‘Give Yourself’, includes the two competencies of enhance empathy and pursue noble

goals.

While these self-report measures are popular in practitioner fields, academic

research into the validity of these measures has uncovered some significant issues. First,

the availability of the measures for peer-review has been lacking; thus, leading Conte

(2005) to state that any reported findings should be treated as tentative. Construct

validity is also an area of concern (Barsade & Gibson, 2007) because the research that

has been conducted has uncovered considerable overlaps between personality measures,

such as the ‘Big Five’ personality traits (Cross & Travaglione, 2003; Matthews, Zeidner,

& Roberts, 2002; Van Rooy & Vivesvaran, 2004). As a result, Conte (2005) calls for

measures premised on Goleman’s mixed model of EI (and in particular the ECI) not to

be considered seriously.

Bar-On’s Mixed Model

The second popular mixed model of EI stems from the work of Bar-On. Bar-On

(2005) does not define EI alone per se, but proposes a very broad definition (Mayer et

al., 2008) describing the construct as emotional-social intelligence (Bar-On & Parker,

17.

2000). According to Bar-On’s (2005, p, 3) definition, ‘emotional-social intelligence is a

cross-section of interrelated emotional and social competencies, skills and facilitators

that determine how effectively we understand and express ourselves, understand others,

and relate with them and cope with daily demands’ (Bar-On, 2005, p. 3). Similar to the

Goleman model, Bar-On presents 15 emotional-social competencies within five clusters

that can be measured through a self-report.

The first of these clusters is the intrapersonal cluster that contains self-regard,

emotional self-awareness, assertiveness, independence and self-actualisation. Second,

the interpersonal cluster includes empathy, social responsibility and interpersonal

relationships. Stress management is the third cluster and includes the two competencies

of stress tolerance and impulse control. The fourth, adaptability, comprises reality-

testing, flexibility and problem solving. Finally, the fifth cluster of general mood

contains two competencies, namely, optimism and happiness (Bar-On, 2000; 2005).

Measuring Bar-On’s Model

As with the criticisms of Goleman’s model, issues have been highlighted in

measuring the EI proposed in Bar-On’s model. Emotional-social intelligence is

measured by the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (Bar-On EQ-i). The measure

consists of 133 items that enable an individual to receive an overall EI score through

completing the items relating to the five clusters and fifteen social-emotional

competencies (Bar-On, 1997). Despite Bar-On (2004) stating that the measure is

distinct, MacCann Matthews, Zeidner and Roberts (2003) and a range of authors (see

Brackett & Mayer, 2003; Davies, Stankov, & Roberts, 1998; Mayer et al., 2000;

McCrae, 2000) have demonstrated a similarity between the measure and the Big Five

model of personality. In their study examining the competing measures of EI, Brackett

and Mayer (2003) conclude by stating that the Bar-On model is misleading and has an

improper use of the term EI. Furthermore, the authors propose that Bar-On’s definition

could only be an acceptable definition of EI if EI were to be re-defined as comprising a

range of desirable personality characteristics.

18.

Overall Criticisms of the Mixed Model Approach

There is no question that the mixed models of EI proposed by both Goleman

(1995) and Bar-On (1997) are often the most well-known models of EI in organisational

and practitioner fields. However, their definitions and clusters mix in so many differing

non-EI competencies (Mayer et al., 2008) that many academics are openly questioning

whether EI is a valid construct (see Conte, 2005; Landy, 2005; Locke, 2005). Mayer et

al. (2008) believe that because Goleman’s (1995) work aligned itself with Mayer and

Salovey’s (1997) theory of EI, criticisms were levelled at EI as a whole, rather than

focusing on Goleman’s work in separation. Daus and Ashkanasy (2003) support neither

the Goleman nor the Bar-On models, stating that both models are too broad, and are too

similar to personality and competency models. Furthermore, Mayer et al. (2008) stress

that they have openly critiqued Goleman’s (1995) claims in much of their work that EI

can be as or more powerful than an individual’s IQ.

While there is no doubt that Goleman and Bar-On’s work on emotional and

emotional/social competencies has been constructed to improve skills relating to these

competencies, the claims made about their success are overstated (Jordan, Ashton-

James, & Ashkanasy, 2006). The issue is that these competencies do not specifically

contribute to EI (Côté & Miners, 2006), but comprise a range of personality variables

that contribute to work performance (empirical research has found that mixed and

ability measures of EI reveal differing results for the same person) (Brackett, Rivers,

Shiffman, Lerner, & Salovey, 2006). This impacts the predictive validity of the mixed

model measures (MacCann et al., 2003). The four-factor model of EI defined by Mayer

and Salovey (1997) on the other hand proposes specific emotions-focused skills that

adhere to the original definition of EI and contribute to improvements in organisational

performance (Ashkanasy, Ashton-James, & Jordan, 2004). This model will now be

explored in the following section of this chapter.

Mayer & Salovey’s Ability Model

The Mayer and Salovey (1997) ability model is generally recognised as the

definitive model of EI in academic circles (Mayer et al., 2008; Offermann, Bailey,

Vasilopoulos, Seal, & Sass, 2004). Mayer and Salovey (1997) posit that EI describes

finely-tuned emotional and mental abilities. Their most recent definition of the construct

19.

defines EI as the ability to recognise, evaluate and communicate emotions, the ability to

use emotions to assist thought, the ability to understand the causes of emotion and the

consequences emotional reactions, and the ability to manage and control emotions

(Mayer & Salovey, 1997). This model is a distinct and clearly defined construct

(Brackett & Mayer, 2003) successfully differentiating EI from traits and focusing on a

narrow set of emotional skills (Jordan, Ashkanasy, & Härtel, 2003; Lopes, Salovey, &

Straus, 2003) that when viewed together lead to overall EI (Brackett & Katulak, 2007;

Mayer et al., 2008). Ashkanasy and Daus (2005) state that the ability model of EI is the

model from which serious research in the area should be conducted for the foreseeable

future.

Mayer and Salovey (1997) propose that increasing awareness, facilitation,

understanding and management of emotions in both self and others allows individuals to

think more intelligently about emotions (Mayer & Salovey, 1997; Mayer et al., 2000). In

addition, because an individual’s skills are enhanced in each of these individual areas,

abilities in the additional branches are enhanced (Mayer et al., 2008). Mayer and

Salovey (1997) have continually updated their definition since the early 1990’s and now

refer to the ability model as the four-branch model of EI (Mayer et al., 2001). These four

branches will be discussed in detail in the following section.

The Four-branch Model of Emotional Intelligence

The first branch of Mayer and Salovey’s (1997) model is the accurate appraisal

and expression of emotion also known as perception or awareness of emotion. This

branch includes emotional self-appraisal in addition to the ability to perceive the

emotions of others (Caruso & Salovey, 2004). Perceiving emotions includes the ability

to identify and express emotions in facial expressions, voice, posture and gestures

(Lopes, Côté, & Salovey, 2005; Salovey & Grewal, 2005), and other stimuli, such as

music, stories, art and objects (Brackett & Katulak, 2007). Emotional assimilation, also

known as the use of emotions to facilitate thinking or the facilitation of emotions, is the

second branch of Mayer and Salovey’s (1997) model. Facilitation of emotions refers to

an individual’s ability to generate emotions to facilitate thought (Mayer, 2001). This

ability assists individuals to associate emotions with mental images and to know how

emotions impact cognitive processes (for example, problem solving, creativity and

20.

communication) (Lopes et al., 2005). The third branch concerns understanding emotions

or emotional knowledge (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). This factor highlights an

individual’s ability to understand the emotions that aid intellectual and interpersonal

growth (Jordan, Ashkanasy, & Härtel, 2002). Finally, the fourth branch of Mayer and

Salovey’s (1997) model involves regulating or managing emotions to assist with

problem solving. Clearly, unmanaged emotions can compromise effective decision-

making (Zhou & George, 2003). Therefore, the skills and abilities of emotional

regulation comprise the management and control of own emotions, in addition to the

ability to regulate the emotions of others (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). The following

section of this chapter will now discuss each of the four branches in further detail.

Awareness of Emotions

The accurate appraisal and expression of emotion or awareness of emotion

includes emotional self-appraisal, gauging the emotions of others and includes the

ability to perceive the false expressions of emotions in others (Abraham, 1999; Mayer &

Salovey, 1997). According to Lopes et al. (2005), this ability assists individuals in

appraising important situations and communicating effectively within these situations.

Just as every individual has a different skill level in terms of self-awareness, appraisal,

and emotional expression, the same can be said for each individual’s ability to appraise

the emotions expressed by others (Zhou & George, 2003).

An example of why emotional awareness is important in the workplace can be

seen in common organisational conflict situations. Jordan and Troth’s (2004) research

has shown that emotional self-awareness is vital in dealing effectively with conflict in

the workplace. How accurately others’ emotions are appraised by an individual during a

conflict situation are equally important. For instance, a colleague may say that

everything is ‘fine’ after a conflict situation has, on the surface, been resolved, while

their tone of voice, body gestures and facial expressions communicate a very different

message (Planalp, 1999). In this example, the ability of an individual to identify these

emotion-laden cues highlights their ability to accurately perceive and appraise others’

emotions and may assist in avoiding the negative consequences of dysfunctional

conflict.

21.

Facilitation of Emotions

Commonly referred to as emotional assimilation, facilitation of emotions refers to

an individual’s ability to generate emotions in self and others to facilitate thought

(Mayer, 2001). Individuals who possess advanced skills in this branch are able to

successfully alter their own emotions to assist with information processing (Caruso &

Salovey, 2004). Conversely, individuals with low levels of EI find it more difficult to

use their emotions to aid their own cognitive processes (Zhou & George, 2003).

Professions that would benefit from this ability include, structural engineers who need

to generate calm to focus on their task, funeral directors who need to convey calmness

and serenity and debt collectors who produce fear in their clients. Additionally,

emotional assimilation skills can assist individuals to experience emotions from the

perspective of others and aid in the facilitation of appropriate emotions in others

(Caruso & Salovey, 2004; Sy, Côté, & Saavedra, 2005).

Using the same conflict situation mentioned when discussing the awareness of

emotions branch, an individual with the ability to generate emotions to facilitate thought

would be able to consider the other person’s viewpoint by acknowledging the emotions

that person may be experiencing and, thus, use this information to help make accurate

judgements and overcome the issue or conflict (Brief & Weiss, 2002). In other words,

they would be able to confront and redirect any negative emotion from being

debilitating to become motivating and thus prevent dysfunctional conflict.

Understanding Emotions

The third branch of EI is understanding emotions or emotional knowledge (Mayer

& Salovey, 1997). This factor highlights an individual’s ability to understand emotions

that aid intellectual and interpersonal growth (Jordan et al., 2002). An understanding of

emotional knowledge assists individuals to recognise how emotions can blend and

change over time (Mayer et al., 2000). Individuals who have high levels of EI

understand the causes of emotions, in addition to their consequences for themselves and

others (Zhou & George, 2003).

Keeping the example of the conflict situation as a point of reference, an individual

with skills in emotional knowledge would be able to understand how emotions can

progress during a conflict situation from a fairly low intensity emotion such as irritation,

22.

to a highly intense emotion such as anger or rage and how these emotions can lead to

specific behaviours. Understanding this type of emotional cycle or progression of

emotions can assist individuals with high EI to explain and cope with these cycles by

supporting themselves and others to moderate their occurrence (Lopes et al., 2005).

Managing Emotions

Managing or regulating emotions to aid problem-solving is the final branch of

Mayer and Salovey’s (1997) EI model. Clearly, unmanaged emotions can compromise

effective decision-making in organisations (Zhou & George, 2003). The skills and

abilities of emotional regulation comprise the management and control of own emotions

by moderating the unpleasant and enhancing pleasant emotions (Boss & Sims, 2008), in

addition to the ability to regulate the emotions of others (Mayer & Salovey, 1997).

Although on the surface it may seem as though the regulation of emotion is synonymous

with emotional suppression (Ben-Ze’Ev, 2002), Mayer et al. (2000) contend that the

management of emotions should be used as a tool to encourage situationally appropriate

openness to emotion in both self and others (Caruso & Salovey, 2004). As Lopes and

his colleagues (2005, p. 57) state, this branch of EI may help individuals within the

workplace to ‘get others excited about a project, provide performance feedback without

hurting others’ feelings, and diffuse conflicts in a team’.

The conflict situation again provides an example of how emotions can be

regulated and managed in the workplace. To successfully resolve conflict, emotional

self-control has been shown to be a paramount skill (Jordan & Troth, 2004). This is

because an individual with the ability to manage their own emotions would be able to

moderate the negative emotions they are experiencing during conflict and, instead,

enhance positive emotions to resolve the conflict. Individuals with these skills would be

able to assist others affected by the conflict to moderate the display of any spontaneous

feelings that could lead to dysfunctional outcomes.

Measuring Mayer & Salovey’s Four-branch Model

A variety of measures have been produced to measure Mayer and Salovey’s

(1997) model of EI. As with the scales that have been developed to measure the mixed

EI models, these measures do have their limitations (Jordan & Ashkanasy, 2008). In line

23.

with the ability model of EI, Mayer et al. (2001) developed the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso

Emotional Intelligence Test (commonly referred to as the MSCEIT) based on their

previously created Multi-factor Emotional Intelligence Scale (MEIS).

The MSCEIT is a 141 item assessment scale that measures how well individuals

perform specific emotions-focused tasks. Respondents receive a total EI score, two area

scores, four branch scores and eight task scores. The two area scores cover experiential

EI and strategic EI. Experiential EI relates to an individual’s ability to perceive

emotional information and to use this information to facilitate thought. Strategic EI

covers a respondent’s ability to understand emotional information and to use it for self-

management. Additionally, participants receive a score for each of the four branches of

EI.

Respondents also receive scores for each of the eight tasks they complete. These

tasks include faces (identifying emotions from facial expressions), pictures (identifying

emotions from music, art and the respondent’s environment), sensations (linking

emotions to sensations), facilitation (knowledge of how moods support thought), blends

(analysis of emotion blends, simple emotions and complex emotions), changes

(identifying emotional transitions), emotion management (the use of emotions in

decision-making), and emotional relations tasks (using emotions in decisions that affect

others) (Mayer, Salovey & Caruso, 2002).

This measure has been subjected to testing alongside other scales of EI (such as

the ECI and EQ-I) and has demonstrated discriminant validity over and above the Big

Five (MacCann et al., 2003). However, there have been reliability issues associated with

the MSCEIT (Jordan & Ashkanasy, 2008). In particular, the branches of understanding

and regulating emotions have shown in two studies (see Ciarrochi et al, 2000; Lam &

Kirby, 2002) poor Cronbach Alpha reliabilities. Despite these issues, the MSCEIT is a

popular ability-based measure that is used extensively in EI research (Brackett & Mayer,

2003).

Self-Report Tests of the Ability Model of Emotional Intelligence

According to MacCann and Roberts (2008, p. 540), using only one measurement

method to research EI is a ‘suboptimal state of affairs’. The authors support that

alternate measurement instruments are not only possible, but necessary for the field.

24.

Therefore, in addition to the MSCEIT, several self-report measures based on Mayer and

Salovey’s (1997) definition of EI have been developed to measure the construct. These

include the Schutte Self-Report Inventory (SSRI: Schutte et al., 1998), the Swinburne

University Emotional Intelligence Test (SUEIT: Palmer & Stough, 2001), the Trait Meta

Mood Scale (TMMS: Salovey, Mayer, Goldman, Turvey, & Palfai, 1995), the Wong

and Law Emotional Intelligence Scale (WLEIS: Wong & Law, 2002), the Workgroup

Emotional Intelligence Profile (WEIP: Jordan et al., 2002) and the Situational Test of

Emotional Understanding (STEU) and the Situational Test of Emotion Management

(STEM: MaCann & Roberts, 2008).

As with the MSCEIT, there are issues surrounding the use of self-report measures

to assess EI. Despite the issues, self-report data collection is relatively easy to collect

and does provide useful information regarding emotions that are experienced by

respondents (Jordan & Ashkanasy, 2008). Furthermore, Jordan and Ashkanasy (2008)

state that the awareness and management of emotions branches of EI are well suited for

measurements via self-report mechanisms and therefore may be the most appropriate

means to measure EI. What is exiting about the new STEU and the STEM measures of

EI is that recent analyses have revealed their association with other EI measures

including performance-based ability EI measures (Libbrecht, Lievens & Côté , 2009).

To simplify the categorisation of research conducted using these differing

measures of EI, Ashkanasy and Daus (2005) have presented a classification of the broad

streams in which the measures and research in EI can be placed. Stream 1 denotes

research undertaken within the ability model and using the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso

Emotional Intelligence Test to assess EI abilities (MSCEIT: Mayer et al., 2001). Stream

2 research is also based on the ability model; however, measurement methods are

generally self-report in nature, as presented above (see Jordan et al., 2002). Stream 3

refers to research undertaken and measured using mixed models of EI. The research

presented within this thesis will be undertaken within Ashkansy & Daus’ (2005) stream

2 of research and will use Jordan et al’s. (2002) WEIP self-report to measure the EI of

participants. A rationale for the use of this measure will be provided in Chapter Four.

25.

Emotional Intelligence Research

As EI has continued to gain popularity, so, too, have the arenas in which the

construct is said to produce benefits (Cherniss & Adler, 2000; Jordan et al., 2003). One

such area is the workplace (Abraham, 1999; Johnson & Indvik, 1999; Jordan et al.,

2006). A growing body of research is emerging in the field with researchers such as

Elfenbein (2007) giving EI researchers the task of ensuring they make specific

predictions and research the individual abilities of EI, rather than making overarching

predictions on the efficacy of EI as a whole. Studies are being conducted in a range of

areas including, organisational change (Huy, 1999: 2002: 2005), organisational structure

(Sy & Côté, 2004), organisational learning (Gabriel & Griffiths, 2002; Hopfl &

Linstead, 1997), leadership (Barling, Slater, & Kelloway, 2000; Cooper & Sawaf, 1997;

George, 2000; Mayer & Caruso, 2002; Palmer et al., 2001; Wang & Huang, 2009; Zhou

& George, 2003), entrepreneurship (Cross & Travaglione, 2003), work teams and work

groups (Druskat & Wolff, 2001, 2008; Goleman, Boyatzis, & McKee, 2002; Jordan et

al., 2002; Sy et al., 2005; Wolff, Pescosolido & Druskat, 2002), performance (Austin,

2004; Côté & Miners, 2006; Day & Carroll, 2004; Jordan et al., 2002; Lam & Kirby,

2002; Tischler, Biberman, & McKeage, 2002), job insecurity (Jordan et al., 2002),

conflict (Jordan & Troth, 2004), interpersonal relations (Schutte et al., 2001) and

psychological wellbeing (Carmeli, Yitzhak-Halevy, & Weisberg, 2009). Although

undertaken from differing streams (as outlined above), these studies have produced

significant advances in our knowledge of EI. What is clear from the above-mentioned

research is that EI has a positive impact on behaviour within organisations. What is

unknown, and is the purpose of this thesis, is whether training in EI abilities can

enhance these outcomes. Prior to a discussion of the potential efficacy of training EI in

organisations, the following section of this chapter examines some specific outcomes of

the above research.

Organisational Change, Structure and Learning Research

A range of researchers have proposed relationships between emotions and

organisational change, organisational structures and organisational learning (Chiva &

Alegre, 2008; Ericksson, 2004; Fox & Amichai-Hamburger, 2001; George & Jones,

2001; Huy, 1999, 2002; Jordan & Troth, 2002; Kiefer, 2005; Marks, 2007; Vince,

26.

2006). One of the first to research in the area was Huy (2002). Huy (1999) first proposed

a multi-level theory of emotion and change suggesting that EI facilitates adaptation and

change in individuals, and emotional capability facilitates change at the organisational

level. To explore these propositions, Huy (2002) completed a three-year theory-building

research project in a large organisation undergoing radical change. The author

investigated how middle managers could either facilitate or inhibit successful

organisational change by either managing or mismanaging employee emotions. Huy

(2002, p. 33) proposed that ‘emotional balancing’ might assist the process. The results

from his study demonstrated that managers who undertook emotional balancing

behaviours by, (a) displaying emotional commitment to a personally championed change

project and, (b) attending to the emotions of impacted parties’ during the change

process, assisted their work groups in effectively adapting to the organisational change.

Huy (2002) concluded that emotional balancing may be beneficial to all types of

organisational change projects including continuous change and that further research

should be undertaken to explore the area.

To date, little research has been undertaken in the area of organisational structure.

However, Sy and Côté (2004) do propose that the four branches of EI have the potential

to enhance the performance of matrix organisations. Their conceptual research indicates

that the four main interpersonal challenges impeding the successful functioning of a

matrix organisation (namely misalignment of goals, unclear roles and responsibilities,

untimely and low quality decisions, and a silo-focused mentality) can be effectively

overcome through the coaching and training of EI skills and abilities. Clearly, these are

interesting propositions that require significant future research.

A subsequent area requiring empirical research is the relationship between EI and

organisational learning. Notable work in this field has been conducted by Hopfl and

Linstead (1997), Fineman (1997), Gabriel and Griffiths (2002), and more recently,

Chiva and Alegre (2008). Hopfl and Linstead (1997) and Fineman (1997) contend that

organisational systems traditionally focus on rationality at the expense of emotion. A

consequence of this rational perspective is that individuals within organisations know

less about their emotions than they should (Hopfl & Linstead, 1997). Fineman (1997)

states that managers within organisations now need to become emotionally literate to be

able to manage their own and others’ organisational lives. Hopfl and Linstead (1997)

conclude by outlining the enormous potential in the area of emotions and organisational

27.

learning, encouraging academics and practitioners to conduct research to extend our

understanding of this field.

Gabriel and Griffiths (2002) also explored EI (and, in particular, managing

emotions) from the perspective of organisational learning. The authors examine

emotions from a social constructionist perspective, viewing organisations as emotional

arenas where individual emotions are played out in front of audiences. Gabriel and

Griffiths (2002) conclude by suggesting that EI interventions should not be treated as an

organisational control mechanism, but as a tool to help individuals make sense of the

organisations in which they are employed.

Finally, Chiva and Alegre (2008) recently conducted an empirical research project

with ceramic tile manufacturing companies in Spain to determine whether

organisational learning capability (OLC) mediates the relationship between EI and job

satisfaction. A total of 157 individuals completed questionnaires containing the OLC

instrument (Chiva, Alegre, & Lapiedra, 2007), Schutte et al’s. (1988) self-report EI

measure and a single global job satisfaction item. The results supported all the research

hypotheses, finding, that OLC mediated the relationship between EI and job satisfaction,

a positive relationship between EI and OLC, and that a positive relationship exists

between job satisfaction and OLC. The researchers conclude by stating that emotionally-

intelligent individuals increase their skills and job satisfaction when OLC exists within

organisations and, therefore, organisations should work to produce positive conditions

for OLC to occur.

The theoretical and conceptual research outlined above demonstrates that

organisational change efforts, the effectiveness of organisational structures and the

process of organisational learning, have the potential for enhancement through the

emotional abilities of both managers and subordinates. What is noted is that training in

these abilities may assist this process (Sy & Côté, 2004). The research conducted in this

thesis will be undertaken to ascertain whether abilities such as emotional balancing

(Huy, 2002), emotional literacy (Fineman, 1997) and emotional learning (Gabriel &

Griffiths, 2002; Hopfl & Linstead, 1997) could be further enhanced through emotions-

focused training.

28.

Team Research

Druskat and Wolff (2001; 2008) are just two of the researchers that have

examined the link between EI and teams. In their research, the authors present a model

to enhance team-EI based around the establishment of norms. These researchers contend

that by establishing EI-related norms, teams can build trust, identity, efficacy,

cooperation and collaboration to achieve higher levels of performance (Druskat &

Wolff, 2001). Wolff and his colleagues (2002) then tested their theory of EI and

leadership emergence in self-managing teams with full-time MBA students. Using

Boyatzis’ taxonomy of managerial competencies (1982) and critical incident interviews,

the authors found that EI (particularly empathetic skill) related to leadership emergence

in the self-managed teams. In 2008, Druskat and Wolff extended their model to

examine group-level EI and social capital. The authors suggest that managers can assist

their work groups to develop group emotional competence (GEC) and social capital

(trust, group identify, group efficacy and networks). Druskat and Wolff (2008) provide

a ‘map’ that managers can use to understand the dimensions of GEC, understand group

behaviours that will facilitate GEC and therefore support the creation of group social

capital.

Offermann and her colleagues (2004) conducted research using mixed measures of

EI to examine the relationship between EI and performance in groups. The authors used

an individual and group survival scenario task and a project within their study. The

research, undertaken with undergraduate business students, found that EI predicted team

performance in the task, but did not predict individual performance in the same task

(cognitive ability was found to be more related to individual academic performance). An

additional finding was that teams with higher EI performed better on the team project.

With the use of teams in organisations becoming the norm, academics,

practitioners and organisations are all seeking to uncover ways in which teams can

interact and perform more successfully. The above studies demonstrate attempts to

explore the relationship between EI and team effectiveness; however, they have not

explored the training of emotions-focused abilities. For instance, the Druskat and

Wolff’s (2001) research outlines the proposition that EI-related norms can lead to

increased team performance, but does not explore whether the ability to set these norms

within teams can be enhanced through training. If the results of the studies conducted

within this thesis provide evidence that EI can be enhanced through training, then

29.

research examining the outcomes of this training with regard to team performance can

be successfully undertaken.

Leadership Research

The relationship between EI and leadership has received much wider attention. In

his article focusing on emotional leadership, Humphrey (2002) suggests that research

examining the relationship between EI and dimensions of leadership, such as

charismatic and transformational leadership, in addition to task and relationship-focused

leadership behaviours should be undertaken. Ashforth and Humphrey (1995) also call

for studies of the relationship between emotions and transformational leadership to be

carried out. Additionally, Zhou and George (2003) contend that a leader’s EI could

contribute to the promotion of employee creativity in the workplace.

Mayer and Caruso (2002) posit that EI plays a vital role in leadership, reporting

that leaders with high levels of EI have the ability to build stronger teams and

communicate more effectively with organisational members at all levels. More recently,

Humphrey, Pollack and Hawver (2008) propose that emotionally-intelligent leaders

possess the ability to effectively perform emotional labour within organisations. George

(2000) also supports this notion and states that ‘at a minimum, emotions and EI are

worthy of consideration in the leadership domain’ (2000, p. 1046). Brown and Moshavi

(2005) go even further by stating that EI may well be the ‘X-factor’ in transformational

leadership proposing that, (a) EI could be an antecedent to transformational leadership,

(b) EI may moderate transformational leadership and, (c) EI is independent of

transformational leadership behaviours. However, Kellett, Humphrey and Sleeth (2006,

p. 157) caution that it is not enough for leaders to simply ‘be emotional’ and possess the

ability to express their feelings, leaders must also possess the full range of EI skills and

abilities.

Much of the empirical research in the EI/leadership domain has examined the

characteristics of EI that may be present in differing individual leadership styles. In

2000, Barling et al. (2000) conducted a study to determine whether EI and

transformational leadership behaviours are linked. The authors found that the

characteristics of a transformational leadership style, as measured by Bass and Avolio’s

(1990) Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), were related to EI measured using

30.

BarOn’s EQ-i (1997). The authors then proposed that research should be undertaken to

determine whether leaders could be trained in the use of transformational leadership

behaviours within the workplace.

Palmer et al. (2001) explored this relationship with students in a university

business program. Using the Trait Meta Mood Scale (TMMS: Salovey et al., 1995) and

the MLQ (Bass & Avolio, 1990), the authors sought to determine whether EI is higher

in transformational or transactional leaders. Their initial analysis did not support their

predictions; however, subsequent analyses did uncover a relationship between the

subscales. In particular, relationships between emotional monitoring and inspirational

motivation, and idealised influence were found, leading the authors to state that they are

cautious yet optimistic about the links between EI and transformational leadership.

Gardner and Stough (2002) then used the SUEIT (Palmer & Stough, 2001) and the

MLQ (Bass & Avolio, 1990) to explore the relationship between EI, transformational,

transactional and laissez-faire leadership. The results were partially supported because

the researchers found a strong negative relationship between EI and laissez-faire

leadership. In their discussion of these results, the authors propose that the negative

relationship between EI and laissez-faire leadership may be due to a distinct deficit in EI

skills and abilities in this type of leader and concluded that laissez-faire leaders would

benefit from EI training.

Following on from this study Downey, Papageorgiou and Stough (2005)

conducted additional research to determine the relationship between EI and

transformational leadership. The difference in this study, however, was that in addition

to using the SUEIT (Palmer & Stough, 2001) and the MLQ (Bass & Avolio, 1990), the

researchers used the TMMS (Salovey et al., 1995) and the Cognitive Style Index

(Allinson & Hayes, 1996) — a measure that assesses intuition in managers. In addition,

this study was conducted with female managers. The results showed a positive

relationship between transformational leadership, the three dimensions of the SUEIT

(understanding emotions, emotional management and emotional control) and two

dimensions of the TMMS (attention to feelings and clarity of feelings). Interestingly, a

positive relationship was found between transformational leadership dimensions

(namely, contingent rewards and the workplace dimension) and the EI dimensions of

emotional management and clarity of feelings. When discussing these results, the

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authors proposed that subordinates might view the use of contingent rewards by their

leaders as an indication that their emotions were being considered.

In addition to examining the relationship between EI and transformational

leadership, Mandell and Pherwani (2003) were interested in assessing gender

differences. In their study of 32 managers, the authors used Bar-On’s (1996) EQ-I

(mixed model of EI) and a revised version of the MLQ (Bass & Avolio, 1995). The

authors found that females reported significantly higher EI scores than males (a finding

that has previously been reported by Mayer & Geher, (1996) and Mayer et al., (1999),

and subsequently reported by Brackett, Mayer & Warner, (2004)). There was also a

significant positive relationship found between EI and transformational leadership (with

no gender differences).

Using their own measure of EI, Wong & Law (WLEIS: 2002) explored the

relationship between EI, performance and attitude in both leaders and followers. While

the results showed that leader EI is positively related to follower job satisfaction and

extra-role behaviours, no relationship between leader EI and follower job performance

was uncovered. However, data obtained from followers demonstrated a link between EI

and job performance (moderated by emotional labour) and job satisfaction. Finally,

using in-depth structured interviews (using Mayer et al., (2000) and Goleman’s (1998)

models as a basis for the questions), Cross and Travaglione (2003) assessed EI in

successful entrepreneurs. These results demonstrate that entrepreneurs received high

scores in overall EI and in each of the individual branches.

Finally, in a study with a large Australian Public Service organisation, Rosete and

Ciarrochi (2005) examined the relationship between EI (measured using the MSEIT

V2.0 (Mayer et al., 2002) and workplace performance outcomes of leadership

effectiveness. The authors found that total executive EI correlated with their ability to

achieve organisational goals. Additionally, leader perception and understanding of

emotions were linked to specific core leadership behaviours (such as cultivating

productive working relationships, exemplifying personal drive, integrity and

communicating with influence).

The research described above demonstrates that many facets of leadership can

benefit from the possession of higher levels of EI. Although various authors have

suggested that emotions-focused training may assist leaders to become more effective

(Barling et al, 2000; Gardner & Stough, 2002; Riggio & Reichard, 2008), what is still

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unknown are the outcomes that such training would generate. The research conducted in

this thesis will, therefore, examine whether training in emotions-focused abilities can

increase EI. If this is the case, the EI training could be used in future leadership studies

with the aim of testing its contribution to increased leadership effectiveness.

Performance Research

A range of authors have proposed that being emotionally intelligent leads to

increased individual and work team performance (for example, Caruso & Salovey,

2004; Law, Wong, & Song, 2004; Law, Wong, Huang, & Lee, 2008; Lopes, Grewal,

Kadis, Gall, & Salovey, 2006). Current empirical research is now moving us closer to

understanding this association. In a study conducted by Jordan and his colleagues

(2002), 448 undergraduate students took part in an IS program conducted over a

fourteen-week period. The results of this study showed that teams with the lowest

average EI (as measured by the WEIP: Jordan et al., 2002) significantly improved their

process effectiveness and their goal focus over the training period. However, there were

no significant changes in performance for the high EI teams (Jordan et al., 2002).

Day and Carroll (2004) also conducted research to determine whether EI predicts

individual performance, group performance and group citizenship behaviours.

Undergraduate participants (70 male and 176 female) completed a cognitive decision-

making task that was representative of a managerial decision task. The results showed

that emotional perception predicted individual performance; however, there was no

relationship between EI and group performance. In terms of group citizenship

behaviours, high EI individuals reported their group members were more positive in the

areas of civic virtue and sportsmanship toward the group.

Carmeli and Josman (2006) then sought to determine the link between EI,

altruistic behaviours, compliant behaviours and task performance. Two hundred and

fifteen employees from Israeli organisations took part in the study. Data were collected

from participants, supervisors and subordinates. EI was measured using Schutte et al’s.

(1998) self-report measure, while altruistic, compliant behaviours and task performance

were assessed using items from a rage of different measures. The results showed three

of the EI factors (appraisal and expression of emotions, regulation of emotions and the

use of emotions) were positively related to task performance and altruistic behaviour,

while only partially related to compliance behaviours.

33.

In a study with university employees, Côté and Miners (2006) used the MSCEIT

V2.0 (Mayer et al., 2002) and found, in line with their hypotheses, that EI predicts task

performance and citizenship behaviours in individuals, and can compensate for low

cognitive intelligence. This research demonstrates that individuals with low cognitive

intelligence actually perform tasks more effectively and engage in citizenship

behaviours more often than those who possess high EI. This important study revealed

that instead of the relationship between EI and cognitive intelligence being linear (see

Mayer et al., 2000), there is an interactive effect between EI and cognitive intelligence

when examining task performance and citizenship behaviours.

Lopes et al. (2006) also examined the relationship between EI and work

performance in a Fortune 400 insurance company. Salary, merit increases, company

rank, interpersonal facilitation, affect and work attitudes were all examined with respect

to their association with EI (measured using the MSCEIT V2.0; Mayer et al., 2002). The

researchers found, in line with their predictions that EI correlated with company rank,

higher merit increases peer and supervisor rated sociability and contributed to a positive

work environment.

Sy, Tram and O’Hara (2006) explored employee and management EI (measured

by the WLEIS; Wong & Law, 2002) and its relationship to work performance and job

satisfaction in a food service franchise. The researchers found that employees with high

EI experience greater levels of job satisfaction and perform their work at higher levels

(after controlling for the Big Five) than those with low EI. In addition Sy et al. (2006)

found that the EI of a manager significantly impacted the job satisfaction of their

employees with low EI.

Finally, Wong et al. (2008) conducted research to determine the impact of EI on

the job performance of 102 research and development scientists in China. Using the

WLEIS (Wong & Law, 2002) and the MSCEIT (Mayer et al., 1999), the researchers

found that EI did, in fact, predict job performance in their sample of participants. What

is apparent from this and the research outlined above is the relationship between EI and

performance within organisations. Future research exploring whether these abilities can

be trained would be the next logical step in expanding understanding in this area.

34.

Conflict and Negotiation Research

A number of researchers have theorised that EI could be an important asset in

conflict resolution and negotiations (see Foo, Elfenbein, Tan, & Aik, 2004; Fulmer &

Barry, 2004; Jordan & Troth, 2002, 2004; Ogilvie & Carsky, 2002). In their research

examining EI and conflict resolution, Jordan and Troth (2004) found a relationship

between EI and the conflict resolution styles of both teams and individuals. Highly

emotionally-intelligent teams engaged in collaborative conflict resolution strategies,

whereas their less emotionally-intelligent counterparts used avoidance tactics to solve

conflict situations. At the individual level, collaboration and dominance were used by

individuals with high EI, depending on the situation at hand.

In terms of negotiation, Mueller and Curhan (2006) examined the relationship

between EI and negotiation in two separate studies with graduate students. In their first

study, the authors sought to determine the impact of a negotiator’s EI on their

negotiating counterpart’s outcome satisfaction. The results showed that the counterpart

of participants with a high level of ability in the understanding emotions branch of EI

rated their negotiation outcome as highly satisfactory. Mueller and Cuhran’s (2006)

second study replicated Study 1 and further explored whether positive mood mediates

the relationship between understanding emotions and counterpart satisfaction.

Additionally, the authors examined whether a negotiator’s ability to understand

emotions would result in increases in a counterpart’s liking and desire to negotiate with

the other party. The results of this study supported these hypotheses, with the

researchers concluding that the ability to understand emotions in a negotiation situation

can lead to more positive future negotiations and interactions between the parties.

In their EI related study, Elfenbein et al. (2007) examined the emotion-recognition

accuracy of undergraduate students in a negotiation task. The authors first reviewed the

research conducted to examine the correlations between emotion-recognition accuracy

and workplace performance. A total of 18 studies were examined in the meta-analysis.

The results demonstrated small to moderate effect sizes in professions such as

clinicians, school teachers, business managers, physicians and public servants. The

researchers then assigned participants to the role of buyer or seller for a mixed-motive

negotiation exercise. The results showed that sellers with high emotion-recognition

accuracy not only cooperated more effectively with their counterpart, but were able to

secure superior outcomes for themselves. Elfenbein et al. (2007) conclude by stating

35.

that further research on the relationship between the other EI branches and negotiating

successful agreements should be conducted. Additionally, the question was raised

whether training in emotions-focused skills could further improve individual negotiation

skills.

Interpersonal Skills Research

Research examining the relationship between EI and interpersonal relations in

organisational research is also emerging. An example of this can be found in Schutte et

al’s. (2001) research. The results of this study showed that EI and interpersonal relations

are linked. In particular, this study found that individuals who have good social skills

and engage in empathetic perspective taking, self-monitoring and cooperation have high

levels of EI (Schutte et al., 2001). The task now is to discover whether EI abilities can

be trained to improve interpersonal effectiveness within organisations.

In a related study with undergraduate students, Brackett et al. (2006) found that

males with high EI (measured using the MSEIT V2.0; Mayer et al., 2002) are perceived

more positively by others than those with lower EI. Specifically, high EI participants

were rated as showing a greater interest in a confederate, being more socially engaged,

competent and were team players. Additionally, in their study of emotion regulation,

Lopes, Salovey, Côté, and Beers (2005) found that participants with higher EI (as

measured by the MSCEIT V2.0; Mayer et al., 2002) were rated more favourably by their

peers in their prosocial tendencies and interpersonal sensitivity. Furthermore, these

individuals received more positive than negative peer nominations and reciprocal

friendship nominations. The authors go on to suggest that training in emotion regulation

may assist individuals to interact more effectively with others.

Brackett et al. (2004) conducted research with undergraduate psychology students

to determine the link between EI (as measured by the MSCEIT; Mayer et al., 2002),

personality and ‘Life Space’ behaviours (the ‘external, observable, discrete aspects of a

person’s surrounding environment’, (Brackett et al., 2004, p. 1390)). Analyses revealed

male respondents with low EI (specifically in the areas of awareness of emotions and

facilitation of emotions) were more likely to engage in negative behaviours and have

negative relationships with friends. Only two small positive relationships were found in

the overall data (male and female results combined), namely, the care of physical

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appearance and positive relationships with friends. As with the Lopes et al. (2005) study

outlined above, the authors suggest that training adults (and males in particular) may

lead to more adaptive behaviours in individuals (Brackett et al., 2004).

Two further studies examining the relationship between EI and social interactions

were undertaken by Lopes, Brackett, Nezlek, Schutz, Sellin and Salovey (2004). The

first study (conducted with 118 USA undergraduate students) hypothesised that EI,

measured using the MSCEIT V2.0 (Mayer et al., 2002) (particularly the managing

emotions branch) would be positively related to individual and friend reports of

friendship quality and would explain this quality of friendship over the variance

explained by the ‘Big Five’ (as measured by the NEO-PI-R: Costa & McCrae, 1992).

The results supported the hypotheses, with relationships still remaining significant after

controlling for the ‘Big Five’. The author’s second study (conducted with 103 German

undergraduate students) proposed that participant EI (particularly the managing

emotions branch) would be positively associated with individual reactions to social

interaction and perceived success in impression management. As with Study 1, the

proposed hypothesis was that EI would explain the relationship over the variance

explained by the ‘Big Five’. Analyses revealed significant relationships, specifically

with opposite sex participants, even after controlling for the ‘Big Five’. The authors

propose an explanation for the opposite sex results as being due to male/female

interactions being more arousing and emotionally challenging and, therefore, requiring

skills in emotional management.

Emotional Intelligence and Training

This review of the empirical research demonstrates that a significant amount of

work has been, and continues to be, conducted in examining the EI construct in

organisations. As has been outlined throughout this review, one area that has not been

explored in great depth is the impact of training on EI abilities. Although EI training has

been suggested as the next step in understanding the field (Barling et al., 2000; Brackett

et al., 2004; Gardner & Stough, 2002; Lopes et al., 2005), there has been little empirical

research published that examines the impact and effectiveness of training for adults

(Lopes et al., 2005). There are two major reasons why a lack of research has been

conducted within this area. First, there is still a debate on whether EI can be changed

37.

and/or learned (Clarke, 2006a). Second, many EI training interventions have been

developed as commercial ventures and, therefore, are subject to commercial-in-

confidence considerations.

In respect of the first issue, Horn and Cattell (1966) argue that intelligence can be

divided into two distinct factors — fluid intelligence or the adaptability and basic

reasoning ability of an individual, and crystallized intelligence or the level of ability in

skills valued by that individual’s culture. While the former is generally thought not able

to be learned, the latter increases with experience and, therefore, can be changed.

Although most authors working in the field of EI have described EI as a crystallized and

therefore a mutable ability (Ashkanasy & Daus, 2005; Davies et al., 1998; Jordan &

Ashkanasy, 2008; Mayer & Salovey, 1997), others claim that there is an element of fluid

intelligence involved in the construct (see Cooper & Sawaf, 1997). Recent research has

demonstrated that EI is a form of crystallized intelligence (Farrelly & Austin, 2007).

Clearly, if EI abilities can be trained, it is more likely to be a crystallized intelligence.

The studies presented in this thesis are premised upon the notion that EI is a form of

crystallized intelligence. Training interventions, measurement and data analysis were

undertaken to provide evidence to further support this assertion.

A further reason for the lack of peer-reviewed empirical studies on EI training in

the existing literature is that, until now, interventions focused upon training EI have

mainly been developed by management consultants. Indeed, a simple search on the

Google search engine yields thousands of references to EI and training, with many of

these being advertisements for consultancy courses. Owing to the commercially viable

benefits associated with offering such training opportunities to organisations, the ideas

and outcomes have not been readily shared within the academic and practitioner

communities. EI training interventions that are currently available are said to be

producing positive benefits for the organisations that use them (Kunnannatt, 2004;

Schmit, 2006). However, these interventions would undoubtedly benefit from open

theoretical development, empirical testing and peer review. This process would uncover

the actual benefits of training EI skills and abilities (Clarke, 2006a; Jordan, Murray, &

Lawrence, 2009), addressing the concerns raised by researchers on the validity of the

construct and its links to performance improvements (Ciarrochi et al., 2000; Dulewicz

& Higgs, 2000; Jordan et al., 2002).

38.

As time progresses, research examining the training in EI is beginning to emerge

in academic fields. A specific example of the work being conducted in the area can be

found in the 2007 edited book by Ciarrochi and Mayer. The authors have constructed a

practitioner’s guide to the application of EI in a range of settings including schools

(Brackett & Katulak, 2007) and workplaces (Boyatzis, 2007; Kornacki & Caruso, 2007).

In their chapter, Brackett and Katulak (2007) contend that EI training programs should

be based on the four-branch model of EI, because these branches provide a firm

foundation from which the changes in abilities can be ascertained. As Kornacki and

Caruso (2007, p. 55) state, that although this model of EI may seem logical and common

sense, ‘there is beauty in its simplicity’ as a framework for training and development.

The following section of this chapter will examine some of the empirical research that

has been conducted to enhance our knowledge in this area.

In terms of specific empirical research examining EI, Jordan et al. (2002) used the

WEIP and an intervention to conduct research with undergraduate business

communications students. Over a 12-week period, students formed work teams that took

part in team-based IS and problem-based learning sessions (attended short lectures and

team meetings) with the goal of preparing these students to work in organisational

teams. While there were significant differences between high and low EI teams at the

beginning of the course, the high and low EI groups had no differences at the end of the

12-week period. Jordan et al. (2002) concluded that the results may be due to either the

IS training, or normal team development processes and that future research should be

conducted to further explore these findings.

Slaski and Cartwright (2002, 2003) studied 120 retail managers from one retail

chain. The managers were divided into a control group of 60 participants and a training

group of 60 participants who were provided with an intervention that was framed upon

Cherniss and Adler’s suggestion for training EI (Cherniss & Adler, 2000). The results

indicated that the EI scores of the training group (measured using Bar-On’s EQ-i (Bar-

On, 1997) increased significantly from pre- to post-training. However, in terms of

performance there were no significant increases between the training and the control

group. The researchers attribute this result to the organisational measure of performance

used, which focused more on the cognitive competencies, rather than emotional

competencies (Slaski & Cartwright, 2003).

39.

More recently, Nelis et al. (2009) used a controlled experimental design to assess

whether EI could be trained in a group of psychology students. The experimental group

comprised of 19 participants and the control group consisted of 18 participants. All

participants completed a trait measure of EI (TEIQue: French Version, Petrides, 2009) at

three points in time. The experimental group also participated in an EI training program

in four two-and-a-half hour sessions facilitated over a four week period (and between

completing surveys 1 and 2). The third survey measure was then completed by all study

participants approximately 6 months after the completion of the training program. The

results of this study demonstrated a significant improvement in emotion identification

and emotion management for the training participants. In addition, these improvements

remained significant when measured six months later. Finally, the control group results

showed no change in EI across the three data collections.

Jordan and his colleagues’ (2002) study demonstrated that IS training and

problem-based learning opportunities allowed teams with low EI to ‘catch up’ to higher

EI teams over a 12-week period. What is particularly important about this study is that

the training interventions were simple IS with no EI skills included. The results of

Slaski and Cartwright’s (2003) and Nelis et al’s. (2009) studies provide evidence to

support the idea that EI can be improved through training. The research presented in this

thesis will extend and combine the research conducted by Jordan et al. (2002), Slaski

and Cartwright (2002; 2003) Moriarty and Buckley (2003) and Nelis et al. (2009) by

examining the impact of specific emotions-focused and IS training on the EI (total EI

and each of the branches) of participants within a large Public Sector organisation.

As discussed within this review, many academics, practitioners and organisations

are proposing that EI training programs can lead to positive outcomes for organisations

(Clarke, 2006a; 2006b). The task now is to extend the small number of studies that have

been conducted and to publish the empirical findings in this area to demonstrate the

efficacy of training EI. Therefore, the aim of this thesis is to conduct a quasi-

experimental research program consisting of studies that test the efficacy of different

training regimes (emotions focussed and IS) on raising the EI of individuals.

40.

Chapter Summary

The purpose of this chapter was to provide a survey of the literature and to identify

an opportunity for empirical research to be conducted. I have achieved this aim through

a systematic review of several areas of interest. The chapter commenced with an

examination of the differing models of EI by, firstly, presenting the mixed models and

measurements based on Goleman (1995) and Bar-On’s (2005) definitions of EI that

focus on emotional and social competencies. Secondly, the ability model of EI proposed

by Mayer and Salovey (1997) was presented, including empirical justifications of why

this particular model of EI provides the definitive model from which research into the EI

construct should be conducted.

A detailed explanation of each of the four branches of the EI construct (awareness

of emotions, facilitation of emotions, understanding emotions and managing emotions)

was then undertaken. Next, a summary of the research topics that have been studied in

relation to EI were presented. Fortunately for the field, a variety of empirical research

has been and continues to be conducted to demonstrate that EI is an important area of

research. Specific examples presented in this review included, the organisational change

and structure works of Huy, (1999, 2002, 2005), Sy and Côté (2004), group and team

research (Elfenbein, 2006; Druskat et al., 2006), EI and leadership (Wolff et al., 2006),

individual performance (Ashkanasy et al., 2004), interpersonal conflict (Jordan & Troth,

2004) and interpersonal relations (Brackett et al., 2004; Schutte et al., 2001).

An area where there has been a shortage of empirical research is that of EI and

training. Only a small number of research projects have investigated this relationship,

yielding some interesting results (Jordan et al, 2002; Moriarty & Buckley, 2003; Slaski

& Cartwright, 2002, 2003). The results of these studies demonstrate that additional

research within this area is warranted and timely.

In conclusion, the existing research presented in this review of the literature has

provided a sound direction from which this thesis’ research will stem. The results

gained from studying EI and training within organisations will undoubtedly extend our

knowledge of the EI construct. This will provide much needed empirical research and

will be of great interest to practitioners and organisations that continue to be interested

in this important area of organisational research. In the next chapter of this thesis, I will

provide an exploration of the work-related skills and abilities that link to Mayer and

Salovey’s (1997) four-branch model of EI. This will be followed by a discussion of

41.

what types of training interventions could be constructed to impart these work-related

skills and abilities within organisations.

42.

CHAPTER THREE

The Skills of Emotional Intelligence, Their Relationship to Emotional

Intelligence Abilities and Their Link to Work Competencies

Overview

As outlined in Chapter Two, when the four abilities of Mayer and Salovey’s

(1997) four-branch model of EI are viewed together, they represent a person’s overall

EI. The aim of this research is to conduct empirical research to determine if the skills

linked to these four branches (Mayer & Salovey, 1997) can, through training, increase

overall EI. If this relationship can be established, it is feasible that work-related

competencies would be enhanced through increased EI. This suggestion has been made

by a number of researchers (see Brackett et al., 2004; Fineman, 1997; Gabriel &

Griffiths, 2002; Gardner & Stough, 2002; Jordan et al., 2002; Lopes et al., 2005; Sy &

Côté, 2004).

In this chapter, I focus on presenting an in-depth discussion of specific skills

relating to the branches of EI that have the potential through training to improve overall

EI. Once the skills associated with the EI branches have been examined, an

identification of work-related competencies that could be enhanced through increasing

these baseline abilities will be presented. This explanation will include a description of

why each particular work-related competency is important and to which specific EI

branch the work-related competency relates.

Following this, a short discussion of the development of an emotions-focused

training intervention will be presented. Both the initial training and final training

program components will be presented. The activities contained within the intervention

are developed around the baseline abilities discussed within this chapter. In addition, an

in-depth discussion of the complete training program is contained within Appendix B

with a full set of program slides from the final training program being presented in

Appendix C.

43.

Exploring Emotional Intelligence Branch Abilities


The EI branch of awareness of emotion involves the ability to be aware of

emotions in self and in others (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). The specific self-awareness

skills incorporated in this ability include emotional self-awareness, self-awareness of

facial expressions, body language, bodily actions, verbal expressions and self-

presentation/self-monitoring. Awareness of others emotions skills include reading facial

expressions in others, the interpretation of others’ body language and awareness of

others’ verbal cues. In addition, there are skills within this branch that enhance other EI

abilities. These higher level (or more complex) skills include, awareness of own and

others’ values and attitudes (linked to awareness and understanding), reflection on

feedback and emotional clarity (both linked to awareness and management of emotions).

The following section will explore awareness of emotions skills in self, then others, in

further detail.

Emotional clarity involves skills in identifying, naming and clearly discriminating

among emotions experienced in self and others (Cherniss, 2000; Salovey et al., 1995).

The acknowledgement of emotions is focused on a person’s capacity to admit that the

identified emotion is actually being experienced and engaging or disengaging with these

emotions as appropriate (managing emotions). These skills complement many of the

skills mentioned previously in this section (such as awareness of facial expressions,

verbal, non-verbal and action cues). Research has shown that individuals who possess

emotional clarity are able to recover more quickly from an upsetting situation (see

Salovey et al. (1995) for a complete discussion). It could also be suggested that the

acknowledgement of these experienced emotions would facilitate the recovery process.

In a time where organisational change is frequent, possessing the skills to recognise,

acknowledge and manage experienced emotions (such as shock, anger, frustration and

sadness) undoubtedly assists individuals to move forward in a positive manner (Danes,

2005).

The skill of reflecting on feedback (given and received) within a workplace is a

further ability that is essential for the continued development of individuals (Caruso &

Salovey, 2004). This skill is both related to awareness and management of emotions.

Emotions such as joy, surprise, anger and disappointment are some of the emotions

44.

experienced during the feedback process. It is important for a person receiving feedback

to have the skill to identify the emotions that may result from this process. In addition,

managing reactions to emotions from the feedback received is a key skill to possess. For

the person delivering feedback, it is important to be able to perceive how the individual

about to receive the feedback may be feeling and to manage the process accordingly

(Caruso & Salovey, 2004).

Research has demonstrated that individuals with specific goal aspirations (such as

to successfully interview for a job) can self-monitor and manipulate their self-

presentation of emotions when communicating with other parties. These skills have

been shown to improve the chances of success (Fox & Spector, 2000). With this in

mind, training to improve these skills would lead to an increased awareness and

management of emotions in self and others.

Finally, linked to the understanding of emotions ability, a further area in which

awareness of emotions can be enhanced is through self-awareness of own and others’

values and attitudes. Awareness and understanding in this area can provide an indicator

of personal emotional triggers in self and others. An awareness of what we see as

important in our lives and our priorities can indicate areas in which we may become

emotionally engaged (that is, connecting with the emotions that are being experienced

(Jones & George, 1998). Furthermore, understanding the causes and the consequences

of emotional engagement can assist an individual in deciding whether their behaviour

may be appropriate for the situation. Training in skills to consider values and attitudes is

one way of achieving this. A second way is through actively reflecting on our

experiences and evaluating the emotions that were felt and the behaviour that resulted.

Recent research has demonstrated that awareness of other’s emotions is a factor in

performance (Jordan & Ashkanasy, 2006). One of the skills required is the aptitude of

an individual to perceive emotions from facial expressions (Ekman, 1993, 1999; Ekman

& Friesen, 1975). According to Planalp (1999) more research has been conducted on the

way that facial expressions convey people’s emotions than any other research into

emotional cues. Facial expressions are highly informative, whether or not the individual

intends for the information to be disseminated (Ekman, 1997). Therefore, awareness of

facial expressions is highlighted as a requisite skill in the awareness of emotions branch.

Reading body language and the interpretation of bodily actions (Planalp, 1999;

Planalp, DeFrancisco & Rutherford, 1996) are two further skills that can assist

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individuals to be more aware of the emotions expressed by themselves and others within

the workplace. Clear emotional signals are transmitted through our body language and

our actions. Examples such as clenched fists, folded arms, floor pacing, fidgeting and

slouching (Planalp, 1999) can provide information on our own or others’ emotional

states. Negative bodily actions such as door slamming, throwing items and fist

pounding, in addition to positive bodily actions such as clapping, provide information

about the emotions that a person is experiencing at work (Planalp, 1999). Awareness of

these body gestures and actions is important for intrapersonal perceptions and

interpersonal relationships within the workplace.

Although non-verbal behaviours are credited as definitive indicators of an

individual’s emotion (George, 2000), the voice is a further instrument through which

emotional information can be obtained (Banse & Scherer, 1996). Loudness, pitch and

timing are three dimensions of verbal expression (Planalp, 1999). In organisations

where individuals are not always face-to-face when they communicate, awareness of

these subtle nuances in a person’s voice can increase an individual’s awareness of the

emotions that are being conveyed. Increasing an individual’s skills in this area would

help avoid miscommunications and therefore lead to positive outcomes for individuals,

work teams and organisations. An overall summary and description of the awareness of

emotions skills related to EI and their relationship to EI has been developed for this

thesis and is presented in Table 1.


The facilitation of emotions branch of EI refers to an individuals’ ability to

generate emotions in self and others to facilitate thought (Mayer, 2001). There are a

number of skills that increase an individual’s ability to successfully facilitate emotions

in self and others. These include, problem solving, prioritising thinking, skills in making

judgements, skills in perspective taking (Salovey, Bedell, Detweiler & Mayer, 2000),

using music and stories to generate emotions in self and others (Joung, Hesketh & Neal,

2006: King & Down, 2001; Van Buskirk & McGrath, 2002; Wilder, 1996) and

generating emotions in self and others that link to specific tasks.

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Table 1 Summary of Skills Related to EI Abilities Skills Relating to

EI EI

Ability

Perceiving emotions from facial expressions Reading emotions in body language Interpreting emotions from bodily actions Perceiving emotions in verbal cues Awareness of own values* Awareness of others’ values* Perceiving emotions through self-reflection Perceiving emotions from feedback* Emotional clarity*

Using emotions to aid task completion Generating emotions to assist problem solving Using emotions to prioritise thinking Using emotions to aid decision making Using emotions in perspective taking Emotional contagion Building emotion through music Building emotion through storytelling Building emotions with motivational speaking

Understanding own values* Understanding others values* Knowledge of self-reflection* Understanding emotional progressions Knowledge of emotional blends Understanding emotional cycles Understanding emotional triggers Knowledge of emotional transitions Knowledge of emotional relativity

Managing emotions during feedback* Emotional clarity* Managing emotional engagement Managing emotional disengagement Using display rules to manage emotions Using surface acting to manage emotions Using deep acting to manage emotions Managing emotions with emotions focused coping Reframing emotions Empathetic concern towards others

Awareness of Emotions (Self and Others)

Facilitation of Emotions (Self and Others)

Understanding Emotions (Self and Others)

Managing Emotions (Self and Others)

* denotes a skill that relates to more than one branch of EI

In relation to the generation of emotions in self, research has shown that differing

emotional states are required for successfully undertaking detailed work and for

generating creative ideas for a new project. Whereas the former may require a calm

approach (Schwartz & Bless, 1991), creative thinking calls for more positive emotions,

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such as enthusiasm or excitement, to assist with idea generation (Isen, Daubman, &

Nowicki, 1998; Isen, 2001; Salovey, Detwiler-Bedell, Detwiler-Bedell, & Mayer, 2008).

Clearly, if an individual is able to generate specific emotions that will assist in specific

work situations, their performance of the tasks related to those work situations will be

enhanced.

Individuals who possess emotional facilitation skills can use their emotions to

anticipate and generate appropriate feelings, in addition to anticipating and dealing with

the feelings of others when making work-related decisions (George, 2000) or solving

work-related problems (Schwartz & Bless, 1991). Research (Isen, 2001) has shown that

individuals in a positive mood increase their capacity to solve problems and to

successfully make decisions that require increased creativity. On the other hand, a

decision or problem that requires analytical reasoning can be effectively facilitated

under a negative mood (Isen, 2001; Schwartz & Bless, 1991). Facilitating these positive

and negative emotional states in others requires the skill of first tuning in to the

emotions of others before a specific emotion can be generated. According to Planalp

(1999), there are few individuals that possess the talent and skills of successfully tuning-

in to the emotions of others. Increasing this skill through training would be an important

step in enabling individuals to successfully alter the emotional states of others in the

workplace through the process of emotional contagion.

According to Kelly and Barsade (2001) being skilled in facilitating emotional

contagion allows individuals to transfer their moods and emotions to others. When

teams come together in organisations, individuals within the team are exposed to the

positive and negative emotions of others. These emotions are felt at differing levels of

intensity, leading individuals to become ‘infected’ by the emotions of others (Barsade,

2002; Hatfield, Cacioppo & Rapson, 1994; Kelly & Barsade, 2001). Facilitating

emotional contagion in others is a skill that can be used to increase emotional responses

in individuals. As mentioned previously, research has demonstrated that certain

emotional states lead to increased performance in both creative and analytical reasoning

tasks (Isen, 2001; Isen et al., 1998; Salovey et al., 2008; Schwartz & Bless, 1991).

Despite the positive outcomes associated with emotional contagion, it is important

to note that there are individuals in organisations who ‘infect’ others with emotions that

are not conducive to effective performance (Mann, Varey, & Button, 2000). For

example, when a team’s analytical problem-solving task needs to be completed, it may

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be wise to remove the individual from the task who is known to be the ‘clown’ of the

group, the one who always puts everyone else in a good mood. Undoubtedly this

person’s presence in a creative task could provide the spark that the group needs for

success; however, in the task mentioned above, their emotional state may impede the

calm, thoughtful and concentrated approach that would be required to solve this type of

problem. It is therefore important for individuals to be aware of the consequences of

emotional contagion and be skilled in ways to not only generate specific emotions, but

in how to counteract the sometimes-negative outcomes.

In addition to the above-mentioned skills, the use of music, stories and

motivational speaking are effective ways to facilitate emotions in the workplace

(Planalp, 1999). According to Wilder (1996), music is extremely effective in

transferring specific emotions to individuals and can be used to convey both public and

private emotions to others in addition to facilitating emotional responses from others. In

a workplace setting, the use of music to assist others to generate organisationally

relevant emotions (such as enthusiasm and excitement in an idea-generation session)

may lead to performance improvements when individuals harness specific emotions to

assist them with task completion.

Stories also have the power to generate organisationally appropriate emotions in

individuals (Joung et al., 2006; King & Down, 2001; Van Buskirk & McGrath, 1992).

Storytellers have the skills to engage their audience into feeling the emotions of the

characters and the situations that they are discussing. The listener can associate the

characters experiences with their own workplace experiences, thus further assisting

them in facilitating learning and generating emotions (Morgan & Dennehy, 1997).

Therefore, the use of storytelling will be demonstrated within the training program used

in this research as a tool to facilitate emotions that lead to benefits, such as improved

organisational communication and organisational learning (Gargiulo, 2005, 2006).


Whereas the other branches of EI require the individual to apply abilities that link

emotion and cognition, understanding emotions or emotional knowledge is a branch of

EI that primarily relies on cognitive skills. The building of a low intensity emotion to a

high intensity emotion caused by a series of events occurring is known as an emotional

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progression (George, 2000). Examples of emotional progressions include anger

progressing to rage (Caruso & Salovey, 2004) and when fear evolves into panic

(George, 2000). During an anger progression the emotions experienced may increase in

intensity from irritation to annoyance, then to frustration, followed by upset, madness,

anger, fury and finally, rage. In her research into leadership and EI, George (2000)

highlights that an emotionally intelligent leader has the skills to be able to identify how

emotions can change over time. An understanding of these emotional progressions not

only for the leaders, but for anyone working within an organisational setting, is

extremely important, because many conflicts occur when emotions are allowed to reach

intense levels (Wertheim, 1998). Training in skills to promote a greater understanding of

emotional progressions in self and others could therefore help to lessen the instance of

conflict in the workplace (Jordan & Troth, 2004).

Understanding how emotions blend together and change over time is also an

important work-related skill. Examples of how emotions can blend together to create

negative outcomes include sadness and surprise blending together to form disapproval

or anger and disgust blending to create remorse (Ekman & Friesen, 1975; Lazarus,

1999). Conversely, positive blends such as optimism emerge from the blending of joy

and anticipation (Plutchik, 1980). Through increasing individual understanding of the

consequences of these complex emotional blends, individuals would be equipped with

the knowledge to understand the basis from which specific workplace behaviours arise

(Caruso, Mayer & Salovey, 2002).

Stemming from the work of James (2002) and James and Nahl (2000),

understanding the causes and the consequences of positive and negative emotional

cycles is an important capability in terms of enhancing the ability to understand

emotions in self and others. When an individual is in a positive emotional cycle,

feelings of self-confidence generate greater enthusiasm, leading to optimistic and

realistic thinking. This cycle enables the individual to behave in self-enhancing ways

(James, 2002). When an individual is consumed by a negative emotional cycle, these

feelings of self-confidence are replaced with feelings of inadequacy or depression.

These feelings lead the individual to think in pessimistic or cynical ways. These

behaviours then manifest themselves in self-destructive actions.

Emotional cycles not only impact individual behaviour, they affect behaviours

towards others in the workplace. During a positive emotional cycle, an individual’s

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enthusiasm and self-confidence leads them to act in a supportive and constructive

manner towards others. Equally, negative and self-destructive individual behaviours

lead to aggressive and destructive behaviours towards others. A focus on increasing

understanding and the ability to tune-in to the emotions (Planalp, 1999) associated with

emotional cycles through training could lead to the creation of enhanced supportive,

constructive and self-enhancing working environments.

Emotional triggers (known as emotional ‘hot buttons’) are events that cause an

intense emotional reaction in the individual affected. In their discussion on ethical

decision-making in organisations, Gaudine and Thorne (2001) state that emotional

triggers can cause a person to behave without taking the time to explore an alternative

course of action or the consequences that the behavioural reaction may elicit. These

reactions are not only dangerous in life and death roles, such as in fire fighting or police

work, but have negative implications in a variety of everyday work roles. Training to

increase an individual’s understanding of their own emotional triggers and the

consequences associated would be beneficial to the individual.

The knowledge of emotional transitions can also enhance an individual’s ability to

understand emotions in self and others (Mayer et al., 2004). An excellent work-related

example of these transitions is the differing emotions experienced by individuals during

organisational change. Adapted from the grief model proposed by Kulber-Ross (1973),

Danes (2005) examined the grief cycle in the context of organisational change. Dane’s

model clearly demonstrates that when change occurs, a natural primary reaction is to be

fearful. Once the initial shock has passed, fear then transitions to frustration and anger,

then sadness, guilt, shame and even jealousy before the individual is able to move

toward acceptance of the change. Evidently, if the understanding of these types of

transitions can be increased, then the appropriate guidance and support can be offered to

help the affected individual(s) move forward through the change as effectively as

possible.

Although the change situation presented above represents a good example of

emotional transitions, it does not discuss the relativity of emotions in such a situation.

The principle of emotional relativity is based on the premise that when presented with

the same situation or information, the emotional reactions or experiences of two (or

more) individuals may not be identical (Siemer, Mauss & Gross, 2007). For example,

two workers hear the news that their department is downsizing by half and they are both

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losing their jobs. The first individual may be fearful, upset and sad at their loss of

income, while the second individual might be glad or even excited because they were

hoping to be able to retire early with a redundancy payment. As can be seen from this

example, it is important for all concerned to understand emotional relativity when

dealing with individuals within the workplace environment.

Managing Emotions

Research demonstrates that emotions have the ability to alter thinking (Mayer &

Salovey, 1997). Therefore the engagement and disengagement from emotions is a key EI

skill that relates specifically to the management of emotions branch (Mayer & Salovey,

1997). An example of disconnection can be found in the anger research of Fitness

(2000), who found that disconnecting from anger in the workplace can prevent

dysfunctional conflict (associated with escalating non-productive conflict) and minimise

the possibility of negative relationships occurring (Amason, 1996). Likewise, the

capability to engage with an experienced emotion when suitable may provide similar

outcomes. However, the key in both situations is being able to successfully gauge the

circumstances at hand and respond in an emotionally appropriate manner.

In their research into facial expressions, Ekman and Friesen (1975; 1978) found

that ‘display rules’ are abilities used by individuals to manage involuntary expressions

of felt emotion and maintain self-presentation (Kramer & Hess, 2002). These display

rules include attending to, amplifying, restraining or totally hiding the involuntary

emotion and replacing it with another, more appropriate, emotional response (Ekman,

1997). Reasons for managing emotions through the use of display rules include

conforming to cultural norms (Planalp, 1999) or because of specific work requirements

(Ekman & Friesen, 1975). Hochschild’s (1983) research in the area of emotional labour

demonstrates that, in some occupations, workers are expected to display certain

emotions (Bono & Vey, 2005). An example of this phenomenon can be seen in Rafaeli

and Sutton’s (1987) research highlighting that flight attendants and check-out operators

are required to act in a friendly, cheerful manner, while on the other hand, bill collectors

and bouncers are required to convey hostility while in their work roles.

Problems occur, however, when the expected emotion does not match the

individual’s actual emotional state (Ashforth & Tomiuk, 2000). In these circumstances,

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individuals can engage in either surface or deep acting (Bono & Vey, 2005). Surface

acting relates to an individual displaying the required emotion on the surface through

their body language and facial and verbal expressions, but not actually feeling the

emotion. Deep acting, on the other hand, entails the process of actually modifying

emotions to feel and present the expected emotional state (Grandey, 2003; Hochschild,

1983). Research has shown that despite satisfying customers, surface acting actually

leads to increased stress and emotional exhaustion in individuals who engage in this

behaviour (Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002; Grandey, 2003). With this in mind, while the

use of display rules, surface and deep acting to regulate emotions would be extremely

useful skills to possess in work-related situations, it is necessary for individuals to

possess skills in managing these behaviours successfully.

Effective emotional coping is a skill that is often linked with high EI (Ashkanasy

et al., 2004). According to Lazarus and Folkman (1984), coping can be defined as an

individual’s skill in changing their behaviours to manage situational demands that are

appraised to be taxing on the individual. Emotion-focused coping, in turn, relates to an

individual’s skill in effectively managing the emotions that result from the stressful

situation (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Individuals with skills in managing emotions are

said to be able to cope well with their own emotions and, as a result, experience

enhanced emotional well-being (Bagshaw, 2000; Schutte, Malouff, Simunek,

McKenley, & Hollander, 2002).

It should be noted that individuals with high management of emotions skills use

emotional coping in dealing with others. For instance, in a time of high stress caused by

a workplace confrontation, an individual with advanced abilities to manage emotions

may encourage others to walk away from the situation and wait for the emotions of the

moment to subside before approaching the issue that caused the incident.

Further skills that relate to emotional coping are the skills to reframe emotions and

the capacity to repair emotions in self and others. Reframing emotions entails the skill to

assess a situation that has caused a particularly negative emotional reaction and to

attempt to reframe the situation so that a more positive emotional reaction can be

experienced (Ashforth & Kreiner, 2002). Emotional repair, on the other hand, is the

process of ‘getting through’ an emotional event that occurred, so that the individual can

begin to function effectively again (Salovey, Stroud, Woolery, & Epel, 2002). In an

organisational change scenario, the skill of being able to reframe and realise an event

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from an alternate perspective (the ability to reframe a redundancy as a positive

opportunity rather than the end of a working career) would assist individuals within a

workplace environment. However, when there is no ‘bright side’, it is important to be

able to work through the emotions experienced by engaging with emotions and seeking

help and support from colleagues.

Finally, empathetic concern would be a key skill to possess for assisting when

assessing an emotionally stressful situation being encountered by another person.

Empathetic concern relates to a person’s ability to show sympathy and concern to

another individual when they are experiencing a negative emotion, rather than reacting

in a purely self-serving way to the situation (Davis, 1983).

Linking Emotional Intelligence Abilities to Work Situations

The preceding section of this chapter has examined the skills that relate to each

branch of the ability model of EI. In the following section of this chapter, I apply a range

of EI skills to various work situations. Typical situations include teamwork, conflict

resolution, working effectively with others, dealing with change, coping with

organisational demands and managing work/life balance. I will outline these situations

and how they can be used to utilize EI and enhance an individuals’ understanding of EI.

Emotional Intelligence and Conflict Resolution

Conflict in organisations can result from a number of factors including

interdependence, power, status and cultural differences, goal ambiguity, the need to

allocate of scarce resources, interpersonal differences, disagreements relating to how

tasks should be carried out and the process that should be followed for success (Johns &

Saks, 2008). As outlined in Chapter Two, current research examining the relationship

between EI and conflict resolution styles has demonstrated that groups with high EI

actively engage in collaborative conflict resolution (Jordan & Troth, 2004). The

collaboration conflict resolution style entails those involved in the conflict placing equal

importance on the issue at hand and the relationship with the other party or parties

involved (Lewicki, Barry, & Saunders, 2007). In addition, this style places great

emphasis on a win-win outcome for both sides by examining the wider issues and the

needs of both parties.

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Individuals with enhanced abilities in the awareness of emotions and

understanding emotions branches of EI have been found to be more successful in

negotiations (Elfenbein, Foo, White, Tan, & Aik, 2007; Mueller & Cuhran, 2006). This

research determines that there is a relationship between EI and the successful resolution

of conflict in organisations: in effect, the higher a person’s EI, the more effective they

become. In the following section of this chapter, I will extend the above research and

provide a specific outline of how each the four branches of EI relate to this work

context.

In terms of the awareness branch, an in-depth awareness of the emotional cues

(verbal, facial and body) being given by the other party would be extremely beneficial

when dealing with a conflict situation or conducting a negotiation. In addition, the

parties must be acutely aware of their own emotions. Tone of voice, body language and

facial expression provide messages to the other party and indicate of how the resolution

is progressing. Those who are highly competent in their ability to recognise own and

others emotions realise the skills required and use them to work towards collaborative

win-win outcomes. Therefore, if individuals who do not possess this ability could

receive training in this area, it is reasonable to assume that their conflict resolution and

negotiation skills may improve.

As for facilitation abilities, tuning in to the emotions of the other party and

perspective taking would be crucial for conflict resolution and negotiation in the

workplace. In a highly emotive situation, actively ‘putting yourself in the other person’s

shoes’ could assist an individual to consider clearly the issue from the other party’s

perspective. This would assist the collaborative negotiation process because suggestions

for resolution could be made that take into account the needs of both sides, leading to a

greater opportunity for a win-win outcome.

In terms of understanding emotions, knowledge of emotional triggers, emotional

progressions and emotional cycles in self and others would again assist effective conflict

resolution. It is reasonable to assume that in a conflict situation certain information or

suggestions may trigger emotional reactions, such as anger, fear or sadness in self and

others. It is also reasonable to assume that once an emotion is triggered it could quickly

progress from a mild reaction to an intense emotional reaction. These reactions are a

natural part of an emotional cycle; nevertheless, it is crucial to understand the

consequences of these emotions and their potential impact on self and others.

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While understanding others’ emotional reactions is extremely important, it is

critical that the employee understands the causes and the consequences of their own

emotional responses in this type of situation. Paying attention to one’s moods, triggers,

progression and cycles would provide employees with an understanding of what the

outcome of their own emotional responses to the situation could lead to. If the purpose

of the negotiation is to generate a workable outcome for both parties, then emotional

understanding is an indispensable ability to possess.

In such an emotive circumstance, the ability of the employee to successfully

manage their own emotions and to assist the other party to manage their emotional states

would be of vital importance. Simply being sensitive to the emotional state of the other

party and using empathetic concern could assist the other party to manage their own

emotional state. In addition, assisting the other party to cope with their emotions and

engage in emotional repair so that they can move positively forward would be an

extremely helpful way in which to resolve a workplace conflict.

Emotional Intelligence, Teamwork and Working with Others

In addition to conflict resolution, teamwork and working with others are a further

two work contexts that require EI skills and abilities. Whether working on either a long

or a short-term project, in a self-managed, cross-functional or virtual team there are

certain skills an individual can possess to improve their effectiveness and performance

when working with others (Johns & Saks, 2008). As outlined in Chapter Two,

Offermann and her colleagues (2004) demonstrated that high EI led to higher

performance in team-based projects. These results lead to the question, if EI can be

increased through training, will this in turn lead to increased performance in teams?

With this question in mind, in the following section I will outline a series of skills

related to each branch of EI that, if developed through training within an emotions-

focused training program, may help to increase teamwork and working with others.

With respect to awareness of emotions, the ability to perceive facial, verbal and

bodily expressions of others would involve the possession of important skills when

working with others. These physical cues can provide an individual with vital

information regarding what other people working in the team may be expecting in terms

of behaviours and performance. Likewise, an individual must be aware of what

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messages their own verbal, facial and bodily expressions are providing to others.

Coupled with these skills are the skills in the perception of own and others’ values that

might be attached to team-related tasks.

An example of this can be seen when a team is working towards a deadline. In this

situation, the leader of the team may be giving clear messages through cues informing

team members of what is expected of them as they approach their deadline.

Additionally, awareness of the team leader’s values (keep working until the deadline is

met or all members must pull together to achieve success) would assist an individual

working within a team to determine the effort that is expected of them.

Next, in terms of facilitation of emotions, using emotional contagion to facilitate

task completion and decision-making would be a useful skill to possess when working

with others. Using the above example of an approaching deadline, facilitating a specific

emotional state in others would be an extremely beneficial way to help others get into

the right frame for task completion. In this case, it may be necessary to facilitate a more

negative emotional state in others so that they become aware that task focus is the main

priority. Similarly, when decisions need to be made or brainstorming needs to occur, it

may be pertinent to facilitate more positive emotions to assist others to be more creative

in their generation of solutions and ideas.

Skills related to understanding own and others emotions would be beneficial in a

team environment. Just as awareness of own and others’ values is important in this

situation, so, too, is an understanding or knowledge of the reasons why individuals may

hold the values that they do. The previous example relating to the approaching deadline

gives an excellent example of where values may differ within a team. One person may

have the expectation that all members should be committed and stay until the project is

fully completed, while another person who has fully completed their section of the

project may think that keeping the whole team behind while a few people finish their

work is totally unnecessary. In this situation, while there may be a disparity between the

values of the two parties, they both want the project to be completed to a high standard.

Having skills in perspective-taking and knowledge of how values differ would

undoubtedly prevent ill-feeling arising in such as situation.

Finally, in terms of management of emotions, the skills to achieve both the

engagement and disengagement of emotions would be helpful in a variety of team-

related situations. In terms of positive emotions, engaging with feelings of joy, pride and

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accomplishment at the completion of a team task would allow the individual and the

team members to celebrate their success. However, if your team’s success was at the

expense of another team’s failure, being able to manage emotions by disengaging from

the urge to celebrate in front of the defeated party is an important skill to possess.

Conversely, when a team is experiencing negative emotions caused by a threat or

possibility of failure, engagement with emotions such as anger and frustration may be a

way to refocus energies onto the task at hand.

Emotional Intelligence and Coping with Work Demands

Over the last decade, instances of stress related to the expanding of work demands

have increased within organisations (Johns & Saks, 2008). A variety of studies have

been conducted in the area and have reported that, in the USA for example, more than

40% of workers find the demands of their jobs to be very stressful, costing the USA

organisations in excess of US$100 billion per annum (Xie & Johns, 1995). In terms of

the relationship between work demands and EI, Nikolaou and Tsaousis (2002) found

that individuals with higher EI experienced less stress in the workplace and that EI

positively related to organisational commitment. Furthermore, Slaski and Cartwright’s

(2003) research demonstrates that training in EI skills led to increased individual EI and

positively impacted individual’s health and well-being within the workplace.

With respect to awareness of emotions, several EI skills could be employed to

increase an individual to cope with work demands. Self-reflection and emotional clarity

skills would be extremely useful, because they would allow an individual to clearly

identify specific emotions linked to the tasks they are completing. This reflection

process would enable an individual to become more aware of the particular work

demands that lead to specific emotional reactions. In addition, skills in reading the

verbal, facial and bodily cues of others would enable the same individual to become

aware when a work colleague was experiencing difficulty with the demands of a certain

work task.

Extending from this awareness, individuals could then attempt to facilitate the

appropriate emotions to assist either themselves or another party to complete the tasks

that may have been causing stress. Skills such as prioritisation thinking, perspective-

taking and storytelling would all be helpful in such a case. With respect to prioritising

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thinking, individuals experiencing multiple work demands could generate a calm

emotional state to assist them in successfully prioritising what they, as an individual,

have the skills to achieve and what tasks may require assistance from others to

complete. In terms of assisting others, the ability to perspective-take and consequently

physically feel the emotions that other person may be experiencing can lead to

suggestions for solutions to the issues. Combined with this, an individual can use stories

and recollections from the past of similar experiences to show the person experiencing

the work stress that there is a ‘light at the end of the tunnel’. Storytelling can even be

used to demonstrate to the other person exactly which methods have been successfully

used in the past by others to overcome such work demands.

Moving on to knowledge of emotions, skills in identifying emotional progressions

and emotional triggers could assist an individual to understand the causes of the work

stress and, if left untreated, to what the consequences of these demands will lead. This is

a skill that would assist individuals to understand their own emotional cycles and help

the same individual to understand the emotional cycles that others in the workplace

experience when they are attempting to cope with demanding assignments.

Once an understanding of the consequences of emotional reactions have been

clearly understood by the individual, they could then use emotional regulation skills to

select the most appropriate way to deal with their’s and others’ work demands. Skills

such as emotional engagement and disengagement, reframing emotions and empathetic

concern could all be used to manage the situation. For example, if a specific work

demand is causing the individual to feel negative emotions, such as shame or fear

because they cannot solve the problem themselves, engagement with these emotions and

a discussion of these emotions with a superior might lead that superior to take action to

alleviate these emotions.

Emotional Intelligence and Dealing with Organisational Change

Organisational change has now become commonplace in today’s organisations

(McShane & Travaglione, 2007). The reasons for change include advances in

information technologies, global competition, local competition, changes in the

workforce, economic issues and local and international politics (Robbins, Judge, Millet

& Waters-Marsh, 2008). The occurrence of change can lead to a variety of emotional

59.

reactions from individuals, based upon how the change is dealt with by the organisation.

Therefore, organisations need to look for ways to increase individual skills so that

change can be coped with. In his research with senior managers, Carmeli (2003)

proposed that individuals with high EI are better equipped to deal with the stresses

associated with organisational change. Slaski and Cartwright’s (2003) study with retail

managers then demonstrated that the training of EI abilities increased participant EI and

led to improvements in employee well-being and reduced stress. In the following section

of this chapter, I will extend upon Slaski and Cartwright’s (2003) work by outlining

specific EI-related skills that have the potential to improve an individual’s competency

to deal with change in an organisational context.

First, in terms of awareness of emotions, the process of self-reflection, reflecting

on feedback and emotional clarity are all skills that could be increased to assist an

individual with the stresses associated with organisational change. Adapted from the

model included in Elizabeth Kulber-Ross’ (1973) book entitled ‘On Death and Dying’

that examines the emotional cycle of grief, Danes (2005) has examined the emotions

linked to organisational change. Emotions such as fear, anger and shame are

commonplace when the change is perceived by an individual to be negative. On the

other hand, emotions such as happiness and pride may be felt when the change is

perceived as a positive. The process of self-reflecting on experienced emotions, that

have either been experienced when the change was announced or when feedback from

another party has been given, would enable an individual to identify their own personal

emotional reaction to that information. What is important at this point is for the

individual to have the skills to clearly identify which emotions they are experiencing.

Only at this point can the individual seek ways to deal with these emotional reactions.

In addition, the skills of reading others verbal, facial and bodily expressions can

provide key information about what emotions others are experiencing as a result of the

change. Individuals can have very different reactions to the same information owing to

differences in perception. Therefore, in addition to training individuals in skills to be

aware of their own emotions, it is necessary to provide these same individuals with the

skills to recognise the emotional reactions of others. As outlined earlier in this chapter,

verbal, facial and bodily gestures provide clear information regarding the emotions

being experienced by others (Banse & Scherer, 1996; Ekman, 1993, 1999; Planalp,

1999).

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Second, with regard to facilitation of emotions, using emotions in perspective

taking, motivational speaking and storytelling are all skills that could be used to increase

an individual’s skills to deal with change. In terms of perspective taking, it is important

for an individual to be able to effectively ‘feel’ the emotions being experienced by

others during a change process. Whether this is seeing the change from the perspective

of upper management or experiencing the emotions being felt by a fellow colleague, this

perspective-taking is a valuable skill to have in this situation. Once the emotions of all

parties have been taken into account, an individual can then engage in motivational

speaking to assist those who are experiencing a negative emotional reaction to generate

a more positive emotional response to the situation. Coupled with motivational

speaking, encouraging others to tell positive stories about the benefits of past changes

can help others to reframe their emotions and begin to work through the change at hand.

With respect to understanding emotions, the skills of understanding own and

other’s emotional cycles, emotional progressions and emotional triggers are necessary

skills an individual should possess when dealing with change. As has been mentioned

previously, when an individual is experiencing a positive or negative emotional cycle,

there is an impact on the individual’s behaviours and on their behaviours towards people

around them (work colleagues, friends and family). In an emotive situation such as

organisational change, knowledge of the triggers that might cause such emotional

reactions is required. These skills would undoubtedly help individuals to understand

their own and other’s emotional reactions to change.

Third, in terms of management of emotions skills, emotional repair, emotional

engagement, emotional disengagement and emotion focused coping strategies would all

be beneficial skills to possess when dealing with change. Emotional repair is the process

of ‘getting through’ or ‘getting over’ emotional events that happen to individuals within

the workplace. Coupled with this management skill are the techniques of emotional

engagement and disengagement techniques. These skills can be employed to help an

individual come to terms with the outcome of organisational change and choose the best

way to move on from the experience. Finally, emotions-focused coping skills could be

used (or developed through training) to assist an individual to manage the emotions

elicited in a stressful situation such as organisational change.

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Emotional Intelligence and Work-Family Conflict

Extending on the previous section, a final work context that has the potential to be

enhanced through EI skills and abilities is work-family balance. Work-family balance

refers to an individual’s attempt to balance their participation in the paid workforce and

the demands of caring for family members (including care for children or elders,

domestic duties and overall household management) (Burgess & Strachan, 2005;

Pocock, 2003). In his work examining the relationship between EI and work outcomes,

Carmeli (2003) found that senior managers with high EI were better able to manage

work-family conflict (that is, balance these demands) than those with low EI. Carmeli

(2003) states that it is not enough for organisations to have work-family policies in

place, rather, individuals must accept the responsibility for their own behaviours in this

regard and that EI may provide a key for assisting individuals with work-family

demands.

The results of this research clearly demonstrate that work-family balance skills

have the potential to be enhanced through the learning of EI skills and abilities. Looking

first at the awareness of emotions branch of EI, skills in recognising own emotions,

identifying personal values and having skills in perceiving facial, verbal and bodily

expressions in others could assist an individual to be more aware of the issues

surrounding work-family conflicts. With these skills, individuals would be able to

identify their own emotional reactions when work-family conflict occurs and have the

ability to gather information from friends and family members (and their emotions

toward the situation). Furthermore, an awareness of own values, particularly relating to

the importance of family issues, would allow an individual to be able to perceive when

work demands were beginning to interfere with family values.

In terms of facilitation of emotions, skills in perspective-taking and using

emotions to aid decision-making and to solve problems would assist an individual to

balance work and family commitments. With regard to perspective taking, individuals

with this skill would be able to place themselves in the emotional position of family

members who may be adversely affected by a partner’s or parent’s work demands.

Perspective taking would allow the individuals to identify the consequences of their

behaviours. From this point, the individuals could then seek ways to solve issues

associated with their work demands and make decisions with regard to what they may

do to redress the imbalance.

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At the same time, understanding the causes and consequences of the emotions

being experienced by family members would be extremely important. Individuals who

have the skills to understand the outcomes of a negative emotional cycle would possess

the knowledge that something must be done to alleviate the situation. These individuals

would then be able to actively manage their own and others’ emotions by employing

such skills as emotional disengagement (leaving work issues at work) and empathetic

concern (allowing others to clearly work through the emotions they have experienced as

a result of the work-life conflict).

Summary of Work Situations Requiring EI Skills

Outlined above are detailed examples of how the skills and abilities related to

each branch of EI relate directly to work contexts broadly required by employees

working in an organisation. Whilst these examples give a good overview, they are not

an exhaustive list of the work contexts that have the potential to be improved through

the provision of training in EI abilities. This review has revealed that there is a link

between the four branches of EI (Mayer & Salovey, 1997) and specific work contexts.

The linking of these areas provides a framework upon which to build a training

program. Because the purpose of this thesis is to determine whether EI can be increased

through training within organisations, the remainder of this chapter will discuss the

construction of the training program. Should this research determine that these abilities

can indeed be increased through training, these results will then yield important

implications for both theory and practice.

The Training Program

Each branch of EI comprises a variety of skills that have the potential to yield

positive benefits for organisations. The program of training has been designed to satisfy

the requirements of each separate branch of Mayer and Salovey’s (1997) model. The

process of devising the training program commenced with identifying the specific skills

that would contribute to increased abilities. Once these skills were identified, a series of

exercises were then designed to assist the learning process. When designing the training

program, I was particularly aware of the time constraints surrounding the provision of

training. After consultation with the research organisation, it was decided that a two-day

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training program and a half-day follow up would be constructed for providing training

in emotions-focused skills. This structure met the needs of the organisation (because

they were concerned with the productivity and financial costs of having employees

absent from work) and the research project (sufficient time was required to provide

training and collect the necessary data). In line with the four branches of EI, half a day

was devoted to the training of skills associated with each branch. The training was

devised to flow logically from one branch to the next.

Table 2 presents a model for training based on the skills that have been outlined

within this chapter. A full description and rationale for the final training program is

presented in Appendix B. I initially brainstormed these ideas with my supervisors and

conducted research to determine which activities would be included in the training.

During the brainstorming process, a discussion of the linkage between emotions-focused

skills, EI abilities and work skills was undertaken. In terms of the awareness of

emotions branch, the initial ideas focused on emotional-perception training involving

self-awareness questionnaires (Sheldon, 1996), the perception of others questionnaires

(Riggio, 1986), the recognition of facial (including micro and subtle) expressions

(Ekman, 1999, 2003, 2003), verbal, action and body cues (Planalp, 1999), and exercises

in tuning an individual’s listening skills (Lynn, 2002).

The initial facilitation ideas included exercises in facilitating emotions to assist in

decision-making and problem-solving (George, 2000; Putnam & Mumby, 1993),

exploring the positives and negatives of emotional contagion (Barsade, 2002), activities

in perspective taking (Jordan. et al., 2002), building emotion through music (Bruner,

1990; Planalp, 1999), motivational speaking and storytelling (King & Down, 2001;

Morgan & Dennehy, 1997; Van Buskirk & McGrath, 1992). At this stage, an

organisational storytelling session was deemed to both impact upon the awareness of

emotions, the facilitation of emotions and understanding emotions. It was decided that

this exercise would be undertaken to provide a transition between the two parts of the

program.

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Table 2 Constructing the EI training program EI Ability Branches Initial Training Ideas Final Training Program

Awareness of Emotions (Self and Others)

Emotional Self-Awareness Questionnaires Perception of Others Questionnaires Micro & Subtle Facial Expression Training Awareness of Verbal Cues Training Body Language & Body Gestures Training Listening Habits Exercises

Building Awareness of Own and Others’ Emotions in the Workplace Using the JOHARI window to Build Awareness of Emotions (Self and Others) Reflective Diaries Organisational Stories

Facilitation of Emotions (Self and Others)

Using Music, and Stories to Build Emotion Recognizing the Emotions linked to Decision-making and Problem Solving Tasks Emotional Contagion – Role Plays Motivational Speeches – Exercises

Organisational Stories The Impacts of Emotional Contagion on Self and Others Generating Emotions Techniques Mind Mapping to Assist in Perspective Taking

Understanding Emotions (Self and Others)

Discussing Emotional Cycles Recognition of Emotional Triggers Recognition of Emotional Progressions Recognition of Emotional Transitions Emotional Reactions to Change

Understanding Plutchick’s Continuum of Emotions The Impacts of Positive and Negative Emotional Progressions Emotional Cycles in the Workplace Emotions and Workplace Change

Managing Emotions (Self and Others)

Reframing Emotions Exercises Emotional Control Exercises Coping with Emotions Exercises Increasing Resiliency

Emotional Repair Strategies Building Physical, Psychological and Social Resiliency Techniques for Managing Emotions in the Workplace

In addition to storytelling, understanding emotions-training ideas included the

continuum of emotions (Plutchik, 1980), emotional progressions and transitions

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(George, 2000; Mayer et al., 2001), emotional cycles (James, 2002; James & Nahl,

2000) and emotions and change (Danes, 2005; Kubler-Ross, 1973). Finally, the

management of emotions ideas included emotional control exercises (Riggio, 1986),

reframing emotions activities (Ekman & Friesen, 1978), building resilience (Carlopio,

Andrewatha, & Armstrong, 1997) and coping with emotions interventions (Lazarus &

Folkman, 1984).

The process of firstly brainstorming a range of potential training activities enabled

the formulation of a program of specific EI abilities that would encourage the transfer of

EI abilities in the workplace (Blanchard & Thacker, 2007). In addition to outlining the

initial training ideas, Table 2 lists the final training exercises that were used. Owing to

time constraints, it was not feasible to include all of the initial ideas into the final

training program. However, the initial identification of the potential training areas

enabled the final program to be structured to provide the maximum benefit for the

attendees. As mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, Appendix B is dedicated to

presenting the specific exercises that were presented as the final training program

activities. In addition, Appendix C includes a complete set of training PowerPoint slides

developed to assist in the facilitation of the intervention.

Chapter Summary

In summary, in this chapter, I have provided details of how emotional skills and EI

abilities could be trained in specific work contexts, such as conflict resolution, team

work and dealing with difficult people. First, a number of skills were related to each of

the four branches of EI and explained. Second, work contexts and their links to EI

abilities were discussed. This process provided a foundation from which the

construction of a work-related emotions-focused training program could be conducted.

Because the purpose of this thesis is to determine whether EI can be improved through

training, an outline was required of how the intervention was constructed. This outline

demonstrated how the initial identification of skills in specific work contexts could be

used to create a training program that met the needs of the research project and provided

a valuable intervention for use in the research organisation.

In the next chapter, the first of three studies conducted to test whether EI can be

increased through training is presented. In Chapter Four, the information regarding the

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measures and the sample of the participants is outlined. In addition, the analysis will be

presented on the data collected from a normative sample of participants from the

research organisation. The purpose of this analysis is to ensure that the measures that

can be used in the subsequent two studies examining the outcomes of training emotions

focused and IS in the research organisation are robust.

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CHAPTER FOUR

Study 1 – Analysis of the Normative Sample Factor Analysis using

Repeated Measures ANOVA

Overview

The aim of Chapter Four is to provide the results of various analyses undertaken

on a normative data sample collected as part of the overall research project. In keeping

with a quasi-experimental design, a sample of employees were recruited from the

research organisation to provide a baseline measure for EI in the department and to

assess if there were any contextual changes that could contribute to changes in EI. Over

an 18-month period, this sample (a representative sample of employees not involved in

the training) undertook a survey at three equally-spaced points in time. Participants

completed an identical survey to that completed by the participants receiving the

training interventions.

In this chapter, I examine the psychometric properties of the three scales contained

within the ‘Emotions in the Workplace’ survey. The construct validity of the measures

is also ascertained through examining the concurrent (same-time) and predictive

(across-time) validity of the measures. First, a series of factor analyses are conducted on

the three measures within the survey (namely, EI, citizenship performance and goal

setting). This enables the structure of the three scales to be established. Individual cases

are then matched and repeated measures ANOVAs are conducted to determine whether

any changes occurred in the sample over time. Changes in responses over the 18-month

period may indicate organisational effects (change) or instability of the measures.

Justification for the Selection of Additional Dependent Variables

Citizenship Performance

Citizenship performance and goal setting were chosen as additional dependent

variables for each of the studies in line with Jordan et al’s. (2002) previous research

findings on process effectiveness and goal focus of student project teams. In terms of

citizenship performance, the links between positive emotions and citizenship behaviours

in organisations have been empirically tested by a number authors such as, Isen (1993),

Isen, Clark and Schwartz (1976), and Staw, Sutton and Pelled (1994). However, the

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relationship between EI and citizenship performance requires further examination

(Carmeli & Josman, 2006). Jordan et al’s. (2002) study demonstrated that teams who

reported high EI and high process effectiveness scores at the beginning of the program

of research had no change in their process effectiveness at the end of the study. In

contrast, the low EI teams that reported a lower level of process effectiveness at the

beginning of the program steadily increased their process effectiveness as they received

course instruction. As these results demonstrate a relationship between an individual’s

EI and process effectiveness, this study will seek to explore whether similar

relationships exist between EI and citizenship performance. Specific hypotheses will

then be outlined and tested in Chapter Five.

In addition to Jordan et al’s. (2002) work, several other authors have outlined the

links between EI and positive behaviours in organisations. First, Cherniss (2001)

proposed that EI can contribute to improvements in commitment, morale and overall

health of individuals in organisations. In her work examining the application of EI in

workplace settings, Abraham (2005) also demonstrated that the organisational

citizenship of individuals in organisations can be improved through enhanced EI. Wong

and Law (2002) also found a relationship between EI and organisational commitment

for followers within organisations. In addition, Carmeli (2003) demonstrated that EI

positively linked to positive behaviours, such as affective commitment, altruistic

behaviours and job satisfaction. In their research, Schutte, Schuettpelz and Malouff

(2000) found EI to be positively related to solving problems for the successful

completion of tasks. Finally, in their research with 215 employees from a diverse set of

organisations in Israel, Carmeli and Josman (2006) found that EI was positively and

significantly linked to altruism and compliance (two dimensions of Podsakoff,

MacKenzie, Moorman and Fetter’s (1990) OCB scale).

Goal Setting

In terms of EI and goal setting, a variety of research has been conducted exploring

this relationship (see Bagozzi, Baumgartner, & Pieters, 1998; Cron, Slocum Jr, Van de

Walle, & Fu, 2005; Oatley, 1988; Oatley & Johnson-Laird, 1996; Frijda, Kuipers, & ter

Schure, 1989). In particular, Cron et al. (2005) found that negative performance

feedback leads to negative emotional reactions in individuals and that these negative

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emotions influence the future goals that are set by the individual. This raises the

question of whether high EI may ameliorate an individual’s tendency to set lower goals

as a result of negative feedback.

In their 2002 research, Jordan and his colleagues found that teams with low EI

were able to improve their goal focus over time, so that they were as effective in this

area as those teams that commenced the research with higher EI, while work teams with

high levels of EI demonstrated no change in goal focus over the same period. The

results of the Jordan et al. (2002) study suggest that there is a relationship between EI

and goal focus. Further exploration of these links will be conducted within this program

of research.

In their research examining EI, goal setting and emotional well-being, Spence et

al. (2004) also found that individuals with high EI were more effective in the setting of

congruent personal goals. Their results, however, did not reveal significant relationships

between EI, goal setting and emotional well-being. What is clear from the research that

has been conducted is that a greater understanding of the links between EI and goal

setting must be ascertained. An exploration of these links will be conducted within this

chapter. Specific hypotheses will then be outlined and tested in Chapter Five.

Method

Procedure

Participants for the current study were recruited with the assistance of the

organisation’s Human Resource Department. A complete listing of organisational units

was supplied containing the names and contact details of all organisational unit

managers. The researcher made direct contact with each of the managers via telephone

and email correspondence, informing them that their assistance in an organisation-wide

study would be appreciated. Managers were also informed of the availability of a

training and development program at the completion of the data collection. Sixteen

managers agreed that their organisational units (n=560) would participate in this study.

To simplify the data collection procedure, the participating managers nominated

collection officers who would receive all correspondence associated with the research

project. These officers were responsible for the distribution of surveys to staff within

their respective organisational units. Prior to each data collection, contact with the

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collection officers was initiated by email and distribution instructions were given. Packs

containing an information sheet (including participant consent), survey and a reply-paid

envelope for each participant were then mailed directly. Examples of these documents

are presented in Appendices F and G.

Pilot Study

Prior to data collection, the ‘Emotions in the Workplace’ survey format was tested

and refined through consultation with administrative level staff from the Organisational

Development unit and two focus groups of staff from the Strategic Directions unit from

the organisation (n=28). This group consisted of 12 male and 16 female members of

staff. Focus group participants were asked to complete the survey and provide feedback

on its clarity and relevance to the organisation. Minor amendments were made to survey

item wording (for example, ‘boss’ was changed to ‘supervisor’) based on this feedback.

A detailed list of the outcomes of the focus group sessions is presented in Appendix H.

Sample

Data were collected at three equally-spaced points in time. The first data

collection occurred in the July of the first year of research. Fifteen of the 16 teams

completed their surveys with 327 out of a possible 560 (a response rate of 58.39%)

returned by participants. Surveys with incomplete or missing data were excluded from

the analysis. Out of the surveys returned, 320 were useable. The mean age of Time 1

participants was 40.5 years (SD=11.42), with 67.8% male participants. Seventy-Seven

point two per cent of participants were full-time employees; of the remainder, contract

workers accounted for 5.7%, 5.7% were temporary full-time, 5.7% temporary part-time,

5.0% were permanent part-time and 0.6% employed on a casual basis. In terms of

employment classifications, 50.3% of the participants were employed in administrative

roles, 23.9% classed themselves as professionals, 13.1% were employed in technical

roles, 7.2% classified themselves as construction workers, 3% were senior managers,

and the final 2.5% placed themselves in operations roles.

The second data collection was conducted in the November. Again, 560 surveys

were dispatched to 16 teams. Time 2 surveys were completed by 263 employees (a

response rate of 46.96%) from 14 of the targeted teams. Two hundred and fifty-six

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surveys were useable. The mean age of Time 2 participants was 41.5 years (SD=11.08),

with 63.7% of the respondents being male. In terms of employment status, 80.9% were

full time, 5.9% were contract workers, 5.5% classed themselves as temporary full time,

3.9% were part time, 2.0% were casual and 1.2% classified themselves as temporary

part-time. The remainder did not state the nature of their employment contract. In terms

of employment classification levels, 53.4% were administrators, 19.3% were classified

as professionals, 13.4% technical staff, 6.7% classed themselves as being employed in

operations, 4.2% were construction workers and 2.9% reported that they were senior

managers.

The final data collection occurred in March of the following year. Fourteen teams

consisting of 227 participants (a response rate of 40.54%) returned their surveys. Two

hundred and twenty-five surveys were useable. Of this sample, 58.7% of the

respondents were male and the mean age was 39.5 years (SD=11.71). Full times

workers accounted for 82.6% of the sample, 6.7% were contractors, 5.8% classed

themselves as temporary full time, 2.2% were part time and casual and temporary part

time workers accounted for 1.3% of respondents respectively. Again, the majority of

workers (56.7%) were employed as administrators, 20.5% were professionals, 10.0%

classed themselves as technical workers, 6.2% were construction workers, 4.3%

occupied operational roles and 2.4% were senior managers within the organisation.

To assist with analysis participants who completed the survey were matched

across the three data collection periods. In total, 88 participants fully completed all

three surveys. The mean age of the matched sample participants was 41.36 years

(SD=11.14), with 57.3% male participants. Seventy-Seven point two per cent of

participants were full-time employees; of the remainder, contract workers accounted for

9.0% of the sample, 5.6% were temporary full-time, and 7.9% were employed on a

permanent part-time basis.

Measures

The ‘Emotions in the Workplace’ survey contains 86 items. The first five

questions gather basic demographic data (as outlined in the sample description)

including gender, age, employment status, job role classification and organisational

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training programs attended. The remainder of the survey consists of scales to measure

citizenship performance, EI and goal setting.


Citizenship Performance was measured using the 15-item Citizenship Rating

Scale devised by Motowidlo and Van Scotter (1994), and Van Scotter and Motowidlo

(1996). This scale uses a 5-point Likert type response format ranging from 1 (not at all

accurate) to 5 (very accurate). The measure consists of two subscales that assess

‘Interpersonal Facilitation’ (subscale 1) and ‘Job Dedication’ (subscale 2). Subscale 1

contains seven items including ‘I praise co-workers when they are successful’. Subscale

2 consists of eight items with items including: ‘I ask for challenging work assignments’.

In previous studies, the alpha reliability coefficients were 0.89 for interpersonal

facilitation and 0.94 for job dedication (Motowidlo & Van Scotter, 1994; Van Scotter &

Motowidlo, 1996).

Emotional Intelligence

Emotional Intelligence was measured using the 36-item self-report section of the

Workgroup Emotional Intelligence Profile – Version 6 (WEIP-6: Jordan et al., 2002).

The WEIP-6 captures the dimensions of EI within the two scales that conform to Mayer

and Salovey’s (1997) description of EI (Jordan et al., 2002: see Figure 1). In terms of

convergent validity, the WEIP-6 has been shown to correlate with the Revised Self-

Monitoring Scale (Lennox & Wolfe, 1984), the TMMS (Salovey et al., 1995), the

Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI: Davis, 1983), the Job Associate-Bisociate Review

Index (JABRI: Jabri, 1991), and the Emotional Control Scale of Riggio’s (1986) Social

Skills Index. In terms of discriminant validity, the WEIP-6 is distinct from the 16PF, the

Revised Self-Monitoring Scale and the Personal Style Inventory (Jordan et al., 2002).

The WEIP-6 was chosen because of the organisational context of this research.

Although there are a wide variety of EI measures available (see Chapter Two for a

review) the WEIP-6 was developed specifically to provide an EI profile of individuals

with regard to workplace relationships (Jordan et al., 2002). Although there have been

questions regarding an individual’s ability to respond accurately and honestly to EI self-

report measures (see Brackett et al., 2006; Freudenthaler, Neubauer & Haller, 2008;

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Mayer et al., 2004), Wong et al. (2008) support the use of self-report measures to assess

EI, particularly when they have been properly designed. Research evidence

demonstrates that the WEIP-6 is a valid EI self-report measure (Moriarty & Buckley,

2003) that has been shown to predict leadership emergence (Kellett et al., 2002, 2006).

It was for these reasons that the WEIP-6 was deemed the most appropriate measure for

use within this program of research.

Figure 1 Relationship – WEIP-6 to Mayer and Salovey’s Four-branch Model of EI

Source: Jordan et al., 2002

The WEIP-6 employs a 7-point Likert type response format that ranges from 1

(strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) for each item. The items contained within the

measure encourage individuals to reflect on their own and others’ behaviours within a

work team environment. Scale 1 is entitled ‘Ability to Deal with Own Emotions’ and

contains nineteen items. ‘Ability to Deal with Others’ Emotions’ (scale 2) consists of

seventeen items. Existing alpha reliability coefficients for both scales are 0.79 and 0.79

respectively (Jordan et al., 2002). Both scales are further delineated into three subscales.

Table 3 presents each subscale, including its number of items, sample items and

Four Branch Model of EI

Mayer & Salovey (1997)

WEIP-6 Sub-Scales

Jordan et al (2002)

WEIP-6 Scales WEIP-6




Management of Emotions

Awareness of Own Emotions

Ability to Discuss Own Emotions

Ability to Facilitate Own Emotions

Ability to Recognise Others’ Emotions

Ability to Detect False Displays of Emotion

Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions

Ability to Deal with

Own Emotions

Ability to Deal with Others’

Emotions

Workgroup Emotional

Intelligence Profile

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Cronbach’s Alpha (reported from previous studies using the measure: Moriarty &

Buckley, 2003).

Table 3 Workgroup EI Profile Subscales (Jordan et al., 2002)

Subscale Items Alpha Sample Item

Awareness of Own

Emotions

5 0.75 When working in my team, I can identify the

emotions I experience

Ability to Discuss Own

Emotions

5 0.85 If I feel down, I can tell team members what will

make me feel better

Application of Own

Emotions to Facilitate

Thinking

9 0.62 If I make a mistake in front of my team

members, I get over my embarrassment very

quickly

Ability to Recognise

Others’ Emotions

4 0.77 When I talk to a team member I can gauge their

true feelings from their body language

Ability to Detect False

Displays of Emotion

5 0.62 I can read my fellow team members ‘true’

feelings, even if they try to hide them

Ability to Manage

Others’ Emotions

8 0.70 I am able to identify for team members the

positive side of negative events

Alpha reliabilities range from 0.62–0.85 (Moriarty & Buckley, 2003)

Goal Setting

Goal setting was measured using selected items derived from Locke and Latham’s

(1984, 1990) goal setting measure. The scale follows a 5-point response format ranging

from 1 (almost never) to 5 (almost always). The original measure consists of ten

subscales containing 45 items. However, for this study, six subscales (26 items) were

chosen because of their relevance to the research project and their hypothesised

relationship to EI. The six subscales, number of items, sample items and Cronbach’s

Alphas (from existing studies, Lee et al., 1991; Locke & Latham, 1984) are presented in

Table 4.

The unused subscales were ‘Use of Goal Setting in Performance Appraisal’,

‘Tangible Rewards’, ‘Organisational Facilitation of Goal Achievement’ and

‘Dysfunctional Aspects of Goals’. The first two subscales relate to the setting of goals

during the performance review process and the outcomes of achieving these set goals

(for example, pay rise, promotion and job security). These subscales were not used

because this research is focused on individual difference variables rather than

organisational variables.

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Table 4 Goal Setting Subscales (Locke & Latham, 1984)

Subscale Items Alpha Sample Item Supervisor Support and Participation

3 0.82 My Supervisor lets me participate in the setting of my goals

Goal Stress 3 0.68 I find working towards my goals to be very stressful

Goal Efficacy 4 0.68 I feel that my job training was good enough so that I am capable of reaching my job goals

Goal Rationale 4 0.78 I get regular feedback indicating how I am performing in relation to my goals

Goal Clarity 4 0.85 If I have more than one goal to accomplish, I know which ones are most important and which ones are least important

Goal Conflict 8 0.67 My job goals serve to limit rather than raise my performance

Alpha reliabilities range from 0.68–0.85 (Lee, Bobko, Early, & Locke 1991)

‘Organisational Facilitation of Goal Achievement’ was omitted because it

contained items that were similar in theme to those in the 15-item ‘Citizenship Rating

Scale’. Finally, ‘Dysfunctional Aspects of Goals’ was not used because it focuses upon

non-supportive supervisor behaviours. As positive and negative responses to supervisor

behaviours could be identified though the ‘Supervisor Support’ subscale, these items

were excluded.

Data Screening & Cleaning

Prior to conducting factor analysis on the three data sets, all data were examined

using SPSS for Windows, version 15.0, to determine the accuracy of the data entry,

missing values, the fit between the distributions and the assumptions of multivariate

analysis (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1996). In addition, data were checked for outlying cases

and the relevant items were transformed.

Checking for errors involved a process of visually inspecting the data for

observable errors and physically checking the entered surveys for errors in data entry

(10% data check). This was then followed by the use of SPSS ‘descriptive statistics’

function to identify any values in the data that fell outside the range of values for each

variable within the data set (Pallant, 2005). Errors that were detected were then cross-

checked against the original survey and corrected. As a final check to ensure data were

error-free, the ‘descriptive statistics’ function in SPSS was again used ensure all errors

had been corrected.

76.

Checking for missing data was the second screening process conducted prior to

the analysis. According to Manning and Munro (2006), there are two approaches that

can be followed for dealing with missing data, the use of complete data sets with

substitute means or the deletion of cases with excessive missing data (Hair, Anderson,

Tatham, & Black, 1998:51–52). Seven cases at Time 1, seven cases at Time 2 and two

cases at Time 3 were removed owing to excessive missing data. Single missing values

in the remainder of the data were replaced by the mean of all cases using the EM

computation method in SPSS (Hair et al., 1998).

Checking data fit was undertaken to ensure the fit between the distributions

within the data were acceptable. Data collected at Time 1, Time 2 and Time 3 were

assessed and distributions were appropriate for factor analysis.

Factor Analysis

Citizenship Data – Times 1, 2 and 3

The 15 items from the Citizenship Rating Scale (Times 1, 2 and 3 data collections,

Motowidlo & Van Scotter, 1994) were subjected to principal axis factoring (PAF) using

SPSS version 15.0. Principal axis factoring was used because it is the most widely-used

factor analysis technique (Child, 2006) and is considered the best method for exploring

underlying factors. Prior to conducing PAF, the suitability of the data for factor analysis

was assessed in five steps. The first step was to determine whether the sample size was

valid for factor analysis to be conducted. According to Hair et al. (1998) and Kline

(1994), a minimum of 50, and ideally 100 or more, cases are required. In addition, there

should be at least five cases and preferably ten per variable to be analysed (Hair et al.,

1998; Pett, Lackey & Sullivan, 2003). Based on these criteria, the sample size for

analysis was valid for Times 1, 2 and 3.

The second assumption to be tested was the correlations between the items. The

items were visually inspected to reveal a substantial amount of correlations between

0.30 and 0.60 (Hair et al., 1998; Tabachnick & Fidell, 1996). Next, anti-image

correlations were conducted to assess whether there were large partial correlations or

anti-image correlations in the data (Pett et al., 2003). Again, the results demonstrated

that factor analysis was appropriate (Hair et al., 1998). The fourth test conducted on the

data was the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. The KMO value was

77.

0.88 at Time 1, which, according to Hair et al. (1998:99), is a ‘meritorious’ result.

Finally, Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity was conducted to determine the statistical

probability that the variables in the correlation matrix have significant correlations (Pett

et al., 2003). This test reached statistical significance (105 df, p<0.001), supporting this

assumption (Pallant, 2005).

Principal axis factoring without rotation revealed three factors with Eigenvalues

exceeding one. These components explained 35.25, 11.22 and 6.81% of the variance

respectively. An inspection of the scree plot (see Figure 2) demonstrated a clear move

towards a horizontal line after the second factor (Hair et al., 1998). Using Cattell’s scree

test (1966) assumption, it was decided to retain two components for investigation. This

decision was further supported by the results of a Montecarlo Parallel Analysis

(Watkins, 2000 that demonstrated two factors with Eigenvalues greater than the

corresponding criterion values for a randomly generated same size data matrix (15

variables x 320 respondents).

Figure 2 Citizenship Scale Time 1 Scree Plot

151413121110987654321

Factor Number

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

Eig

en

va

lue

Scree Plot

A Varimax rotation was then performed to assist in the interpretation of the two

factors derived. The Varimax rotation was selected as the most appropriate method for

extracting factors because it clearly simplifies the factor matrix (Hair et al., 1998). The

rotated solution yielded a simplified factor structure, with a number of the variables

showing substantial loadings on their respective factors (Comrey & Lee, 1992). There

78.

were, however, two variables with poor loadings. To assist with the interpretation of the

two factors, the variables with poor loadings were removed and factor analysis was

conducted again on the 13 remaining variables (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1996).

The second Varimax rotation confirmed a simplified two-factor solution, with all

variables loading substantially onto only one component. These variables also showed

loadings that conform to Comrey and Lee’s (1992) acceptable loading cut off. Final

interpretation of the two factors was consistent with the previous factor structures

reported for the Citizenship Rating Scale. Factors 1 and 2 conformed to the existing

factor labels of ‘Interpersonal Facilitation’ and ‘Job Dedication’ (as shown in Table 5,

Motowidlo & Van Scotter, 1994).

Subsequent analyses were conducted using identical methods to those presented

above in the Times 2 and 3 data. Because the results obtained from each separate

analysis were similar to those presented above for Time 1, full details are not given.

However, Table 5 details the loadings of each of the two factors for the Times 2 and 3

data.

79.

Table 5 Time 1, 2 & 3 Exploration of the Citizenship Rating Scale using Principal Axis Factoring and Varimax Rotation

Item Time 1 Time 2 Time 3

Interpersonal

Facilitation

Job

Dedication

Interpersonal

Facilitation

Job

Dedication

Interpersonal

Facilitation

Job

Dedication

15. I tackle difficult work items enthusiastically 0.672 0.264 0.704 0.210 0.661 0.279

14. I persist in overcoming obstacles to complete a task 0.659 0.285 0.772 0.188 0.675 0.193

13. I take the initiative to solve a work problem 0.631 0.323 0.741 0.178 0.702 0.215

9. I pay close attention to important details 0.581 0.098 0.437 0.283 0.412 0.099

11. I ask for challenging work assignments 0.529 0.282 0.484 0.298 0.584 0.254

10. I work harder than necessary 0.529 0.069 0.398 0.363 0.484 0.230

8. I put in extra hours to get work done on time 0.528 0.078 0.437 0.283 0.351 0.213

12. I exercise personal discipline and self-control 0.501 0.228 0.572 0.191 0.477 0.252

1. I praise co-workers when they are successful 0.189 0.707 0.380 0.565 0.337 0.626

4. I say things to make people feel good about

themselves or the workgroup

0.163 0.674 0.132 0.716 0.297 0.635

5. I encourage others to overcome their difficulties and

get along

0.208 0.655 0.214 0.646 0.201 0.622

2. I support or encourage co-workers with a personal

problem

0.120 0.640 0.175 0.694 0.166 0.652

3. I talk to other workers before taking actions that

might affect them

0.277 0.503 0.315 0.412 0.206 0.540

Time 1, n=320 Time 2, n=256 Time 3, n=225

80.

Reliabilities and Correlations – Citizenship Performance

Tables 6, 7 and 8 present means, standard deviations, reliability coefficients and

inter-item correlations for the 13-item Citizenship Rating Scale at the Times 1, 2 and 3

data collections. Reliability coefficients are within an acceptable range and the inter-

item correlations support the theoretical model advanced by Motowidlo and Van Scotter

(1994).

Table 6 Descriptive Statistics, Coefficient Alphas, and Correlations among Citizenship Scale and Subscales (Time 1)

Mean (S.D.) 1 2 3

1. Citizenship Performance (Total) 3.92 (0.18) (0.85)

2. Interpersonal Facilitation 3.84 (0.62) 0.81** (0.80)

3. Job Dedication 3.97 (0.52) 0.90** 0.47** (0.82)

* = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01, n = 320, Cronbach’s Alpha Reliabilities on the diagonal


Mean (S.D.) 1 2 3



3. Job Dedication 3.94 (0.51) 0.93** 0.59** (0.83)



Mean (S.D.) 1 2 3



3. Job Dedication 3.94 (0.47) 0.92** 0.54** (0.80)


Emotional Intelligence Data – Times 1, 2 and 3

The 36 items from the Workgroup Emotional Intelligence profile were also

subjected to PAF. Prior to conducting the PAF, the suitability of the data for factor

81.

analysis was assessed in accordance with the methods previously outlined. A correlation

matrix revealed a substantial amount of correlations between 0.30 and 0.60 (Hair et al.,

1998; Tabachnick & Fidell, 1996). Anti-image correlations demonstrated that factor

analysis was appropriate (Hair et al., 1998). The KMO value was 0.89 and Bartlett’s

Test of Sphericity reached statistical significance (630 df, p<0.001).

Principal axis factoring revealed eight factors with Eigenvalues exceeding one.

These components explained 27.67, 7.44, 7.05, 5.73, 5.47, 3.70, 3.25, 2.96, and 2.50%

of the variance, respectively. This result did not conform to Jordan et al’s. (2002) six-

factor solution. Furthermore, many items cross-loaded onto two or more factors.

Because researchers using the WEIP (see Moriarty & Buckley, 2003) have outlined

some reliability issues with scale authors planning to further explore the validity of the

measure, additional exploration of the scale was deemed necessary.

An inspection of the scree plot (see Figure 3) demonstrated a clear move towards a

horizontal line after the fifth factor (Hair et al., 1998). Using Catell’s scree test (1966)

assumption, five components were retained for further investigation. The results of the

Montecarlo Parallel Analysis (Watkins, 2000) further supported this assumption (36

variables x 320 respondents).

Figure 3 WEIP-6 Scale Time 1 Scree Plot

242322212019181716151413121110987654321

Factor Number

8

6

4

2

0

Eig

en

va

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Scree Plot

A Varimax rotation yielded a more parsimonious factor structure with a number of

the variables showing excellent, very good or good loadings on their respective factors

82.

(Comrey & Lee, 1992). An interpretation of the five factors was then conducted in

accordance with a-priori knowledge of the WEIP-6 subscales. Unfortunately, there were

twelve items that did not conform. To assist with the interpretation of the five factors,

twelve items were removed. The factor analysis was then conducted again on the 24

remaining variables (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1996).

The third Varimax rotation was then conducted on the 24 remaining variables

from the WEIP-6. This analysis confirmed the simplified five factor solution, with all

variables loading substantially onto only one component. Factor 1 was labelled

‘Awareness of Other’s Emotions’; Factor 2 was named ‘Ability to Discuss Own

Emotions’; Factor 3 was entitled ‘Ability to Manage Own Emotions’; Factor 4 was

labelled ‘Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions’; and Factor 5 was named ‘Awareness of

Own Emotions’. Table 9 details the loadings of each of the two factors.

As with the results presented for the analysis of the Citizenship Rating Scale,

factor analysis was conducted on Times 2 and 3 data. Again, the results obtained from

each separate analysis were similar to those presented above for the Time 1 data and,

therefore, have not been presented in detail. Table 10 presents the loadings of each of

the five factors at Time 2, with Table 11 presenting the Time 3 factor loadings.

83.

Table 9 Time 1 (n=320) Exploration of the WEIP-6 Scale using Principal Axis Factoring and Varimax rotation

Item Awareness of others’

emotions

Ability to manage own

emotions

Ability to discuss own

emotions

Ability to manage others’

emotions

Awareness of own

emotions

16. When I talk to a team member, I can gauge their true feelings from their body language 0.745 0.083 0.080 0.119 0.018

7. I can read my fellow team members’ ‘true’ feelings, even if they try to hide them 0.660 0.210 0.220 0.107 0.064

10. I am able to describe accurately the way others in the team are feeling 0.650 0.329 0.273 0.199 -0.014

22. I can tell when team members only pretend to be happy 0.632 0.089 -0.077 0.158 0.048

18. I can tell when team members do not mean what they say 0.600 0.134 0.025 0.231 -0.005

30. I am aware of how others in the team are feeling 0.554 0.306 0.169 0.156 0.235

19. I take notice of the mood my fellow team members are in 0.511 0.087 0.233 0.098 0.327

27. I can talk to other members of the team about the emotions I experience 0.126 0.772 0.077 0.223 0.101

8. I can discuss the emotions I feel with other team members 0.241 0.745 0.194 0.116 0.055

17. If I feel down, I can tell team members what will make me feel better 0.253 0.700 0.064 0.243 -0.010

6. I can explain the emotions I feel to team members 0.223 0.633 0.225 0.153 0.191

3. I respect the opinion of other team members, even if I think they are wrong 0.044 0.100 0.671 0.084 0.086

9. When I am frustrated with fellow team members, I can overcome my frustration 0.155 0.220 0.640 0.220 0.083

36. I give a fair hearing to my fellow team members’ ideas 0.179 -0.001 0.610 0.143 0.310

2. When I am angry with a member of my team, I can overcome my anger quickly 0.022 0.228 0.541 0.207 -0.135

12. When deciding on a dispute, I try to see all sides of a disagreement before I come to a conclusion

0.281 -0.063 0.504 0.100 0.137

32. I do not judge team members if they are experiencing problems -0.002 0.122 0.394 0.009 0.133

33. I can provide the ‘spark’ to get team members enthusiastic 0.171 0.195 0.204 0.716 0.057

21. I am able to influence other team members’ attitudes and actions 0.321 0.102 0.013 0.673 0.048

29. I can get fellow team members to share my keenness for a project 0.173 0.262 0.229 0.630 0.048

14. My enthusiasm can be contagious for members of my team. 0.190 0.172 0.233 0.549 -0.001

13. I am not sure what emotions I experience when working with my team. 0.111 0.087 0.092 0.046 0.713

28. I’m not usually aware of my feelings when working in my team. 0.055 0.218 -0.008 -0.034 0.707

20. When talking to team members, I find it difficult to see the other side of an argument. 0.031 -0.128 0.315 0.076 0.460

84.

Table 10 Time 2 (n=256) Exploration of the WEIP-6 Scale using Principal Axis Factoring and Varimax Rotation

Item Awareness of Others’

Emotions

Ability to Manage Own

Emotions

Ability to Discuss

Own Emotions

Ability to Manage Others’

Emotions

Awareness of Own

Emotions



22. I can tell when team members only pretend to be happy 0.680 0.118 0.003 0.238 0.101

10. I am able to describe accurately the way others in the team are feeling. 0.666 0.194 0.385 0.193 0.074

18. I can tell when team members do not mean what they say 0.611 0.043 0.197 0.121 0.121





2. When I am angry with a member of my team, I can overcome my anger quickly 0.125 0.644 0.161 0.046 0.021

36. I give a fair hearing to my fellow team members’ ideas 0.078 0.605 0.125 0.281 0.307

32. I do not judge team members if they are experiencing problems 0.037 0.455 0.222 0.192 0.089


0.300 0.451 -0.177 0.240 0.347





33. I can provide the ‘spark’ to get team members enthusiastic 0.234 0.208 0.218 0.632 0.137

29. I can get fellow team members to share my keenness for a project 0.322 0.174 0.301 0.614 -0.030


14. My enthusiasm can be contagious for members of my team 0.210 0.248 0.188 0.530 0.029

20. When talking to team members, I find it difficult to see the other side of an argument 0.150 0.324 -0.160 0.100 0.605

28. I am not usually aware of my feelings when working in my team 0.111 0.054 0.307 0.036 0.592

13. I am not sure what emotions I experience when working with my team 0.181 0.054 0.135 0.089 0.581

85.

Table 11 Time 3 (n=225) Exploration of the WEIP-6 Scale using Principal Axis Factoring and Varimax Rotation

Item Awareness of others’ emotions

Ability to manage own

emotions

Ability to discuss own

emotions

Ability to manage others’

emotions

Awareness of own

emotions

22. I can tell when team members only pretend to be happy 0.780 0.122 0.111 0.149 0.054

18. I can tell when team members do not mean what they say 0.675 0.090 0.082 0.242 -0.113





10. I am able to describe accurately the way others in the team are feeling 0.501 0.306 0.324 0.249 0.093






36. I give a fair hearing to my fellow team members’ ideas 0.161 -0.009 0.647 0.237 0.306

2. When I am angry with a member of my team, I can overcome my anger quickly 0.003 0.215 0.608 0.090 -0.016



0.214 -0.010 0.466 0.311 0.216

32. I do not judge team members if they are experiencing problems 0.230 0.070 0.434 0.144 0.073

29. I can get fellow team members to share my keenness for a project 0.170 0.233 0.218 0.737 0.116


33. I can provide the ‘spark’ to get team members enthusiastic 0.229 0.160 0.252 0.589 -0.014

14. My enthusiasm can be contagious for members of my team 0.273 0.283 0.109 0.423 0.110

28. I am not usually aware of my feelings when working in my team 0.102 0.200 0.046 0.108 0.630

13. I am not sure what emotions I experience when working with my team 0.117 0.052 0.052 0.009 0.582

20. When talking to team members, I find it difficult to see the other side of an argument. 0.075 -0.060 0.311 0.058 0.505

86.

Reliabilities and Correlations – Emotional Intelligence

The means, standard deviations, Cronbach’s Alpha reliability coefficients and

inter-item correlations for the 24 item EI Scale at Times 1, 2 and 3 are presented in

Tables 12, 13 and 14, respectively. Reliability coefficients and inter-item correlations

are within acceptable range (Cohen, 1988) except for the subscale ‘Awareness of Own

Emotions’ which was a little low. These results are however in keeping with previous

research that has reported reliability coefficients for this sub-scale between 0.58 and

0.75 (see Jordan et al, 2002; Moriarty & Buckley, 2003).

Table 12 Descriptive Statistics, Coefficient Alphas, and Correlations among WEIP-6 Scale and Subscales (Time 1 – 24 items)

Mean (S.D.) 1 2 3 4 5 6

1. Emotional Intelligence (Total)

4.69 (0.67) (0.89)

2. Awareness of Own Emotions

5.08 (1.06) 0.45** (0.68)

3. Ability to Discuss Own Emotions

3.94 (1.17) 0.75** 0.21** (0.86)

4. Ability to Manage Own Emotions

5.19 (0.78) 0.69** 0.24** 0.37** (0.76)

5. Awareness of Others’ Emotions

4.60 (0.89) 0.81** 0.23** 0.50** 0.37** (0.86)

6. Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions

4.52 (0.98) 0.72** 0.14** 0.48** 0.41** 0.49** (0.81)



Mean (S.D.) 1 2 3 4 5 6 1. Emotional

Intelligence (Total)

4.75 (0.71) (0.92)


4.91 (1.01) 0.57** (0.67)


4.22 (1.16) 0.75** 0.29** (0.85)


5.16 (0.78) 0.73** 0.38** 0.40** (0.82)


4.66 (0.94) 0.85** 0.38** 0.53** 0.45** (0.89)


4.71 (0.88) 0.76** 0.31** 0.53** 0.48** 0.57** (0.79)


87.


Mean (S.D.) 1 2 3 4 5 6 1. Emotional

Intelligence (Total)

4.76 (0.70) (0.91)


5.04 (1.01) 0.50** (0.62)


4.12 (1.17) 0.77** 0.23** (0.87)


5.22 (0.77) 0.75** 0.33** 0.46** (0.80)


4.68 (0.91) 0.82** 0.29** 0.52** 0.45** (0.87)


4.65 (0.93) 0.77** 0.24** 0.56** 0.51** 0.54** (0.80)


Goal Setting Data – Time 1, 2 and 3

Twenty-six items from Locke and Latham’s (1984, 1990) original 45-item goal

setting scale were analysed though principal axis factoring (PAF) using SPSS version

15.0. Prior to analysis, 11 of the negatively worded items were reversed. Items were

then visually inspected and revealed a substantial amount of correlations between 0.30

and 0.60 (Hair et al., 1998; Tabachnick & Fidell, 1996). Anti-image correlations

demonstrated that factor analysis was appropriate for the data (Hair et al., 1998). The

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy value was 0.91 and Bartlett’s Test

of Sphericity reached statistical significance at (325 df, p<0.001).

Principal axis factoring revealed five factors with Eigenvalues exceeding one.

These components explained 31.77, 10.54, 5.23, 4.54 and 4.05 per cent of the variance

respectively. Because the results of the factor analysis did not confirm to the

independently observed six-factor solution (Lee et al., 1991; Locke & Latham, 1984), a

closer examination of the data was undertaken. A visual inspection of the factor matrix

demonstrated that 18 items cross-loaded onto two or more factors (an additional analysis

constraining the data to a six-factor solution provided similar results). Based on these

results, it was determined that a five-factor solution could not be justified.

To determine a simple factor structure more closely, an inspection of the scree plot

was undertaken (see Figure 4). As can be seen, a clear move towards a horizontal line

occurs after the second factor (Hair et al., 1998). Using Catell’s scree test (1966)

assumption, it was therefore decided to retain two components for further investigation.

88.

The results of a Montecarlo Parallel Analysis (Watkins, 2000) supported a two-factor

solution. The test demonstrated two Eigenvalues greater than the corresponding

criterion values for a randomly–generated, same-size data matrix (26 variables x 320

respondents).

Figure 4 Goal Setting Time 1 Scree Plot

2625242322212019181716151413121110987654321

Factor Number

10

8

6

4

2

0

Eig

en

va

lue

Scree Plot

Based on these outcomes, a two-item extraction using the Varimax rotation was

conducted, yielding a simplified factor structure (Comrey & Lee, 1992). There were,

however, two variables with poor loadings. To assist with the interpretation, two factors

were removed and the factor analysis was run again on the 24 remaining variables

(Tabachnick & Fidell, 1996). The second Varimax rotation confirmed the simplified

two-factor solution, with all variables loading substantially onto only one component.

The final interpretation demonstrated a clear delineation between the two factors.

Items that fell into the first factor represent the positive processes that assist in goal

attainment. According to Bandura (1989) goal setting is a cognitive activity influenced

by a person’s belief in their own capabilities. If a person believes that they are capable

of achieving a goal, they are more likely to be committed to reaching a positive outcome

and will, in many cases, set themselves a more challenging goal. The fifteen items

within Factor 1 represent positive self-appraisal, self-efficacy and commitment to goal

setting. Therefore, Factor 1 was labelled as ‘Positive Goal Process’.

89.

Factor 2 represents the factors that may inhibit motivation towards effective goal

attainment. Existing research shows that individuals who do not believe they have the

capabilities to reach set goals reduce their effort and consequently achieve a lower level

of goal achievement (Bandura, 1989). The nine items contained within the second factor

highlight the negative cyclical nature of this relationship and was therefore labelled

‘Negative Goal Process’.

To ensure the consistency of the scale, Times 2 and 3 data were subjected to PAF,

using the same methods as presented above. The results were similar to those outlined

above and, as a result, are not presented in detail. Nevertheless, Table 15 does present

the final loadings of the two factors for Times 1, 2 and 3 data collections.

90.

Table 15 Time 1, 2 & 3 Exploration of the Goal Setting Scale using Principal Axis Factoring and Varimax Rotation

Item Time 1 Time 2 Time 3

+ Goal Process

- Goal Process

+ Goal Process

- Goal Process

+ Goal Process

- Goal Process

10. My supervisor clearly explains to me what my goals are 0.767 0.074 0.770 0.055 0.799 0.040

1. My supervisor is supportive with respect to encouraging me to reach my goals 0.747 0.216 0.592 0.163 0.702 0.083

14. My supervisor lets me have some say in deciding how I will go about implementing my goals 0.716 0.199 0.699 0.184 0.669 0.073

16. My supervisor tells me the reasons for giving me the goals I have 0.705 0.040 0.761 0.028 0.741 0.070

12. I have specific, clear goals to aim for on my job 0.689 0.190 0.778 0.189 0.718 0.108

22. I get regular feedback indicating how I am performing in relation to my goals 0.666 0.021 0.630 -0.029 0.607 0.164

7. My supervisor lets me participate in the setting of my goals 0.664 0.163 0.700 0.126 0.726 0.047

15. I usually feel I have a suitable or effective action plan or plans for reaching my goals 0.661 0.194 0.637 0.289 0.637 0.223

4. I understand how my performance is measured on this job 0.625 0.018 0.653 0.050 0.658 0.218

24. The other people I work with encourage me to attain my goals 0.575 0.044 0.611 0.032 0.604 0.127

20. I feel that my job training was good enough so that I am capable of reaching my job goals 0.489 0.279 0.579 0.197 0.504 0.188

9. I feel proud when I get feedback indicating that I have reached my goals 0.488 0.081 0.525 0.155 0.435 0.299

19. If I have more than one goal to accomplish, I know which ones are most important and which are least important

0.471 0.284 0.595 0.285 0.499 0.178

6. I understand exactly what I am supposed to do on my job 0.439 0.306 0.541 0.230 0.522 0.177

26. Trying for goals makes my job more fun than it would be without goals 0.438 0.188 0.508 0.257 0.527 0.238

8. My goals are much too difficult (R) -0.014 0.672 0.066 0.729 0.091 0.670

5. I have too many goals on this job (I am too overloaded) (R) -0.076 0.582 -0.098 0.647 -0.086 0.616

25. The goals I have on this job lead me to ignore other important aspects of my job (R) 0.181 0.580 0.181 0.597 0.038 0.661

23. My goals lead me to take excessive risks (R) 0.031 0.544 0.097 0.611 0.113 0.552

17. I am given incompatible or conflicting goals by different people (or even by the same person) (R)

0.254 0.506 0.355 0.523 0.360 0.474

2. I find working toward my goals to be very stressful (R) 0.220 0.485 0.069 0.577 0.135 0.467

3. My job goals serve to limit rather than raise my performance (R) 0.311 0.471 0.306 0.382 0.245 0.537

13. I often fail to attain my goals (R) 0.224 0.467 0.225 0.555 0.188 0.450

11. Some of my goals conflict with my personal values (R) 0.127 0.420 0.162 0.539 0.201 0.525

Time 1 n=320 Time 2 n=256 Time 3 n= 225

91.

Reliabilities and Correlations – Goal Setting

The means, standard deviations, Cronbach’s Alpha reliability coefficients and

inter-item correlations for the 24 item goal setting scale at Times 1, 2 and 3 are

presented in Tables 16, 17 and 18, respectively. Reliability coefficients and inter-item

correlations support the theoretical model advanced by Locke and Latham (1984).

Table 16 Descriptive Statistics, Coefficient Alphas, and Correlations among Goal Setting Scale and Subscales (Time 1 – 24 items)

Mean (S.D.) 1 2 3

1. Goal Setting (Total) 3.54 (0.55) (0.90)

2. Positive Goal Achievement Process 3.51 (0.67) 0.93** (0.91)

3. Negative Goal Achievement Process 3.59 (0.59) 0.71** 0.39** (0.79)

* = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01, n = 320, Cronbach’s Alpha Reliabilities on the diagonal, Negative

Goal Achievement Process Items were reversed prior to FA


Mean (S.D.) 1 2 3

1. Goal Setting (Total) 3.53 (0.56) (0.91)

2. Positive Goal Achievement Process 3.52 (0.67) 0.92** (0.92)

3. Negative Goal Achievement Process 3.55 (0.63) 0.73** 0.40** (0.83)




Mean (S.D.) 1 2 3

1. Goal Setting (Total) 3.55 0.55 (0.90)

2. Positive Goal Achievement Process 3.54 0.67 0.92** (0.91)

3. Negative Goal Achievement Process 3.58 0.62 0.72** 0.40** (0.81)



92.

Test-Retest Results

To determine whether any statistically significant changes occurred within the

sample over the eighteen-month time-period, a series of repeated measures ANOVAs

were conducted with planned comparisons using citizenship performance, EI and goal

setting (including their respective subscales) as dependent variables and time (Times 1,

2 and 3 data collections) as the within-subjects factors.


When conducting the repeated measures ANOVAs, the Wilks’ Lambda criterion

was reported for the analysis, because it is the most commonly-reported statistic in the

social sciences (Pallant, 2005) and, according to Tabachnick and Fidell (1996:401), it is

the result ‘of choice’ when reporting ANOVA results. These results are presented in

Table 19.

Table 19 Wilks’ Lambda, F-Statistics, Significance and Effect Size (d) for Citizenship, EI and Goal Setting Time 1, 2 and 3 Repeated Measures ANOVAs (n = 89)

Wilks’

Lambda

F (df) p Bf d

Citizenship Performance (Total) 1.00 0.18 (2,86) 0.84 1.00 0.03

Interpersonal Facilitation 0.99 0.40 (2,86) 0.67 1.00 0.07

Job Dedication 0.99 0.07 (2,86) 0.94 1.00 0.00

Goal Setting (Total) 0.97 1.60 (2,86) 0.20 1.00 0.02

Positive Goal Attainment 0.99 0.47 (2,86) 0.63 1.00 0.02

Negative Goal Attainment 0.95 2.31 (2,86) 0.10 0.50 0.04

Emotional Intelligence (Total) 0.99 0.31 (2,86) 0.74 1.00 0.04

Awareness of Own Emotions 0.94 2.81 (2,86) 0.07 0.35 0.14

Ability to Discuss Own Emotions 0.93 3.48 (2,86) 0.03 0.15 0.20

Ability to Manage Own Emotions 0.98 1.08 (2,86) 0.34 1.00 0.04

Awareness of Others’ Emotions 0.99 2.77 (2,86) 0.07 0.35 0.02

Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions 0.95 1.58 (2,86) 0.21 1.00 0.07

* = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01.

An examination of the repeated measures ANOVAs presented in Table 19 reveal

that, for each of the citizenship performance and goal setting dimensions, there were no

significant differences across the three data collection points, demonstrating that there

93.

were no significant differences in these scores between the Times 1, 2 and 3.

Additionally, there was no change in overall EI. One of the subscales, ‘Ability to

Discuss Own Emotions’ was the only dimension that demonstrated a significant change.

However, according to Cohen’s (1988) standard classifications, the effect size was

small. All remaining EI subscales showed no significant changes.

Planned Comparisons

Finally, a series of simple and repeated contrasts were conducted to examine the

differences in the mean citizenship performance, EI and goal setting scores for the

sample participants between Time 1 and Time 3, and Time 2 and Time 3 data

collections. These results are presented in Table 20, where an examination of Table 20

demonstrates that there were no significant differences in Citizenship, EI, or goal setting

from Time 1 to Time 3 or Time 2 to Time 3. Correspondingly, the effect sizes were not

noteworthy.

Chapter Summary

This chapter has provided details of the method, sample and results of factor

analyses and repeated measures ANOVAs undertaken on data collected from a

normative sample of participants. Factor analysis revealed consistent solutions for

citizenship performance, EI and goal setting at their three collection periods. The factors

derived from these analyses have provided a structure from which data will be analysed

within the remainder of this thesis.

Repeated measures ANOVAs revealed no change in citizenship performance or

goal setting over time. However, there was a small change in one of the EI subscales

‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’. This change can be contributed to the replication of

the survey over three points in time that highlighted these issues to the respondents. The

overall results presented provide confidence that there were no major activities

occurring within the organisation over this period that may have impacted citizenship

performance, EI or goal setting significantly. These results provide a basis from which

the outcomes of the training programs presented later in this thesis can be examined.

94.

Table 20 F-Statistics, Significance and Effect Size (d) for Citizenship, EI and Goal Setting from Time 1 to Time 3, and Time 2 to Time 3 (n = 89)

F (df) p Bf d

Citizenship Performance (Total)

Time 1 to Time 2 0.04 (1,87) 0.85 1.00 0.00

Time 1 to Time 3 0.30 (1,87) 0.59 1.00 0.03

Time 2 to Time 3 0.21 (1,87) 0.65 1.00 0.02

Interpersonal Facilitation

Time 1 to Time 2 0.33 (1,87) 0.57 1.00 0.08

Time 1 to Time 3 0.63 (1,87) 0.43 1.00 0.05

Time 2 to Time 3 0.12 (1,87) 0.74 1.00 0.04

Job Dedication

Time 1 to Time 2 0.02 (1,87) 0.89 1.00 0.00

Time 1 to Time 3 0.04 (1,87) 0.84 1.00 0.00

Time 2 to Time 3 0.15 (1,87) 0.70 1.00 0.00

Goa-setting (Total)

Time 1 to Time 2 2.12 (1,87) 0.15 0.45 0.02

Time 1 to Time 3 0.11 (1,87) 0.89 1.00 0.00

Time 2 to Time 3 2.43 (1,87) 0.12 0.37 0.04

Positive Goal Attainment

Time 1 to Time 2 0.62 (1,87) 0.43 1.00 0.02

Time 1 to Time 3 0.00 (1,87) 1.00 1.00 0.00

Time 2 to Time 3 0.73 (1,87) 0.40 1.00 0.03

Negative Goal Attainment

Time 1 to Time 2 3.14 (1,87) 0.08 0.24 0.07

Time 1 to Time 3 0.07 (1,87) 0.80 1.00 0.00

Time 2 to Time 3 3.81 (1,87) 0.05 0.16 0.05

Emotional Intelligence (Total)

Time 1 to Time 2 0.42 (1,87) 0.52 1.00 0.09

Time 1 to Time 3 0.00 (1,87) 0.99 1.00 0.00

Time 2 to Time 3 0.60 (1,87) 0.44 1.00 0.01

Awareness of Own Emotions

Time 1 to Time 2 5.68 (1,87) 0.02 0.06 0.16

Time 1 to Time 3 1.96 (1,87) 0.17 0.49 0.04

Time 2 to Time 3 0.72 (1,87) 0.40 1.00 0.13

Ability to Discuss Own Emotions

Time 1 to Time 2 6.37 (1,87) 0.01 0.04 0.24

Time 1 to Time 3 2.04 (1,87) 0.16 0.47 0.15

Time 2 to Time 3 1.61 (1,87) 0.21 0.62 0.09

Ability to Manage Own Emotions

Time 1 to Time 2 1.27 (1,87) 0.26 0.79 0.04

Time 1 to Time 3 1.49 (1,87) 0.23 0.68 0.04

Time 2 to Time 3 0.02 (1,87) 0.89 1.00 0.00

Awareness of Others’ Emotions

Time 1 to Time 2 0.59 (1,87) 0.46 1.00 0.07

Time 1 to Time 3 0.08 (1,87) 0.78 1.00 0.09

Time 2 to Time 3 0.33 (1,87) 0.57 1.00 0.02


Time 1 to Time 2 3.85 (1,87) 0.05 0.16 0.20

Time 1 to Time 3 0.50 (1,87) 0.48 1.00 0.14

Time 2 to Time 3 1.06 (1,87) 0.31 0.92 0.07

* = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01.

95.

In the next chapter, I explore the relationships between citizenship performance,

EI and goal setting. Specific hypotheses will be outlined and tested through statistical

techniques, including bivariate correlations and standard regression analyses, on the

same normative sample outlined within this chapter. These results will provide a greater

understanding of the relationship between the three constructs and inform the outcomes

of the study presented in the subsequent chapters.

96.

CHAPTER FIVE

Study 1 – Analysis of the Normative Sample Exploring the Relationship

between Emotional Intelligence, Citizenship Performance and Goal

Setting

Overview

In Chapter Three of this thesis, the links between EI and a variety of work skills,

such as conflict resolution (Jordan & Troth, 2002; 2004), negotiations (Elfenbein et al.,

2007), teamwork (Offermann et al., 2004), coping with work demands (Nikolaou &

Tsaousis, 2002), coping with change (Carmeli, 2003) and the balancing of work and

family (Carmeli, 2003) were discussed. Recent research has demonstrated that emotions

are linked to citizenship performance (Carmeli, 2003; Carmeli & Josman, 2006;

Charbonneau & Nicol, 2002) and goal setting (Jordan et al., 2002; Spence, Oades, &

Caputi, 2004). To date, however, research exploring the relationship between EI,

citizenship performance and goal setting has been minimal (Carmeli & Josman, 2006).

Therefore, the aim of this chapter is to establish a case for the construct validity of the

WEIP-6 measure of EI in the particular context of the overall research project. In

addition, the predictive capacities of the WEIP-6 sub-dimensions are examined.

Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients will be calculated to explore the

strength of these relationships. Next, standard multiple regressions will be conducted to

determine which dimensions of EI are significant predictors of citizenship performance

and goal setting. Finally, analysis using matched-panel data will be employed to more

rigorously test the relationship between EI, citizenship performance and goal setting,

and eliminate the potential for common method variance.

Hypothesis Development

Hypotheses for Emotional Intelligence and Citizenship Performance

Variables

Six hypotheses are proposed to determine the relationship between EI and

citizenship performance (and its subscales of interpersonal facilitation and job

dedication) (Motowildo & Van Scotter, 1994; Van Scotter & Motowidlo, 1996). As

outlined in Chapter Four, the links between positive emotions and citizenship

97.

behaviours in organisations have been extensively discussed and empirically tested by

authors such as, Isen (1993), Isen et al. (1976), and Staw et al. (1994). However, the

relationship between EI and citizenship performance requires further examination

(Carmeli & Josman, 2006). Based on the above research, the following three hypotheses

have been developed:

Hypothesis 1: High levels of EI will predict high levels of citizenship performance.

Hypothesis 2: High levels of EI will predict high levels of interpersonal

facilitation.

Hypothesis 3: High levels of EI will predict high levels of job dedication.

Hypotheses for Emotional Intelligence and Goal Setting Variables

Only a small number of researchers have examined the relationship between EI

and goal setting. Nevertheless, as outlined in Chapter Four, there has been a variety of

research conducted to examine the links between emotion and goal setting (see Bagozzi

et al., 1998; Cron et al., 2005; Oatley, 1988; Oatley & Johnson-Laird, 1996; Frijda et al.,

1989). With this goal in mind, a further three hypotheses were developed and are as

follows:

Hypothesis 4: High levels of EI will predict high levels of goal setting.

Hypothesis 5: High levels of EI will predict high levels of positive goal process.

Hypothesis 6: High levels of EI will predict low levels of negative goal process.

Method

The method of data collection, the sample of participants (Times 1, 2 and 3),

measures and the data screening procedures used within this chapter were outlined in

Chapter Four. The purpose of this chapter is to determine what relationships exist

between EI, citizenship performance and goal setting. To do this, Pearson product-

moment correlations were conducted on the scales derived from the normative sample

presented in the previous chapter. Furthermore, a series of regressions were completed

to explore the relationships outlined previously.

98.

Results – Emotional Intelligence and Citizenship Performance

The three data collections from the normative sample (over the eighteen-month

collection period) provide an excellent opportunity for investigating the relationships

between the variables. In this section the relationships are examined between EI and the

five EI dimensions (‘Awareness of Others’ Emotions’, ‘Ability to Discuss Own

Emotions’, ‘Ability to Manage Own Emotions’, ‘Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions’

and ‘Awareness of Own Emotions’) and citizenship performance and its two dimensions

of ‘Interpersonal Facilitation’ and ‘Job Dedication’.

Bivariate Analyses

Pearson correlations were performed on the data collected. The results of the two-

tailed tests were interpreted in accordance with Cohen’s (1998) guidelines. Times 1, 2

and 3 correlations revealed significant relationships between the dimensions of EI and

citizenship performance variables. These results are presented in Table 21.

As can be seen in Table 21, at Time 1, all relationships were significant. However,

the strongest relationship was between total EI and total citizenship performance. Strong

relationships were also found between EI and the subscale ‘Interpersonal Facilitation’

and the subscale ‘Ability to Manage Own Emotions’, and citizenship performance. The

remainder of the variables showed moderate relationships except for ‘Awareness of

Own Emotions’ and ‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’. ‘Awareness of Own Emotions’

correlated weakly with total citizenship performance and the subscales of ‘Interpersonal

Facilitation’ and ‘Job Dedication’. ‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’ and ‘Job

Dedication’ also reported small correlations.

At Time 2, there were similar strong relationships as were present at Time 1, with

the addition of large correlations between: ‘Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions’ and

total citizenship performance; ‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’, ‘Ability to Manage

Own Emotions’, ‘Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions’ and ‘Interpersonal Facilitation’;

and Total EI, ‘Ability to Manage Own Emotions’ and ‘Job Dedication’. The remainder

of the variables showed moderate relationships. Finally, at Time 3, large correlations

occurred between total citizenship performance, ‘Interpersonal Facilitation’ and all

dimensions of EI except for ‘Awareness of Own Emotions’, which showed a small but

significant correlation. A moderate relationship was revealed between ‘Job Dedication’

99.

and all of the EI dimensions (except for ‘Awareness of Own Emotions’, which again

showed a small but significant correlation).

Table 21 Times 1, 2 and 3 Correlations between EI and Citizenship Performance

Citizenship

Performance

Interpersonal

Facilitation

Job

Dedication

T1 Emotional Intelligence (n = 320) 0.57** 0.56** 0.43**

Awareness of Others’ Emotions 0.41** 0.42** 0.30**

Ability to Discuss Own Emotions 0.38** 0.40** 0.27**

Ability to Manage Own Emotions 0.51** 0.47** 0.42**

Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions 0.45** 0.44** 0.35**

Awareness of Own Emotions 0.20** 0.19** 0.16**

T2 Emotional Intelligence (n = 256) 0.65** 0.67** 0.53**





Awareness of Own Emotions 0.36** 0.35** 0.30**

T3 Emotional Intelligence (n=225) 0.65** 0.72** 0.48**





Awareness of Own Emotions 0.19** 0.19** 0.15*

* = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01.

Multivariate Analyses

To explore further the importance of these relationships (which dimensions of EI

are predictors of citizenship performance) standard multiple regressions were conducted

on the three data sets. The combined results of these analyses are presented in Table 22.

Citizenship performance variables were treated as the dependent variables and EI

variables are the predictor (independent) variables within this model.

100.

Table 22 Time 1, 2 & 3, Standard Regression Analyses between Citizenship Performance (DV) and EI variables (IVs) Time 1 (n = 320) Time 2 (n = 256) Time 3 (n = 225)

Beta Value (b)

Significance Beta Value (b)

Significance Beta Value (b)

Significance

1 Citizenship Performance

Awareness of Own Emotions 0.04 0.39 0.08 0.10 -0.06 0.30

Ability to Discuss Own Emotions 0.08 0.15 0.15 0.01* 0.20 0.01*

Ability to Manage Own Emotions 0.34 0.00** 0.39 0.00** 0.30 0.00**

Awareness of Others’ Emotions 0.13 0.02* 0.02 0.80 0.15 0.02*

Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions 0.20 0.00** 0.26 0.00** 0.23 0.01**

2 Interpersonal Facilitation


Ability to Discuss Own Emotions 0.12 0.04* 0.28 0.00** 0.33 0.00**


Awareness of Others’ Emotions 0.16 0.01** -0.02 0.80 0.25 0.00**

Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions 0.18 0.01** 0.27 0.00** 0.13 0.03*

3 Job Dedication


Ability to Discuss Own Emotions 0.03 0.59 0.03 0.66 0.06 0.41


Awareness of Others’ Emotions 0.08 0.21 0.03 0.62 0.06 0.44


0.16 0.01* 0.21 0.01** 0.25 0.01**

* = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01.

101.

At Time 1 (regression model 1) the five EI variables accounted for 35.6% of the

variance in citizenship performance at (R2= 0.356). However, only three of the subscales

(‘Awareness of Others’ Emotions’, ‘Ability to Manage Own Emotions’ and ‘Ability to

Manage Others’ Emotions’) emerged as significant predictors. In the second model, the

EI variables accounted 33.3% of the variance in interpersonal facilitation (R2 = 0.333).

All EI variables except for awareness of own emotions were significant predictors. In

regression model three, 22.2% of the variance in job dedication (R2 = 0.222) was

explained by the EI dimensions. ‘Ability to Manage Own Emotions’ and ‘Ability to

Manage Others’ Emotions’ emerged as significant predictors.

At Time 2, the first regression model demonstrates that the EI variables accounted

for 48.8% of the variance in citizenship performance (R2= 0.488). In this model,

‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’, ‘Ability to Manage Own Emotions’ and ‘Ability to

Manage Others’ Emotions’ emerged as significant predictors. In model two 50.7% of

the variance in IS is explained by the EI variables (R2= 0.507). ‘Ability to Discuss Own

Emotions’, ‘Ability to Manage Own Emotions’ and ‘Ability to Manage Others’

Emotions’ were again significant predictors. In the final Time 2 model, the EI

dimensions accounted for 33.8% of the variance in job dedication (R2= 0.338). As at

Time 1, ‘Ability to Manage Own Emotions’ and ‘Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions’

were found to significantly predict ‘Job Dedication’.

Results of the first Time 3 regression model revealed that the EI dimensions

accounted for 46.4% of the variance in citizenship performance (R²= 0.464). As for the

Time 2 model, ‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’, ‘Ability to Manage Own Emotions’

and ‘Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions’ emerged as significant predictors within this

model. In model two, 55.8% of the variance in interpersonal facilitation (R²= 0.558) is

explained by the EI variables. ‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’, ‘Ability to Manage

Own Emotions’ and ‘Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions’ emerged as significant

predictors. Finally, 27.0% of the variance in job dedication (R²= 0.270) was explained

by the EI dimensions. ‘Ability to Manage Own Emotions’ and ‘Ability to Manage

Others’ Emotions’ emerged as significant predictors in model three. Based on the results

outlined, Hypotheses 1, 2 and 3 were partially supported.

102.

Results – Emotional Intelligence and Goal Setting

In this section, the relationship between EI and its five EI dimensions and goal

setting and its two dimensions of ‘Positive Goal Process’ and ‘Negative Goal Process’

are explored. Pearson correlations and standard multiple regression analyses were used

to explore relationships at Times 1, 2 and 3 data collections. The results are presented in

Table 23.

Bivariate Analyses

At Time 1 (Table 23), the most significant relationship (a medium correlation

according to Cohen’s 1988 criteria) was found between EI and positive goal process.

Medium correlations were also observed between: EI, ‘Ability to Manage Own

Emotions’, ‘Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions’ and ‘Total Goal Setting’; and ‘Ability

to Discuss Own Emotions’, ‘Ability to Manage Own Emotions’, ‘Ability to Manage

Others’ Emotions’ and ‘Positive Goal Process’. Small correlations were found between:

‘Awareness of Others’ Emotions’, ‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’, ‘Awareness of

Own Emotions’ and Total Goal Setting; ‘Awareness of Others’ Emotions’, ‘Awareness

of Own Emotions’ and ‘Positive Goal Process’; and the EI scale, ‘Ability to Manage

Own Emotions’, ‘Awareness of Own Emotions’ and ‘Negative Goal Process. Finally,

‘Negative Goal Process’ did not correlate significantly with ‘Awareness of others’

Emotions’, ‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’ or the subscale ‘Awareness of Own

Emotions’.

At Time 2, a large correlation was found between the total EI scale and ‘Positive

Goal Process’. Small correlations were found between: ‘Awareness of Others’

Emotions’ and ‘Total Goal Setting’; ‘Awareness of Others’ Emotions’, ‘Awareness of

Own Emotions’ and ‘Positive Goal Process’; and total EI, ‘Ability to Manage Own

Emotions’, ‘Awareness of Own Emotions’ and ‘Negative Goal Process’. As with the

Time 1 analysis: ‘Negative Goal Process’ did not correlate significantly with

‘Awareness of Others’ Emotions’, ‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’ or ‘Awareness of

Own Emotions’. All remaining variables shared a moderate relationship within Time 2.

The final correlations undertaken on the Time 3 data revealed similar results to those

reported for the Time 1 data analysis. The most significant relationship occurred

between the total EI and the ‘Positive Goal Process’. As with both the Times 1 and 2

103.

analyses, ‘Negative Goal Process’ did not correlate significantly with ‘Awareness of

Others’ Emotions’, ‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’ or ‘Awareness of Own

Emotions’.

Table 23 Correlations between EI and Goal Setting (Time 1)

Goal Setting Positive Goal

Process

Negative

Goal

Process

T1 Emotional Intelligence (n = 320) 0.38** 0.43** -0.12*

Awareness of Own Emotions 0.18** 0.12* -0.22**

Ability to Discuss Own Emotions 0.29** 0.35** -0.05

Ability to Manage Own Emotions 0.33** 0.35** -0.15**

Awareness of Others’ Emotions 0.22** 0.28** -0.08

Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions 0.32** 0.38** -0.07

T2 Emotional Intelligence (n = 256) 0.45** 0.50** -0.18**

Awareness of Own Emotions 0.30** 0.23** -0.30**



Awareness of Others’ Emotions 0.29** 0.36** -0.05

Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions 0.32** 0.37** -0.10

T3 Emotional Intelligence (n = 225) 0.38** 0.41** -0.18**

Awareness of Own Emotions 0.24** 0.15* -0.29**



Awareness of Others’ Emotions 0.13* 0.18** -0.01

Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions 0.36** 0.39** -0.16*

* = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01.


To further explore the importance of the relationships outlined above, a series of

standard multiple regressions were conducted on the Times 1, 2 and 3 data. The

combined results of these analyses are presented in Table 24. Within these models, the

goal setting variables are treated as dependent variables and the EI variables are the

predictor variables.

104.

Table 24 Standard Regression Analyses between Goal Setting (DV) and EI variables (IVs) Time 1 (n = 320) Time 2 (n = 256) Time 3 (n = 225)

Beta Value (b) Significance Beta Value (b) Significance Beta Value (b) Significance

1 Goal Setting

Awareness of Own Emotions 0.08 0.13 0.13 0.04* 0.12 0.05

Ability to Discuss Own Emotions 0.13 0.05* 0.19 0.01** 0.23 0.01**


Awareness of Others’ Emotions -0.03 0.69 -0.01 0.89 -0.24 0.01**

Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions 0.18 0.01** 0.05 0.50 0.21 0.01**

2 Positive Goal Process

Awareness of Own Emotions 0.00 0.99 0.09 0.90 0.01 0.85

Ability to Discuss Own Emotions 0.17 0.01** 0.23 0.01** 0.30 0.00**


Awareness of Others’ Emotions 0.02 0.73 0.08 0.27 -0.20 0.01**

Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions 0.21 0.01** 0.07 0.34 0.20 0.01**

3 Negative Goal Process

Awareness of Own Emotions 0.20 0.00** 0.29 0.00** 0.27 0.00**

Ability to Discuss Own Emotions -0.01 0.90 0.04 0.56 0.02 0.82

Ability to Manage Own Emotions 0.14 0.02* 0.17 0.02* 0.15 0.06

Awareness of Others’ Emotions -0.11 0.12 -0.16 0.04* -0.23 0.01**

Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions 0.04 0.59 -0.00 0.97 0.14 0.11

* = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01.

105.

Collectively the EI variables accounted for 17.0% of the variance in goal setting at

Time 1 (R2= 0.170). In this model: ‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’, ‘Ability to

Manage Own Emotions’ and ‘Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions’ emerged as

significant predictors. In the second regression model, the variables accounted for

21.2% of the variance in ‘Positive Goal Process’ (R2 = 0.212). ‘Ability to Discuss Own

Emotions’, ‘Ability to Manage Own Emotions’ and ‘Ability to Manage Others’

Emotions’ again emerged as the significant predictors of ‘Positive Goal Process’.

Finally, in the third regression model, 6.8% of the variance in ‘Negative Goal Process’

(R2 = 0.068) was accounted for by the EI variables. In addition, ‘Ability to Manage Own

Emotions’ and ‘Awareness of Own Emotions’ emerged as significant predictors.

The results of the Time 2 standard regressions revealed that the EI variables were

significant predictors and accounted for 23.7% of the variance in goal setting (R2=

0.488). In model 1, ‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’, ‘Ability to Manage Own

Emotions’ and ‘Awareness of Own Emotions’ emerged as significant predictors of goal

setting. In the second model 27.1% of the variance in ‘Positive Goal Process’ is

explained by the EI variables (R2= 0.271). ‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’ and

‘Ability to Manage Own Emotions’ were the significant predictors in this model. In the

final Time 2 model, 12.2% of the variance in ‘Negative Goal Process’ (R2 = 0.122) was

explained by the EI dimensions. Specifically, ‘Awareness of Others’ Emotions’, ‘Ability

to Manage Own Emotions’ and ‘Awareness of Own Emotions’ were the significant

predictors. Based on these results Hypotheses 4, 5 and 6 were partially supported.

Examination of Panel Data

Whereas the previous section of this chapter has examined the Time 1, 2 and 3

data collections in separation, this section will examine the matched panel data from

across the three time collections. These data will be analysed using the same bivariate

and multivariate methods used above to provide an understanding of the relationship

between EI, citizenship performance and goal setting for the participants that completed

all three surveys. The main difference with these analyses, however, will be in the way

that the data are compared. In the previous sections of this chapter, data were based on a

cross-sectional data collected at a single point in time and, therefore, may have been

influenced by common method variance. In this section, the data will be compared

106.

across time to more rigorously test the relationship between the variables and eliminate

the potential for common method variance.

Results – Panel Data

Bivariate Analyses

Pearson correlations were performed on the matched panel data (n = 88). The

results of the tests were again consistent with the guidelines proposed by Cohen (1998).

The results for the correlations that were conducted on the EI and citizenship

performance and EI and goal setting data are outlined in Tables 25 and 26, respectively.

As can be seen in Table 25, the relationships between Times 1, 2 and 3 total EI

and Times 1, 2 and 3 citizenship performance, and its subscales of ‘Interpersonal

Facilitation’ and ‘Job Dedication’, ranged from strong to moderate. The remainder of

the variables showed strong, moderate and small correlations except for Time 3

‘Awareness of Emotions’, which correlated weakly with citizenship performance at

Times 1 and 2, with ‘Interpersonal Facilitation’ at Time 1 and with ‘Job Dedication’ at

Times 1 and 3. Time 2 ‘Interpersonal Facilitation’ was weakly correlated to Time 1

‘Ability to Manage Own Emotions’.

In terms of the relationships between the EI and the goal setting variables, Table

26 demonstrates mixed results. First, moderate relationships were found between the

Times 1, 2 and 3 EI and the Times 1, 2 and 3 goal setting and its subscale ‘Positive Goal

Process’; however, ‘Negative Goal Process correlated weakly with EI across all points

in time. Second, Times 1, 2 and 3 ‘Awareness of Others Emotions’ correlated weakly

with goal setting, ‘Positive Goal Process’ and ‘Negative Goal Process’ at all three points

in time. Third, Times 1, 2 and 3 ‘Negative Goal Process’ was found to be weakly

correlated with all Times 1, 2 and 3 EI subscale variables, except for ‘Awareness of

Own Emotions’ at Times 1 and 2, ‘Ability to Manage Own Emotions’ at Time 3, and

‘Awareness of Own Emotions at Time 3. Weak correlations were also demonstrated

between: Time 1 ‘Awareness of Own Emotions’, Time 3 goal setting and Times 1 and 2

‘Positive Goal Process’; Time 3 ‘Awareness of Own Emotions’ and Time 1 goal setting,

and Times 1, 2 and 3 ‘Positive Goal Process’; and Time 1 ‘Ability to Discuss Own

Emotions’ and Time 2 goal setting.

107.

Table 25 Correlations between EI and Citizenship Performance (Panel Data n = 88)

Time 1 Time 2 Time 3

CP IF JD CP IF JD CP IF JD

T1 Emotional Intelligence 0.52** 0.49** 0.43** 0.51** 0.51** 0.40** 0.46** 0.54** 0.35**

Awareness of Own Emotions 0.27* 0.25* 0.22* 0.35** 0.26* 0.33** 0.29** 0.32** 0.19

Ability to Discuss Own Emotions 0.44** 0.45** 0.35** 0.37** 0.45** 0.25* 0.31** 0.39** 0.22*

Ability to Manage Own Emotions 0.35** 0.27* 0.35** 0.29** 0.20 0.28** 0.33** 0.32** 0.29**

Awareness of Others’ Emotions 0.36** 0.34** 0.30** 0.40** 0.45** 0.28** 0.32** 0.42** 0.21*


Emotions

0.42** 0.45** 0.31** 0.44** 0.44** 0.34** 0.32** 0.46** 0.34**


Awareness of Own Emotions 0.29** 0.32** 0.21* 0.45** 0.46** 0.36** 0.29** 0.32** 0.23*

Ability to Discuss Own Emotions 0.43** 0.48** 0.31** 0.63** 0.72** 0.44** 0.52** 0.60** 0.40**

Ability to Manage Own Emotions 0.36** 0.35** 0.30** 0.52** 0.47** 0.45** 0.39** 0.48** 0.28**

Awareness of Others’ Emotions 0.36** 0.36** 0.28** 0.50** 0.50** 0.41** 0.32** 0.41** 0.22*


Emotions

0.47** 0.50** 0.34** 0.62** 0.62** 0.50** 0.46** 0.52** 0.36**


Awareness of Own Emotions 0.15 0.13 0.14 0.25* 0.22* 0.22* 0.18 0.21* 0.13

Ability to Discuss Own Emotions 0.49** 0.52** 0.37** 0.53** 0.63** 0.36** 0.63** 0.72** 0.49**

Ability to Manage Own Emotions 0.30** 0.28** 0.25* 0.48** 0.39** 0.44** 0.46** 0.46** 0.40**

Awareness of Others’ Emotions 0.43** 0.46** 0.52** 0.46** 0.50** 0.35** 0.51** 0.57** 0.40**


Emotions

0.38** 0.37** 0.32** 0.60** 0.65** 0.45** 0.60** 0.65** 0.49**

* = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01.

108.

Table 26 Correlations between EI and Goal Setting (Panel Data n = 88)

Time 1 Time 2 Time 3

GS PG NG GS PG NG GS PG NG

T1 Emotional Intelligence 0.36** 0.41** 0.07 0.34** 0.40** 0.10 0.27** 0.36** 0.01

Awareness of Own Emotions 0.27* 0.20 0.25* 0.32** 0.28** 0.27* 0.16 0.17 0.10

Ability to Discuss Own Emotions 0.38** 0.43** 0.09 0.19 0.25* 0.01 0.23* 0.30** 0.02

Ability to Manage Own Emotions 0.30** 0.33** 0.07 0.28** 0.34** 0.06 0.23* 0.32** -0.02

Awareness of Others’ Emotions 0.09 0.18 -0.14 0.19 0.25* 0.01 0.08 0.15 -0.09


Emotions

0.33** 0.34** 0.12 0.33** 0.37** 0.14 0.32** 0.39** 0.10


Awareness of Own Emotions 0.34** 0.27* 0.31** 0.34** 0.27* 0.31* 0.28** 0.29** 0.15

Ability to Discuss Own Emotions 0.41** 0.45** 0.12 0.41** 0.45** 0.12 0.25* 0.28** 0.11

Ability to Manage Own Emotions 0.47** 0.50** 0.17 0.47** 0.50** 0.17 0.40** 0.44** 0.19

Awareness of Others’ Emotions 0.14 0.17 -0.05 0.11 0.17 -0.05 0.02 0.12 -0.19


Emotions

0.35** 0.39** 0.08 0.35** 0.39** 0.08 0.30** 0.37** 0.07


Awareness of Own Emotions 0.16 0.06 0.29** 0.24** 0.13 0.34** 0.24* 0.13 0.34**

Ability to Discuss Own Emotions 0.36** 0.48** -0.07 0.31** 0.41** 0.01 0.36** 0.46** 0.05

Ability to Manage Own Emotions 0.45** 0.46** 0.21 0.36** 0.34** 0.24* 0.35** 0.39** 0.16

Awareness of Others’ Emotions 0.07 0.09 0.01 0.14 0.18 0.01 0.04 0.10 -0.09


Emotions

0.36** 0.37** 0.15 0.35** 0.43** 0.06 0.41** 0.48** 0.13

* = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01.

109.


To provide a further exploration of the relationships between EI and citizenship

performance and EI and goal setting, standard multiple regressions were conducted on

the entire panel data set (n = 88). The combined results of these analyses are presented

in Tables 27, 28 and 29. Citizenship performance and goal setting were treated as the

dependent variables and EI was treated as the predictor variable in these models.

Because 54 different regressions were completed, two complete tables outlining the

variance explained by the EI dimensions for citizenship performance and goal setting

variables are presented in Tables 27 and 28. The results for all regressions are then

presented in Table 29.

Table 27 Coefficients of Variation between Citizenship Performance (DV) and EI (IV) Panel Data (n = 88) Time 1 EI Time 2 EI Time 3 EI

R² R² R²

T1 Citizenship Performance (Total) 0.28 0.28 0.29

Interpersonal Facilitation 0.27 0.32 0.33

Job Dedication 0.20 0.15 0.17







In terms of the relationship between EI and citizenship performance: Time 1

‘Awareness of Own Emotions’ emerged as a significant predictor of citizenship

performance at Time 3. Time 1 ‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’ significantly

predicted citizenship performance at Times 1 and 3. Time 2 ‘Ability to Discuss Own

Emotions’ significantly predicted citizenship performance at Time 2. Finally, at Time 3

citizenship performance was significantly predicted by Time 3 ‘Awareness of Others;

Emotions’, ‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’, and ‘Ability to Manage Others’

Emotions’.

110.

In relation to EI and Time 1 ‘Interpersonal Facilitation’: Time 3 ‘Awareness of

Others’ Emotions’ was a significant predictor; Times 1, 2 and 3 ‘Ability to Discuss Own

Emotions’, emerged as significant predictors; and Time 1 and 2 ‘Ability to Manage

Others’ Emotions’ significantly predicted ‘Interpersonal Facilitation’ at Time 1.

Examining EI and Time 2 ‘Interpersonal Facilitation’, Time 1 ‘Awareness of Others’

Emotions’, Time 2 and 3 ‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’, Times 1, 2 and 3 ‘Ability

to Manage Others’ Emotions’, and Time 2 ‘Awareness of Own Emotions’ all emerged

as significant predictors of ‘Interpersonal Facilitation’ at Time 2. Finally, Time 3

‘Interpersonal Facilitation’ was found to be significantly predicted by Time 1

‘Awareness of Others’ Emotions’, Time 2 and 3 ‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’,

and Time 3 ‘Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions.

Next: Time 1 ‘Job Dedication’ was significantly predicted by Time 1 ‘Ability to

Manage Others’ Emotions’, Time 2 ‘Job Dedication’ was predicted by Time 3 ‘Ability

to Manage Others’ Emotions’, and Time 3 ‘Job Dedication’ was predicted by Time 2

‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’.

Moving to Table 28, Time 1 goal setting; Times 1, 2 and 3 ‘Awareness of Others’

Emotions’, Times 1 and 2 ‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’, and Times 2 and 3

‘Ability to Manage Own Emotions’ emerged as significant predictors of overall goal

setting at Time 1. For Time 2 goal setting: only Time 2 ‘Ability to Manage Others’

Emotions’ and ‘Awareness of Own Emotions’ were revealed as significant predictors. In

terms of goal setting at Time 3, both Time 2 and 3 ‘Awareness of Others’ Emotions’,

Time 2 ‘Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions’, and Time 3 ‘Ability to Manage Own

Emotions’ emerged as significant predictors.

With respect to Time 1, ‘Positive Goal Process’ was significantly predicted by,

‘Awareness of Others’ Emotions’ at Times 2 and 3, ‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’

at Times 1, 2 and 3’, and ‘Ability to Manage Own Emotions’ at Time 1, 2 and 3. An

examination of ‘Positive Goal Process’ at Time 2 demonstrated that, Time 2 ‘Ability to

Discuss Own Emotions’ and ‘Ability to Manage Own Emotions’ were significant

predictors. At Time 3, Time 2 and 3 ‘Awareness of Others’ Emotions’, Time 3 ‘Ability

to Discuss Own Emotions’, Time 2 and 3 ‘Ability to Manage Own Emotions’, and Time

3 ‘Ability to Manage Others’ emotions all emerged as significant predictors of time 3

‘Positive Goal Setting’.

111.

Table 28 Coefficients of Variation between Goal Setting (DV) and EI (IV) Panel Data Time 1 EI Time 2 EI Time 3 EI

R² R² R²

T1 Goal Setting (Total) 0.26 0.33 0.29

Positive Goal Process 0.26 0.34 0.37

Negative Goal Process 0.16 0.14 0.18







Finally, an examination of Time 1 ‘Negative Goal Process’ revealed that Time

1’Awareness of Others’ Emotions’, Time 3 ‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’, and

Times 1, 2 and 3 ‘Awareness of Own Emotions’ emerged as significant predictors. At

Time 2, Time 2 ‘Awareness of Others’ Emotions’ and Times 1, 2 and 3 ‘Awareness of

Own Emotions’ were revealed as significant predictors. Finally, Time 2 and 3

‘Awareness of Others’ Emotions’ and Time 3 ‘Awareness of Own Emotions’ were

significant predictors of ‘Negative Goal Process’ at Time 3.

112.

Table 29 Standard Regression Analyses between Goal Setting (DV) and EI variables (IVs) (Panel Data n = 88) Time 1 Time 2 Time 3

Beta Value

(ββββ)

Significance Beta Value

(ββββ)

Significance Beta Value

(ββββ)

Significance

T1 Citizenship Performance


Ability to Discuss Own Emotions 0.26 0.03* 0.20 0.10 0.34 0.01**

Ability to Manage Own Emotions 0.17 0.12 0.07 0.56 0.06 0.59

Awareness of Others’ Emotions 0.74 0.53 0.09 0.46 0.23 0.04*

Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions 0.14 0.25 0.24 0.07 0.02 0.87

T1 Interpersonal Facilitation


Ability to Discuss Own Emotions 0.26 0.03* 0.25 0.03* 0.40 0.01**


Awareness of Others’ Emotions 0.56 0.64 0.07 0.52 0.29 0.01**

Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions 0.24 0.05* 0.28 0.03* -0.05 0.72

T1 Job Dedication



Ability to Manage Own Emotions 0.23 0.05* 0.11 0.41 0.70 0.57





Ability to Discuss Own Emotions 0.12 0.34 0.33 0.01** 0.14 0.21

113.

Table 29 cont.

Ability to Manage Own Emotions 0.05 0.66 0.11 0.23 0.20 0.05*


Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions 0.23 0.07 0.24 0.02* 0.34 0.01**



Ability to Discuss Own Emotions 0.20 0.09 0.50 0.00** 0.29 0.01**

Ability to Manage Own Emotions -0.07 0.51 0.01 0.95 0.04 0.68

Awareness of Others’ Emotions 0.24 0.04* 0.13 0.13 0.16 0.09

Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions 0.24 0.05* 0.20 0.04* 0.36 0.01**

T2 Job Dedication



Ability to Manage Own Emotions 0.11 0.33 0.16 0.17 0.26 0.02*


Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions 0.17 0.20 0.22 0.08 0.26 0.05*





Awareness of Others’ Emotions 0.09 0.49 0.01 0.90 0.19 0.04*





114.

Table 29 cont.


Awareness of Others’ Emotions 0.18 0.12 0.06 0.54 0.23 0.01**


T3 Job Dedication


Ability to Discuss Own Emotions 0.04 0.78 0.27 0.04* 0.23 0.08


Awareness of Others’ Emotions 0.01 0.91 -0.02 0.89 0.15 0.19


T1 Goal Setting


Ability to Discuss Own Emotions 0.37 0.01** 0.23 0.05* 0.21 0.11

Ability to Manage Own Emotions 0.20 0.07 0.38 0.01** 0.37 0.01**

Awareness of Others’ Emotions -0.29 0.02* -0.28 0.02* -0.26 0.03*


T1 Positive Goal Process


Ability to Discuss Own Emotions 0.39 0.01** 0.26 0.03* 0.42 0.01**

Ability to Manage Own Emotions 0.23 0.04* 0.39 0.01** 0.38 0.00**

Awareness of Others’ Emotions -0.16 0.19 -0.22 0.05* -0.25 0.02*


T1 Negative Goal Process


Ability to Discuss Own Emotions 0.13 0.30 0.06 0.68 -0.32 0.02*

115.

Table 29 cont.


Awareness of Others’ Emotions -0.38 0.01** -0.24 0.06 -0.14 0.26

Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions 0.10 0.45 -0.35 0.80 0.31 0.03*

T2 Goal Setting



Ability to Manage Own Emotions 0.14 0.24 0.31 0.01** 0.22 0.07

Awareness of Others’ Emotions -0.05 0.71 -0.21 0.07 -0.14 0.24




Ability to Discuss Own Emotions 0.05 0.67 0.22 0.05* 0.22 0.10


Awareness of Others’ Emotions 0.01 0.95 -0.09 0.44 -0.12 0.33




Ability to Discuss Own Emotions -0.08 0.56 -0.01 0.95 -0.11 0.44

Ability to Manage Own Emotions -0.02 0.86 0.20 0.11 0.20 0.10

Awareness of Others’ Emotions -0.13 0.33 -0.35 0.01** -0.13 0.28

Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions 0.15 0.29 -0.01 0.96 0.05 0.72

T3 Goal Setting



116.

Table 29 cont.


Awareness of Others’ Emotions -0.18 0.17 -0.35 0.01** -0.33 0.01**




Ability to Discuss Own Emotions 0.18 0.16 0.02 0.90 0.28 0.03*

Ability to Manage Own Emotions 0.20 0.09 0.37 0.01** 0.22 0.04*

Awareness of Others’ Emotions -0.13 0.29 -0.24 0.05* -0.27 0.01**

Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions 0.25 0.06 0.23 0.08 0.32 0.01**


Awareness of Own Emotions 0.13 0.29 0.15 0.20 0.38 0.01**

Ability to Discuss Own Emotions 0.01 0.98 0.07 0.57 -0.04 0.76

Ability to Manage Own Emotions -0.07 0.57 0.29 0.03* 0.07 0.56

Awareness of Others’ Emotions -0.20 0.15 -0.44 0.01** -0.31 0.01**


* = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01.

117.

Discussion

Emotional Intelligence and Citizenship Performance

The results of the standard regressions conducted on the EI variables (IVs) and

citizenship variables (DVs) revealed several of the EI subscales to be significant

predictors of citizenship performance. ‘Ability to Manage Own Emotions’ and ‘Ability

to Manage Others’ Emotions’ were significant predictors across the three data

collections. To evaluate why citizenship performance is predicted by these EI variables,

a closer examination of the citizenship subscales will be undertaken in the following

section.

Further examination of the citizenship subscales reveals that ‘Ability to Discuss

Own Emotions’ was as a significant predictor of ‘Interpersonal Facilitation’ at Times 1,

2 and 3. ‘Interpersonal Facilitation’ consists of individual helping behaviours that assist

both themselves and others’ to achieve work-related goals (Van Scotter & Motowidlo,

1996). To facilitate this process, individuals need to engage in open dialogue to

determine the areas where assistance is required and can be given to others. Therefore,

the ability to discuss the emotions associated with problems that are being encountered

would definitely be a skill that would help to facilitate the process. Consequently, this

result is not surprising.

‘Ability to Manage Own Emotions’ also emerged as a significant predictor of

‘Interpersonal Facilitation’ at Times 1, 2 and 3. To be able to offer work colleagues

assistance on a problem that they may be having, it is important for the helper to be able

to regulate their emotions towards the situation (Grandey, 2000). When a colleague is

experiencing difficulties, the ability to remain calm and composed would be extremely

beneficial. Therefore, it is not against expectations that there would be a significant

relationship between these variables.

In addition to the management of own emotions, the subscale ‘Ability to Manage

Others’ Emotions’ predicts ‘Interpersonal Facilitation’ across the three data sets. Van

Scotter and Motowidlo (1996, p. 526) describe ‘Interpersonal Facilitation’ as helping

others’ to ‘remove barriers to performance’. Clearly, if you have the capacity to help

colleagues to calm themselves down so that they can focus on solving the problem at

hand, this would be an extremely beneficial way to remove these barriers.

118.

The regression results also showed that ‘Ability to Manage Own Emotions’

significantly predicted ‘Job Dedication’. As job dedication is centred upon a person’s

willingness to ‘go the extra mile’ to get their tasks completed (Motowidlo &

VanScotter, 1994; Van Scotter & Motowidlo, 1996), it makes sense that an ability to be

able to manage one’s emotional state so that the task at hand can be focused upon would

be advantageous. If intense emotions have the capacity to stifle creativity and problem

solving (Zhou & George, 2003), then having the capacity to regulate your own emotions

would enable the successful completion of tasks in a timely manner.

Finally, ‘Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions’ also predicted ‘Job Dedication’.

Having the ability to help others manage their emotions to remain focused on their

work, by creating a positive emotional environment for task completion would no doubt

help others to complete their tasks (Schutte et al., 2000), but would assist the individual

as well. When a team focuses its energies towards a task, individual motivation toward

that goal increases.

Emotional Intelligence and Goal Setting

The second set of standard regression analyses were undertaken on the EI

variables (IVs) and the goal setting variables (DVs). The results showed that both

‘Ability to Discuss Emotions’ and ‘Ability to Manage Own Emotions’ were significant

predictors of goal setting at Times 1, 2 and 3. These results demonstrate that while the

setting of goals does include the discussion of emotional issues, the ability to manage

your emotions so that the process can proceed is important.

Take the example of an employee discussing their new goals with a supervisor

during a performance review. During performance appraisals, employees are given

feedback on how they have performed, are generally asked to describe how well or

badly they feel they have performed and are then tasked with the role of setting a new

range of goals with their manager. Clearly, this example demonstrates a situation where

the discussion of both negative and positive emotions towards achieved/non-achieved

goals would occur. An employee would need to be able to accurately articulate what it

was about the goal they were aiming for that caused specific emotional reactions.

However, the ability to discuss these emotions whilst not allowing these emotions to

resurface and negatively influence the process would be extremely important (Gaudine

119.

& Thorne, 2001). As a result of keeping their emotions in check, the employee would

then be able to discuss how their goals should be set for the next period.

In terms of ‘Positive Goal Process’, it was found that both ‘Ability to Discuss

Own Emotions’ and ‘Ability to Manage Own Emotions’ emerged as significant

predictors. Firstly, in terms of discussing emotions, the ability to communicate clearly

how you are feeling in a goal setting situation would undoubtedly help to facilitate a

positive process. By doing this, a manager/supervisor is better able to understand the

help and provide the support that might be required to achieve the goals that are being

set. If an individual is clearly able to articulate which goals are enjoyable yet challenging

or areas where they feel emotions such as frustration or even shame (for not having the

skills required for success), managers can ensure that goals are set that are clear,

achievable and realistic for that individual and that any training or resources needed for

goal success are provided to the individual.

Secondly, the relationship between ‘Ability to Manage Own Emotions’ and

‘Positive Goal Setting’ can be explained through examining the planning and setting of

goals in a workplace situation. The process of goal setting and goal attainment involves

formulating a plan and sticking to that plan to enable the goal to be reached (Locke &

Latham, 1990). Even when things do not go exactly as planned, the ability to manage

your emotional state would enable an individual to deal with these ups and downs of the

situation.

An example of this would be an individual working towards a goal of having a

report completed and on their manger’s desk by 5.00 pm on Friday afternoon. During

the process, the individual may encounter ‘roadblocks’ that could impede their progress

(for example, their computer breaks down or vital information is not supplied as

promised by another party). Clearly, the ability to manage emotions, rather than yielding

to emotions such anger, frustration or guilt would enable the individual to remain

focused on the achievement of the goal.

Finally, the regression results uncovered a relationship between the two variables

‘awareness of Own Emotions’ and ‘Negative Goal Process’. As mentioned above,

allowing intense negative emotions to surface and remain while attempting to reach

goals would severely obstruct goal attainment. However, if these emotions are

recognized before they progress to being intense emotions (such as acknowledging mild

agitation) then they can be dealt with before the emotion becomes so intense it prevents

120.

the goal from being reached. Extending the example outlined above, if the individual

whose computer has just malfunctioned recognises that they are experiencing a negative

emotional response, they can then make an objective decision of whether they will let

their frustration thwart the efforts of their task or whether they should find another way

to achieve their goal without the broken computer.

Limitations

I acknowledge two limitations in the results presented in this chapter. First, panel

data has been used to examine the relationship between EI, citizenship performance and

goal setting. Although the relationship between variables has been established, these

results cannot be used to infer causality. In order to do this an intervention is required

(the results of which will be presented in Chapter Six). The second limitation is the

possibility of Common Method Variance (CMV) as data were collected from a single

source via self-report measures (Avolio, Yammarino & Bass, 1991 ; Lindell & Whitney,

2001; Meade, Watson & Kroustalis, 2007 ; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee & Podsakoff,

2003; Spector, 2006). Common Method Variance can impact respondents

comprehension, information retreival, judgement, response selection and reponse

reporting in self-reports and therefore should be acknowledged at this point (Podsakoff

et al, 2003). Analysis of the panel data set suggests however, that the results are not the

product of CMV. Several procedural remedies to limit the possibility of CMV were

included at the research design stage, however additional remedies could have been

considered and put in place (see Avolio et al, 1991; Lindell & Whitney, 2001; Meade et

al, 2007; Podsakoff et al, 2003).

Podsakoff et al. (2003, p. 887) propose several ‘procedural remedies’ that can be

undertaken to reduce the impact of CMV. First, reports by others (such as peers,

supervisors or independent observers) and objective measures can be employed. Second,

the separation of measures (temporal, proximal, psychological or methodological) may

be advantageous. Third, measures that ensure the respondents’ anonymity can reduce the

occurrences of socially-desirable behaviours. Finally, the authors propose that mixing

items from differing scales within the overall measure could counter biases.

Of the four procedures proposed, the separation of measures (between survey

iterations) and respondent anonymity (use of a unique identifier) were employed within

121.

the studies (Podsakoff et al., 2003). Clearly, the inclusion of additional measures would

have allowed comparisons of data to be conducted; however, I acknowledge that there

are bias issues associated with alternative ratings (see Spector, 1994). With respect to

mixing the items within the survey, Peterson (2000) contends that this technique

interrupts the logical progression of the survey items. Therefore, rather than using this

method, mixed Likert-type scales (five and seven items) were used.

Chapter Summary

The results of Carmeli and Josman (2006) and Jordan et al.’s (2002) studies

demonstrate that relationships exist between EI, citizenship performance and goal focus.

However, the authors stated that further exploration of these relationships was required.

With this in mind, two research questions were proposed. The first question focused on

determining the relationship between EI and citizenship performance. The second

questioned the relationship between EI and goal setting. Although the purpose of the

research program outlined in this thesis is premised on the question of whether EI can

be trained, it is important to explore the potential outcomes that EI training may have in

other areas of organisational life. The results of this chapter suggest there is a

relationship between EI and citizenship performance, and EI and goal setting. Now that

these relationships have been established, it is appropriate to move on to test the impact

of training on these variables.

122.

CHAPTER SIX

A Comparison of Emotional Intelligence (Study 2) and Interpersonal Skills

(Study 3) Training on the Emotional Intelligence of Individuals

Overview

Improvements in team performance are of great interest, because there is clear

evidence that we are moving to more team structures within organisations (West, 1994).

Teams outperform individuals, because they allow individual strengths to be used while

individual weaknesses are compensated for (Brannick, Salas, & Prince, 1997). However,

to create a high level of team performance, individuals within those teams require the

ability to work together towards a common goal (West, 1994). According to the research

undertaken by Jordan and Troth (2004), EI facilitates individuals’ working relationships

and, therefore, team performance. There are other methods of improving team

performance, such as team building (Salas, Rozell, Mullen, & Driskell, 1999) and

improving IS (Dick, 1991).

This study has two aims. The first aim is to determine whether training specific

emotions-focused skills and abilities leads to an increase in the EI of individuals (Study

2). In addition, this study will examine the effect of the intervention on other constructs

and to determine if the training had more or less impact on citizenship performance and

goal setting. Despite the significant amount of research around the EI construct and an

increasing number of training courses being offered, a question still remains concerning

whether training in emotional abilities raises EI. While research has demonstrated

differences in performance in high average EI groups and low emotional average EI

groups (Jordan & Troth, 2004), other longitudinal research has proposed that differences

in performance were moderated the longer the groups worked together (Jordan et al.,

2002). What is not clear from this existing research is whether it is the development of

group skills or the actual training interventions that lead to the performance change.

Using a measure of EI in a workplace setting (Jordan et al., 2002) based on Mayer and

Salovey’s (1997) Four-branch Model of EI (awareness, understanding, facilitation and

management of own and others’ emotions), this study assesses a training program

designed to improve EI skills and abilities. A detailed description of the construction of

these skills and abilities is presented in Chapter Three.

123.

The second aim of this chapter is to examine the impact of training in IS on EI,

citizenship performance and goal setting of the participants (Study 3). Upon taking a

closer look at many of the EI training programs being offered to organisations, it is easy

to understand why academic researchers have become sceptical about their success.

First, few of these interventions are justified on theoretical grounds (Palmer et al.,

2001). Second, a number of these interventions actually involve training a suite of IS,

which, while linked to emotions, are not predicated on emotion (Jordan et al., 2009). In

this study, I contend that while improvements in IS (such as supportive communication,

conflict resolution and goal setting) may enhance the performance of individuals and

teams, this type of training will not affect the EI of the participants.

The Training Programs

The emotions-focused training and IS training programs were both conducted in

the same organisation as the normative group data collection presented in Study 1

(Chapters Four and Five). The EI training intervention was constructed by focusing on

the skills relating to EI that were outlined in Chapter Three of this thesis. The IS

intervention was constructed by incorporating supportive communication (Carlopio et

al., 1997), conflict resolution (Thomas & Kilmann, 1974) and goal setting skills (Locke

& Latham, 1990). The framework for both training programs was that of an experiential

intervention (Kolb, 1984). Emotional Intelligence training was undertaken with teams

during two full days of training, followed two weeks later by a half-day follow-up

training session. The IS training was facilitated with teams over one full day, followed

by a half-day refresher approximately two weeks later.

Each training session had at least two facilitators present, and, in most cases,

three. To ensure consistency in training content and delivery, I undertook the role of

primary facilitator and was present at every training session. I was assisted by either one

or two facilitators from a wider team of eight facilitators. Each facilitator had extensive

experience in the training and development of adult learners. The facilitators were

rotated, based on their availability. However, the same facilitators were always present

at both the full day of training and the half-day follow-up.

Surveys were distributed for completion by the participants prior to the

commencement of the training intervention (pre-test) and at the follow-up session two

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weeks later (post test). On the first day of training, the individuals were assigned into

teams that would remain together for the duration of the training. These teams either

mirrored the organisational work teams (intact teams) or a random selection from the

wider training group (ad-hoc training teams, but from the same organisational unit) and

comprised between four and six members. Full details of the content of the EI program

are presented in Appendices B and C. Details of the IS training program are presented in

Appendices D and E.

Hypothesis Development – Emotional Intelligence Training

To progress our understanding of this area, a series of hypotheses will be

empirically tested within this chapter. As mentioned in the review of the literature, there

is still some contention whether EI is a crystallised or fluid intelligence (see: Cooper &

Sawaf, 1997; Mayer et al., 2000). Because crystallized intelligence relates to acquired

knowledge (Farrelly & Austin, 2007), in this thesis I am operating on the assumption

that EI is a crystallised intelligence. Other researchers working in the field of EI have

supported this particular hypothesis (see Ashkanasy & Daus, 2005; Davies et al., 1998;

Jordan & Ashkanasy, 2008; Mayer & Salovey, 1997). The results of a recent study by

Farrelly & Austin (2007) provide evidence for this hypothesis.

As organisations move toward understanding and improving the relational nature

of work, individuals within these organisations will be expected to follow suit.

Emotional Intelligence abilities are increasingly being seen as valuable skills that can be

improved to achieve these outcomes (Caruso & Salovey, 2004; Cherniss & Adler,

2000). However, the issue at present is a lack of empirical research examining the

efficacy of training EI within organisations. Because this issue provides the basis of this

research program, the first broad hypothesis this study seeks to test is:

Hypothesis 1: Training interventions based on EI skills and abilities will

increase individual EI.

In addition to determining the impact of these interventions on overall EI, it is

essential to determine how each separate branch of EI is impacted by the activities

within the training. To gain a greater insight into these relationships, more detailed

hypotheses are required. The following hypotheses are presented sequentially, according

to their relationship to the four branches of EI. In particular, these hypotheses relate

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directly to the specific work skills and abilities that have been highlighted in Chapter

Three as being associated with Mayer and Salovey’s four-branch model of EI. In

addition, each hypothesis has been constructed in keeping with Jordan et al.’s (2002)

WEIP-6 scale and its relationship to the four-branch model of EI.


A skill that I hypothesise can be improved to increase an individual’s awareness of

their own and others’ emotions is reflection on experienced emotions (Caruso &

Salovey, 2004). Reflecting back on situations where both positive and negative

emotions are experienced and reflecting upon the impact of these emotions on the

behaviour of self and others enables individuals to build their awareness of emotions.

Morgan and Dennehy (1997) state that, through a process of sharing these thoughts and

feelings with others through processes such as storytelling, a greater awareness of the

impact of own emotional reactions on others can be achieved. Currently, skills in this

area being successfully trained in the psychotherapy field through the use of cognitive-

behavioural therapy (CBT) and emotion-focused therapy (EFT) (Greenberg, 2008).

The facial expressions of an individual are highly informative (Ekman, 1993,

1999; Ekman & Friesen, 1975). Even if an individual is trying to hide their emotions,

Ekman (1997) argues that often their micro and subtle facial expressions will alert us to

the real emotions being experienced beneath the surface. Therefore, training individuals

to recognise and correctly interpret micro and subtle facial expressions will increase

their self-awareness and provide them with the skills to identify and act upon these

expressions displayed by others.

In addition to facial expressions, body gestures and body language can provide us

with valuable information about the emotions that an individual is experiencing

(Planalp, 1999; Planalp et al., 1996). It is proposed that training individuals in the

understanding of body gestures and language will therefore increase their EI by

enhancing the individual’s ability to correctly identify emotions in others. Based on the

above, I therefore hypothesise that:

Hypothesis 2: Training a set of skills to build awareness of emotions will

increase an individual’s:

a. Awareness of own emotions, and;

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b. Awareness of others’ emotions.


Perspective taking, according to Davis (1984), entails an individual’s ability to see

a situation from another’s point of view. In this way, the individual is able to identify

the emotions that the other person is experiencing and use this information to generate

appropriate emotions designed to manage the interaction (Parker & Axtell, 2001).

Through increasing perspective-taking abilities, it is proposed that individuals’ ability to

tune into a situation and their ability to generate emotions appropriate to that situation

will be increased (Planalp, 1999). Tuning in to the emotions of others requires an

individual to connect with the emotions the other person is experiencing at a particular

time (Planalp, 1999).

In addition, an area of increasing interest in emotions research in organisations is

the concept of emotional contagion. Emotional contagion refers to encouraging others to

adopt emotions that are deemed to be useful to improve performance at work (Kelly &

Barsade, 2001). Recognising emotional triggers and determining ways in which these

can be used to encourage others to adopt a specific emotion for a given situation

increases an individual’s ability to facilitate emotion (Caruso & Salovey, 2004).

Finally, both stories (Morgan & Dennehy, 1997) and music (Wilder, 1996) are

significant methods used by leaders to generate emotion in their employees. Clearly,

understanding the power of these methods is vital to the success of individuals who are

trying to facilitate emotion. Based on this, it is hypothesised that:

Hypothesis 3: Training in techniques to facilitate emotions will increase an

individual’s ability to manage others’ emotions.


According to George (2000), emotionally-intelligent individuals understand the

causes and the consequences of their own emotions, and can use this knowledge to

understand how the emotions of others can change over time. When individuals

experience an intense emotional reaction to a situation, the ability to understand what

has happened, and the emotional ‘triggers’ that have led to the emotional reaction, can

equip individuals with the skills to describe the emotions they are experiencing (Caruso

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& Salovey, 2004). Additionally, knowledge and understanding of emotional

progressions and triggers can assist individuals to discuss their emotions with others.

Knowledge of positive and negative emotional cycles also increases individual

skills and abilities in terms of understanding their own emotions. James (2002) states

that when an individual is in a positive emotional cycle, feelings of self-confidence and

enthusiasm lead to optimistic and realistic thinking. This leads the individual to behave

in self-enhancing and team-enhancing ways. The realisation that individuals exhibit

similar emotional reactions to change will assist in training the participants to describe

the emotions they are experiencing (Danes, 2005; Kubler-Ross, 1973). Therefore, it is

proposed that:

Hypothesis 4: Training in understanding the causes and consequences of

emotions will increase individuals’ ability to discuss their own

emotions.

Managing Emotions

The ability to cope with and regulate emotions is considered by many to be a key

determinant of EI (see Salovey et al., 2000). However, there is no ‘one size fits all’

strategy that can work for every individual (Ashkanasy et al., 2004). Although

individuals engage in similar life activities (such as work, family, social, spiritual,

physical, intellectual and cultural activities), the management and balance of these

activities is unique to every individual. Appropriate training in how to manage

emotional reactions would provide individuals with the ability to enact their own coping

and life balance strategies.

According to Fitness (2000), disconnecting from anger in the workplace can help

to prevent dysfunctional conflict and assist in the prevention of negative relationships.

In a similar view, Barlow and Maul (2000) propose that connecting with emotions in a

functional manner in a customer service environment increases customer satisfaction

and retention, and enhances employee well-being and employee retention. Therefore,

training interventions designed to provide individuals with the skills to disconnect and

connect with their emotions will undoubtedly enhance their ability to regulate their

emotions. Based upon this research it is proposed that:

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Hypothesis 5: Training interventions focusing on the management and

regulation of emotion will individuals’ ability to manage their

own emotions.


Van Scotter and Motowidlo (1996) contend that citizenship performance is

comprised of interpersonal facilitation and job dedication facets. Interpersonal

facilitation refers to ‘deliberate acts that improve morale, encourage cooperation,

remove barriers to performance, or help co-workers perform their task-oriented job

activities’ (Van Scotter & Motowidlo, 1996: 526). Job dedication on the other hand, is

concerned with behaviours related to self-discipline, such as working hard, following

organisational rules and regulations, and using initiative to solve work-related problems

(Van Scotter & Motowidlo, 1996). Because research has shown that a high individual EI

leads to improved working relationships (Mayer & Salovey, 1997) and commitment

within organisations (Wong & Law, 2002; Carmeli and Josman; 2006), I also propose

that:

Hypothesis 6: Training work teams in EI skills and abilities will improve

citizenship performance.

It should be noted, however, that the training program has been specifically

designed around the provision of emotions-focused skills. Therefore, I expect any

increase in citizenship performance will be an ancillary outcome of the training

program.

Goal Setting

In addition to the links between EI and citizenship performance, this study seeks

to determine the links between EI and goal setting. Research shows that emotions play a

large role in an individual’s perception of goal accessibility and goal attainment

(Higgins, Shah, & Friedman, 1997). Goal attainment leads to joy, satisfaction, relief and

calm; whereas, non-attainment can produce emotions such as anger, guilt and shame

(Fishbach, Shah, & Kruglanski, 2004). Individuals with a high positive affect experience

more intense positive emotions when they attain a goal. Those with a high negative

affectivity feel more intense negative emotions when they do not achieve their goal

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(Marshall & Brown, 2006). With this being the case, the link between emotion and goal

setting is apparent. It is therefore hypothesised that:

Hypothesis 7: Training in EI skills will increase the overall goal setting skills of

individuals.

As with the hypotheses related to citizenship performance, I expect any increase in

goal setting will be a supplementary outcome of the emotions focused training program.

Hypothesis Development – Interpersonal Skills Training


Werner (2000) proposes that for organisational citizenship behaviours to increase

within organisations, employees require training and development in task skills and IS,

including conflict resolution. Werner (2000:12) argues that the development of IS

enhances citizenship performance through increasing the employees understanding of

‘how their work fits into the bigger organisational picture, and how spontaneous acts on

their part may help other employees to conduct their work more effectively’. The author

also states that more research should be undertaken to uncover the relationships between

citizenship performance and IS.

Based on the outline presented above, I propose that the citizenship performance

skills of interpersonal facilitation and job dedication can be improved through training

work teams in IS. As discussed previously, interpersonal facilitation refers to the

cooperative, considerate and helpful acts that assist co-workers’ performance (Borman

& Motowidlo, 1993). Job Dedication, on the other hand, includes self-disciplined,

motivated acts such as working hard, taking initiative, persistence and following rules to

support the objectives of the organisation (Motowidlo & Van Scotter, 1994; Van Scotter

& Motowidlo, 1996).

Research has demonstrated that both interpersonal facilitation and job dedication

are linked to improved work performance (see Podsakoff & MacKenzie, 1994;

Podsakoff, Ahearne & MacKenzie, 1997; Walz & Niehoff, 1996). Further research has

linked these dimensions to increased job satisfaction, organisational commitment and

reduced turnover intentions (Van Scotter, 2000). Therefore, in relation to performance, I

offer the following hypothesis:

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Hypothesis 8: Training work teams in basic IS will lead to increases in overall

citizenship performance.

Goal Setting

Research has shown that individuals are more motivated towards reaching goals

when they are specific, yet challenging, accepted by the individual, the individual

participated in the setting of these goals and that there is feedback available to the

individual during the process in setting their goals (Locke & Latham, 1990). In addition,

an increase in goal setting skills can lead to improved self-efficacy for individuals and

teams, and individual and interpersonal effectiveness (Gist, Stevens, & Bavetta, 1991;

Gibson, 2001). Conversely, through training IS and goal setting during the intervention,

an increase in the aspects of Locke and Latham’s (1984, 1990) goal setting theory is

proposed. Therefore, it is hypothesised that:

Hypothesis 9: Training in basic IS (including goal setting) will increase the

goal setting skills of individuals.


While I propose that IS training will increase citizenship performance and the goal

setting of work teams, IS development is centred upon increasing basic communication,

conflict resolution and goal setting skills. Although these skills have links to emotion,

they do not include specific emotion-focused interventions. While acknowledging that

this type of training is often offered to increase EI (Cadman & Brewer, 2001), I consider

that training in a range of IS will not increase EI, because these interventions do not

sufficiently focus upon increasing awareness, facilitation, understanding and

management of own and others emotions (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). Therefore, with

regards to EI, I hypothesise that:

Hypothesis 10: Training in basic IS will not lead to significant increases in the

overall EI of participants.

131.

Method

Emotional Intelligence Sample

At the pre-test, the EI experimental group consisted of 264 employees who

attended training in emotions-focused skills. Of these participants, 245 completed the

‘Emotions in the Workplace’ survey prior to the commencement of training. In terms of

demographics, this group had an average age of 42.6 years (ranging from 19 to 63 years)

with 44.9% being female. One hundred and eighty-eight employees returned for the

half-day follow-up training. The use of a unique identifier within the surveys enabled

161 responses to be matched.

Emotional-intelligence training participants ranged from 19–61 years (M=43.03,

SD=10.43), with 42.9% female participants. A total of 141 participants were full-time

employees (87.6%), contract workers accounted for 4.3% (seven participants), casual

workers (3.7%; six participants), temporary full-time (3.1%; five participants) and

permanent part-time (1.2%) accounted for 1.3% of the sample.

In terms of employment classification, 112 of the participants (69.5%) were

employed in administrative roles, 21 classed themselves as professionals (13.0%), 15

were employed in technical roles (9.1%), six classed themselves as construction workers

(3.7%), two classed themselves as senior managers (1.2%) and five did not specify a

role (3.4%). Looking more closely at the administrative staff, 44 (27.3%) held lower-

level roles, 48 (35.4%) were employed in mid-level roles, and 20 (11.2%) were

employed in senior administrative roles. Three (1.9%) professional staff were employed

in lower-level roles, and the remaining 18 professional staff (11.1%) classified

themselves as holding mid-level roles. Of the technical staff, four held lower-level

(2.4%) and 11 held mid-level positions (6.7%). Finally, five construction workers were

employed in mid-level roles (3.1%), and one (0.6%) classified himself/herself as a

senior construction worker.

Emotional Intelligence Training Procedure

As outlined earlier, the emotions-focused training program consisted of two full

days training followed approximately two weeks later by a half-day follow-up and

refresher session. Many of the two-day training programs were conducted as residential

programs to enable discussions and activities to be undertaken in the evenings. The

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programs not conducted in a residential format were undertaken away from the

participant’s usual workplace, in a neutral location. Each training program was led by

one primary facilitator (myself) with either one or two co-facilitators present. The same

facilitation team then attended the follow-up session two weeks later to ensure

consistency. Each of these facilitators had broad experience in training adult learners. In

total, a team of eight facilitators were used for the training.

Prior to participants attending the training, surveys were distributed together with

an information sheet containing details of the project and a reply-paid envelope, so that

the participants could mail their responses directly back to the University. Participants

were informed that no individual data would be disclosed and that feedback would be

supplied to their organisation in aggregate form only.

Returned surveys were analysed to give the team and individuals feedback on the

outcomes of the survey during the training. Aggregated data were fed back to the whole

team on the first day of training. Individuals were able to collect a personalised report,

recognisable only through the use of a unique identifier (see Appendix I for an

example). Individual reports contained information regarding their own survey scores

compared to their training team and the normative group of respondents discussed in

Chapters Four and Five.

Interpersonal Skills Training Sample

Seven interpersonal training programs were conducted with 108 participants

completing the first day of the training. The second data collection was conducted

approximately two weeks after participating in the training programs. At this time, 81

participants returned for the follow-up session and completed the ‘Emotions in the

Workplace’ survey. Interpersonal skills training participants ranged from 18–61 years

(M=40.01, SD=10.09), with 44.4% female and 55.4% male participants. A total of 66

participants were full-time employees (81.5%), contract workers accounted for 7.4%

(six participants) of the sample; permanent part-time (six participants) and temporary

full-time (six participants) represented 3.7% of the sample respectively, with the

remaining participants being casual (two, 2.5%) and secondment (one, 1.2%).

In terms of employment classification, 57 of the participants (70.4%) were

employed in administrative roles, 10 classed themselves as professionals (12.3%), seven

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were employed in technical roles (8.6%), senior managers (three) and those that did not

specify a role (three) accounted for 3.7% respectively; and finally, one participant

classified himself/herself as holding a construction role (1.2%). Looking more closely at

the administrative staff, 13 (16%) of held lower level roles, 31 (38.2%) were employed

in mid-level roles, and 12 (14.8%) were employed in senior administrative roles. All 10

professional staff were employed in lower level roles. Finally, the seven technical staff

held lower level (1.2%) and mid-level (8.5%) positions.

Interpersonal Skills Training Procedure

IS training was facilitated in one day, consisting of three separate sections. The

half-day follow up was then conducted over two sessions approximately two weeks

later. Surveys were distributed for completion by participants at both the initial training

day prior to the training intervention commencing (pre-test) and at the follow-up session

two weeks later (post test). On the first day of training, individuals were assigned into

teams that would remain together for the duration of the training. These teams either

mirrored the organisational work teams (intact teams) or a random selection from the

wider training group (ad-hoc training teams), and comprised between four and six

members. Participants were assigned randomly to 21 training groups for the duration of

the training. Details of the content of the program are presented below, with a complete

description of the training and a set of training materials presented in Appendices D and

E.

The training intervention was constructed specifically for the purpose of this

research and comprised a range of IS as prescribed by Dick (1991). Three areas of

supportive communication, conflict resolution and goal setting (Carlopio et al., 1997;

Locke & Latham, 1990; Locke, Shaw, Saari, & Latham, 1981; Ruble & Thomas, 1976)

formed the basis of the one-day intervention. The framework for the training was

provided in the form of experiential interventions (Kolb, 1984).

As with the EI training, each training session had at least two facilitators present,

and in some cases three. To ensure consistency in training content and delivery, a

consistent primary facilitator was present at each training session (myself). One or two

facilitators from a wider team of eight facilitators assisted the primary facilitator. Each

facilitator had extensive experience facilitating and training IS to adult learners. These

134.

facilitators were then rotated, whilst ensuring that the same facilitators were present at

both the full day of training and the half-day follow-up conducted two weeks later.

Measures

Participants in both training programs completed the 86-item ‘Emotions in the

Workplace’ survey. Because this is the same survey that was used for data collection in

the normative group study presented in Chapters Four and Five, item descriptions and

Cronbach’s Alphas will not be repeated. The full details of the survey are contained

within Chapter Four of this thesis and a copy of the ‘Emotions in the Workplace’ survey

is contained in Appendix G.

Data Screening and Cleaning

Prior to conducting analysis on the pre-training and post-training data sets, all data

were examined through the use of various SPSS for Windows version 15.0 programs to

determine accuracy of data entry, missing values and the fit between distributions. In

addition, data were checked for outlying cases and the relevant items were transformed.

All analyses were undertaken using SPSS for windows version 15.0.

Results

Means, Standard Deviations, Reliabilities and Correlations – Emotional

Intelligence Training

The means, standard deviations, Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficients and

inter-item correlations for the 24-item EI Scale at Time 1 and Time 2 are presented in

Tables 30 and 31. Reliability coefficients are within acceptable range and inter-item

correlations are within the medium to large range (Cohen, 1988).

135.

Table 30 Descriptive Statistics, Coefficient Alphas, and Correlations among WEIP-6 Scale and Subscales – EI Training (Time 1, 24 items, n=161)

Mean (S.D.) 1 2 3 4 5 6


4.88 (0.66) ((0.89)


5.15 (1.02) 0.53** (0.66)


4.35 (1.15) 0.79** 0.27** (0.82)


5.34 (0.76) 0.73** 0.37** 0.47** (0.77)


4.75 (0.82) 0.80** 0.30** 0.49** 0.39** (0.80)


4.72 (0.93) 0.75** 0.19* 0.59** 0.42** 0.54** (0.81)

* = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01, Cronbach’s Alpha Reliabilities on the diagonal

Table 31 Descriptive Statistics, Coefficient Alphas, and Correlations among WEIP-6 Scale and Subscales – EI Training (Time 2, 24 items n=161)

Mean (S.D.) 1 2 3 4 5 6


5.00 (0.67) (0.92)


5.15 (0.98) 0.62** (0.64)


4.60 (1.15) 0.81** 0.37** (0.88)


5.36 (0.68) 0.74** 0.41** 0.47** (0.76)


4.90 (0.83) 0.86** 0.43** 0.59** 0.47** (0.86)


4.93 (0.84) 0.80** 0.38** 0.59** 0.51** 0.63** (0.76


Tables 32 and 33 present the reliability coefficients and inter-item correlations for

the 13-item Citizenship Rating Scale at Time 1 and Time 2 data (pre- and post-training).

Again, the reliability coefficients and inter-item correlations are within acceptable

ranges (Cohen, 1988).

136.

Table 32 Descriptive Statistics, Coefficient Alphas, and Correlations among Citizenship Scale and Subscales – EI Training (Time 1, n=161)

Mean (S.D.) 1 2 3 1. Citizenship Performance (Total) 4.02 (0.43) (0.82) 2. Interpersonal Facilitation 4.10 (0.51) 0.73** (0.77) 3. Job Dedication 3.97 (0.52) 0.91** 0.38** (0.80)


Table 33 Descriptive Statistics, Coefficient Alphas, and Correlations among Citizenship Scale and Subscales – EI Training (Time 2, n=161)

Mean (S.D.) 1 2 3 1. Citizenship Performance (Total) 3.98 (0.39) (0.82) 2. Interpersonal Facilitation 4.01 (0.47) 0.76** (0.76) 3. Job Dedication 3.96 (0.46) 0.91** 0.43** (0.78)


Finally, the pre- and post-training means, standard deviations, Cronbach’s Alpha

reliability coefficients and inter-item correlations for the 24-item Goal Setting Scale are

presented in Tables 34 and 35. An examination of the two tables demonstrate the

reliability coefficients and inter-item correlations are acceptable (Cohen, 1988).

Table 34 Descriptive Statistics, Coefficient Alphas, and Correlations among Goal Setting Scale and Subscales – EI Training (Time 1, 24 items, n=161)

Mean (S.D.) 1 2 3 1. Goal Setting Total 3.63 (0.61) (0.92)

2. Positive Goal Achievement Process

3.65 (0.69) 0.95** (0.91)

3. Negative Goal Achievement Process

3.59 (0.64) 0.82** 0.60** (0.82)


Table 35 Descriptive Statistics, Coefficient Alphas, and Correlations among Goal Setting Scale and Subscales – EI Training (Time 2, 24 items, n=161)

Mean (S.D.) 1 2 3

1. Goal Setting Total 3.66 (0.54) (0.91)

2. Positive Goal Achievement Process

3.70 (0.64) 0.93** (0.91)


3.60 (0.59) 0.76** 0.48** (0.78)


137.

Means, Standard Deviations, Reliabilities and Correlations – Interpersonal

Skills Training

In line with the EI training results, data were analysed using SPSS for Windows

version 15.0. Tables 36-41 present the means, standard deviations, Cronbach’s Alpha

reliability coefficients and the inter-item correlations for the EI Scales, Citizenship

Rating Scale and Goal Setting Scale pre- and post-training data collections. As can be

seen, the reliability coefficients are within an acceptable range and the inter-item

correlations, as expected, are within the medium to large range (Cohen, 1988).

Table 36 Descriptive Statistics, Coefficient Alphas, and Correlations among WEIP-6 Scale and Subscales – IS Training (Time 1, 24 items, n = 81)

Mean (S.D.) 1 2 3 4 5 6


4.74 0.74 (0.92)


5.11 1.07 0.73** (0.66)


4.07 1.30 0.84** 0.50** (0.87)


5.19 0.78 0.77** 0.56** 0.48** (0.77)


4.74 0.85 0.85** 0.41** 0.61** 0.56** (0.84)


4.48 0.89 0.70** 0.53** 0.62** 0.38** 0.46** (0.75)


138.

Table 37 Descriptive Statistics, Coefficient Alphas, and Correlations among WEIP-6 Scale and Subscales – IS Training (Time 2, 24 items n = 81)

Mean (S.D.) 1 2 3 4 5 6


4.86 0.66 (0.91)


5.02 0.97 0.86** (0.58)


4.40 1.07 0.77** 0.26* (0.86)


5.27 0.75 0.79** 0.36** 0.52** (0.83)


4.79 0.82 0.86** 0.45** 0.54** 0.57** (0.82)


4.70 0.83 0.74** 0.34** 0.54** 0.45** 0.56** (0.79)


Table 38 Descriptive Statistics, Coefficient Alphas, and Correlations among Citizenship Scale and Subscales – IS Training (Time 1, n = 81)

Mean (S.D.) 1 2 3

1. Citizenship Performance (Total) 3.94 0.47 (0.88)

2. Interpersonal Facilitation 3.90 0.53 0.77** (0.77)

3. Job Dedication 3.96 0.56 0.93** 0.47** (0.89)


Table 39 Descriptive Statistics, Coefficient Alphas, and Correlations among Citizenship Scale and Subscales – IS Training (Time 2, n = 81)

Mean (S.D.) 1 2 3

1. Citizenship Performance (Total) 3.96 0.45 (0.88)

2. Interpersonal Facilitation 3.99 0.49 0.82** (0.78)

3. Job Dedication 3.94 0.50 0.94** 0.56** (0.85)


Table 40 Descriptive Statistics, Coefficient Alphas, and Correlations among Goal Setting Scale and Subscales – IS Training (Time 1, 24 items, n = 81)

Mean (S.D.) 1 2 3 1. Goal Setting Total 3.60 0.54 (0.88) 2. Positive Goal Achievement Process 3.60 0.67 0.92** (0.90)


3.62 0.61 0.67** 0.32** (0.78)


139.

Table 41 Descriptive Statistics, Coefficient Alphas, and Correlations among Goal Setting Scale and Subscales – IS Training (Time 2, 24 items, n = 81)

Mean (S.D.) 1 2 3

1. Goal Setting Total 3.61 0.52 (0.91)

2. Positive Goal Achievement Process 3.60 0.60 0.93** (0.90)


3.61 0.58 0.78** 0.50** (0.80)


Repeated Measures MANOVA

Prior to conducting the repeated measures ANOVAS on the EI and IS data a 2 x 3

repeated measures MANOVA, with two within-person levels (pre- and post-training)

and three between-person levels (normative, EI and IS training groups) were conducted.

These analyses test whether there are main effects for the different groups within this

study and whether the interaction between these three variables is significant (Pallant,

2007). Tables 42, 43, and 44 present the full results of these analyses.

Table 42 Repeated Measures MANOVA Interaction Effects (Within-subjects – All Groups) for Citizenship, EI and Goal Setting including Wilks’ Lambda, F-Statistics, Significance and Effect Sizes (η2)

Wilks’ Lambda

F (df) p η2

Emotional Intelligence (Total) 0.97 9.20 (1,327) 0.01** 0.03

Awareness of Own Emotions 0.99 3.50 (1,327) 0.06 0.01

Ability to Discuss Own Emotions 0.93 25.85 (1,327) 0.00** 0.07

Ability to Manage Own Emotions 1.00 0.01 (1,327) 0.94 0.00

Awareness of Others’ Emotions 0.99 4.67 (1,327) 0.03* 0.01

Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions 0.93 23.60 (1,327) 0.00** 0.07

Citizenship Performance (Total) 0.99 0.31 (1,327) 0.58 0.01

Interpersonal Facilitation 0.99 0.23 (1,327) 0.63 0.01

Job Dedication 0.99 0.19 (1,327) 0.67 0.01

Goal Setting (Total) 0.99 2.75 (1,327) 0.10 0.01

Positive Goal Attainment 0.99 1.93 (1,327) 0.17 0.01

Negative Goal Attainment 0.99 1.54 (1,327) 0.22 0.01

* = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01

First, significant within-subjects interaction effects were uncovered between

‘Total EI’, ‘Awareness of Own Emotions’, ‘Discuss Own Emotions’, Awareness of

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Others’ Emotions’, and ‘Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions’. Second, in terms of

within-subjects main effects, only interpersonal facilitation emerged as significant.

Finally, the main effects resulting from a comparison of the three different groups

(between-subjects) was significants for ‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’, ‘Ability to

Manage Others’ Emotions’, and ‘Interpersonal Facilitation’.

Table 43 Repeated Measures MANOVA Effects for Time (Within-subjects – All Groups) for Citizenship, EI and Goal Setting including Wilks’ Lambda, F-Statistics, Significance and Effect Sizes (η2)

Wilks’ Lambda

F (df) p η2

Emotional Intelligence (Total) 0.99 0.79 (2,327) 0.46 0.01


Ability to Discuss Own Emotions 0.99 0.17 (2,327) 0.85 0.01


Awareness of Others’ Emotions 0.99 0.61 (2,327) 0.55 0.01

Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions 0.99 0.38 (2,327) 0.68 0.01


Interpersonal Facilitation 0.98 3.93 (2. 327) 0.02* 0.02

Job Dedication 0.99 0.12 (2, 327) 0.89 0.01




* = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01

Table 44 Repeated Measures MANOVA Main Effects for Groups (Between-subjects – All Groups) for Citizenship, EI and Goal Setting including Significance and Effect Sizes (η2)

F (df) p η2

Emotional Intelligence (Total) 2.39 (2,327) 0.09 0.01

Awareness of Own Emotions 0.29 (2,327) 0.75 0.01

Ability to Discuss Own Emotions 3.06 (2,327) 0.05 0.02

Ability to Manage Own Emotions 1.44 (2,327) 0.24 0.01

Awareness of Others’ Emotions 0.70 (2,327) 0.50 0.01

Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions 3.48 (2,327) 0.03* 0.01

Citizenship Performance (Total) 2.84 (2,327) 0.06 0.02

Interpersonal Facilitation 6.17 (2,327) 0.01** 0.04

Job Dedication 0.79 (2,327) 0.46 0.01

Goal Setting (Total) 0.17 (2,327) 0.84 0.01

Positive Goal Attainment 0.55 (2,327) 0.58 0.01

Negative Goal Attainment 0.24 (2,327) 0.79 0.01

* = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01

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Results – Emotional Intelligence Training

Test-Retest Results


A series of repeated measures ANOVAs using EI, citizenship performance and

goal setting (including their respective subscales) as dependent variables and time (Time

1 and Time 2 data collections) for the within-subjects factors were conducted. This

analysis was conducted to determine whether any statistically significant changes

occurred from pre- to post-training. As with the results presented in Chapters Four and

Five, the Wilks’ Lambda criterion was chosen for the analysis, because it is the most

commonly-reported ANOVA statistic in the social sciences (Pallant, 2005). The results

of the repeated measures ANOVAs are presented in Table 45 and will be explained in

the following section.


Table 45 presents the results of the repeated measures ANOVAs undertaken to

ascertain changes in the self-reported EI from pre-training to post-training. Significant

increases were found in the total EI. The measurement of Cohen’s d also revealed small

effect sizes for the EI. Based on these results, Hypothesis 1 is supported. In terms of

‘Awareness of Own Emotions’, there were no significant increases from pre-to post-

training that reveal that Hypothesis 2a is not supported. On the other hand, the subscales

‘Awareness of Other’s Emotions’ did increase significantly, demonstrating a small

effect size, thus supporting Hypothesis 2b. The results were also positive for the

subscale ‘Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions’ with a statistically significant increase

and a small effect size resulting from the analyses. Based on these results, Hypothesis 3

is therefore supported. ‘Ability to Discuss Emotions’ also significantly increased (with a

small effect size) as a result of the training provided, thus supporting Hypothesis 4.

Finally, the subscale ‘Ability to Manage Own Emotions’ did not show an improvement

between pre- and post-training surveys as was expected. Therefore, Hypothesis 5 is not

supported.

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Table 45 Wilks’ Lambda, F-Statistics, Significance and Effect Size (d) for Citizenship, EI and Goal Setting Repeated Measures ANOVAs (EI Training, n = 161)

Wilks’ Lambda

F (df) p d

Emotional Intelligence (Total) 0.95 9.32 (1,161) 0.01** 0.18




Awareness of Others’ Emotions 0.96 6.73 (1,161) 0.01** 0.18

Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions 0.91 16.72 (1,161) 0.00** 0.24

Citizenship Performance (Total) 0.99 2.42 (1,161) -0.12 -0.10

Interpersonal Facilitation 0.96 6.34 (1,161) -0.01** -0.18

Job Dedication 1.00 0.17 (1,161) -0.68 -0.02




* = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01


Table 45 also provides the results of the repeated measures ANOVAs and the

effect size calculations conducted on the citizenship performance scales. The results

demonstrate no significant changes in overall citizenship performance and the ‘Job

Dedication’ subscale. The calculations of the effect sizes (Cohen’s d) further support

these results with effect sizes falling below the cut-off for a small effect for overall

citizenship performance and ‘Job Dedication’. Interestingly, there was a statistically

significant decrease in the ‘Interpersonal Facilitation’ subscale from pre-training (M =

4.10, SD = 0.51) to post-training [M = 4.01, SD = 0.47; t (160) = -2.51, p = 0.01] with

an effect size of (d = -0.18). Based on these results Hypothesis 6 is not supported.

Goal Setting

Finally, Table 45 also presents the results of the repeated measures ANOVAs and

effect size calculations for the pre- and post-measures of goal setting. As can be seen,

there were no significant changes in either the total goal setting scale or the related

subscales from pre-training to post-training. Additionally, the results of the effect size

calculations reflect no changes in overall goal setting or the two subscales of positive

goal process and negative goal process measured pre- and post-training. Based on these

findings, Hypothesis 7 is not supported.

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Results – Interpersonal Skills Training

Test-Retest Results


To test the four hypotheses outlined earlier, a series of repeated measures

ANOVAs with planned comparisons using citizenship performance, EI and goal setting

(including their respective subscales) as dependent variables and time (pre- and post-

training data collections) for the within-subjects factors were conducted. This analysis

was conducted to determine whether any statistically significant changes occurred from

pre- to post-training. The results of the repeated measures ANOVAs are presented in

Table 46.

Table 46 Wilks’ Lambda, F-Statistics, Significance and Effect Size (d) for Citizenship, EI and Goal Setting Repeated Measures ANOVAs (IS Training, n = 81)

Wilks’ Lambda

F (df) p d



Job Dedication 1.00 0.40 (1,80) 0.53 0.03



Negative Goal Attainment 1.00 0.03 (1,80) -0.86 -0.02

Emotional Intelligence (Total) 0.95 4.21 (1,80) 0.04* 0.17

Awareness of Own Emotions 0.99 0.64 (1,80) -0.43 -0.09

Ability to Discuss Own Emotions 0.91 8.01 (1,80) 0.01* 0.28




* = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01


An examination of the repeated measures ANOVAs presented in Table 46 reveals

that for Citizenship performance there were no significant changes from the pre- to post-

training. The results presented below demonstrate no effect occurred in self-reported

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citizenship performance from pre- to post-IS training. Therefore, Hypothesis 8 is not

supported.

Goal Setting

Table 46 also presents the results of the repeated measures ANOVAs and

calculations of Cohen’s d for the goal setting scale. The results reveal no significant

changes in the overall goal setting scale or the two subscales of positive and negative

goal attainment. These results provide evidence that the IS training had no effect on the

self-reported goal setting skills of individual participants. Therefore, Hypothesis 9 is not

supported.


Finally, Table 46 provides the results of repeated measures ANOVAs for EI from

pre- to post- training. The table reveals that there was a statistically significant

improvement for the overall EI with a non-significant effect size. There were also

significant changes reported for ‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’ from pre-training

(M = 4.07, SD =1.30) to post=training [M = 4.40, SD = 1.07; t (160), p = 0.01] with an

effect size of (d = 0.28). ‘Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions’ also increased

significantly from pre-training (M = 4.48, SD = 0.89) to post=training [M = 4.70, SD =

0.83; t (160), p = 0.00] with an effect size of (d = 0.26). For the remainder of the EI

subscales, there was no change from pre- to post-training. Based on these results,

Hypothesis 10 is only partially supported.

Discussion – Emotional Intelligence Training


The first hypothesis in this study sought to determine whether specific emotions-

focused training interventions increased the self-reported overall EI of the participants.

Participants completed the WEIP-6 measure of EI (Jordan et al., 2002), a measure

constructed in keeping with Mayer and Salovey’s (1997) four branch model of EI (see

Figure 1 in Chapter Four). Significant increases in overall EI were observed. Cohen’s d

was calculated to determine the effect size of the overall intervention. As shown in

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Table 36, the effect size for overall EI is d = 0.18. Although this signifies a small effect,

this result can still be considered meaningful in light of the fact that after only two-and-

a-half days of training, the experimental group are reporting changes in their EI skills

and abilities. It would have been beneficial to this research to have been able to re-test

participant EI at an additional point (after a period of practice and mastery) to determine

further changes from pre- to post-training. In addition, the second survey was conducted

at a minimum of two weeks and an average of three weeks after the program had been

conducted, demonstrating that these results were not the results of a feel good effect

directly after training. Clearly, these results indicate that EI can be improved through the

use of an emotions-focused training program.


Hypothesis 2a explored the impact of emotions-focused training interventions on

the awareness of own emotions of individuals, whereas Hypothesis 2b focused upon

determining the impact of the training on individual’s awareness of others’ emotions.

Table 36 also shows that the subscale ‘Awareness of Own Emotions’ did not improve

from pre- to post-training. Upon reflection, an explanation for this result could be that

individuals actually rated themselves to be more aware of their emotions than they

actually were, prior to the commencement of the training program. Through the process

of attending the training, participants were exposed to a variety of ways in which they

could become more aware of the emotions they experienced in their home and working

lives. This would mean that any changes experienced as a result of the training would be

diluted by increasing awareness and the overestimation of the pre-test scores. A

retrospective pre-test (Lamb & Tschillard, 2005) would have been an excellent method

to assess perceived vs. actual awareness.

Next, Hypothesis 2b was tested by determining the training intervention’s impact

on ‘Awareness of Others’ Emotions’. In accordance with the hypothesis, the ANOVA

results demonstrated that this subscale increased significantly from pre- to post-training.

Measurements of Cohen’s d also yielded a small effect size indicating that the

participant’s ‘Awareness of Others’ Emotions’ improved as a result of emotions-focused

training. The increase in the area can be attributed to the way in which the training

program was facilitated. Many of the exercises conducted during the training focused

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specifically on work-team members sharing and describing the emotions encountered in

a variety of work situations. Coupled with training in how to recognise the emotions of

others, these conversations would have assisted individuals to significantly increase

their skills in this area.


Hypothesis 3 then focused on determining the impact of the training intervention

on facilitation of own and others emotions. The WEIP-6 measures this sub-construct

through the subscale ‘Ability to Manage Other’s Emotions’ (see Figure 1). The results

presented in Table 36 showed a significant increase from pre- to post-test with a small

effect size being calculated from the data. Exercises in generating emotions though

perspective taking, emotional contagion and techniques such as guided imagery

provided participants with a range of tools that they could use to facilitate emotions in

self and others. By allowing participants the opportunity to practice these techniques in a

training environment, their confidence in their ability to manage the emotions of others

through the effective use of emotions was increased.


The purpose of Hypothesis 4 was to determine what impact the emotions-focused

training intervention had on understanding of own emotions. In line with Jordan et al’s.

(2002) WEIP-6 linkages to Mayer and Salovey’s (1997) four branch model of EI,

changes in this ability were measured using the ‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’

subscale (see Figure 1). The results showed a significant increase in this subscale. In

addition, the calculation of Cohen’s d showed a small increase from pre-to post-training.

As with the awareness of own emotions results, on reflection, these results can be

explained by the participants overestimating their skills in this area, prior to training.

The participants were encouraged to discuss their emotions throughout the training

intervention and reflect upon the impact that these emotions had not only on themselves,

but on others. Despite the small effect size, these results are still meaningful in light of

the two and a half days of training the participants received.

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Managing Emotions

Finally in terms of EI, Hypothesis 5 examined the extent to which training in

emotions-focused skills and abilities improved skills and abilities in the management of

their own emotions. The results presented in Table 36 demonstrate that there was no

significant improvement in the self-reported ‘Ability to Manage Own’ emotions from

pre-to-post test. This result was against expectations, because there was a great deal of

time spent at the end of the program training the participants in emotional management

skills. However, on reflection, possible explanations for the lack of change in this area

could be the result of not having enough opportunities to practice these new skills

between the end of training and the second survey (approximately two weeks later).

Additionally, a large proportion of the training attendees were upper-level management

staff who would already posses some emotion management skills and therefore, not

reported large changes in their skill level from pre- to post-test.


Hypothesis 6 then proposed that EI training would lead to an increase in

citizenship performance. As can be seen in Table 36 there were no self-reported

differences in overall citizenship performance or ‘Job Dedication’ from pre-to post-

training. As the training was focused on the emotional and relational nature of work, the

results for ‘Job Dedication’ demonstrated that participants were responding consistently

to the variables that were not targeted by the training program.

Interestingly however, ‘Interpersonal Facilitation’ (relational, helping behaviours)

significantly decreased after the training intervention. A possible explanation (as with

participants’ ‘Ability to Manage Own Emotions’) is that the training intervention

actually highlighted for individuals their deficiencies in this area, in that they moved

from unconscious to a conscious understanding their deficiencies. This realisation may

then have led to a more conservative reporting of the skills and abilities in the post-

training data collection. A further explanation may lie in the content of the training

program being focused on improving EI skills and abilities and interpersonal

relationships; in Chapter Five, these were shown to be linked. With this in mind, a

positive change in EI could highlight for the individuals that they were, perhaps, not

being as helpful in their behaviours as they had reported prior to training.

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Goal Setting

Finally, Hypothesis 7 proposed that EI training would improve the goal setting

skills of the individuals receiving the intervention. The results of the ANOVAs

conducted on this data showed no significant increase in overall goal setting. The

measures of Cohen’s d further confirmed that the training intervention did not increase

self-reported goal setting. There are several explanations why no differences were

measured from pre-to post-test in this area. First, the training intervention focused solely

on providing additional skills and abilities in the area of EI. Although research has

shown a link between EI and goal focus (Jordan et al., 2002), the measure is focused on

existing goals that have already been set. Therefore, perhaps a measure that focuses on

future behaviours or intentions with respect to goal setting may have been more

appropriate to gauge how the individuals would behave with respect to goal setting in

the future. In addition, the actual subscales used within the measure may not have been

the optimum measures for this research.

Discussion – Interpersonal Skills Training


The aim of this study was to test three separate hypotheses (Hypotheses 8, 9 and

10) to determine whether basic IS training leads to increases in citizenship performance,

goal setting and EI of individuals. Table 46 presented the results of the repeated

measures ANOVAs and the calculations of Cohen’s d to measure the effect of the

intervention on overall citizenship performance. Unexpectedly, the results showed no

increase in individual citizenship performance from pre- to post-training. In addition,

the analysis of the two subscales of ‘Interpersonal Facilitation’ and ‘Job Dedication’

revealed no changes, although with a larger sample size the results for ‘Interpersonal

Facilitation’ (p = 0.07, d = 0.17) may have reached significance.

The results obtained were surprising; it was contended that the skills taught within

the IS program were specifically selected, because research had shown that these skills

were linked to citizenship performance. A possible reason for the discrepancy in the

results could, perhaps, be caused by the individuals over-estimating their citizenship

performance skills in the pre-training self-report survey measure. The participants

completing the pre-training survey measure may have been biased in their responses in

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the belief that it is more desirable to possess citizenship performance skills and abilities

within the workplace.

To overcome the potential issues associated with the self-report, several measures

have been identified that would have been beneficial within this study. First, using peer

reports of citizenship performance would have enabled the comparison of the self-report

data to determine if an overestimation of the abilities was occurring prior to the

commencement of the training. Second, a measure of social desirability could have been

included within the ‘Emotions in the Workplace’ survey to determine the extent to

which individuals were biased in their responses to the citizenship performance measure

and the other measures contained within the survey. Finally, performance tasks could

have been incorporated into the study pre- and post-training to determine the actual

performance outcomes of the training program.

Goal Setting

Hypothesis 9 sought to determine whether self-reported goal setting skills

improved as a result of the IS training program. Because specific goal setting skills were

being trained within the one-day IS program, it was envisaged that a natural outcome

would be that individuals would improve in this area. Table 46 presented the results of

the repeated measures ANOVAs and measures of the effect sizes that were calculated on

the self-report pre- and post-training data. Again, it was against expectations to see that

there were no improvements in the overall goal setting measure or the two subscales

measured.

There are two reasons why these results may have occurred. First, the measures

used to determine the goal setting abilities of the individuals may not have been the

optimum measure for the goal setting skills in this study. This is because the participants

would require a significant amount of time to set and achieve their goals (Latham &

Locke, 1979). The survey measure used within this study focused on the nature and

outcomes of this process. Obviously, in hindsight, this process would take a

significantly longer period of time than was allowed for within the survey design (two

weeks). Perhaps a measure that determined the process of goal setting would have been

more beneficial, because the participants would have been able to report on the aspects

of setting goals, rather than on the outcomes of the entire goal setting process.

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Second, the participants perhaps needed more than the two-week period between

the measures to practice and hone their newly-learned goal setting skills and abilities.

Employees within organisations generally set their overall performance goals during

annual or six-monthly performance reviews (Greenhaus, Callanan & Kaplan, 1995).

Two weeks was insufficient time to let the participants set specific goals and to measure

their success. Clearly, a greater period of time between the surveys would have enabled

the participants to set goals and assess their effectiveness at reaching those set goals.


Finally, Hypothesis 10 proposed that the training of IS would not lead to increases

in the overall EI of the participants within the training program. This was because the

training focused on specific supportive communication, conflict resolution and goal

setting skills. While these skills do have links to emotion, they are not specifically

designed to increase the individuals’ abilities across the four-branch model of EI. As

with the self-report measures of citizenship performance and goal setting, the pre- and

post-measures of the EI were conducted as part of the ‘Emotions in the Workplace’

survey.

The results demonstrate that a statistically significant improvement in overall EI

measured from pre- to post-training occurred (with the effect size approaching

significance at d = 0.17). There was also a significant change in the two subscales,

‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’ and ‘Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions’. The

calculations of effect sizes indicate that the training produced a small, but significant,

effect for these two sub-scales. There was no change reported in the remaining three

subscales.

After examining the results in more detail the improvements in ‘Ability to Discuss

Own Emotions’ and ‘Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions’ can be explained. As

mentioned previously, the areas of supportive communication, conflict resolution and

goal setting do have links to emotions (although it was hypothesised that these links

were not strong enough to impact EI). In addition, the training program was facilitated

in such a way that the individuals spent considerable time discussing workplace

situations where supportive communication principles were violated, conflict resolution

strategies had failed and the goal setting process had not been undertaken to their

151.

satisfaction. These discussions often focused on the emotional and relational impacts of

these situations. Furthermore, the participants actively learnt techniques to manage

others’ perceptions through the use of appropriate supportive communication, conflict

resolution and goal setting techniques.

The content of these conversations would often include the individual expressing

or recounting of the emotions that they had experienced within these situations. Through

the design of the training intervention, the participants were, in effect, being given the

opportunity to learn how to discuss their emotions in an open manner within their work

teams and to manage their interactions with others. Therefore, while IS did not have a

large impact on overall EI, this type of training has certainly been found to assist

individuals to be able to better discuss their emotions and manage the emotions of

others in a workplace setting. Clearly, these findings are an important outcome of this

study and have significant implications for the research and practice that will be fully

detailed in Chapter Nine. Further investigation of these results will be undertaken in the

next chapter.

Limitations – Emotional Intelligence Training

Several limitations to the EI training program have been identified. The most

significant limitation revealed during the data collection phase was that a full data set

was not achieved for the follow-up training as participants were unable to attend for a

range of reasons ranging from illness to pre-booked leave and other operational

requirements. On reflection and despite their non-attendance, it would have still been

beneficial to ask these individuals to complete the second survey. Had this process been

organised, there would have been, potentially, a further 60 sets of survey responses that

could have been analysed and reported. Despite not being able to collect this data,

results from the course evaluation surveys administered after the full two days of

training (and completed by all 265 participants) demonstrated that the training was

valued by attendees. Participants completed four quantitative questions (on a Likert-

type scale) regarding the usefulness of the training in each of the four branches of EI

(awareness, facilitation, understanding and management of emotions). The mean results

were 3.99, 3.96, 3.99 and 3.98 for each respective branch.

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A second limitation was that there was no way to determine whether the

individuals had unintentionally inflated their pre-training surveys scores, leading to

smaller increases being reported post-training. The Retrospective Pre-Test or ‘then test’

would have been a useful measure that would have enabled a cross-comparison of the

results within this study to be conducted (Lamb & Tschillard, 2005; Pratt, McGuigan, &

Katzev, 2000; Sadri & Snyder, 1995). The Retrospective Pre-Tests allow the

participants to reflect on their actual skills and abilities prior to training after the training

program had been fully completed.

Third, it would have been extremely beneficial to re-administer the ‘Emotions in

the Workplace’ survey a third time, after the training participants had been given a

period of time to practice and master the emotions-focused skills that had been covered

during the training program. Had this been possible, further evidence of the impact of

the training could have been gathered.

A final limitation of the EI training program was that the training could only be

administered over a two-day period and therefore choices needed to be made about the

content that would be delivered in this period. When originally negotiating with the

research organisation, a full week of training was proposed as the optimum model so

that a wider range of skills could have been covered and experienced by participants;

however this was not granted due to operational constraints. In hindsight, the training of

some differing skills to the ones chosen for the program may have been chosen as a

result of this experience.

Limitations – Interpersonal Skills Training

There are also several limitations within the IS training. First, a larger sample size

would have generated a greater level of confidence in the results reported. However, as

with the EI training, course evaluation surveys were administered after the training had

been completed (and completed by 88 participants). Again, these results demonstrated

that participants perceived the training to be useful. Participants completed three

quantitative questions (on a Likert-type scale) regarding the usefulness of the training in

each of the three areas covered in the training (namely supportive communication,

conflict resolution and goal setting). The mean results were 4.07, 3.84 and 3.82

respectively.

153.

In addition, the short duration of the training program may have impacted the

results. On reflection, constructing the training over a two-day period (as with the EI

training program) might have produced more significant outcomes. Finally, as has

already been mentioned in this Chapter, in hindsight, the measure of goal setting that

was used in the overall research project was probably not the most effective measure

that could have been used.

Chapter Summary

This chapter has explored the impact of two separate training programs (an EI and

an IS intervention) on the EI, citizenship performance and goal setting skills of

individuals. The results for the EI component of the study have demonstrated that those

training programs that are specifically designed and constructed to teach skills and

abilities associated with Mayer and Salovey’s four-branch model of EI do have the

ability to increase self-reported EI. These results are extremely important and timely,

because there is still much debate as to whether EI can be learned through training

programs. Clearly, the results obtained from this intervention demonstrate that this is

possible.

The results from the IS intervention demonstrated no change in citizenship

performance or goal setting, but did produce some improvement in EI. Possible reasons

for these results have been discussed within this chapter. The following chapter of this

thesis will seek to explore the results of this study in further detail, to gain a greater

understanding of the impacts of both EI and IS training on the EI of the individuals.

In the following chapter the results from Studies 1 and 2 will be reanalysed by

trichotomising the pre-test EI scores for the normative, EI and IS skills trained groups.

The purpose of this analysis is to determine whether the EI and IS interventions yielded

greater impacts for participants commencing the programs with low, moderate or high

EI. If it can be ascertained that the training programs offer greater benefits to specific

groups of individuals, future training of these skills can be concentrated on those who

would gain the greatest benefit.

154.

CHAPTER SEVEN

A Reanalysis of Initial Emotional Intelligence Levels on Training

Effectiveness

Overview

The purpose of this chapter is to further explore and reanalyse the results

discussed in Chapters Five and Six of this thesis and, in particular, examine whether an

individual’s initial (pre-test) EI level impacts the effectiveness of training for EI and IS.

The initial studies were undertaken using a quasi-experimental design to determine

whether EI abilities could be trained in an organisational context. The results of

Chapters Five and Six give a global indication of the efficacy of the EI training. These

studies however, did not examine individual EI scores at pre-training to determine

whether specific EI levels (namely low, moderate and high) had an impact on the post-

training outcomes. Therefore, the aim of this chapter is to examine these data in more

detail to determine if pre-existing levels of EI had an impact on the effect of the training

program. Data were trichotomised by pre-training EI scores in accordance with the

research undertaken by Jordan et al. (2002). In this study, Jordan et al. (2002) found that

IS training was effective for those participants who commenced the training program

with low EI, but had no effect on participants with high EI prior to training. In keeping

with Jordan et al’s. (2002) method, I seek to establish whether the interventions had a

greater impact on those participants who had reported a high, moderate or low EI at the

beginning of the study. The outcomes from these analyses can be used to determine

whether the results from the differences in Studies 1 and 2 were impacted by the groups’

differences prior to training.

Hypotheses

Based on Jordan et al. (2002) and Jordan and Ashkanasy’s (2006) findings, nine

hypotheses have been developed for testing within this study. The first three hypotheses

relate to the normative group. Chapter Five analysed the normative sample of

participants from the organisation who had received no training. In Chapter Five, I

hypothesized that there would be no changes in citizenship performance, EI or goal

setting for this group of participants. Data were collected at three points over an

155.

eighteen-month period and revealed no change in citizenship performance or goal

setting; however, there was a small change in one of the EI dimensions, ‘Ability to

Discuss Own Emotions’. Extending from these results, I hypothesise that:

Hypothesis 1: Low EI participants from the normative group will have no

significant increases in:

a. Citizenship Performance;

b. Goal Setting; and

c. EI.

Hypothesis 2: Moderate EI participants from the normative group will have no




c. EI.

Hypothesis 3: High EI participants from the normative group will have no




c. EI.

Chapter Six then focused on analysing whether a specific emotions-focused

intervention would lead to improvements in citizenship performance, EI and goal

setting. Increases were revealed in total EI and the three subscales ‘Ability to Discuss

Own Emotions’, Awareness of Others’ Emotions’ and Ability to Manage Others’

Emotions’. The hypothesis in relation to citizenship performance and goal setting were

not supported. A deeper investigation of these results will be conducted through the

testing of the following three hypotheses:

Hypothesis 4: Low EI participants who received the EI training will have




c. EI.

Hypothesis 5: Moderate EI participants who received the EI training will have




156.

c. EI.

Hypothesis 6: High EI participants who received the EI training will have




c. EI.

Finally, Chapter Six determined whether IS training could impact citizenship

performance, EI and goal setting of the participants. Specifically, I hypothesized that

citizenship performance and goal setting would increase and that there would be no

increase in the participant’s EI from pre- to post-training. The data revealed that IS

training did not lead to improvements in citizenship performance and goal–setting, but

did increase the participants’ ‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’ and ‘Ability to

Manage Others’ Emotions’ with small effect sizes for both subscales. In the discussion

of Chapter Six I suggested that the reason for changes in EI may have been impacted by

the participant’s level of EI prior to training. Specifically, participants with the lowest EI

may have received the greatest benefit. Therefore, the following hypotheses have been

developed to test the efficacy of training in IS for participants with a low, moderate and

high EI:

Hypothesis 7: Low EI participants who received the IS training will have




c. EI.

Hypothesis 8: Moderate EI participants who received the IS training will have




c. No change in EI.

Hypothesis 9: High EI participants who received the IS training will have




c. No change in EI.

157.

Method

In Chapters Five and Six, data from the three studies were analysed by calculating

the mean composite (EM calculation in SPSS) of each scale and subscale and then

conducting repeated measures ANOVAS to compare pre- and post-differences. What is

unknown from this analysis is whether participants with differing levels of EI at Time 1

data collection (or pre-training) had differing outcomes from the training provided.

To explore these hypotheses further, data from all three studies have been split on

the basis of Time 1 (pre-training) and total EI score and reanalysed using independent

samples t-tests, repeated measures MANOVAs and repeated measures ANOVAs to

compare any differences between the groups. Data were trichotomised into three

categories in accordance with the method employed by Jordan and Ashkanasy (2006).

Category 1 (low EI) participants were those participants for each study whose total EI

scores at Time 1 data collection fell into the bottom 25% of scores for their relative

group (normative, EI, and IS). Category 2 (moderate EI) participants fell into the middle

25–75% of respondent scores. Category 3 (high EI) were participants whose total EI

scores were in the top 25% of their relative group. The combined descriptive statistics

for all three groups are presented first, followed by the results from the independent

samples t-tests and repeated measures MANOVAs. The repeated measures ANOVA

results for the normative, EI and IS trained groups are then presented separately.

Results

Descriptive Statistics

Low Emotional Intelligence Scores

Twenty-two participants were allocated to the low EI average normative group.

Within this group, total EI at Time 1 data collection ranged from 2.75 to 4.26 (on a 7-

point Likert-type scale). These scores represent the lower 25% of the total EI scores.

Table 47 presents the means and standard deviations for the normative sample with low

total EI scores at Times 1, 2 and 3 data collections.

158.

Table 47 Means and Standard Deviations for Normative Sample (Low EI)

n

Time 1 Mean (SD)

Time 2 Mean (SD)

Time 3 Mean (SD)

Citizenship Performance 22 3.58 (0.54) 3.64 (0.38) 3.61 (0.43) Interpersonal Facilitation 22 3.49 (0.77) 3.55 (0.45) 3.47 (0.46) Job Dedication 22 3.63 (0.51) 3.69 (0.47) 3.70 (0.52) Goal Setting 22 3.38 (0.56) 3.40 (0.60) 3.43 (0.64) Positive Goal Attainment 22 3.28 (0.68) 3.30 (0.69) 3.32 (0.69) Negative Goal Attainment 22 3.56 (0.54) 3.58 (0.71) 3.62 (0.69) Emotional Intelligence 22 3.92 (0.36) 4.20 (0.53) 4.24 (0.59) Awareness of Own Emotions 22 4.44 (0.98) 4.48 (0.94) 5.03 (0.89) Ability to Discuss Own Emotions 22 2.96 (0.91) 3.53 (0.98) 3.30 (0.99) Ability to Manage Own Emotions 22 4.69 (0.95) 4.73 (0.73) 4.86 (0.84) Awareness of Others’ Emotions 22 3.69 (0.61) 4.08 (1.02) 3.99 (0.92) Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions 22 3.74 (0.87) 4.06 (0.72) 4.09 (0.83)

Forty-one participants from the EI training group were allocated to the low EI

average group (the lower 25% of the participants). Within this group, total EI at Time 1

(pre-training) ranged from 3.46 to 4.38 (SD = 0.27) (on a 7-point Likert-type scale).

Table 48 presents the means and standard deviations for the EI training sample with low

total EI scores at Times 1 and 2 (pre-and post-training) data collections.

Table 48 Means and Standard Deviations for EI Training Sample (Low EI)

n

Time 1 Mean (SD)

Time 2 Mean (SD)

Citizenship Performance 41 3.71 (0.34) 3.74 (0.30) Interpersonal Facilitation 41 3.73 (0.50) 3.73 (0.48) Job Dedication 41 3.70 (0.43) 3.75 (0.40) Goal Setting 41 3.24 (0.58) 3.35 (0.54) Positive Goal Attainment 41 3.23 (0.70) 3.37 (0.67) Negative Goal Attainment 41 3.23 (0.60) 3.32 (0.57) Emotional Intelligence 41 4.02 (0.27) 4.40 (0.48) Awareness of Own Emotions 41 4.47 (0.87) 4.69 (0.86) Ability to Discuss Own Emotions 41 3.30 (0.70) 3.77 (0.81) Ability to Manage Own Emotions 41 4.62 (0.68) 4.90 (0.65) Awareness of Others’ Emotions 41 3.81 (0.60) 4.24 (0.61) Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions 41 3.85 (0.64) 4.33 (0.70)

Twenty participants from the IS training group were allocated to the low EI

average group. Within this group, total EI at Time 1 (pre-training) ranged from 2.88 to

4.21 (SD = 0.37) and from 3.67 to 5.37 (SD = 0.42) post-training. Table 49 presents the

means and standard deviations for the IS training sample (low EI) at Times 1 and 2 (pre-

and post-training) data collections.

159.

Table 49 Means and Standard Deviations for IS Training Sample (Low EI)

n

Time 1 Mean (SD)

Time 2 Mean (SD)

Citizenship Performance 20 3.59 (0.25) 3.70 (0.35) Interpersonal Facilitation 20 3.46 (0.42) 3.71 (0.49) Job Dedication 20 3.67 (0.37) 3.70 (0.40) Goal Setting 20 3.30 (0.54) 3.30 (0.40) Positive Goal Attainment 20 3.26 (0.75) 3.30 (0.53) Negative Goal Attainment 20 3.37 (0.61) 3.31 (0.49) Emotional Intelligence 20 3.80 (0.37) 4.20 (0.42) Awareness of Own Emotions 20 4.00 (0.60) 4.52 (0.56) Ability to Discuss Own Emotions 20 2.71 (0.85) 3.64 (0.86) Ability to Manage Own Emotions 20 4.48 (0.70) 4.69 (0.62) Awareness of Others’ Emotions 20 3.77 (0.59) 4.02 (0.71)

Moderate Emotional Intelligence Scores

Forty-seven participants from the normative sample were partitioned into the

moderate EI category. Scores ranged from 4.27 to 5.28 at Time 1. Means and standard

deviations at Times 1, 2 and 3 data collections for each of the three scales (and their

respective subscales) are presented in Table 50.

Table 50 Means and Standard Deviations for Normative Sample (Moderate EI)

n

Time 1 Mean (SD)

Time 2 Mean (SD)

Time 3 Mean (SD)


Eighty-two EI training participants were partitioned into the moderate EI category.

Scores ranged from 4.42 to 5.42 (SD = 0.29) prior to training and 3.46 and 6.63 (SD =

0.55) post-training. Means and standard deviations at Times 1 and 2 data collections for

each of the three scales (including subscales) are presented in Table 51.

Forty-one participants from the IS group were then allocated into the moderate EI

category. EI scores ranged from 4.25 to 5.18 (SD = 0.28) prior to training and 4.07 and

5.75 (SD = 0.39) post-training. Means and standard deviations at Times 1 and 2 data

collections (including subscales) are presented in Table 52.

160.

Table 51 Means and Standard Deviations for EI Training Sample (Moderate EI)

n Time 1

Mean (SD) Time 2

Mean (SD)


Table 52 Means and Standard Deviations for IS Training Sample (Moderate EI)

n

Time 1 Mean (SD)

Time 2 Mean (SD)


High Emotional Intelligence Scores

Table 53 presents the means and standard deviations for normative group

participants with high average EI. In total, 19 participants within the normative sample

were classified within this category. The mean composite scores for this group ranged

between 5.29 and 6.25.

Table 54 presents the means and standard deviations for the EI training

participants with a high average EI. In total, 38 participants were classified within this

category. The mean composite scores for this group ranged between 5.46 and 6.46 (SD

= 0.27) prior to training (Time 1) and 4.13 and 6.62 (SD = 0.53) post-training.

Finally, Table 55 provides the means and standard deviations for IS participants

with high average EI. A total of 20 participants were classified within this category. The

mean composite EI scores for this group ranged between 5.20 and 6.63 (SD = 0.41)

prior to training (time 1) and 4.96 and 6.67 (SD = 0.47) post-training.

161.

Table 53 Means and Standard Deviations for Normative Sample (High EI)

n

Time 1 Mean (SD)

Time 2 Mean (SD)

Time 3 Mean (SD)


Table 54 Means and Standard Deviations for EI Training Sample (High EI)

n

Time 1 Mean (SD)

Time 2 Mean (SD)


Table 55 Means and Standard Deviations for IS Training Sample (High EI)

n

Time 1 Mean (SD)

Time 2 Mean (SD)


A Discussion of Regression to the Mean

Prior to conducting further analyses on this data, it is pertinent to discuss a

potential issue that may provide an alternative explanation and impact the internal

162.

validity of the results of this study (Cheng, 1997). Regression to the mean (RTM) or

regression toward mediocrity is a statistical phenomenon that can occur in repeated

measures research where subject are allocated into groups based on extreme pre-test

scores (Barnett, van der Pols, & Dobson, 2004; Cheng, 1997; Marsh & Hau, 2002;

Yudkin & Stratton, 1994; Zimmerman, 1992). Regression to the mean occurs when

participants or groups complete a particular measure at one point in time and score

either a relatively high or relatively low score when compared to mean scores. As the

research cannot be sure that the initial measure was totally reliable, it is more likely that

the next completion of the measure will lead to a ‘less extreme’ score, closer to the

actual subjects ‘true mean’ (Barnett et al., 2004; Cheng, 1997; Cook & Campbell, 1979;

Furby, 1973). Yudkin and Stratton (1996) state that RTM can occur whether this is a

genuine fluctuation in a participant’s score, or when measurement error is occurring.

Regression to the mean can therefore be problematic in pre-test post-test intervention

designs as there is the need to demonstrate ‘real change’ in individual (or group) results

over and above those that could be attributed to RTM (Barnett et al., 2004).

According to Barnett et al. (2004) it should be assumed that RTM has taken place,

unless the data can provide an alternative explanation because RTM is combined with

the actual intervention effect (Yudkin & Stratton, 1994). As data have been

trichotomised for this study, the possibility of RTM occurring has been therefore been

assumed. However, Barnett et al. (2004) state that there are three methods that can be

effectively employed to help minimise RTM in intervention research. First, when

designing the study, if random allocation of subjects into experimental and control

groups occur, the responses from all groups will be equally affected by RTM. According

to Bland and Altman (1994), this is the best way to control for the effects of RTM.

Second, if an individual can complete the measure at several points (at least twice)

before the intervention occurs (several pre-tests) a calculation of the mean of the tests

can be undertaken to provide a more realistic estimate of the participant’s true mean

prior to the intervention. Unfortunately, this was not possible within the framework of

this research project. Third, at post-test, statistical techniques such as t-tests,

ANCOVAs, MANOVAs and ANOVAs can be utilised to check for, and overcome

RTM.

As this study is a quasi-experimental design interested in examining trichotomised

samples from the normative, EI and IS trained groups (low moderate and high EI at pre-

163.

test), random allocation of participants at this point was not possible. However, prior to

splitting the data into low, moderate and high groups, an independent samples t-test will

be undertaken to determine the equivalency of the pre-test means. Next, a variety of

statistical techniques such as MANOVAs and ANOVAs in an attempt to identify and

correct for RTM.

Comparison Between Groups at Time 1

First, a comparison of the means at Time 1 for the total normative, EI and IS

group (through an independent samples t-test) were conducted to determine whether

there are any significant differences between groups pre-test. The results reveal that the

EI group’s pre-training EI scores were not significantly different to the IS training group

p = 0.17 or the normative group p = 0.18. Furthermore, there were no significant

differences in the Time 1 means for the normative and IS groups (p = 0.91). These

results provide confidence that the three groups were equivalent at pre-test.

Repeated Measures MANOVA

Prior to conducting the repeated measures ANOVAS on the EI and IS data, a 2 x 3

repeated measures MANOVA, with two within-person levels (pre- and post-training)

and three between-person levels (normative, EI and IS training groups) was conducted.

The purpose of this analysis is to test whether there are main effects for the different

groups within this study and whether the interaction between these three variables is

significant (Pallant, 2007).

Low Emotional Intelligence

First significant within-subjects interaction effects were uncovered between ‘Total

EI’ and all of its related subscales. In terms of within-subject main effects, none of the

scales or subscales emerged as significant. Finally, the main effects resulting from a

comparison of the three different groups (between-subjects) was significant for ‘Total

EI’. Tables 56, 57 and 58 present the full results of these analyses.

164.

Table 56 Interaction Effects (Within-person) – MANOVA comparing Normative, EI and IS Training

Wilks’ Lambda

F (df) p η2

Citizenship Performance (Total) 0.97 2.78 (1, 80) 0.10 0.03

Interpersonal Facilitation 0.97 2.86 (1, 80) 0.10 0.04

Job Dedication 0.99 0.96 (1, 80) 0.33 0.01

Goal Setting (Total) 0.97 1.12 (1, 80) 0.29 0.01

Positive Goal Attainment 0.98 1.46 (1, 80) 0.23 0.02

Negative Goal Attainment 0.99 0.06 (1, 80) 0.81 0.01

Emotional Intelligence (Total) 0.73 29.01 (1, 80) 0.00** 0.27

Awareness of Own Emotions 0.93 5.75 (1, 80) 0.02* 0.07

Ability to Discuss Own Emotions 0.64 44.29 (1, 80) 0.00** 0.36

Ability to Manage Own Emotions 0.95 4.42 (1, 80) 0.04* 0.05

Awareness of Others’ Emotions 0.85 14.18 (1, 80) 0.00** 0.15

Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions 0.84 15.71 (1, 80) 0.00** 0.16

* = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01

Table 57 Main Effects for Time (Within-person) – MANOVA comparing Normative, EI and IS Training

Wilks’ Lambda

F (df) p η2



Job Dedication 0.99 0.04 (2, 80) 0.96 0.01




Emotional Intelligence (Total) 0.99 0.31 (2, 80) 0.74 0.01

Awareness of Own Emotions 0.97 1.34 (2, 80) 0.27 0.03

Ability to Discuss Own Emotions 0.95 2.02 (2, 80) 0.14 0.05

Ability to Manage Own Emotions 0.98 0.81 (2, 80) 0.45 0.02

Awareness of Others’ Emotions 0.99 0.33 (2, 80) 0.72 0.01

Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions 0.99 0.27 (2, 80) 0.77 0.01

* = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01

165.

Table 58 Main Effects (Between-persons) – MANOVA comparing Normative, EI and IS Training

F (df) p η2

Citizenship Performance (Total) 1.13 (2, 80) 0.33 0.03

Interpersonal Facilitation 1.67 (2, 80) 0.20 0.04

Job Dedication 0.22 (2, 80) 0.81 0.01

Goal Setting (Total) 0.28 (2, 80) 0.76 0.01

Positive Goal Attainment 0.02 (2, 80) 0.98 0.00

Negative Goal Attainment 2.15 (2, 80) 0.12 0.05

Emotional Intelligence (Total) 4.07 (2, 80) 0.02* 0.09

Awareness of Own Emotions 1.44 (2, 80) 0.24 0.04

Ability to Discuss Own Emotions 2.24 (2, 80) 0.11 0.05

Ability to Manage Own Emotions 0.57 (2, 80) 0.57 0.01

Awareness of Others’ Emotions 0.63 (2, 80) 0.54 0.02

Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions 0.91 (2, 80) 0.41 0.02

* = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01

Moderate Emotional Intelligence

First, in terms of within-subjects interaction effects, the results of the analyses

undertaken on the moderate EI group reveal none of the scales or subscales as

significant. Significant within-subjects main effects were uncovered within ‘Total Goal

Setting’, ‘Positive Goal Attainment’, ‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’, and ‘Ability

to Manage Others’ Emotions’. Finally, between-subjects main effects were revealed as

significant for ‘Interpersonal Facilitation’, ‘Total EI’, and ‘Ability to Manage Others’

Emotions’. Tables 59, 60, and 61 present the full results of these analyses.

166.


Wilks’ Lambda

F (df) p η2



Job Dedication 0.99 0.17 (2, 167) 0.84 0.01










* = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01


Wilks’ Lambda

F (df) p η2



Job Dedication 0.99 0.72 (1, 167) 0.40 0.01

Goal Setting (Total) 0.97 5.88 (1, 167) 0.02* 0.03

Positive Goal Attainment 0.97 4.39 (1, 167) 0.04* 0.03




Ability to Discuss Own Emotions 0.95 8.96 (1, 167) 0.01* 0.05



Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions 0.92 14.06 (1, 167) 0.00** 0.08

* = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01

167.


F (df) p η2


Interpersonal Facilitation 8.44 (2, 167) 0.00** 0.09

Job Dedication 0.16 (2, 167) 0.86 0.01




Emotional Intelligence (Total) 5.98 (2, 167) 0.01* 0.07





Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions 4.95 (2, 167) 0.01* 0.06

* = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01

High Emotional Intelligence

For the high EI groups, within-subjects analyses reveal significant main effects for

‘Interpersonal Facilitation’ and ‘Negative Goal Attainment’. Significant within-subjects

main effects were uncovered for ‘Total EI’, ‘Awareness of Own Emotions’, and ‘Ability

to Manage Own Emotions’. Finally, between-subjects analyses revealed no significant

main effects for any of the scales or their related subscales. Tables 62, 63, and 64

present the full results of these analyses.

168.


Wilks’ Lambda

F (df) p η2


Interpersonal Facilitation 0.91 3.63 (2, 74) 0.03* 0.09

Job Dedication 0.99 0.03 (2, 74) 0.97 0.01



Negative Goal Attainment 0.91 3.55 (2, 74) 0.03* 0.09







* = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01


Wilks’ Lambda

F (df) p η2



Job Dedication 0.99 0.54 (1, 74) 0.46 0.01




Emotional Intelligence (Total) 0.95 4.15 (1, 74) 0.05* 0.05

Awareness of Own Emotions 0.88 10.43 (1, 74) 0.01* 0.12


Ability to Manage Own Emotions 0.92 6.38 (1, 74) 0.01* 0.08



* = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01

169.


F (df) p η2


Interpersonal Facilitation 0.76 (2, 74) 0.47 0.02

Job Dedication 0.63 (2, 74) 0.53 0.02




Emotional Intelligence (Total) 0.67 (2, 74) 0.51 0.02





Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions 1.29 (2, 74) 0.28 0.03

* = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01

Normative Sample ANOVA Results (Study 1)

A series of repeated measures ANOVAs with planned comparisons using

citizenship performance, EI and goal setting (including their respective subscales) as

dependent variables and Time (Times 1, 2 and 3 data collections) as the within-subjects

factors were then conducted on the low, moderate and high EI data samples. The results

of these analyses are presented in Tables 65, 66 and 67.

Table 65 (low EI) reveals that for each of the citizenship dimensions and the goal

setting dimensions, there were no significant changes across the three data collection

points. Based on these results, Hypotheses 1a and 1b are supported. Additionally, there

was no change in the overall EI. The two subscales ‘Awareness of Own Emotions’ and

‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’ did demonstrate a significant change; however,

according to Cohen’s (1988) standard classifications, the effect size is small. All

remaining EI subscales showed no significant changes for the low EI group. Based on

these results, Hypothesis 1c is partially supported.

Table 66 (moderate EI) reveals no change in citizenship performance supporting

Hypothesis 2a, but a significant change in total goal setting and the subscale ‘Negative

Goal Attainment’, both with non-significant effect sizes, was revealed as not supporting

Hypothesis 2b. There was no change in overall EI; however, ‘Awareness of Own

170.

Emotions’ did decrease (with a small effect size). These results partially support

Hypothesis 2c.

Table 65 Wilks’ Lambda, F-Statistics, Significance and Effect Size (d) for Citizenship Performance, EI and Goal Setting Repeated Measures ANOVAs for Normative Sample (Low EI, n = 21)

Wilks’ Lambda

F (df) p d



Job Dedication 0.97 0.31 (2,20) 0.74 0.03





Awareness of Own Emotions 0.68 4.81(2,20) 0.02* 0.33





* = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01

Table 66 Wilks’ Lambda, F-Statistics, Significance and Effect Size (d) for Citizenship Performance, EI and Goal Setting Repeated Measures ANOVAs for Normative Sample (Moderate EI, n = 47)

Wilks’ Lambda

F (df) p d



Job Dedication 1.00 0.01 (2,45) 0.99 0.00

Goal Setting (Total) 0.88 3.21 (2,45) 0.05* 0.13


Negative Goal Attainment 0.84 4.39 (2,45) 0.02* 0.16


Awareness of Own Emotions 0.86 3.61 (2,45) 0.04* 0.64





* = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01

171.

Table 67 (high EI participants) reveals no change in citizenship performance or

goal setting, thus supporting Hypotheses 3a and 3b. There was a decrease in the overall

EI and its subscale ‘Awareness of Own Emotions’. The measures of effect size

demonstrated that these changes were small; however, Hypothesis 3c is not supported.

Table 67 Wilks’ Lambda, F-Statistics, Significance and Effect Size (d) for Citizenship Performance, EI and Goal Setting Repeated Measures ANOVAs for Normative Sample (High EI, n = 19)

Wilks’ Lambda

F (df) p d



Job Dedication 0.88 1.22 (2,16) 0.32 0.13










* = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01

Planned Comparisons

Finally, a series of simple and repeated contrasts were conducted to examine the

differences in mean citizenship performance, EI and goal setting scores for the sample

participants between Times 1 and 3, and Times 2 and 3 data collections. These results

are presented in Tables 68, 69 and 70 for the low, moderate and high EI groups,

respectively.

Low Emotional Intelligence Scores

The results of the planned comparisons for the low EI participants are presented in

Table 68. As can be seen, there were no significant differences in citizenship

performance or its related subscales between data collections.

172.

Table 68 F Statistics and Effect Size (d) for Citizenship Performance, EI and Goal Setting for T1, T2 & T3 (Low EI – Normative Sample)

F (df) p Bf d Citizenship Performance (Total) Time 1 to Time 2 0.48 (1,21) 0.50 1.00 0.13 Time 1 to Time 3 0.17 (1,21) 0.68 1.00 0.06 Time 2 to Time 3 0.15 (1,21) 0.70 1.00 0.08 Interpersonal Facilitation Time 1 to Time 2 0.26 (1,21) 0.62 1.00 0.10 Time 1 to Time 3 0.02 (1,21) 0.89 1.00 0.03 Time 2 to Time 3 1.35 (1,21) 0.26 0.78 0.18 Job Dedication Time 1 to Time 2 0.48 (1,21) 0.50 1.00 0.13 Time 1 to Time 3 0.49 (1,21) 0.49 1.00 0.14 Time 2 to Time 3 0.01 (1,21) 0.95 1.00 0.02 Goal Setting (Total) Time 1 to Time 2 0.06 (1,21) 0.81 1.00 0.03 Time 1 to Time 3 0.42 (1,21) 0.52 1.00 0.08 Time 2 to Time 3 0.10 (1,21) 0.76 1.00 0.05 Positive Goal Attainment Time 1 to Time 2 0.03 (1,21) 0.87 1.00 0.03 Time 1 to Time 3 0.26 (1,21) 0.62 1.00 0.06 Time 2 to Time 3 0.05 (1,21) 0.83 1.00 0.03 Negative Goal Attainment Time 1 to Time 2 0.03 (1,21) 0.86 1.00 0.03 Time 1 to Time 3 0.24 (1,21) 0.63 1.00 0.09 Time 2 to Time 3 0.07 (1,21) 0.79 1.00 0.06 Emotional Intelligence (Total) Time 1 to Time 2 3.22 (1,21) 0.09 0.27 0.63 Time 1 to Time 3 4.26 (1,21) 0.05* 0.15 0.67 Time 2 to Time 3 0.12 (1,21) 0.73 1.00 0.07 Awareness of Own Emotions Time 1 to Time 2 0.04 (1,21) 0.84 1.00 0.04 Time 1 to Time 3 6.56 (1,21) 0.02* 0.06 0.63 Time 2 to Time 3 0.78 (1,21) 0.01* 0.03* 0.60 Ability to Discuss Own Emotions

Time 1 to Time 2 10.63 (1,21) 0.01* 0.03* 0.60 Time 1 to Time 3 4.53 (1,21) 0.05* 0.15 0.36 Time 2 to Time 3 1.85 (1,21) 0.19 0.57 0.23 Ability to Manage Own Emotions

Time 1 to Time 2 0.03 (1,21) 0.87 1.00 0.05 Time 1 to Time 3 0.63 (1,21) 0.43 1.00 0.19 Time 2 to Time 3 0.54 (1,21) 0.47 1.00 0.17 Awareness of Others’ Emotions Time 1 to Time 2 3.32 (1,21) 0.08 0.24 0.46 Time 1 to Time 3 2.52 (1,21) 0.13 0.39 0.38 Time 2 to Time 3 0.48 (1,21) 0.50 1.00 0.09 Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions

Time 1 to Time 2 2.60 (1,21) 0.12 0.36 0.40 Time 1 to Time 3 2.13 (1,21) 0.16 0.48 0.41 Time 2 to Time 3 0.03 (1,21) 0.86 1.00 0.04

* = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01

173.

Additionally, there were no significant changes in overall goal setting and its subscales.

There are, however, significant differences in several areas of the EI scale. There is a

significant increase (with a moderate effect size) in EI scores between Times 1 and 3

data collection periods. Second, there was a significant increase in ‘Awareness of Own

Emotions’ between Time 1 and 3, and between Times 2 and 3 data collections,

respectively (with moderate effect sizes). Finally, there were significant increases in

‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’ between Times 1 and 2 (moderate effect) and

between Times 1 and 3 data collections (small effect). As multiple significance tests

were conducted on the normative data a Bonferroni Correction (Bf) was undertaken to

check if significance levels were inflated due. The results of this test demonstrate that

only ‘Awareness of Own Emotions’ between times 2 and 3 and ‘Ability to Discuss Own

Emotions’ between times 1 and 2 remained significant.

Moderate Emotional Intelligence Scores

Table 69 presents the results of the moderate EI group. These results demonstrate

no change in citizenship performance or its related subscales across all the data

collection periods. In terms of EI, there were no changes in total EI. However, there was

a significant decrease in the respondents’ ‘Awareness of Own Emotions’, which

decreased from Times 1 to 2 and between Times 1 and 3 (both with small effect sizes).

The subscale ‘Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions’ significantly increased between

Times 1 and 2 with a small effect size. The respondents’ goal setting scores increased

between Times 1 and 2, but decreased between Times 2 and 3 (with small effect sizes).

Finally, ‘Negative Goal Attainment’ decreased between Times 2 and 3 data collections,

with a small effect. As with the low EI results, a Bonferroni correction was employed as

multiple significance tests were conducted on the data. Upon completion of this

analysis, only ‘Negative Goal Attainment’ between Times 2 and 3 remained significant.

High Emotional Intelligence Scores

The final planned comparisons were conducted on data collected from the high EI

group (presented in Table 70). As with the low and moderate EI groups presented

above, there was no change in citizenship performance across the three data collections.

There were also no changes in total goal setting or the two related subscales.

174.

Table 69 F Statistics and Effect Size (d) for Citizenship Performance, EI and Goal Setting for T1, T2 & T3 (Moderate EI – Normative Sample)

F (df) p Bf d Citizenship Performance (Total) Time 1 to Time 2 0.16 (1,46) 0.70 1.00 0.05 Time 1 to Time 3 0.04 (1,46) 0.84 1.00 0.03 Time 2 to Time 3 0.30 (1,46) 0.86 1.00 0.02 Interpersonal Facilitation Time 1 to Time 2 0.54 (1,46) 0.46 1.00 0.09 Time 1 to Time 3 0.08 (1,46) 0.78 1.00 0.02 Time 2 to Time 3 0.25 (1,46) 0.62 1.00 0.07 Job Dedication Time 1 to Time 2 0.00 (1,46) 1.00 1.00 0.00 Time 1 to Time 3 0.01 (1,46) 0.93 1.00 0.00 Time 2 to Time 3 0.01 (1,46) 0.93 1.00 0.00 Goal Setting (Total) Time 1 to Time 2 4.70 (1,46) 0.04* 0.12 0.24 Time 1 to Time 3 0.01 (1,46) 0.98 1.00 0.00 Time 2 to Time 3 3.93 (1,46) 0.05* 0.15 0.24 Positive Goal Attainment Time 1 to Time 2 2.86 (1,46) 0.10 0.30 0.17 Time 1 to Time 3 0.13 (1,46) 0.72 1.00 0.05 Time 2 to Time 3 1.19 (1,46) 0.28 0.84 0.13 Negative Goal Attainment Time 1 to Time 2 3.27 (1,46) 0.08 0.24 0.21 Time 1 to Time 3 0.38 (1,46) 0.54 1.00 0.08 Time 2 to Time 3 7.79 (1,46) 0.01* 0.03* 0.21 Emotional Intelligence (Total) Time 1 to Time 2 0.20 (1,46) 0.65 1.00 0.07 Time 1 to Time 3 0.03 (1,46) 0.85 1.00 0.03 Time 2 to Time 3 0.39 (1,46) 0.54 1.00 0.08 Awareness of Own Emotions Time 1 to Time 2 5.99 (1,46) 0.02* 0.06 0.42 Time 1 to Time 3 5.54 (1,46) 0.02* 0.06 0.38 Time 2 to Time 3 0.04 (1,46) 0.85 1.00 0.02 Ability to Discuss Own Emotions

Time 1 to Time 2 2.90 (1,46) 0.10 0.30 0.26 Time 1 to Time 3 0.73 (1,46) 0.40 1.00 0.16 Time 2 to Time 3 0.74 (1,46) 0.40 1.00 0.12 Ability to Manage Own Emotions

Time 1 to Time 2 0.75 (1,46) 0.39 1.00 0.12 Time 1 to Time 3 2.57 (1,46) 0.12 0.36 0.25 Time 2 to Time 3 0.73 (1,46) 0.39 1.00 0.11 Awareness of Others’ Emotions Time 1 to Time 2 0.18 (1,46) 0.68 1.00 0.07 Time 1 to Time 3 0.37 (1,46) 0.55 1.00 0.09 Time 2 to Time 3 0.01 (1,46) 0.93 1.00 0.01 Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions

Time 1 to Time 2 4.23 (1,46) 0.05* 0.15 0.26 Time 1 to Time 3 0.77 (1,46) 0.39 1.00 0.12 Time 2 to Time 3 0.93 (1,46) 0.34 1.00 0.12

* = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01

175.

Table 70 F Statistics and Effect Size (d) for Citizenship Performance, EI and Goal Setting for T1, T2 & T3 (High EI – Normative Sample)

F (df) p Bf d Citizenship Performance (Total) Time 1 to Time 2 0.45 (1,18) 0.51 1.00 0.15 Time 1 to Time 3 2.48 (1,18) 0.13 0.39 0.28 Time 2 to Time 3 1.09 (1,18) 0.31 0.93 0.12 Interpersonal Facilitation Time 1 to Time 2 1.00 (1,18) 0.33 0.99 0.20 Time 1 to Time 3 2.82 (1,18) 0.11 0.33 0.31 Time 2 to Time 3 0.31 (1,18) 0.59 1.00 0.09 Job Dedication Time 1 to Time 2 0.18 (1,18) 0.68 1.00 0.09 Time 1 to Time 3 1.43 (1,18) 0.25 0.75 0.26 Time 2 to Time 3 1.42 (1,18) 0.25 0.75 0.15 Goal Setting (Total) Time 1 to Time 2 0.00 (1,18) 0.99 1.00 0.00 Time 1 to Time 3 1.33 (1,18) 0.26 0.78 0.15 Time 2 to Time 3 0.47 (1,18) 0.50 1.00 0.16 Positive Goal Attainment Time 1 to Time 2 0.13 (1,18) 0.72 1.00 0.10 Time 1 to Time 3 0.94 (1,18) 0.35 1.00 0.16 Time 2 to Time 3 0.12 (1,18) 0.73 1.00 0.08 Negative Goal Attainment Time 1 to Time 2 0.88 (1,18) 0.36 1.00 0.18 Time 1 to Time 3 0.03 (1,18) 0.87 1.00 0.03 Time 2 to Time 3 0.87 (1,18) 0.37 1.00 0.21 Emotional Intelligence (Total) Time 1 to Time 2 3.38 (1,18) 0.08 0.24 0.47 Time 1 to Time 3 8.15 (1,18) 0.01* 0.03* 0.64 Time 2 to Time 3 1.69 (1,18) 0.21 0.63 0.17 Awareness of Own Emotions Time 1 to Time 2 3.75 (1,18) 0.07 0.21 0.35 Time 1 to Time 3 8.84 (1,18) 0.01* 0.03* 0.55 Time 2 to Time 3 2.45 (1,18) 0.14 0.42 0.26 Ability to Discuss Own Emotions

Time 1 to Time 2 0.04 (1,18) 0.86 1.00 0.05 Time 1 to Time 3 0.16 (1,18) 0.69 1.00 0.06 Time 2 to Time 3 0.01 (1,18) 0.96 1.00 0.01 Ability to Manage Own Emotions

Time 1 to Time 2 3.05 (1,18) 0.10 0.30 0.49 Time 1 to Time 3 3.50 (1,18) 0.08 0.24 0.55 Time 2 to Time 3 0.52 (1,18) 0.48 1.00 0.07 Awareness of Others’ Emotions Time 1 to Time 2 2.64 (1,18) 0.12 0.36 0.44 Time 1 to Time 3 6.67 (1,18) 0.02* 0.06 0.61 Time 2 to Time 3 0.89 (1,18) 0.36 1.00 0.19 Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions

Time 1 to Time 2 1.58 (1,18) 0.23 0.69 0.26 Time 1 to Time 3 3.57 (1,18) 0.08 0.24 0.50 Time 2 to Time 3 1.08 (1,18) 0.31 0.93 0.27

* = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01

176.

However, there were significant decreases in total EI between Times 1 and 3

(moderate effect size), the ‘Awareness of Own Emotions’ between Times 1 and 3

(moderate effect size), and ‘Awareness of Others’ Emotions’ between Times 1 and 3

(moderate effect size). Bonferroni corrections revealed that these decreases were only

significant for total EI and ‘Awareness of Own Emotions’. A discussion of the results

from the normative group will be presented at the end of this chapter.

Emotional Intelligence Training ANOVA Results (Study 2)

As with the normative sample, the repeated measures ANOVAs were conducted

on the low, moderate and high EI data samples with planned comparisons using

citizenship performance, EI and goal setting (including their respective subscales) as

dependent variables and Time (Times 1 and 2) as the within-subjects factors. The results

of these analyses are presented in Tables 71, 72 and 73.

Table 71 (low EI) reveals that for each of the citizenship dimensions there were no

significant changes from pre-training to post-training. Based on these results,

Hypothesis 4a was not supported. In terms of goal setting, both the overall goal setting

scale and ‘Positive Goal Process’ significantly improved from pre- to post–training, thus

partially supporting Hypothesis 4b . The effect sizes of these changes were, however,

small. There was a significant increase in total EI and all subscales except for

‘Awareness of Own Emotions’. These results were supported by calculating the effect

sizes. Total ‘EI’ had a large effect size, while the remainder of the subscales revealed

moderate effect sizes. Based on these results, Hypothesis 4c is supported.

Table 72 (moderate EI) reveals no changes in citizenship performance or goal

setting scores from pre- to post–training, thus supporting Hypotheses 5a and 5b. There

was a significant change in the overall EI, including the subscales of ‘Ability to Discuss

Own Emotions’ and ‘Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions’, which increased

significantly (with a small effect size). Based on these results, Hypothesis 5c was not

supported.

177.

Table 71 Wilks’ Lambda, F Statistics, Effect Size (d) and Power for Citizenship Performance, Goal Setting and EI from Pre- to Post-program for EI Training Sample (Low EI, n = 41)

Wilks’ Lambda

F (df) p d


Interpersonal Facilitation 1.00 0.00 (1.40) 0.98 0.00

Job Dedication 0.99 0.54 (1,40) 0.47 0.12

Goal Setting (Total) 0.90 4.61 (1,40) 0.04* 0.20

Positive Goal Attainment 0.90 4.29 (1,40) 0.05* 0.20





Ability to Manage Own Emotions 0.81 9.56 (1,40) 0.01* 0.42

Awareness of Others’ Emotions 0.75 13.26 (1,40) 0.01* 0.71

Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions 0.68 18.73 (1,40) 0.00* 0.72

* = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01

Table 72 Wilks’ Lambda, F Statistics, Effect Size (d) and Power for Citizenship Performance, Goal Setting and EI from Pre- to Post-program for EI Training Sample (Moderate EI, n = 82)

Wilks’ Lambda

F (df) p d



Job Dedication 0.99 0.47 (1,81) 0.50 0.09









Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions 0.87 10.44 (1,81) 0.01* 0.27

* = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01

For the high EI group (Table 73), there was no change in overall citizenship

performance. However, there was a significant (with moderate effect size) decrease in

the subscale ‘Interpersonal Facilitation’; thus, partially supporting Hypothesis 6a. A

178.

significant decrease was revealed for the goal setting subscale ‘Negative Goal

Attainment’ (small effect size); thus, partially supporting Hypothesis 6b. Finally, there

was no change in overall EI, except for the subscale ‘Ability to Manage Own Emotions’,

which decreased significantly (small effect size). Based on these results, Hypothesis 6c

was partially supported.

Table 73 Wilks’ Lambda, F Statistics, Effect Size (d) and Power for Citizenship Performance, Goal Setting and EI from Pre- to Post-program for EI Training Sample (High EI, n = 38)

Wilks’ Lambda

F (df) p d


Interpersonal Facilitation 0.81 8.49 (1,37) -0.01* -0.50

Job Dedication 0.99 0.46 (1,37) 0.50 0.09



Negative Goal Attainment 0.83 7.49 (1,37) -0.01 -0.36




Ability to Manage Own Emotions 0.85 6.80 (1,37) -0.01* -0.42



* = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01

Interpersonal Skills Training ANOVA Results (Study 3)

Using the same procedure outlined for the normative and EI trained samples, data

collected from the IS trained participants were analysed. The results are presented in

Tables 74, 75 and 76.

Table 74 (low EI) first reveals that there was a significant increase (with a small

effect size) for overall citizenship performance. Additionally ‘Interpersonal Facilitation’

significantly increased with a medium effect size calculation, thus supporting

Hypothesis 7a. Hypothesis 7b was not supported as no changes in goal setting for the

low EI group were revealed. There were, however, improvements (with large effect

sizes) in total EI, ‘Awareness of Own Emotions’ and ‘Ability to Discuss Own

Emotions’, which support Hypothesis 7c.

179.

Table 74 Wilks’ Lambda, F Statistics, Effect Size (d) and Power for Citizenship Performance, EI and Goal Setting from Pre- to Post-program for IS Training Sample (Low EI, n = 20)

Wilks’ Lambda

F (df) p d

Citizenship Performance (Total) 0.81 4.33 (1,19) 0.05* 0.36

Interpersonal Facilitation 0.76 6.07 (1,19) 0.02* 0.55

Job Dedication 0.99 0.13 (1,19) 0.72 0.08





Awareness of Own Emotions 0.45 23.44 (1,19) 0.00** 0.89





* = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01

Analysis of the moderate EI group revealed that there were no significant changes

in citizenship performance, goal setting, or EI. These results do not support Hypothesis

8a and 8b, but do however, support hypothesis 8c. The Full results are presented in

Table 75.

Finally, Table 76 demonstrates that there were no changes in citizenship

performance and goal setting for the high EI group. These results do not support

Hypothesis 9a and 9b. Additionally, there was no change in overall EI for this group

and there was a decrease in the participants’ ‘Awareness of Own Emotions’. Based on

this result, Hypothesis 9c is partially supported.

180.

Table 75 Wilks’ Lambda, F Statistics, Effect Size (d) and Power for Citizenship Performance, EI and Goal Setting from Pre- to Post-program for IS Training Sample (Moderate EI, n = 41)

Wilks’ Lambda

F (df) p d



Job Dedication 0.97 1.07 (1,40) 0.31 0.11










* = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01

Table 76 Wilks’ Lambda, F Statistics, Effect Size (d) and Power for Citizenship Performance, EI and Goal Setting from Pre- to Post-program for IS Training Sample (High EI, n = 20)

Wilks’ Lambda

F (df) p d



Job Dedication 1.00 0.05 (1,19) 0.83 0.03










* = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01

Discussion

To explore whether there were significant differences between the participants

attending the same training program (or within the normative sample), the participants

181.

from the normative sample, EI training and interpersonal training groups were allocated

into one of three groups (separately for each cohort) based on their Time 1 EI scores. A

trichotomised sampling method was used in keeping with a previous study conducted by

Jordan and his colleagues (Jordan et al., 2002). The first groups entitled ‘low EI’

comprised participants who reported their pre-training (Time 1) EI in the bottom 25% of

that particular sample. Participants whose EI scores fell within the 25–75% range were

allocated the ‘moderate EI’ groups. Finally, the participants whose pre-training scores

were in the top 25% of participants were labelled ‘high EI’ groups. Independent samples

t-tests, repeated measures MANOVAs and repeated measures ANOVAS were then

conducted using SPSS for Windows version 15.0 to explore whether there were

differences between the samples. As data were collected from the normative sample at

three points in time, planned comparisons were conducted.

What is clear from examining the combined results is that different forms of

training impact EI at differing levels in individuals depending on their pre-training EI.

These results both support and extend the research undertaken by Jordan et al. (2002).

Looking briefly at the results obtained from conducting repeated measures ANOVAs

with the normative group, it was found for the low EI participants ‘Awareness of Own

Emotions’ and ‘Ability to Discuss Emotions’ increased with small effect sizes. For the

moderate EI group, there was a small increase in overall goal setting, but a small

decrease in ‘Negative Goal Attainment’. The group with a high EI reported a small

decrease in overall EI and their ‘Awareness of Own Emotions’ between the three data

collections. These small variations were expected because participants became more

familiar with the content of the survey measure. It is argued that the re-administration of

the survey on a further two occasions created a response shift (Howard & Dailey, 1979)

that could lead to the participants spending more time reflecting on their behaviours and

then providing differing responses based on this reflection.

Low, moderate and high EI participants who received the EI intervention reported

a number of significant changes from pre- to post-training. The low EI group reported a

large increase in their overall EI and moderate increases in ‘Ability to Discuss Own

Emotions’, ‘Ability to Manage Own Emotions’, ‘Awareness of Others’ Emotions’ and

‘Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions’. The moderate EI participants saw small

increases in ‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’ and ‘Ability to Manage Own

Emotions’. Interestingly, the high EI participants had a moderate decrease in

182.

‘Interpersonal Facilitation’ and small decreases in ‘Negative Goal Attainment’ and

‘Ability to Manage Own Emotions’.

The pattern of the changes between the low, moderate and high EI participants

suggests that participants with low EI gained the greatest benefit from the training

program, with the moderate EI participants reporting small increases in two areas.

Furthermore, although the high EI group reported significant decreases in three of the

surveyed areas, these decreases still demonstrate that the awareness of these participants

did increase as a result of the training (a realisation that they perhaps were not as skilled

in those areas as they had thought prior to training). Sadri and Snyder (1995) have

outlined that measurement between pre-training and post-training effectiveness for the

above-mentioned reason. A full discussion and rationale for these findings will be

presented in Chapter Eight.

Finally, those participants who received the IS intervention reported a differing

series of changes to the EI-trained group. The low EI participants reported small

increases in their overall citizenship performance and ‘Interpersonal Facilitation’, and

large increases in overall EI, ‘Awareness of Own Emotions’ and ‘Ability to Discuss

Own Emotions’. There were however, no changes in the moderate EI group and the high

EI group for citizenship performance or goal setting which was not expected. Both

groups reported no increase in overall EI with the high EI group reporting a moderate

decrease in their ‘Awareness of Own Emotions’ from pre- to post-training. Clearly,

these results demonstrate that the low EI participants increased their emotional abilities

in addition to their ability to work with others. Furthermore, the results demonstrate that

this training program’s impact was restricted to participants with low EI. As outlined

above, a full discussion of the importance of these results will be presented in Chapter

Eight.

Chapter Summary

The purpose of this chapter was to undertake a deeper examination of the results

obtained from data analyses presented in Chapters Five and Six of this thesis. From the

previous analyses, what could not be ascertained was whether the participants with

differing levels of EI at the Time 1 data collection (or pre-training) had differing

outcomes from the training programs examined within this research.

183.

Extending Jordan et al.’s (2002) work, the analyses conducted within this chapter

have allowed a clear comparison of the impact of each of the training interventions on

the participants who commenced the training program with differing levels of EI prior to

training. A brief discussion of the results has been presented within this chapter. The

following chapter of this thesis will explore in greater detail these and the overall results

obtained within this thesis.

184.

CHAPTER EIGHT

Integrating the Studies

Overview

The aim of this chapter is to integrate the results of the studies presented and

discussed in this thesis. The purpose of this research was to establish whether the skills

and abilities associated with the Mayer and Salovey (1997) four-branch model of EI can

be trained within organisations. A quasi-experimental design was used and enabled the

experimental results to be compared with a normative data sample collected from one

large public sector organisation. Training interventions and data were collected over an

eighteen-month period and analysed using a variety of statistical techniques in SPSS for

Windows version 15.0. The first part of this chapter will focus upon providing a brief

summary of the theoretical development and overarching research questions. Next,

results established from the analyses undertaken in Chapters Four to Seven will be

presented. This will then be followed by a full discussion of the outcomes of this

program of research.

Summary of Theoretical Development

As was mentioned in Chapter One the aim of the research program presented in

this thesis was to construct an EI-focused training program and then to examine the

impact of this training and an IS-focused training program in a workplace sample. A

wide range of studies examining the link between EI and specific work contexts are

currently being conducted and include the areas of organisational change (Huy, 1999:

2002: 2005), organisational structure (Sy & Côté, 2004), organisational learning

(Gabriel & Griffiths, 2002; Hopfl & Linstead, 1997), leadership (Barling et al., 2000;

Cooper & Sawaf, 1997; George, 2000; Mayer & Caruso, 2002; Palmer et al., 2001;

Wang & Huang, 2009; Zhou & George, 2003), entrepreneurship (Cross & Travaglione,

2003), work teams and work groups (Druskat & Wolff, 2001, 2008; Goleman et al.,

2002; Jordan et al., 2002; Sy et al., 2005; Wolff et al., 2002), performance (Austin,

2004; Côté & Miners, 2006; Day & Carroll, 2004; Jordan et al., 2002; Lam & Kirby,

2002; Tischler et al., 2002), job insecurity (Jordan et al., 2002), conflict (Jordan &

185.

Troth, 2004), interpersonal relations (Schutte et al., 2001) and psychological wellbeing

(Carmeli et al., 2009).

Many of the above mentioned researchers have noted that training to improve EI

skills and abilities may lead to individual and group improvements in these work

contexts (Barling et al., 2000; Elfenbein et al., 2007; Gardner & Stough, 2002; Riggio &

Reichard, 2008; Sy & Côté, 2004). To date, a variety of methods have been used to train

EI in the workplace, ranging from offering IS training as EI training (Cherniss & Adler,

2000; Lynn, 2002; Tucker, Sojka, Barone, & McCarthy, 2000) to full-blown emotions-

focused interventions (Brown, 2003; Nelis, Quoidbach, Mikolajczak, & Hansenne,

2009; Slaski & Cartwright, 2002, 2003; Wasseveld, Overbeeke, & Dersken, 2007). This

issue remains however, that few of these interventions have been subjected to

theoretical justification or empirical testing (Palmer, Walls, Burgess, & Stough, 2001).

Therefore, the research conducted in this thesis was based on the following research

questions:

3. Can individual emotional intelligence be increased through training

in:





b. Goal Setting?

Summary of Research

Normative Sample Outcomes (Study 1)

Chapter Four provided the results of the normative data analysis conducted to

examine the psychometric properties of the three scales contained within the ‘Emotions

in the Workplace’ survey measure. Because normative data were collected from a large

sample of participants at three points in time, principal axis factoring was employed to

establish stable measures of citizenship performance, EI and goal setting.

186.

The results revealed the existing factors with small changes to items for EI and

citizenship performance and a new factor structure for the goal setting scale. These

findings were consistent across the three data samples. Citizenship performance retained

its two-factor structure with ‘Interpersonal Facilitation’ containing eight items and a

‘Job Dedication’ consisting of five items. A five-factor solution was revealed for the EI

scale. The original 36 items were narrowed down to 24 items with the ‘Ability to

Facilitate Other’s Emotions’ subscale being excluded. The 26-item goal setting measure

was narrowed to 24 items with two clear factors emerging. These subscales were named

‘Positive Goal Process’ and ‘Negative Goal Process’ because the consequences of

successful and unsuccessful goal setting procedures were evident in the separate

subscales. This analysis provided the basis for the remaining analysis in this thesis.

Following the factor analysis, a series of repeated measures ANOVAS with

planned comparisons were conducted to answer the question of whether changes

occurred over time in the normative group. The results revealed no changes in

citizenship performance or goal setting over the eighteen-month data collection period.

The only change in the EI scale was a significant increase in ‘Ability to Discuss Own

Emotions’ (with a small effect size). Planned comparisons were conducted and showed

some variations in scores across time. In particular, ‘Negative Goal Attainment’ and

‘Awareness of Own Emotions’ significantly increased (although with a non-significant

effect size) from Time 1 to Time 2. Small increases were seen in the Time 1 to Time 2

‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’ and Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions’ subscales.

A full summary of the results are presented in Table 77.

Chapter Five explored the normative data set by examining the relationships

between the three measures contained within the Emotions in the Workplace survey.

First, Pearson product-moment correlations were conducted to uncover the relationships

between these variables. Second, standard multiple regression analyses were used to

determine the predictive power of EI on citizenship performance and goal setting.

The results for the EI and citizenship performance revealed significant correlations

between all items across the three data collections. Furthermore, ‘Ability to Manage

Own Emotions’ and ‘Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions’ emerged as significant

predictors of overall citizenship performance, ‘Interpersonal Facilitation’ and ‘Job

Dedication’. ‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’ significantly predicted ‘Interpersonal

Facilitation’.

187.

Table 77 Summary of All Results for Normative Sample

Total Low Moderate High Citizenship Performance (Total) Time 1 to Time 2 Time 1 to Time 3 Time 2 to Time 3

Interpersonal Facilitation (Total) Time 1 to Time 2 Time 1 to Time 3 Time 2 to Time 3

Job Dedication (Total) Time 1 to Time 2 Time 1 to Time 3 Time 2 to Time 3

Goal Setting (Total) * Time 1 to Time 2 *

Time 1 to Time 3 Time 2 to Time 3 *

Positive Goal Attainment (Total) Time 1 to Time 2 Time 1 to Time 3 Time 2 to Time 3

Negative Goal Attainment (Total) * Time 1 to Time 2 Time 1 to Time 3 Time 2 to Time 3 **

Emotional Intelligence (Total) * Time 1 to Time 2 Time 1 to Time 3 * * Time 2 to Time 3

Awareness of Own Emotions (Total) * * * Time 1 to Time 2 * *

Time 1 to Time 3 * * * Time 2 to Time 3 **

Ability to Discuss Own Emotions (Total) * **

Time 1 to Time 2 * **

Time 1 to Time 3 *

Time 2 to Time 3

Ability to Manage Own Emotions (Total) *

Time 1 to Time 2 Time 1 to Time 3 Time 2 to Time 3

Awareness of Others’ Emotions (Total) Time 1 to Time 2 Time 1 to Time 3 * Time 2 to Time 3

Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions (Total)

Time 1 to Time 2 *

Time 1 to Time 3 Time 2 to Time 3

* = p<.05; ** = p<.01; = small decrease (>0.20); = moderate decrease (>0.50); =

large decrease (>0.80); = small increase (>0.20); = moderate increase (>0.50); = large increase (>0.80)

188.

In terms of the EI and goal setting, the significant correlations between EI, goal

setting and ‘Positive Goal Process’ occurred at three points in time. No correlations

were uncovered between ‘Awareness of Others’ Emotions’, ‘Ability to Discuss Own

Emotions’ and ‘Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions’ and ‘Negative Goal Process’.

The regression results revealed ‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’ and ‘Ability to

Manage Own Emotions’ as significant predictors of goal setting and ‘Positive Goal

Process’ at all Times. ‘Awareness of Own Emotions’ was a predictor of ‘Negative Goal

Process’ over the three data collections.

Pearson product-moment correlations demonstrated that citizenship performance,

goal setting and ‘Positive Goal Process’ shared positive correlations at all times, while

‘Negative Goal Process’ had mixed results across the three data collections. Finally,

‘Interpersonal Facilitation’ was the only citizenship variable to emerge as a significant

predictor of goal setting and ‘Positive Goal Process’ at all times.

Emotional Intelligence Training Outcomes (Study 2)

Chapter Six provided the results of the analyses undertaken on data collected from

the EI-intervention participants. Repeated measures ANOVAs were conducted to

determine the impact the training had on EI, citizenship performance and goal setting

skills from pre- to post-training. Overall, there was a significant decrease (with a small

effect size) in the participants’ ‘Interpersonal Facilitation’, but significant increases

(with not noteworthy effect sizes) in overall EI, ‘Awareness of Others’ Emotions’ and

‘Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions’. ‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’ increased

significantly with a small effect size. There were no differences found in the overall goal

setting scale or its two subscales.

Interpersonal Skills Training Outcomes (Study 3)

Chapter Six also presented the results of the repeated measures ANOVAs on the

data collected from the IS training program. The results of these analyses revealed no

changes in citizenship performance or goal setting. There was a significant increase in

total EI (with a non-noteworthy effect size) and significant increases (with small effect

sizes) in ‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’ and ‘Ability to Manage Others Emotions’.

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Outcomes of the Low, Moderate and High Group Comparisons

Chapter Eight assessed whether different outcomes could be revealed if the

participants from each program were divided into low, moderate and high EI groups.

Changes from pre- to post-data collections were analysed using repeated measures

ANOVAs and planned comparisons for the normative sample. Because these results

have been presented in the previous chapter, Table 78 has been constructed to provide

an overall picture of the results from this chapter. The main results from the ANOVAs

conducted for Chapters Four, Five and Six are included.

Discussion of Overall Results

The results presented in Table 78 provide outline the key outcomes related to the

three studies conducted within this thesis. In particular, there are six main points of

interest that will be discussed in further detail.

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Table 78 Summary of Main Results

Normative Sample (Study 1)

Emotional Intelligence (Study 2)

Interpersonal Skills (Study 3)

Total Low Mod. High Total Low Mod. High Total Low Mod. High

Citizenship Performance (Total) *

Interpersonal Facilitation ** ** **

Job Dedication

Goal Setting (Total) * *

Positive Goal Attainment *

Negative Goal Attainment * **

Emotional Intelligence (Total) * ** ** * * **

Awareness of Own Emotions * * * ** *

Ability to Discuss Own Emotions * ** ** ** ** ** **

Ability to Manage Own Emotions ** **

Awareness of Others’ Emotions ** **

Ability to Manage Others’ Emotions * ** ** ** **

Key: * = p<0.05; ** = p<0.01; = small decrease (>0.20); = moderate decrease (>0.50); = large decrease (>0.80); = small increase (0.20); = moderate increase (>0.50); = large increase (>0.80)

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Point of Interest 1 – Awareness of Own Emotions

First, in terms of ‘Awareness of Own Emotions’, interesting results were revealed

for the normative study group. When ‘Awareness of Own Emotions’ is compared

between low, moderate and high EI groups, the low EI group reported a significant

increase (with small effect size) in their awareness, the moderate and high EI groups

both reported significant decreases (with moderate and small effect sizes, respectively).

What this result may suggest is that even though this group received no training

whatsoever, the process of completing the survey three times, and therefore becoming

increasingly familiar with the content, may have led to a change in the participants’

perceived ability in this area.

An interesting result for the EI-trained group was that there was no change in

‘Awareness of Own Emotions’. This may be due to a number of reasons. First, as

mentioned in Chapter Four the reliability was quite low for this item and may have

adversely impacted the results. Second, because the training program was only two days

in length, there may not have been sufficient time spent on this area with the

participants. Third, the participants might have needed additional time after the training

(longer than the two weeks given) to assess their own emotional reactions in the

situations. Fourth, the participants (overall, low and moderate EI participants) actually

reported significant increases in their ‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’, which

indicates that the participants were aware of their emotional experiences but, perhaps,

did not have the necessary skills to successfully articulate their feelings to others prior to

training. This is a feasible outcome of the training program, especially because the

majority of the activities during the program involved the participants discussing their

emotional reactions to workplace and non-workplace situations.

Point of Interest 2 – Self-Awareness the Main Outcome of Interpersonal

Skills Training for Low EI Participants

Although the EI training program had no impact on participant ‘Awareness of

Own Emotions’, the IS participants with low EI prior to training reported a large

increase in this ability. Although not hypothesized in Study three, on reflection, it is

understandable that the participants might pick up emotional awareness abilities from

the course content. For example, once the participants had ascertained their dominant

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conflict resolution style, they were then asked to recount to their work group a situation

where they used their dominant resolution style, but could have obtained a better

outcome for both parties had they used another style. Clearly, when a person is

experiencing a conflict with another party and the outcome is not the one the person was

hoping for, a range of emotions would be experienced. The process of discussing these

experiences and emotions during the training program would most likely have assisted

the participants to understand how they feel when they are faced with conflict. This

process, in turn, increased their ‘Awareness of Own Emotions’.

In addition to an increase in awareness, the low EI group reported large increases

in the overall EI and ‘Ability to Discuss Own Emotions’. Again, although these results

were not hypothesised, the outcome is feasible. As was discussed in Chapter Seven, the

design of the program allowed the participants to practice discussing their emotional

reaction to workplace situations in an open manner with their work colleagues and

teams. Therefore, these results could be attributed in part to the actual design of the

training itself.

The results outlined above support the notion that this type of training should be

targeted at differing groups including lower level staff members within organisations.

This is an important outcome of this research program, especially since organisations

routinely offer IS courses to all staff members. The results of this study show that

organisations must be very specific concerning whom they target for this type of training

to ensure they receive a return on their investment. The data demonstrate that this type

of training enables the participants to pick-up emotional abilities, albeit in selected areas

and at a lower level than those who received the pure EI intervention.

Point of Interest 3 – EI Training Has the Greatest Impact for Emotions-

Focused Training Participants with Low Emotional Intelligence

Moving to the results from the group who received the EI training, Table 78

demonstrates that while the overall changes in EI and related subscales were small when

the group were analysed as a whole (n =161), the low EI group reported a large increase

in their EI from pre- to post-training and moderate increases in several areas. Clearly,

these results indicate that the training intervention yielded significant outcomes for this

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group. Again, a conclusion that can be drawn from these data is that organisations

should target their EI training programs for those with low EI skills.

In addition to the positive outcomes for participants with low EI, there were small

increases in overall EI, ‘Ability to Discuss Emotions’ and ‘Ability to Manage Others’

Emotions’ for the moderate EI group. Although these results demonstrate that the

training program did not have a great overall impact on this group, the evaluation sheets

that were completed by the attendees supported that the training had been beneficial.

The following quotes demonstrated the positive reaction from the training participants,

‘very good — I have learnt something more about improving myself’, ‘good to know

about my emotions and the emotions of others and how to deal with them’, ‘these are

things we know from life; however, it is sometimes good to take time out to revisit and

reinforce them’ and, ‘overall good reinforcement of previous knowledge/experiences

from a different perspective. Good opportunity for team to work together on

understanding emotions and the importance they play in the workplace’. Nevertheless,

they further support the efficacy of the training program itself.

The results derived from the participants with high EI demonstrate that although

the training program is useful across the group as a whole, it does not provide these

participants with significant increases in their emotional skills and abilities. What is

noteworthy from this sample is that there was a significant decrease in the participants’

‘Ability to Manage Own Emotions’. Clearly, the training program changed the

participants’ perceptions of their emotional management abilities. Because the course

provided each participant with a range of emotional management techniques to try out,

it would have been beneficial to be able to survey these participants again after a longer

period of time to determine whether their skills and abilities changes further over time.

Point of Interest 4 – Ability to Discuss Emotions Improved For All Groups

Table 77 demonstrates that there was a small increase in ‘Ability to Discuss Own

Emotions’ across all three studies. These data suggest that, for the normative group, the

process of completing the Emotions in the Workplace Survey three times over a period

of eighteen months led the participants to be better at discussing their emotions in

general with others more so than they would have done previously. Furthermore, this

process did not provide these individuals with the ability to perceive others’ emotions

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nor to manage their own and others emotions, areas that did not change for the overall

normative group. In short, the survey raised awareness in this group, but did not provide

them with a way to develop their skills so that they could be more effective in the long

term.

Point of Interest 5 – Emotions Focused Training Yielded the Greatest

Impact Overall

The final point of interest revealed in Table 77 is that the group that received the

emotions-focused training program demonstrated the greatest change of the three groups

(normative, emotions-focused and IS). Although these changes were not always in the

positive direction, this training produced significant changes for the overall group and

for the participants with low, moderate and high EI. Perhaps the two greatest items

learned from these results are: first, if organisations wish to increase the EI of their

workforce, they should ensure that the employees receive emotions-focused training to

facilitate this process; and second, that emotions-focused training produces significant

increases in EI skills and abilities for those individuals who need them the most — those

with low EI.

Chapter Summary

The purpose of this chapter was to integrate the results from the normative (Study

1), EI (Study 2) and IS (Study 3) groups together to discuss the specific outcomes of

each study with regard to this thesis as a whole. First, a brief discussion of the results of

each of the studies was presented. This was then followed by an in-depth examination of

what these results mean to this program of study when they are examined together. The

results clearly demonstrate that the EI training program yielded significant benefits for

those participants with low and moderate EI prior to training. What is interesting is that

the mean EI scores for each of these groups were significantly higher than the normative

comparative group and the IS groups. This outcome increases confidence in the efficacy

of the EI program and its usefulness in organisational development programs. The

following chapter will conclude this thesis by outlining the contributions to theory and

practice and the limitations of the research program.

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CHAPTER NINE

Contributions, Limitations, Future Directions and Conclusions

Overview

The three studies presented in this thesis make a contribution in the growing body

of research being conducted in the field of EI and its impact on organisations.

Specifically, the research contributes to the debate over whether the skills and abilities

related to the four-branch model of EI can be trained. The aim of this chapter is to

provide a detailed description of the contributions to theory and practice that have

emerged from the studies conducted in this thesis. In addition, I provide an examination

of the limitations of the research I have conducted. Knowledge of the contributions and

limitations will then be combined to provide four main areas where future research in

the area might be undertaken. The chapter will close with the overall conclusions for

both the chapter and the thesis itself. In the following section of this chapter, the

implications of this research for both theory and practice are discussed in detail.

Research Contributions

Contributions to Theory

There are several contributions to theory resulting from the research program

conducted within this thesis. As outlined in the review of literature in Chapter Two, a

wide range of research has been conducted in examining the link between EI and

organisational improvements in such areas as organisational change (Huy, 2002),

organisational structure (Sy & Côté, 2004), organisational learning (Gabriel & Griffiths,

2002), leadership (Downey et al., 2005; Mandell & Pherwani, 2003; Rosete &

Ciarrochi, 2005), team research (Wolff et al., 2002; Offermann et al., 2004),

performance (Day & Carroll, 2004; Carmeli & Josman, 2006), conflict and negotiation

research (Jordan & Troth, 2004; Mueller & Curhan, 2006; Elfenbein et al., 2007) and IS

(Brackett et al., 2006; Lopes et al., 2005). A theme emerging from this research is that

the next logical step in increasing our understanding of the impact of EI in the

workplace is to determine whether the skills and abilities related to the construct can be

trained.

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The theory developed within this program of research has identified a link

between particular training techniques and EI abilities. Specifically, I identified broad

training programs that can be used to develop the skills and abilities of awareness of

emotion in self and others, facilitation of emotion in self and others, understanding of

emotion in self and others, and management of emotions in self and others. In Chapter

Three, I first linked the specific emotions-focused skills that have the potential to be

trained in the four-branches of EI. Then, I demonstrated how both these emotions-

focused skills and the wider ability branches of EI could link to the generic workplace

skills that are valued in organisations. These skills included, working with others and in

teams, dealing with change, balancing work and life demands, and dealing with

organisational change. The specific emotions-focused skills were then incorporated into

a training program and tested in an applied setting to determine their impact on

individual EI in organisations. In addition to training emotions-focused skills, IS were

trained in the same organisational setting and their impact on individual EI was

measured.

The findings from both the interpersonal and the EI training programs contribute

to the current EI training efficacy debate. In Chapter Three, I provided a clear

framework for why EI can be increased through training. Specifically, I explored the

notion that EI is a crystallized intelligence. Because improved crystallized intelligence is

linked to broader experiences (Horn & Cattell, 1966), I have been able to show that

there is a reasonable explanation for improvements in EI following a training regime

specifically designed to extend those abilities. If EI skills and abilities can be trained,

then this research provides evidence that EI is a crystallized intelligence. This has

important implications for both organisations and our understanding of EI as a

crystallized intelligence.

Contributions to Practice

In addition to the theoretical implications, there are a number of contributions in

practice that result from the research presented in this thesis. Specifically, the empirical

studies provide five significant practical contributions that enhance knowledge of, (1)

the practical outcomes of training EI, (2) the practical outcomes of training IS, (3) the

importance of assessing training programs for content, (4) selecting training appropriate

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to the skills that require development and, (5) the importance of assessing individuals

prior to training because those with low EI were shown to have the greatest benefit from

the training. The following section of this chapter will outline each of these

contributions in greater detail.

A significant practical implication for this research program would be for

organisations to understand what types of training increase EI. Study 2 examined the

impact of specific emotions-focused training developed around Mayer and Salovey’s

(1997) EI framework. The EI of the participants was statistically significantly increased

after two days of training. Further examination of the data revealed that low and mid-

range participants significantly improved their EI, while there was no significant

increase for participants with high EI. Clearly, these results demonstrate that emotions-

focused training is an effective tool for increasing EI, particularly for staff members

with low or mid-range EI.

The second part of Study 3 then assessed the outcomes of an IS training program.

Although I hypothesised that this training program would not impact EI, because the

program did not include specific emotions focused interventions, the participants

showed a statistically significant improvement after one day of training. Additional

analyses (reported in Chapter Seven) uncovered an important finding in that participants

with a low EI reported significant improvements (in accordance with the previous

research findings). The intervention had no significant impact on the mid-range and high

EI scoring participants.

The third contribution of this research is that as a result of these studies,

organisations can use these results to determine their choices about the training they

offer to staff. In particular, time and resource savings are gained from knowing the

actual impact of the interventions. When staff members are absent from their normal

work due to training and development programs, management generally sees the future

benefits of the training as outweighing their immediate costs. The results show that

while high-level training programs can increase EI in individuals, IS programs also

provide improvements.

The results also demonstrate distinct variations in the efficacy of the two

interventions when the differences in the participants are measured prior to training.

There are certain employees whose EI did not improve, despite attending training. For

these employees, training dollars be better spent on programs that deliver benefits for

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the employee and the organisation itself. Therefore, employees could be pre-tested to

select the most appropriate training for their needs. For example, the results indicate that

the IS program would have the greatest impact when used as a basic level program,

specifically targeting the lower EI-level employees, rather than an organisation-wide EI

improvement program.

Research Limitations

I acknowledge that there are several limitations to the research presented within

this thesis. As was discussed in Chapter Five, the main limitation of this research is the

use of a self-report measure to assess citizenship performance, EI and goal setting across

the three studies. While a rationale for the use of the each of the self-report measures

has been provided, and I am confident in the results that have been presented, there

remains a possibility that post-training increases may have occurred owing to a ‘feel

good’ factor. More specifically, issues that may arise from the use of self-report

measures include response distortions and common method variance (CMV) (as a result

of using one single survey administration with no separation between the dependent and

independent variables). However, the analysis of the panel data set in Study 1 suggests

that the results are not the product of CMV.

Podsakoff et al. (2003), propose four main sources of CMV including common

source or rater, item characteristic, item context, and measurement context effects. First,

common source or rater issues may occur due to the consistency motif (respondents

attempt to respond consistently across the survey), implicit theories (respondents distort

their responses due to the perception that certain survey items share relationships),

social desirability (respondents answer questions in ways they perceive are socially

acceptable and not necessarily in line with their true feelings), acquiescence bias

(respondents agree or disagree with statements regardless of their content), mood state

(a respondents propensity to view themselves and the world around them as generally

positive or negative and thus yielding overly positive or negative survey responses)

(Spector, 2006), and transient mood state (although positive and negative mood states

are fairly stable, recent events may cause a short-term change in the respondent’s mood,

resulting in biased responses) (Podsakoff et al, 2003).

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The second potential source of CMV stem from item characteristic effects

(Podsakoff et al, 2003). These effects occur due to item social desirability (items are

worded to illicit more socially desirable responses (Spector, 2006)), item ambiguity (the

wording of items is complex or ambiguous), common scale formats and anchors

(responses require less cognitive processing than mixed scales), and negative item

wording (respondents may fail to recognise negatively worded items in the

questionnaire).

The next source of CMV can occur due to what Podsakoff et al. (2003) define as

item context effects. Item context effects include item priming effects (asking

respondents to respond to items in one work area may increase the saliency of other

areas when subsequently asked) , item embeddedness (neutrally worded questions are

often answered in the same way as the questions they are presented with (either positive

or negative)), context-induced mood (the way in which items are worded can induce a

transient mood), scale length (longer scales increase respondent fatigue whereas shorter

scales can increase the likelihood of similarity of responses across scales), and

intermixing of items (respondents have difficulty distinguishing between different and

similar constructs).

Finally, measurement context effects are the final sources of CMV that have the

potential to impact this research. These effects include the simultaneous (time and

location) measurement of criterion and predictor variables (respondents may respond in

similar ways to these variables due to short-term memory effects), and predictor and

criterion variables measured using the same medium (for example through interview

techniques can illicit more socially desirable responses) (Podsakoff et al, 2003).

Of the sources listed above, there are two types of response distortions that could

have a potential impact on the outcomes of this research. These are extreme and

moderacy response bias (known as the consistency effect, Schmitt, 1994) and the social

desirability bias (Howard & Dailey, 1979; Razavi, 2001). Extreme and moderate

responses are a particular issue with a self-report measure that uses rating scales (such

as those used within this thesis). Extreme response bias refers to the participants

consistently selecting responses at the extreme points of a Likert-type scale; whereas,

the moderacy response bias refers to the participants consistently ‘middling’ their

responses (Razavi, 2001). Therefore, it is possible that the respondents may have

distorted their responses in these ways.

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Next, the social desirability bias refers to the propensity for self-report

respondents to consciously or unconsciously provide answers that will present them in a

favourable light (Crowne & Marlowe, 1960, 1964; Edwards, 1957). Answering

questions in a socially-desirable manner can lead to the concealment of true

relationships within the data (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003). Again,

this bias could have impacted the results presented in this thesis, especially in the post-

training survey iteration. I point out, however, that the purpose of the training was self-

development and that the individual scores were kept confidential. There would be no

advantage for respondents deliberately falsifying their responses.

Podsakoff et al. (2003, p. 887) propose several ‘procedural remedies’ that can be

undertaken to reduce the impact of biases in research. First, reports by others (such as

peers, supervisors or independent observers) and objective measures can be employed.

Second, the separation of measures (temporal, proximal, psychological or

methodological) may be advantageous. Third, measures that ensure the respondents’

anonymity can reduce the occurrences of socially-desirable behaviours. Finally, the

authors propose that mixing items from differing scales within the overall measure

could counter biases.

Separation of measures (time periods between survey iterations) and respondent

anonymity (the use of a unique identifiers) were employed within the studies (Podsakoff

et al., 2003). The inclusion of additional measures would have allowed comparisons of

data to be conducted; however, it should be noted that there are also bias issues

associated with alternative ratings (see Spector, 1994). In terms of mixing the items

within the survey, Peterson (2000) contends that this technique interrupts the logical

progression of the survey items. Therefore, rather than using this method, mixed Likert-

type scales (five and seven items) were used. Because the purpose of the research was

individual self-development, the research participants may have had reduced the

propensity to fake because they would only be lying to themselves.

A further limitation of the study is the lack of tangible evidence that can be

provided to the organisation regarding the overall impact of the training programs.

Organisations that invest in training and development of their staff do so with the clear

goal of increasing staff performance and profitability. Although this research has

improved the EI skills and abilities of employees within the organisation, it is not so

clear what the actual performance outcomes of these training programs have been. Prior

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to embarking on this type of training, organisations would want evidence of the actual

performance outcomes that result from such a program. Although clear links to work

competencies, such as team work, conflict resolution, dealing with change and dealing

with work demands, were outlined, there was no scope to collect these data within this

research program.

Time constraints were also a limitation of the overall research program. As has

been outlined within this thesis the EI and IS training programs were completed over

two-and-a-half and one-and-a-half days respectively. Although additional time was

requested, organisational demands prevented this from occurring. Had the additional

time been granted, a greater range of materials could have been used in both training

programs. As time was constrained, a series of choices regarding the content of training

were required and resulted in some content that would have been beneficial being

omitted from the training programs.

Finally, as discussed in Chapter Seven regression to the mean (RTM) a statistical

phenomenon that could provide alternate explanations for the results of comparisons

between low, moderate and high EI groups (Barnett et al., 2004; Cheng, 1997; Marsh &

Hau, 2002; Yudkin & Stratton, 1994; Zimmerman, 1992). This issue was partially

overcome by ensuring equivalency between group means at pre-test and by conducting

statistical analyses on the data and comparing the results to the normative sample. The

issue could have been further overcome by conducting at least two pre-test measures of

EI with each group prior to either the EI or IS intervention and therefore, should be

employed in future research examining the impact of training on the EI of participants.

While I acknowledge the above limitations, the data for the three studies do

provide consistent evidence of the positive effect of the training interventions on

participants’ EI. In particular, the results for the normative group (no change in three

surveys over an eighteen-month period) demonstrate the stability of the measures used.

In addition, the small (but statistically significant) increases in EI for Study 1 – Analyses

1 and 2 provide confidence that the results are not greatly affected by response bias

issues. Had the post-test results been larger than expected, bias issues would have

needed to be explored in further detail.

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Future Research Directions

The following section of this chapter provides an outline of the future research

opportunities that have been identified as stemming from the research presented in this

thesis. In total, three main suggestions for future research are proposed. These are, (1) a

formal experimental research design, (2) alternative measures for the independent and

dependent variables and, (3) alternative delivery options for the interventions. These

suggestions could be undertaken by researchers to extend the research presented in this

thesis and, furthermore, to broaden the empirical research into the efficacy of EI

training.

A Formal Experimental Research Design

The constraints of working in an applied research setting means it was difficult to

implement a true experimental design. Therefore, rather than employing a normative

sample, I propose that a true control group sample should be employed for future

research projects. In addition to completing the survey measures, the control group

would take part in performance exercises identical to those completed by the

experimental groups.

With respect to survey iterations, the normative group completed surveys at three

points in time with a six-month period between the completions. The experimental

groups, however, only completed their surveys at two points in time (prior to training

and after the follow-up training session). Future research could employ three survey

completions by all groups involved within the research. Within this design, the first

survey should be completed by the control and experimental groups prior to any

interventions taking place. The research team could then take a six-month period to

provide training to the experimental groups. Survey 2 would then be completed by the

control and experimental groups. During the next six months, the experimental group

would attend a follow-up and refresher training session. Survey 3 would then be

completed by all the groups (approximately six months after Survey 2).

Because all groups would be completing the three surveys at approximately the

same time during the research project, a clear picture of the exact outcomes of the

training interventions could then be compared with the control group sample. This

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research design improvement would provide additional opportunities for data analysis to

be completed on the panel data that would be collected from each group.

In addition to the benefits outlined above, the inclusion of organisational

performance data could improve the research design. When organisations invest in

training and development activities for their staff members, they need to ensure that

performance improves as a result. The inclusion of supervisor rated performance data

through pre- and post-training surveys of participant citizenship behaviours (Borman &

Motowidlo; 1998) within the research design would enable the organisation involved

within the project to understand the performance benefits that should result from

participant involvement within the training program.

To ensure consistency across the project, set tasks and independent performance

appraisals from managers could be undertaken by both the control and experimental

groups at three points during the project to clearly assess the performance improvements

associated with the training. These performance tasks would be sufficiently different to

counter the impact of repeat effects on the performance improvements. Performance

Activity 1 would be completed by all groups after completing Survey 1. Performance

Activity 2 would then be completed after the follow-up training had been attended by

the experimental groups. Finally, Performance Activity 3 would then be completed after

the third survey had been completed by the control and experimental groups. The actual

performance appraisal data from the participants’ managers could be collected to

determine the performance improvements.

Alternative Measures of the Independent and Dependent Variables

A question that can be asked in any research that uses survey measures within its

design is, ‘are there a more appropriate measures that could be used to measure the

independent and dependent variables within the research project?’ In this research

program, the WEIP-6 was used to measure the independent variable (EI) across the three

studies. The dependent variables were citizenship performance and goal setting, again,

measured through self-report measures.

As mentioned in the limitations section of this chapter, the use of a self-report

measure is a clear drawback in the research design. Therefore, it is proposed that future

research projects should include (in addition to a self-report) peer, 360-degree and

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retrospective measures or perhaps the MSCEIT (Mayer et al., 2002) or the newer STEU

and STEM measures of EI (Libbrecht et al., 2009; MaCann & Roberts, 2008). The

WEIP-6 (Jordan et al., 2002) includes a peer version and could be easily completed by

the control and experimental groups’ fellow team members at the Times 1, 2 and 3

survey iterations. In addition, the participants’ supervisors or managers could complete

360-degree versions of the measure.

A further opportunity to provide additional validation for the results obtained

through the survey measures is the use of a Retrospective Pre-test (Lamb & Tschillard,

2005; Pratt et al., 2000; Sadri & Snyder, 1995). This measure would be completed by

participants at the Time 2 and 3 survey iterations. The Retrospective Pre-test allows the

participants to reflect on their actual skills and abilities prior to training.

In addition to the data collected through a survey method, the participants

undertaking the training could be asked to take part in qualitative interviews regarding

the specific impacts of the training programs they had been involved in. Qualitative

interviews would allow the researchers to ask the participants for specific examples of

how the training program had benefited them within the workplace (Denzin & Lincoln,

1994; Foddy, 1993).

In addition to conducting interviews with the participants of the interventions, the

supervisors or managers of staff who complete the training programs could be

interviewed by the research team. Again, questions could be asked to further understand

the improvements and implications the training had yielded for the individual, their

work team and the organisation.

Alternative Delivery Options for the Interventions

In addition to the above recommendations, the question could then be asked,

‘which of the four branches of EI can be trained for the maximum effect?’ Therefore,

the training in the specific abilities to partial out the effect of these specific abilities to

each of the four branches of EI would be a beneficial inclusion in future research.

The training programs conducted as part of this thesis were conducted by a team

of facilitators over either a two-day period (EI training) or a one-day period (IS training).

Future research projects could offer the training in different formats. In a discussion, the

organisation taking part in this research project commented on the desirability of

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conducting the training in smaller parcels. In particular, they commented that it would

be far easier for intact work teams to receive the training in four-hour blocks over an

extended period of time, rather than the whole team being absent from the workplace for

two full days.

Therefore, I propose a future design possibility is for the training to be

administered for some groups in the existing one- or two-day format, while, for other

groups, the training is delivered in smaller four-hour training blocks over an extended

period of time. Again, splitting the experimental groups between the different

facilitation formats allows the researchers to ascertain the facilitation method that

provides the optimum results for the participants and the organisation itself.

Chapter Summary

This thesis has presented and discussed the results of three studies conducted to

add to the debate on whether EI skills and abilities can be trained. The research was

undertaken in a large public sector organisation in Queensland, Australia, over an

eighteen-month period. Using a quasi-experimental design, the participants from the

organisation were allocated into a normative group and two experimental groups. The

participants from each group completed the ‘Emotions in the Workplace Survey’. The

participants from the experimental groups then took part in either an EI or an IS training

program.

The results of the three studies have shown that EI can be increased through

training interventions. The participants who were trained in EI skills and abilities

reported an increased EI from the pre-training to the post-training surveys. Furthermore,

the results revealed the greatest increases occurred in those participants reporting low EI

scores prior to training. Specific emotions-focused training was also found to increase

the EI of the participants reporting mid-range pre-training scores. Interestingly, those

participants with high EI scores reported no change from pre- to post-training.

Despite hypothesising that the training of IS would not lead to increases in EI, I

found that this type of training did lead to increases in EI and particularly for the

participants that reported low EI scores prior to training. However, when the survey

results of the mid-range and high EI participants were examined, there were no changes

in EI for either group.

206.

The results of the three studies have provided a range of contributions for both

theory and practice. The contributions to the theory include the discovery that providing

certain types of training techniques can improve the EI. Furthermore, I have ascertained

that EI is a crystallized intelligence. In terms of contributions to practice, this research

has provided organisations with the knowledge of what types of training increase the EI.

Additionally, this research has demonstrated that the type of training chosen to increase

the EI can be appropriately chosen if the existing individual skills are ascertained.

In addition, a series of limitations have been identified and acknowledged. The

limitations highlighted within this thesis include the use of a self-report measure and the

issues associated with the various response biases and the common method variance.

Finally, a series of future directions for research into the training of EI have been

identified. These suggestions outline a number of opportunities for future research,

including, a formal experimental design, performance exercises completed within the

project, additional measures for the independent and dependent variables and, alternate

delivery of the interventions outlined in Study 2.

207.

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APPENDIX A

The Positivist and Post-Positivist Paradigms

In recent times, some researchers have questioned the ontological, epistemological

and methodological assumptions supported by the positivist paradigm, so much so that

many researchers now go so far as to totally reject positivism and its claims (Crotty,

1998; Johnson & Duberley, 2000; Nueman, 2000). Despite its many critics, positivism

still remains today perhaps the most widely-used foundations by which research in the

management and organisational sciences is underpinned (Benton & Craib, 2001;

Johnson & Duberley, 2000). In terms of its theoretical foundations, positivism supports

a realist ontology, a dualist/objectivist epistemology and an experimental/manipulative

methodology (Guba & Lincoln, 1994; Lincoln & Guba, 2000; Nueman, 2000).

Post-positivism has emerged as a research paradigm resulting from the previously

mentioned attacks on positivism (Lincoln & Guba, 2000). Popper has often been cited

as an instrumental party in bringing about the demise of positivism and heralding the

beginning of a new post-positivist paradigm (Benton & Craib, 2001; Crotty, 1998;

Johnson & Duberley, 2000). Popper’s attack on logical positivism centred upon several

areas. Popper attacked the inductive/verification basis of positivism, replacing it with

deductive/falsification principles (Johnson & Duberley, 2000; Nueman, 2000).

Unlike positivism’s claim that truth is apprehendable, the hypothetico-deductive

method proposed by Popper supports that it is impossible to ascertain absolute truth

(Crotty, 1998; Donaldson, 2003). In addition, where positivism aimed to protect science,

including the social sciences from metaphysics, Popper argued that it is metaphysics that

often serves as the basis from which science actually emerges (Johnson & Duberley,

2000; Trigg, 2001). Table 79 presents the main distinctions Popper described between

positivism and his form of post-positivism.

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Table 79 Popper’s Distinctions of Positivism and Post-positivism

Positivism Post-positivism

Inductive Deductive

Verification Falsification

Excludes Metaphysics Metaphysics as Frontrunners of Science

Proves Knowledge Claims Disproves Knowledge Claims

(Source: Johnson & Duberley, 2000)

Post-positivism does not provide a total rejection of positivisms’ ideals; however,

post-positivism does support an approach to management and organisational studies

claiming that research can never be completely objective and that reality can never be

totally captured (Crotty, 1998; Guba, 1990; Guba & Lincoln, 1994). Post-positivism is

based upon a critical realist ontology (what is the nature of reality?), a modified

objectivist epistemology (the relationship between the knowledge and the inquirer) and

a modified experimental methodology (the strategy used to reach the desired outcomes)

and as such, stands as a research paradigm in its own right (Crotty, 1998; Guba, 1990;

Phillips, 1990). The ontological, epistemological and methodological positions of

positivism and post-positivism are presented broadly in Table 80.

Table 80 Philosophical Differences between Positivism and Post-positivism Positivism Postpositivism

Ontology Realism (naïve) Critical Realism

Epistemology Dualist/Objectivist Modified Dualist/Objectivist

Methodology Experimental/Manipulative Modified Experimental/ Manipulative

(Source: Guba & Lincoln, 1994)

233.

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234.

APPENDIX B

The Emotional Intelligence Intervention

Training Awareness of Emotions

Individuals express their emotions in response to events. These events could be

happening immediately, remembered, imagined or even anticipated (Ekman, 1993).

These cues come in the form of verbal and non-verbal behaviours and allow individuals

to communicate their emotions to others in addition to themselves (Planalp, 1999). EI

training should focus upon the skills that enable individuals to be aware of their own

emotions and the emotions of others in their work teams. The initial ideas for training

that were proposed to achieve these outcomes included: emotional perception training

involving self-awareness questionnaires (Sheldon, 1996); perception of others

questionnaires (Riggio, 1986); interventions focused upon the recognition of facial

expressions (Ekman, 1999, 2003, 2003); verbal, action and body cues (Planalp, 1999);

and exercises in tuning individuals listening skills (Lynn, 2002).

These initial ideas were then used as the foundation from which a series of

training exercises were then constructed. The first exercise that was developed for the

training program was designed to build the awareness of an individual’s own emotions

and the emotions experienced by others in the workplace.

Awareness of Own and Other’s Emotions at Work

The awareness of own and others’ emotions at work activity was devised to

encourage each individual to think about the situations in which they have found

themselves within the workplace that lead them to feeling specific emotions, such as

happiness, sadness, pride and disappointment. Once each participant identifies and

reflects upon a situation when one of these emotions has occurred, they will be asked to

reflect upon how these emotions made them feel and how they reacted at the time they

had experienced these emotions. Moving on from reflecting on their own feelings and

reactions, individuals were asked to reflect on how these emotions and the behaviours

they had encountered impacted upon others in their team. A final part of this exercise

was to facilitate a group discussion of the emotions experienced by individuals and their

effects the individual themselves and their work colleagues.

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The JOHARI Window

An integral part of effective team relationships is the appropriate use of feedback

and disclosure in interpersonal interactions. Awareness of own and others’ emotions can

be developed through this process. According to the assumptions of the JOHARI

window, each individual has four separate areas where specific thoughts, behaviours and

feelings are placed. These windows include the open, blind, closed and unknown areas.

The differences in these areas lie in whether the information contained within these

areas is either known to self or known to others.

The open area consists of thoughts behaviours and feelings that are both known to

self and known to others. In short, this is the information that is widely known about

you. The blind area consists of the thoughts behaviours and feelings that others’ can see

in you, but, at present, the individual does not see in themselves. The closed area is

contains the thoughts behaviours and feelings that the individual is aware of, but does

not let others know about them. Finally, the unknown area consists of the thoughts,

behaviours and feelings that neither the individual nor the others’ know about that

individual, because there has not been a situation occurring where these thoughts,

behaviours and feelings have needed to be accessed.

An effective way to increase awareness of emotions, own and others, within the

workplace is through the two areas of feedback and disclosure. The JOHARI window is

premised upon this principle. Through increasing the ‘open area’ through disclosure and

reducing the ‘blind area’ through the constructive use of feedback, there is less

opportunity for misunderstanding to occur. Essentially, disclosure entails revealing

thoughts, behaviours and feelings that are relevant to workplace situations. This

disclosure helps other team members to be more aware of an individual’s emotional

standpoint on particular subjects, therefore decreasing the possibility of

misunderstandings occurring.

Feedback, on the other hand, is about an individual allowing their fellow team

members to give them feedback on the thoughts, behaviours and feelings that they are

unaware that that they are displaying within the workplace. This is, perhaps, a more

difficult process to come to terms with than disclosure, because no individual wants to

be told that they are acting negatively in a situation. However, welcoming constructive

feedback when it is offered again increases the individual’s awareness of their own

emotions, in addition to increasing their awareness of others’ emotional reactions.

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The JOHARI exercise constructed for the training program was adapted from

Harvey and Brown’s (1996) JOHARI window exercise. Within this exercise a series of

ten questions are posed, firstly in a self-report format for individuals to respond to about

themselves. Secondly, these questions are then asked of the individual’s peers. Once this

part of the exercise has been completed, individuals are able to plot these scores onto

two separate grids, one that demonstrates their self-perception of their JOHARI window

and the second which demonstrates others’ perception of the individuals JOHARI

window. To adapt this exercise to EI, eighteen separate items from the WEIP were

employed to determine a self and a peer assessment.

Reflective Diaries

As mentioned in the previous exercises, a large part of becoming more aware of

the emotions we experience is through the process of reflection. Reflecting back on

situations where both positive and negative emotions that have been experienced, and

thinking through what went right, what went wrong and what would be done differently

next time in a given situation, can equip individuals with an increased ability to be more

aware of the emotions they are experiencing. The reflective diary exercise, adapted from

Caruso and Salovey’s (2004) reflective exercises, will allow individuals attending the

program to do exactly this. Time was allocated on the first day of training for each

individual to take their reflective diary and write down how a particular positive or

negative event had unfolded in the past. The diary includes a list of differing basic

emotions and their high and low intensity states. In addition, the diary asks the

individual to write down; first, some information to set the scene for what happened

during the event. Questions such as ‘what time did this happen’, ‘where did this happen’

and, ‘who was involved’ will assist the individual to reflect back on the event. They

were then asked to circle which emotions they had experienced and how intensely these

events were experienced.

From this point, four questions are asked. These are as follows, ‘what did I want

to do?’, ‘what did I actually do’, ‘on reflection, what should I have done?’ and ‘what

would I do next time?’ Participants who may have not used a diary before may have

been apprehensive about writing down their thoughts and feelings in a diary. With this

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in mind, the facilitators encouraged participants to attempt the process and assured them

that they would never be asked to divulge the contents of these diaries.

Organisational Storytelling

As a final awareness of emotions exercise and to lead into the facilitation of

emotions part of the workshop, an organisational storytelling session is facilitated. The

framework for the session is based around positive and negative events that have

happened within the team environment or the wider organisation. To ensure the success

of the session, several ground rules are put in place to ensure the session’s success. First,

any individual telling a story is required to do the following, first to tell the story, second

to identify the emotions that they experienced at the time of the event and, thirdly what

the morals or the lessons that they/their team had learned from experiencing the

particular event.

Importantly, participants are asked to agree that the contents of more sensitive

stories are not divulged outside of the training environment. Individuals retelling stories

are asked to make the group aware if this is the case. On the other hand, stories which

tell of specific organisational events (either positive or negative) or that would enable

newcomers within the organisation to know their fellow team members or the

organisation itself better are encouraged to be shared outside of the training program.

Through creating an environment for re-telling organisational stories within the training

program and providing a framework from which individuals can discuss their

experiences, emotions and the morals attached, the program participants can increase

their awareness of their own emotions and the emotions of others.

Training Facilitation of Emotions

There are many reasons why possessing skills in the assimilation of emotions

would be advantageous to individuals. Emotions can be facilitated to assist an

individual to take into consideration of other points of view. They can be harnessed to

assist an individual to recognise and prioritise options when making decisions.

Furthermore, individuals with the ability to use emotions in their cognitive processes are

able to let their emotions guide them when problem-solving (Zhou & George, 2003).

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The training interventions designed around this particular branch of EI focus upon

enhancing the above-mentioned skills. The initial thoughts of the interventions that

could be provided to increase the skills in this area included, exercises in facilitating

emotions to assist in decision-making and problem-solving cases (George, 2000;

Putnam & Mumby, 1993), exploring the positives and negatives of emotional contagion

(Barsade, 2002), activities in perspective-taking (Jordan. et al., 2002), building emotion

through music (Bruner, 1990; Planalp, 1999) and, building emotions through

storytelling (King & Down, 2001; Morgan & Dennehy, 1997; Van Buskirk & McGrath,

1992). Because the organisational storytelling session is deemed to impact both on the

awareness of emotions and the facilitation of emotions, the exercise is undertaken to

link the two parts of the training program.

Emotional Contagion

In the workplace, an emotion experienced by one person in the group can ‘infect’

other group members with the same emotion. This can obviously have both positive and

negative implications for group dynamics and performance. To demonstrate how

emotions can be infectious within the workplace, a short vignette demonstrating the

infectious nature of laughter will be presented at the beginning of this part of the course.

The facilitators will observe the emotional reactions of the course participants during

their viewing and give participants feedback on their behaviours (demonstrating

emotional contagion in action). Following this discussion, a definition of emotional

contagion will be presented. This definition is sourced from the work of Barsade (2002)

and includes examples of emotional contagion which include an enthusiastic person

raising the mood, a grumpy person dispensing gloom and, a sad person draining others.

Once the group has grasped an understanding of emotional contagion, a team

exercise is facilitated. Participants are asked to reflect upon the outcomes of both

positive and negative emotional contagion in the workplace. Within this exercise,

individuals are required to think of the positive outcomes of positive emotional

contagion, and when positive emotional contagion can have a negative outcome for the

team. The same will then be asked of negative emotions. An example of how positive

emotional contagion can have a negative outcome for a team is when detailed work

needs to be completed by the team (which requires concentration) and one team member

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is constantly disrupting the team with positive stories or jokes that are not relevant to the

work that needs to be carried out.

Following this part of the exercise, individuals will then be asked to share with

their small group, and then the wider team, the strategies that they employ in the

workplace to ‘infect’ others with either positive or negative emotions. In addition to

discussing their techniques, individuals will be asked to share their experiences of the

outcomes of creating these particular emotions in others.

Generating Emotions

Following a facilitated group discussion on the topic of emotional contagion and

the outcomes that individuals and teams within the training had experienced, a series of

research outcomes in the area of emotional contagion will be presented to the team. In

particular, the emotions of happiness, surprise, sadness, fear and anger will be

discussed. For example, research has shown that happiness leads to positive outcomes

of creativity, thinking outside the box and the generation of new ideas, while the

positive outcomes of anger are that the team is able to focus its energy on a justified

threat and generate enthusiasm to right a legitimate wrong. The facilitators can then link

these research findings to the strategies and learning that had been provided by the team

to demonstrate the groups’ learning from the exercise.

It is clear that there are positive workplace outcomes for possessing the ability to

generate specific emotions and create emotional contagion within the workplace.

Therefore, this session will provide the individuals with the skills to enable them to

generate specific emotions within the workplace. As a final exercise, details on how to

generate specific emotions will be shared with the group. Within this exercise, the

participants will be asked to work through the following five steps:

1. Selecting the emotion you wish to generate and recall a time when you felt this

emotion.

2. Retrieve an image of this situation.

3. Try to experience or feel the sensations that accompanied the emotion during the

situation.

4. Intensify the image and the sensations that were felt.

5. Always end on a positive note.

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Perspective Taking

In addition to the ability to generate specific emotions within the workplace, the

ability to facilitate emotions through ‘putting yourself in another person’s shoes’ is a

further skill of emotional facilitation that the training intervention will seek to impart to

the participants. In particular, the ability to ‘perspective-take’ through a three-step

process of reflection, explanation and inquiry is explained. Reflection entails the process

of becoming more aware of your own thinking and reasoning in workplace situations.

Explanation then involves enabling others to understand your thinking and reasoning

processes. Finally, the inquiry into the other person’s thinking and reasoning processes

enable individuals to facilitate their own emotions for perspective taking.

To practice the skills associated with perspective taking, individuals are instructed

to create two mind-maps of a particular interaction where another work colleague had

not had a positive outcome. The participants will be given a short overview of how to

create a mind-map and then, on two large pieces of paper, they will be asked, first, to

place details of the issue in the middle of the page. Then, on one sheet reflect, on what

they were feeling during the interaction, and then, on the other sheet, what may have

been happening for the other person at the time that led to the ineffectiveness of the

interaction. This exercise has been designed to encourage individuals to try to place

themselves in the other person’s shoes and therefore facilitate the emotions that the

other person may have been experiencing. The participants will then be encouraged to

use this technique as a starting point for future interactions both within and outside of

the workplace.

Training Understanding Emotions

Knowledge of emotions and their differing effects requires considerable skill.

Individuals who have a high understanding of emotions in themselves and in others

possess knowledge on the causes of emotion and the consequences of these emotions

(Zhou & George, 2003). Prior to constructing the training program, ideas about the

concepts and skills that could be taught to the training participants included, accurately

tuning into the emotions of others (Planalp, 1999), understanding emotional triggers,

knowledge of emotional progressions (George, 2000), understanding emotional

transitions (Jordan. et al., 2002) and, increasing individual ability to understand discrete

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and blended emotions in themselves and in others (Ekman & Friesen, 1975). These

initial ideas were the used to create a series of activities including, the continuum of

emotions (Plutchik, 1980), emotional progressions and transitions (George, 2000;

Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, & Sitarenios, 2001), emotional cycles (James, 2002; James &

Nahl, 2000) and, emotions and change (Danes, 2005; Kubler-Ross, 1973).

Plutchick’s Continuum of Emotions

To gain a wider knowledge of how emotions blend together and progress from

being low intensity to high intensity emotions, Plutchick’s continuum of emotions is

presented. According to Plutchick (1980), there are eight basic emotions, joy,

anticipation, anger, disgust, sadness, surprise, fear and trust. These basic emotions are

placed on the continuum and surrounded on each side by either lower or higher intensity

descriptions of that basic emotion. For example, sadness is surrounded by pensiveness

(less intense) on the one side, and grief (high intensity) on the other. In addition, the

continuum places names for the blending of two emotions in between the two basic

emotions. An example of this is optimism, which, according to Plutchick (1980), is a

blend of the basic emotions of anticipation and joy.

Within this activity participants are asked to consider how emotions can blend and

change over time; this will then lead to a wider exercise that will examine emotional

progressions.

Emotional Progressions

The building of a low intensity emotion into a high intensity emotion owing to a

series of events occurring is known as an emotional progression (George, 2000). An

example of an emotional progression is an anger progression (Caruso & Salovey, 2004).

During the progression, the emotions experienced may increase in intensity from

irritation to annoyance, frustration, upset, madness, anger, furiousness and rage. In

addition to negative emotional progressions, individuals can experience positive

emotional progressions. By learning to have a greater understanding of these emotional

progressions, individuals within teams can identify in themselves the progression of

emotions towards a particular emotional crescendo and take action before they become,

for example in an anger progression, enraged.

242.

To give meaning to emotional progressions, the individuals are asked to reflect on

a negative series of events that have led in the past to an intense emotional progression

in the workplace. Teams are asked to select from the examples one emotional

progression that they would like to discuss as a group. Teams are then asked to develop

a series of strategies that can be used to diffuse the emotional progression and share

their strategies with the larger training group.

Emotional Cycles

A further exercise to increase the participants’ knowledge of their own and others

emotions is in the form of understanding the impact of positive and negative emotional

cycles. Stemming from the work of James (2002) and James and Nahl (2000), the

outcomes of being in either a positive or negative emotional cycle will be explained in

the context of the consequences for self and consequences for others in the workplace.

For example, when an individual is in a positive emotional cycle, feelings self-

confidence and enthusiasm lead to optimistic and realistic thinking. This, in turn, leads

the individual to behave in self-enhancing ways. On the other hand, when an individual

is consumed by a negative emotional cycle, these feelings of self-confidence are

replaced with feelings of inadequacy or depression. These feeling then lead the

individual to think in pessimistic or cynical ways. These behaviours then manifest

themselves in self-destructive actions.

When individuals are within a positive or negative emotional cycles, there are not

only the impacts on the individuals’ behaviours, but upon their behaviours towards the

people around them (work colleagues, friends and family). During a positive emotional

cycle, an individual’s enthusiasm and self-confidence leads them to act in a supportive

and constructive manner towards others. Conversely, negative and self-destructive

individual behaviours lead to aggressive and destructive behaviours towards others.

Therefore, through increasing the understanding of emotional cycles, individuals

working within teams then work towards creating positive emotional cycles within the

work setting. In this way, a supportive, constructive and self-enhancing working

environment can be created by the team.

243.

Emotions and Change

In addition to increasing the knowledge of positive and negative emotional cycles,

understanding the emotions that are experienced during change is explained during the

training program. In particular, organisational change will used as a platform to discuss

this topic. Change has been chosen specifically because organisational change is now

commonplace within organisations and can lead to specific emotional reactions from

individuals, based upon how the change is dealt with within the organisation. Adapted

from the change model included in Kulber-Ross’s (1973) book entitled ‘On Death and

Dying’ that examines the emotional cycle of grief, Danes (2005) has examined this

model in the context of organisational change. This model will then be used to explain

the emotional stages of the change process and facilitate a group exercise whereby the

stages of change can be discussed.

As mentioned above, there are five stages that an individual/team encounters

during the process of moving from ‘normal’ functioning (before the change is

announced) to the ‘new way’ of functioning (after the organisational change process has

been completed). Stage 1 is known as the shock and denial stage. During this time,

individuals and teams within the organisation are only just becoming aware that the

change itself is taking place. Emotions and behaviours within this stage include,

avoidance of the situation, confusion about what is happening, fear about the future,

numbness and disbelief that the change is occurring and, blaming differing parties

within the organisation for the stress that is ensuing.

Feelings of anger then start to surface during the second stage of the change cycle.

At this point, the individual/team are moving past the initial shock of change and

beginning to feel emotions such as, frustration, anxiety, irritation, embarrassment and

shame. It is during this stage that the individuals vent their frustrations on each other. It

is at this stage that the organisational grapevine starts, adding further fuel to the

irritation and frustration of the organisational members. Further to these feelings of

anger and frustration, some individuals experience the secondary emotions of shame and

embarrassment, especially if they perceive that the organisational change is a result of a

shortcoming on their behalf.

The third stage of the change cycle is characterised by depression and detachment.

At this point in the change process, individuals and their teams are feeling

overwhelmed, helplessness and the anger subsides into a lack of energy. If this stage is

244.

left unattended by the organisation, these feelings of negativity and lethargy filter

through the organisation, impacting any person involved in the process.

It is at the fourth stage, known as the dialogue and bargaining that an attempt to

move on is undertaken by the team. At this point, the team/individual has reached the

lowest point (Stage 3 – depression and detachment) and is beginning to try to find away

to get through the process. This stage is where the need for individuals to communicate

and discuss their points of view is paramount. Through the process of discussion and

storytelling, individuals and teams can seek to find a meaning behind the change that is

occurring.

It is worth noting at this point, that each effected individual and team within an

organisation will move through the stages of the cycle at their own pace. In addition,

individuals within the cycle do not always progress in a forwards motion through to the

‘new way’. What often occurs is a swing backwards to either the shock and denial or

anger stages when new information comes to light that the individual was not aware of

previously. It is worth noting that unless the individual understands that the stages

within this process are natural reactions to change and that, with effort, each stage can

be worked though, the individuals may find themselves wallowing in depression and

detachment.

The fifth and final stage of the cycle is concerned with acceptance. Once the

team/individual can understand (but still not necessarily agree with) the change that is

occurring, only then can they move forward to the acceptance stage. This stage is

characterised by the individual, team and even the organisation as a whole, putting

forward a new plan of action on how things will be from now on. Only once this state

has been satisfied and an understanding of the change is fully understood can the team

return to a meaningful life incorporating their ‘new way’ of functioning.

To build an understanding of the emotions that occur within the change process,

teams are asked to discuss a change that has occurred within their organisation and to

identify individual reactions at each of the five stages outlined above. From this point,

teams then brainstorm the strategies that they could use to help themselves and others to

understand and work through the emotions being experienced during each stage. At the

end of the exercise, the team then has a template from which to work when change

occurs again within their workplace.

245.

Training Management of Emotions

The training program culminates with the last branch of EI — the management of

emotions. Individuals regulate their emotions in the workplace for many different

reasons. These include the management of their emotional states, influencing the

emotions of others, goal advancement, facilitation of common goals and, the support of

social norms (Planalp, 1999). Therefore, the training interventions based around the

fourth branch of EI will focus upon assisting individuals to improve their regulation of

their emotions to improve the performance within their work teams. The initial ideas for

the training of emotional management training involved emotional control exercises

(Riggio, 1986), reframing emotions activities (Ekman & Friesen, 1975) and coping with

emotions interventions (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). This initial information search

inspired the exercises that were specifically constructed for the training program.

Emotional Repair

The first management of emotions discussion and activity focused on emotional

repair. Emotional repair is the process of ‘getting through’ emotional events that happen

to individuals within the workplace and in non-work life. Several techniques for

overcoming specific emotional events will be discussed with the participants including,

being aware of the emotions we experience, choosing how to control the emotion being

experienced, whether engagement or disengagement techniques would provide the best

outcome for self and others and, how life experiences can equip individuals with

additional management abilities.

After a discussion on emotional repair, the participants are asked to recall and

discuss with their fellow team members the events that had been hard for them to get

through. Once they had covered the situation, they are then asked to discuss what

techniques they used at that time to get through the experience and whether these

techniques led to positive or negative outcomes both for themselves and for others

involved in the situation. Team members are encouraged to offer techniques and

suggestions at this stage of the exercise and to take ‘on board’ the comments and

suggestions offered by their team.

246.

Building Resiliency

Once the teams had been given ample opportunity to discuss their emotional

repair techniques and a debriefing had been facilitated, the topic of building resiliency is

introduced. According to Carlopio et al. (1997), there are three separate resilience

categories that, if attended to by individuals, can equip them with the skills and

knowledge to manage their and others emotions. The first category of resilience is

physiological resilience. This type of resilience refers to the things individuals do to

look after their bodies, such as cardiovascular conditioning and a proper diet.

Participants will be briefed on a range of ways to maintain an optimum weight,

strengthening the cardiovascular system and the foods and drinks that should be avoided

when individuals are feeling stressed or anxious.

The second category of resiliency is psychological resiliency. Psychological

resiliency refers to maintaining a balance in life to ensure that an individual’s

psychological needs are met. A balanced lifestyle can be obtained by reaching a balance

between work, intellectual, social, family, spiritual, physical and cultural aspects.

Balance does not mean that there should be identical time designated to each area, but

that there should be aspects of each incorporated into normal life. To demonstrate to the

participants how balanced their lives are in terms of each of these aspects, an activity

entitled the resiliency wheel (Carlopio et al., 1997) will be undertaken. Each participant

is supplied with a handout with each of the balanced lifestyle aspects contained within a

large ‘wheel’. The participants are instructed to shade in each of the pieces of the wheel

to indicate how fully they attended to each of the different areas. Once this has been

completed, each individual possesses a visual representation of those areas where they

need to devote more effort to achieving a balance. As a final part of this activity, each

participant is asked to make a list of the activities that they could undertake to resolve

any imbalances they have highlighted in their individual wheels.

The third and final resiliency category that will then be introduced to the training

group will be social resiliency. Social resiliency is made up of three separate facets.

These are supportive social relationships, team support and mentor support. By ensuring

that fruitful relationships are created and maintained in each of these areas, an individual

can use the support that can be garnered from these areas. As is the case with many

individuals, support is often sought from close family members; however, mobilising

support from social, team and mentor relationships can lead to enhanced social

247.

resiliency. Individuals within the training will be reminded at this stage that they are

often each other’s social, team and mentor support network, and that these relationships

should be encouraged within their work environment.

Techniques to Manage Emotions

The final activity for both the management of the emotions branch and the training

program will be the identification of short-term emotion-management techniques. First,

an explanation of disengaging and engaging with emotions to manage emotions will be

provided. In some circumstances it would not be fruitful for an individual to engage

with the emotions they are experiencing. The disengagement of emotions refers to

‘turning your back’ on the emotion in a specific situation and only allowing yourself to

process the non-emotional aspects of the situation. Although there are circumstances

when this can be an effective way to deal with certain situations, using this as the only

technique for managing emotions can have long-term consequences. Therefore,

engaging with emotions is a technique that can be used by individuals to manage their

emotions. Emotional engagement can be as simple as acknowledging that a certain

situation leads to particular emotions (such as anger, disgust etc.), but not attempting to

solve the problem at that point. Engagement can also be achieved through emotional

reappraisal. Reappraisal involves changing your frame of reference from negative to

positive.

Once a discussion of emotional engagement and disengagement is completed, the

participants are asked to reflect on the ways that they generally manage their emotions,

either at home and within the workplace. After they had come up with a list of

strategies, they are asked to reflect upon which of these strategies usually works well (or

has a positive outcome for both themselves and others) and which do not work so well

(does not solve the problem or has a negative outcome for self or others). A whole-

group discussion and sharing of these strategies is then undertaken with the group until a

whiteboard has been filled with positive emotion management techniques. As a final

part to this exercise and to finish off the training, each individual is asked to choose

several emotion-management techniques from the list on the whiteboard that they had

either never tried or would like to attempt. The individuals are then asked in the training

follow-up about the success of their newfound techniques for managing their emotions.

248.

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250.

APPENDIX C

Emotional Intelligence Training Slides

EMOTIONS IN THE

WORKPLACE

PROGRAM 2 TRAINING

Day 1 Schedule


Organisational Stories

What is Emotional Intelligence?

Managerial In-Box Task

Check in & Icebreaker

Icebreaker

A Truth & A Lie

• Think up one truth and one lie about

yourself

• Tell the group one thing about you that

is true and one thing that is a lie.

• The group’s task is to determine which

is the lie.


• Read through the tasks contained within

the Managerial In-Box Task booklet.

• You have 15 minutes to prioritise the

tasks individually on the worksheet

provided.

• Rank your items from 1 – most important

to 15 – least important.

• Discuss your individual decisions with

your team.

• You now have 20 minutes to prioritise

your in-box with the other members of

your team.

• The team must reach consensus as to

the rating of each of the items.


Debrief

• In your teams refer to the questions on

handout 3.

• Nominate one spokesperson from the

team to present the 2 key learnings of the

team.

• You have 15 minutes for your discussions.

251.

Individual Exercise

1. Think about your job over the last week.

2. What emotions have you experienced or witnessed in others?

3. Write each of these emotions on a post-it note.

4. Place your post-it notes on the board.

Team Discussion

1. Were there any patterns of emotions felt

by all team members?

2. If so, why do you think that you have all

felt these emotions in the workplace?

3. Discuss a situation over the last week

where you have felt or witnessed a

positive or negative emotion.

4. How did you react / behave in response to this emotion?

What is an Emotion?

Emotions consist of four separate parts:

1. What we think

2. What we feel

3. How our bodies react

4. How we behave

Emotions and Organisations

• Positive Emotions

– Affective Commitment (Loyalty)

– Enthusiasm

– Organizational Citizenship Behaviours

• Negative Emotions

– Withdrawal

– Lethargy

– Antisocial Behaviours

Primary & Secondary Appraisal

• Primary Appraisal

– evaluation of the situation as positive or negative

• Secondary Appraisal

– evaluation of own capacities and resources

to deal with the situation

Basic Emotions

• Anger

• Joy

• Fear

• Surprise

• Sadness

• Love

More Complex Emotions

• Disgust

• Shame

• Guilt

• Embarrassment

What is Emotional Intelligence?

Emotional Intelligence (EI) is made up of

four separate branches:

1. Awareness of Emotions

2. Emotional Knowledge

3. Facilitation of Emotions

4. Managing Emotions


• Emotional self-appraisal.

• Gauging the emotions of others.

• The ability to perceive false expressions of emotions.

252.

Emotional Knowledge

• Understanding of the causes of

emotions.

• Understanding the consequences of

emotions.

• Recognition of how emotions can blend

and also change over time.


• Ability to alter emotions to assist with

information processing.

• Ability to generate emotions in self and

others appropriate to the situation.

• Enabling emotions in others – eg

motivational speaking

Managing Emotions

• The capacity to regulate and control emotions.

• The ability to influence the emotions of others .

Survey Feedback – EI


EI Total** Own Others**

Co

mp

ara

tiv

e S

co

re

Cairns CSC (n = 21) Sample (n = 90)

Survey Feedback - Citizenship

Organisational Citizenship

Interpersonal** Job Dedication

Co

mp

ara

tiv

e S

co

res


Survey Feedback – Goal Setting

Supervisor Support *


Raising Emotional Self Awareness

• Reflection on your own behaviour / thoughts / feelings

• Feedback from others on your behaviour

– Support team / individuals / significant others

– Coaching

• Assessment Instruments

• NOTE: Others can always observe your behaviour but can only assess your emotions if you display them

Awareness of Emotions at Work

1. Take some time to read over and fill out

your ‘Emotions at Work’ worksheet.

2. When doing this focus on two aspects

of each emotion:

1. What impact did the emotion have on your behaviour?

2. What impact did the emotion have on the mood of others in your workplace?

Team Discussion

1. Discuss your responses to the six

questions contained within the exercise.

2. What effects do different emotions have

on your own behaviour in the workplace?

3. What effects do these emotions also

have on others in the workplace?

4. Choose a speaker to report back 2 key

learnings of the team.

253.

The JOHARI Window

• A model that can be used to highlight & improve self

awareness & understanding between individuals

within a team.

• The window has four separate areas which represent information such as a person’s feelings or

motivations.

• The areas also determine whether this information is known or unknown by the person and also whether

the information is known or unknown by the team.

• The point of the JOHARI window is not the accuracy

of self and others assessment, but the differences between the two.

The JOHARI Window (2)

4.

Unknown Area

3.

Closed Area

2.

Blind Area

1.

Open Area

Known to Self Not Known to Self

Known to

Others

Not Known

to Others

The JOHARI Window (3)

1. Open Area• Consists of behaviours thoughts & feelings that both

you & others know.

2. Blind Area• Contains the behaviours, thoughts & feelings that are

not known by yourself, but are known to others.

3. Closed Area• Involves the thoughts, feelings & behaviours that are

known to oneself, but are not known by others.

4. Unknown Area• Includes the thoughts, feelings & behaviours that are

inaccessible to yourself & others.

JOHARI Window Assumptions

1. The larger the Open Area becomes, the

more effective team interactions will

become.

2. The Open Area can be increased & the

Closed Area can be reduced vertically

through Disclosure.

3. The Open Area can be increased & the

Blind Area can be reduced horizontally

through Feedback.

• Instructions

– On the JOHARI Rating Sheet place the names of each of your team members in the spaces provided.

– Now refer to the JOHARI Window Question Sheet and rate each team member and yourself according to the ten questions provided.

JOHARI Window Exercise


VALUE MEANING

5 Does this consistently

4 Does this most of the time

3 Does this frequently

2 Does this occasionally

1 Does this on rare occasions only

0 Never does this

N/A I cannot comment on this

• Instructions (continued)

– Transfer the results for the column entitled “Yourself” to the Your JOHARI WindowHandout.

– Transfer your scores across to the Feedback and Disclosure columns.


• Instructions (continued)

– Cut your JOHARI Window Rating Sheet into strips and hand them out to the other members of your team.

– Once you have all of your strips gathered together add up the results for each of the 10 questions and place the score in the Total From Others column on your Others JOHARI Window handout


– In column 2 write in the number of times you were evaluated.

– If you received a N/A for a question – do not count this as an evaluation.

– Divide your total score by the number of times evaluated and place in column 3.

– Transfer these scores into the relevant Feedback or Disclosure columns.


254.

– On the My Own & Other’s JOHARI Windows Handout firstly draw your Own JOHARI Window by:

• Plotting your Feedback result & drawing a vertical

line through your Feedback Score

• Plotting your Disclosure result & drawing a

horizontal line through you Disclosure Score.

– Repeat this process with the scores you received from your team to create your Others JOHARI Window.


Team Discussion

1. In what ways can this exercise enhance

your relationships with others?

2. In what ways can this exercise enhance

team members relationship with you?

3. Choose a team member to report back 2

key learnings to the rest of the team.

Reflective Diary

• The reflective diary gives you the opportunity to reflect on specific events that occur both within and outside of your workplace.

• You will be given the opportunity to write in your reflective diaries at various points during the next two days.

• In addition, use your diary as a tool to reflect on events in the workplace over the next two weeks.

Organisational Stories

• Stories as an insight to organisations.

• Stories can be positive or negative.

• Stories generally have a moral.

• Emotions are attached to those morals.

Team Exercise - Preparation

• In your teams develop or recount organisational stories that generate emotions within Main Roads.

• In addition highlight:

– The emotions that were felt &,

– The moral of the story

• You have 15 minutes to discuss and decide with your team which stories you would like to tell.

Day 2 Schedule

Organisational Stories Recap

Check Outs

Session Wrap-Up

Explanation of Follow-Up Day

Managing Emotions

Facilitating Emotions

Emotional Knowledge

Verbal Cues to Emotions

DisbeliefHigh Pitch, Drawn Out Speech

AngerTerse, Loud Tone

DefensivenessAbrupt Speech

SurpriseAscending Tone

EnthusiasmHigh Speed, Empathetic Pitch

DepressionSlow Speed & Pitch

BoredomMonotone

WHAT IT CAN

MEAN

TONE

Team Discussion

• Individually take 15 minutes to reflect on the organisational stories that have been shared (use your participant diaries).

• Discuss what emotions these stories generated in yourself.

• Discuss the effect organisational stories can have on the emotions of others in the workplace.

• Report 2 key learnings gained from this exercise.

Emotional Knowledge

255.

Emotional Knowledge

• Emotional Progressions

• Emotional Cycles

• Emotional Triggers

• Blended Emotions

• Emotional Transitions

The Continuum of Emotions

Emotional Progression

AngerIrritable

Annoyed

Frustrated

Upset

Mad

Angry

Furious

Enraged

Happiness

Positive

Calm

Content

Amused

Pleased

Happy

Joyous

FearAttentive

Wary

Edgy

Nervous

Worried

Fearful

Panicked

Emotional Progression Exercise

• In your team discuss and identify one

situation which has resulted in an

emotional progression (negative).

• Write this situation in detail on the paper

provided.

• Include on the paper the steps of the

emotional progression.

• In your team, develop strategies for diffusing the negative emotional progression at each of the steps.

• Be prepared to give an overview of the scenario to the group and the strategies you have developed for overcoming the negative emotional progressions in the situation.

• Report back to the team 2 key learningsfrom this exercise.

Emotional Progression Exercise

Negative Emotional Cycles

Decisions

(James, 2002)

Positive Emotional Cycles

Decisions

(James, 2002)

Emotional Cycles - Change

Emotional Facilitation

256.

What is emotional facilitation?

• Creating a mood appropriate to the

situation – emotional contagion

• Seeing things from others’ perspective

• Motivational Speaking

Emotional Contagion

The tendency to reflect another person’s

experience/expression.

Examples of emotional contagion include:

1. An enthusiastic person raising the mood

2. A grumpy person descending gloom

3. A sad person being draining of others

Team Discussion

1. What are the outcomes of positive

emotional contagion in the workplace?

2. What are the outcomes of negative

emotional contagion in the workplace?

3. Highlight strategies that you have used

successfully to ‘infect’ others with

specific emotions in your workplace.

4. Present 2 key learnings to the rest of the team.

Happiness

Leads to:

1. Creativity

2. Thinking outside the box

3. Looking beyond specific information

4. Idea generation

Surprise

Leads to:

• Our eyes are opened

• Our ears are opened

• We go into information seeking mode

Sadness

Leads to:

1. Consideration of problems that may

have been ignored previously

2. Realisation of where things went

wrong

Fear

Leads to:

1. Re-visiting old assumptions

2. Seeing new opportunities in the

familiar

Anger

Leads to:

1. A focus of energy on a justified threat

2. Gives us the energy to right a

legitimate wrong

Generating Specific Emotions

• Relax

• Develop your emotional imagination– Select the emotion you wish to generate

and think of a time when you felt this emotion.

– Retrieve an image of the situation.

– Try to experience or feel the sensations that accompany the emotion.

– Intensify the image and the sensations.

– End on a positive note.

257.

How to Change Moods Quickly

• Repeating statements such as:

– I am feeling good today

– I am very happy

– Today is a great day

– Things are looking up

– Others??????

Emotional Cycles Exercise

1. In your teams discuss situations which have involved an emotional reaction to a change cycle (personal or organisational).

2. What were the reactions to change of yourself and others?

3. What ways can you effectively move yourself/others through the change cycle?

4. Report back 2 key learnings.

Perspective Taking

• Seeing things from others’ viewpoint

• Why do we have different perspectives?

• How does this contribute to performance?

• When does it damage performance?

One View

The best lack all conviction while the

worst are full of passionate intensity

(The Second Coming,

William Butler Yeats, 1922)

Perspectives and Conclusions

• If we thought about each inference we made, life would pass us by.

• People can & do reach different conclusions.

• When we view our conclusions as obvious,

we don’t see a need to say why.

• During disagreements, conclusions are hurled from the tops of respective ladders.

• This escalates emotions and makes it hard

to resolve differences.

Managing Emotions

Managing Emotions

• Emotional Repair

• Disengagement from Emotions

• Engaging with Emotions

• Assisting Others to Process Emotions

How Mood can Influence

Feelings – Anger Example

Low

Low High

High If You Start in

a Bad Mood

If You Start in

a Good Mood

Fe

elin

g o

f A

ng

er

Intensity of Anger-Producing Event

What is Emotional Repair

• “Getting over it”

• “Losing gracefully”

• “Getting back on the horse”

• Others?????????????

258.

Techniques for Emotional Repair

• Emotional Self Awareness

• Emotional Control

• Experience

• Resiliency

– Physiological Resiliency

– Psychological Resiliency

– Social Resiliency

Physiological Resiliency

1. Cardiovascular conditioning

• Maintaining optimal weight

• Increasing psychological well-being

• Improving the cardiovascular system

2. Proper Diet

• Caffeine actually stimulates stress!

Psychological Resiliency

1. Balanced Lifestyle

• Work

• Intellectual

• Social

• Family

• Spiritual

• Physical

• Cultural

2. Deep Relaxation Techniques

Social Resiliency

1. Supportive Social Relationships

2. Team Support

3. Mentor Support

• Sharing of frustrations & disappointments

• Receive suggestions & encouragement

• Emotional bonding

Managing Emotions Techniques

• Writing

• Exercise

• Muscle Relaxation

• Deep Breathing

• Guided Imagery

• Rehearsal

• Reframing

• Disengagement from Emotions

• Engaging with Emotions

Disengaging from Emotions

Disengagement of emotions entails:

• “turning your back” on the emotion in a situation and only processing non-emotional, concrete information.

• Although there are situations when these techniques may be appropriate, there can be long term consequences if we continually suppress particular emotions.

Disengagement Techniques

• Avoidance of Emotions

– Turning away, removing ourselves or not getting involved.

• Denial of Emotions

– You choose not to act – your brain controls your impulse to show emotion.

Engaging with Emotions

Strategies for engaging with the emotions

we feel include:

• Emotional Reappraisal

– Change the way you view the emotion through focusing on the positive aspects of the situation rather than the negatives.

• Emotional Acknowledgement

– Recognise the emotions but then move on, not attempting to solve the problem.

Emotional Repair Exercise

• Discuss in your team situations where it has been difficult for you and/or others to “get over it” (It may be useful to write down the situation in your diary).

• Choose one situation from the team and write it down in detail on the paper provided making sure to detail:

– The end state of the person at the time of the situation.

– How the person feels and behaves right now towards the situation.

259.

• Devise strategies to assist the emotional

repair process in this situation.

• Be prepared to share these strategies

with the other teams.

Emotional Repair Exercise

Managing Emotions

1. Share with your team methods you have used to

manage your emotions both within and outside of the

workplace.

2. Which of these management strategies works well for you?

3. Which of these strategies do not work for you, yet

you continue to use?

4. Discuss with your team alternative emotion

management strategies to try over the next two weeks.

5. Nominate a spokesperson to report 2 key learnings.

Session Wrap-Up

1. Organisations are emotional arenas.

2. What is Emotional Intelligence.

3. Awareness of emotions

4. Understanding emotions

5. Facilitation of emotions

6. Management of emotions

Over the Next Two Weeks

• Keep writing in your diaries.

• Reflect on your JOHARI Window results – accept feedback and disclosure when appropriate.

• Share organisational stories with team members.

• Help yourself and others to diffuse emotional progressions as they happen.

• Practice mind mapping to assist with perspective taking.

• Practice the emotional management techniques suggested by your fellow team members.

Half-Day Workshop

1. Discuss your experiences in the

workplace in terms of your:

– Awareness of emotions in self and others

– Understanding of own and others emotions

– Facilitation of emotion in the workplace

– Management of emotions and techniques tried

2. Provide the opportunity for reflection.

3. Highlight areas for future development.

260.

APPENDIX D

The Interpersonal Skills Intervention

Supportive Communication

The first topic covered in the program is supportive communication. Session one

commences with an examination, understanding, practice and reflection of the eight principles of

supportive communication (Carlopio et al., 1997). This involves presenting each of the elements

in turn and providing examples of when these principles are practiced well and when these

principles are violated in workplace situations. Table 81 provides descriptions and definitions of

each of these eight elements. Following this an explanation of two team exercises that are

undertaken. The first of these examines a video vignette of an organisational situation where the

principles of supportive communication are violated. This vignette was sourced from the popular

UK television program, ‘The Office’. Teams are asked to identify the supportive communication

violations and to determine where the interaction could have been improved. The second activity

then asks the individuals to share with their teams an interaction where supportive

communication was violated and how this interaction could be improved by using supportive

communication techniques. The participants are instructed that they may choose either a

workplace or a non-workplace situation for the discussion.

261.

Table 81 Eight Elements of Supportive Communication

Element Description

1. Problem-oriented, not person-oriented

Person-orientation focuses upon the characteristics of the individual, not the event — communicates that the other person is inadequate. Reactions include defensiveness and confrontation.

Problem-orientation focuses on problems and solutions. It also focuses on behaviours and events, rather than on personality.

2. Congruent, not incongruent

Congruence is about matching the communication verbally and non-verbally to what the person is thinking and feeling. Incongruence example — a person is showing signs of anger, yet denies having that feeling.

3. Descriptive, not evaluative

Evaluative communication places labels on people such as ‘you are incompetent’. This perpetuates a defensive reaction in people. Descriptive Communication — describes the event, own reactions and consequences of the event/behaviour. DC also provides the opportunity for suggesting better alternatives and outcomes — not on who is right and who is wrong.

4. Validating, not invalidating

Invalidating = superiority-oriented, one-upmanship and rigid communication styles. Arouses negative feelings about self-worth, identity and relatedness to others. Validating helps people feel recognised, understood, accepted and valued. Four attributes of Validating — Egalitarian, flexible, two-way and based on agreement.

5. Specific,

not global

The more specific a statement is, the more useful it is. Global statements are too general. They are often extreme or absolute. This leads to defensiveness and disconfirmation. ‘You never ask for my advice’, ‘You have no consideration for the feelings of others’, ‘This job stinks’.

6. Conjunctive,

not disjunctive

Conjunctive — the next statement is linked to the previous. Disjunctive — the next statement has nothing to do with the last. Taking it in turns to speak, management of timing and topic control help to ensure that communication remains conjunctive.

7. Owned, not disowned

Owned — taking responsibility for statements and acknowledging that the source is ‘I’, ‘Me’ or ‘Mine’, not ‘We’ or ‘They’.

8. Supportive listening, not one-way listening

Listening and delivering supportive messages is as important as delivering supportive messages. Humans are only about 25% effective in listening — that is, we listen to and understand only a quarter of what we hear.

(Source: Carlopio et al., 1997)

Conflict Resolution

The second session then focuses upon understanding and building conflict resolution skills.

First, a description of the ladder of inference (Senge, Kleiner, Roberts, Ross, & Smith, 1994) is

262.

presented. This is followed by a team activity to explore ways to approach individuals and teams

from climbing up the ladder of inference. The ladder of inference is an effect model that can be

used to illustrate how conflicts can occur because of individual perceptions. Figure 5 presents the

ladder of inference and the environmental factors that lead to an individual making an

assumption about a person or situation.

Figure 5 The Ladder of Inference

(Source: Senge, Kleiner, Roberts, Ross, & Smith, 1994)

This activity is then followed by an explanation of the differences and the consequences of

functional and dysfunctional conflict (Amason, 1996; Robbins, 1974) and is then followed by

team reflection and discussion. Generally, functional conflict, that is, conflict that leads to a

positive outcome results in a reduction of complacency and stagnation, enhances creative

thinking and problem solving and can result in increased co-operation and motivation in the

workplace (Amason, 1996). Conversely, dysfunctional conflict is generally directed at a person,

rather than the actual problem (and violates the assumptions of supportive communication).

Dysfunctional conflict generally leads, at the least, to withdrawal, blaming and avoidance

263.

behaviours. At the worst, dysfunctional conflict has greater consequences, such as resentment,

aggressive behaviours and even violence (Amason, 1996).

Following the team discussion, the conflict resolution styles of avoiding, accommodating,

compromising, collaborating and forcing are outlined and explained (Thomas, 1976; Thomas &

Kilmann, 1974) and a final team activity is carried out. The participants are asked to discuss

situations where a conflict situation had become dysfunctional. They are then asked to identify

which conflict resolution style was used and what impact this style had on the relationship

between the parties. The groups are then asked to identify which resolutions style(s) may have

been more appropriate in the situation to facilitate a functional outcome. Table 82 presents a brief

description of each of these four styles.

Table 82 Conflict Resolution Styles

Style Description

FORCING Resolving the conflict situation by satisfying your own needs at the expense of others

COLLABORATING Resolving the conflict by seeking an advantageous solution for all parties involved

COMPROMISING Resolving the conflict by each party giving something up of value

AVOIDING Resolving conflict by withdrawing from or suppressing it

ACCOMMODATING Resolving the conflict situation by placing another’s needs and concerns above your own

(Source: Thomas & Kilmann, 1974)

Goal Setting

The final session of the workshop focused on goal setting. In particular, Vroom’s (1964)

expectancy theory is used to highlight the linkage between effort, performance and rewards and

their links to goal achievement. Locke and Latham’s (1990) goal setting theory was then

explained to demonstrate that when goals are specific, difficult, yet attainable, the motivation to

achieve these goals is increased. The participants are then introduced to the SMART (specific,

264.

measurable, attainable, realistic and time-bound) model of goal setting (Nelson & Quick, 2005).

This enables each individual to set their own goals to be achieved before the follow-up training

two weeks later. In particular, the participants are encouraged to set their goals within the three

areas covered within the training day.

265.

References

Amason, A. C. (1996). Distinguishing the effects of functional and dysfunctional conflict on strategic decision making: Resolving a paradox for top management teams. Academy of

Management Journal, 39(1), 123-149.

Carlopio, J., Andrewartha, G., & Armstrong, H. (1997). Developing Management Skills in

Australia.South Melbourne: Addison Wesley Longman.

Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A theory of goal setting and task performance.Englewood

Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Nelson, D. L., & Quick, J. C. (2005). Understanding organizational behavior (2nd ed.). Mason, OH: Thomson, South-Western.

Robbins, S. P. (1974). Managing organizational conflict: A non-traditional approach.Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Senge, P., Kleiner, A., Roberts, C., Ross, R., & Smith, B. (1994). The fifth discipline fieldbook:

Strategies and tools for building a learning organization.London: Nicholas Brearley

Publishing.

Thomas, K. (1976). Conflict and conflict management. In M. D. Dunnette (Ed.), Handbook of

industrial and organizational psychology.New York: John Wiley and Sons.

Thomas, K. W., & Kilmann, R. H. (1974). Thomas-Kilmann conflict mode instrument.Tuxedo,

New York: Xicom.

Vroom, V. (1964). Work and motivation.New York: John Wiley.

266.

APPENDIX E

The Interpersonal Skills Intervention Slides

Emotions in the WorkplaceEmotions in the Workplace

Program 1Interpersonal Skills

Outline of Training DayOutline of Training Day

SESSION 1

Introductions & Welcome

Check-ins Group Activity

9.00 am – 10.30 am

MORNING TEA

SESSION 2

Supportive Communication Group Activities

10.45 am – 12.30 pm

LUNCH

SESSION 3

Forced Choices

Resolving Conflict in Teams Group Discussion Exercise

1.15 pm – 3.00 pm

AFTERNOON TEA

SESSION 4

Goal Setting & Motivation

Group Activity Individual Exercise

Follow-up Brief

3.15 pm – 4.30 pm

Session 2Session 2

Supportive Communication

Supportive CommunicationSupportive Communication

� What is it?

– Interpersonal communication

– Accurate and honest

– Maintains interpersonal relationships

� Why is it important?

– Overcomes feelings of threat

– Overcomes feelings of incompetence

SUPPORTIVE

COMMUNICATION

Elements of Supportive Elements of Supportive

CommunicationCommunicationProblem-Oriented,

not Person-Oriented

Congruent, not

Incongruent

Descriptive, not

Evaluative

Validating, not

Invalidating

Specific, and not

Global

Conjunctive, not

Disjunctive

Owned, not

Disowned

Supportive, not One

Way Listening

Active Listening Active Listening

The Five Golden RulesThe Five Golden Rules1. Shut up and listen

2. Pause Breathe and Relax

3. Present neutral non-verbals

4. Tune in

5. Check for understanding

267.

Supportive Communication Supportive Communication

ExerciseExercise

1. What principles of supportive communication are being violated?

2. How would you improve the situation using supportive communication?

Group ActivityGroup Activity

1. Individually, think of a situation you have been in where the elements of supportive communication were violated.

2. Discuss this situation with other members of your team.

3. As a group choose one of these situations and discuss how the interaction could have been improved through the use of supportive communication techniques.

Session 3Session 3

Resolving Conflict in Teams

DefinitionDefinition

Conflict is an expressed struggle within self, or between at least two parties who perceive incompatible goals, scarce resources, or interference from the other party/ies in achieving their goals.

(Borisoff & Victor, 1998)

Making SenseMaking Sense

� We cannot make decisions on all available information

� We make sense by gaining small bits of information and making inferences

� Inferences allow us to make sense of a situation

� Inferences are a major source of conflict

The Ladder of InferenceThe Ladder of Inference

ExamplesExamples

Addressing the ladder of Addressing the ladder of

inferenceinference

� Becoming more aware of your own thinking and reasoning (reflection);

� Making your thinking and reasoning more visible to others (explanation);

� Inquiring into others' thinking and reasoning (inquiry).


1. Individually, think of a situation that you have been involved in, where you or another person leaped up the ladder of inference.


3. What steps could you have taken or could have encouraged others to take to avoid leaping up the ladder of inference?

268.

Views on ConflictViews on Conflict

� Traditional perspective

– Conflict is bad

� Contemporary perspective

– Conflict is neither good or bad but inevitable

– Conflict can be productive

Relationship between Conflict Relationship between Conflict

and Effectivenessand Effectiveness

Performance

High

Low

Low High

Intensity of Conflict

too little or too much conflict is destructive

moderate levels of conflictare constructive

ConflictConflict

� Dysfunctional Conflict

– Generally manifested as stress with associated

negative coping process

� Withdrawal, avoidance, blaming

� Functional Conflict

– Generally associated with creative tension

leading to

� Broader alternatives, multiple perspectives,new ideas

Dysfunctional ConflictDysfunctional Conflict

� Unresolved conflict

� Outcomes include:– Destroys task interaction in groups

– Negative assessment of opponents

– Depletion of energy

– Closing off of ourselves

– Building resentment

– Unproductive strategies

– Violence

Functional ConflictFunctional Conflict� Resolvable conflict

� Outcomes include:– Reduction in complacency and stagnation

– Stimulation of interest and curiosity

– Increased creativity

– Better understanding of others

– Improved relationships

– Co-operation

– Increased motivation

Sources of Organizational Sources of Organizational

ConflictConflict� Substantive Conflict

– Work methods

– Pay rates

– Conditions of employment

� Interpersonal Conflict

– Personality conflicts

– Personality misconceptions

Strategies for Resolving ConflictStrategies for Resolving Conflict

Unco-operative Co-operative

Assertive

Unassertive

FORCING COLLABORATING

AVOIDING

COMPROMISING

ACCOMMODATING

CO-OPERATIVENESS

A

S

S

E

R

T

I

V

E

N

E

S

S

ForcingForcing

1. The conflict involves individual values.

2. Maintaining the relationship is not critical.

3. There is a sense of urgency.

AccommodatingAccommodating

1. The need to maintain a good working relationship outweighs all other considerations.

2. The issue is not vital to your own interests.

3. The situation involves time constraints.

269.

CompromiseCompromise

1. The issues are complex and moderately important.

2. Both parties have an interest in differing facets of the problem.

3. There is adequate time available for negotiation.

CollaboratingCollaborating

1. The issues involved are critical.

2. Working relationships need to be maintained.

3. Time constraints are not an issue.

AvoidanceAvoidance

1. When one’s stake in an issue is not high.

2. When there is not a strong interpersonal reason for getting involved.

3. When there are significant time constraints involved.

Conflict EscalationConflict Escalation1. Escalating conflict means raising the intensity

of the conflict.

2. Positive outcomes– Brings issues to a head

– Raises the stakes

3. Negative consequences– May make the situation unmanageable

– Emotions run high

– Becomes a win lose scenario


1. Individually, think of a conflict situation that you have been involved in, where you were not happy with the outcome.


3. What conflict resolution strategy did you use?

Session 4Session 4

Goal Setting

The Benefits of Goal SettingThe Benefits of Goal Setting

1. Goals influence the way we think and what we do.

2. Goals energise our behaviour. We put in effort to reach accepted goals.

3. Goals lead to persistence in effort over time, when the goals are difficult but attainable.

Goal Setting TheoryGoal Setting Theory

Goal settingmotivators

Goal setting

motivators

ParticipationParticipation

Specific andChallenging goals

Specific and

Challenging goalsAcceptanceAcceptance

FeedbackFeedback

S.M.A.R.T Goal SettingS.M.A.R.T Goal Setting

REALISTIC

MEASURABLESPECIFIC

GOAL

270.


Reflect on the Subarctic Survival Exercise from this morning.

1. What did you do (in terms of setting goals)?

2. What could you have done better?

3. What would you do next time?

Individual ActivityIndividual Activity

1. Reflect on the materials covered today and decide upon two aspects of supportive communication or conflict resolution you would like to set goals for.

2. Now, work through the Goal Setting Worksheet to make these goals SMART goals.

271.

APPENDIX F

Emotions in the Workplace

Participant Information Sheet

The purpose of this project is to establish if training in emotions in the workplace can

improve performance in teams. This project includes two parts, a survey and a training

program. As a part of this project, we are inviting you to complete the attached survey,

which will take approximately 5–10 minutes to complete. We will also be inviting you to

fill in the survey following the completion of your Emotions in the Workplace program.

• All data collected as a result of this research will be treated confidentially. Please

return your questionnaire to your course director who will seal all responses in an

envelope. To ensure your confidentiality, this envelope will be returned directly to

Griffith University.

• Your individual responses will not be available to Main Roads.

• Participation is voluntary and refusal to participate will involve no penalty. You may

discontinue participation at any time without comment or penalty.

• Griffith University conducts research in accordance with the National Statement on

Ethical Conduct in Research Involving Humans. If you have any concerns about the

ethical conduct of the research project, you should contact the Manager, Research

Ethics on 3875 5585 or <[email protected]>.

• Feedback will be in the form of a report to Organisational Development outlining the

aggregated results and outcomes of the project. Individual feedback will also be

available to you on your request.

• Completion of the survey indicates your consent to participate in this study.

If you have any questions or comments, please contact one of the Chief Investigators:

A/Prof Peter J Jordan Prof Neal M Ashkanasy

Associate Professor Professor of Management

Department of Management UQ Business School

Griffith Business School The University of Queensland

272.

Nathan QLD 4111 Brisbane QLD 4072

Ph: 07 3875 3717 Ph: 07 3365 7499

Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Thank you for your assistance with this research project

273.

APPENDIX G

Emotions in the Worlplace Survey

278.

APPENDIX H

Focus Group Outcomes

Focus Group

Date: Thursday 11 December 2003

Location: Queensland Department of Main Roads

Participants: Business support staff from Strategic Policy and Development

Notes From Session 1 – 10.00am (Six Participants)

Intervention was taken to have negative connotations. Better to use training, course or

program.

Team focus is a good selling point – people responded positively that the focus of the

training would be on teams. Suggesting that the training will tie-in with current leadership

training, but will have a team focus.

Goal Setting

• We are getting better

• Departmental goal setting — achievement plans at the individual level

• Becoming more aware of goal setting in the organisation

• Leads on — people can see how the levels of planning link together

• Corporate probably set more goals (or are more focussed on goal setting) than

construction

o Road-tek are good at setting goals

• Team level is not as strong

o Departmental level

• All involved at different levels in organisational level goals

• Generally involved at the operational level with goals — project managers

• Developing capabilities

• Was previously a lot of ad hoc goal setting, but with the introduction of a strategic

plan, it is now more directional in focus

279.

• Achievement plans should be important part of goal setting (suggested that at this

point they were not as important as they should be)

• Individual priorities (goals):

o Task lists was a form of goal setting — developed personally

o Daily tasks

o Can be daily, weekly and monthly tasks

o Autonomy is good

o Managers have very little input in day to day goals

This could be dependent on the role — PA’s were more dependent on management —

depends on managers schedule

o Goals often change — continually changing, need to be flexible. Flexibility was

emphasised

o Big goals ‘Do the job well’, then that oversees the smaller goals, day to day goals.

• Better to be proactive rather than reactive in goal setting.

Performance

• Achievement plan has a bad name

o It is an arduous task

o 360 degree feedback loop — participants only seen this happen once in 15–20

years?!?!

o Should be every six months

• Many people have draft achievement plans

• Verbal appreciation was one way that feedback was shown

• Appreciation generally occurred for extra role behaviours, less so for task behaviours

• Staff achievement awards — considered important

• Quarterly recognition (in some departments)

• Staff recognition is important

• Also of benefit when certificate showed a clear link back to an objective within the

strategic plan

280.

• Divisional awards — set criteria, staff nominations

• Lots of areas go unnoticed — large projects get a lot of recognition

• Need to be rewards across the board

• There is a focus on process

• Link between strategic plan and achievement is better. Appreciated by staff.

Interpersonal Skills

• Some people are lacking in these skills

• *One participant — has used own networks from working in regions, on projects, head

office. Considers one big family

• Important for working relationship

• Encouraged but not practiced by all

• Management team interpersonal skills not showing

o They need to ‘walk the talk’

o Could take some examples from the bottom

• Leaders not communicating as well as the lower levels

• EGO’S!! Play a big part

• Things are getting better

o Example, went away on a program, increased team work

• If things were good there would be no need for a DG hotline

• Relaxed

• Getting better — improving

• Certain groups work better than others

• Not confronting conflict directly — goes up the line, then down

• Need to have empathy.

Emotions

• Coping styles

o Debrief with another person

o Blurt

281.

o Talk

o Listen — talk to someone else

• Frustration

o Others do not use skills

o Due to things outside your control

o Other people’s behaviour — inflexible

o Learning to accept that you are wrong, sometimes

o Understanding other people

o Recognising qualities that are not your own

• Stress

o Decreased communication

o Increased negative emotions

o Read others emotions

• Better working relationship = a better working group.

Emotions that were written down:

Content

Happy

Frustrated

Relieved

Disappointed

Annoyed

Annoyed

Angry

Happy

Joy

Happy

Happy

Sad

Frustration!!

Frustration

Frustrated

Frustration

Notes from Session 2 – 1:30pm (Four Participants)

Emotions

Most common emotion

Positive/Negative

282.

Positive – reactions

• Sympathy/empathy (difference and both needed in different situations)

• Stop yourself from feeling negative how you are feeling emotionally can affect your

work

• Happy = more productive

o Everywhere

o Not necessarily productive

o Happy = less productive – more chatty/not necessarily can be positive for the

group

• Shitty = blinkered

• Your mood impacts others

• Unconsciously aware

• Affects relationships/the people you work with/ results in a different kind of work

being done

• Sharing negative emotions – makes people understanding.

Manage Emotions

• Depends on who/where you are working

• Make light of anxiety — make a joke

• Withdraw but recognise the need to talk to a supportive person

• Awareness of emotions

• Quite

• Withdraw to manage

• No communication

• Go for a walk.

• Stressful morning + angry + upset, changed to happiness

• Proud of herself — did her best.

283.

Emotions expressed

Really good

Sexy

Happy

Amusement

Frustrated

Relaxed

Nervous

Cheeky

Challenged

Annoyed

Relief

Happiness

Excited

Anxiety

Nervousness

Happy

Sensitive

Content

284.

Notes taken on Butcher’s Paper

Session 1

Survey Feedback

• Main Roads logo

• Neal/Steve sign off — endorsement

• Two years/not basic

• include Main Roads

• Benefits to individuals/Main Roads

• Feedback or concern rather than complaint

• Put Main Roads up top

• Q7. Other leadership courses

o Foundation in Leadership

o Leadership Renewal

• Year of completion

• You may tick more than one box

• Q3. Take out secondment

• Casual/other issues contract

• Unique ID OK

• Word team is confusing — one specific team throughout

• Time to complete, 20 minutes

• Additional comments/feedback space

• Return date

• Explanation of terms

• Glossary of terms — one sentence

• Explanation of survey — what to expect

• Page 2

285.

o Q8 — put(s)

o Q12 exercise(s)

o Separate page for demographics

o Increase font size and extra spacing

o Accurate(ly) – response column

• Page 3

o Frustration with doubling up

o Statement regarding this issue

• Page 4

o Explanation of goals

o Not the same flow — not as easily understandable

o What the?

o Reword questions

o Regroup

o Questions personal/work values different

o Item 16 —what the?

o Language flow 25

o Stop/start

o Boss — manager/supervisor

o Item 23 scenario

o Depends on environment

o Take out excessive

o What is RISK?

o More concise.

Interpersonal Skills

• Family network

• Enhances relationships

• Sometimes not practiced by individuals

286.

• Leaders walk the talk

• Relational egos

• Getting better.

Performance

• Feedback on Action Plan

• No link? Easier 360 degree loop

• Measures

• Six months — beneficial

• Reminders would be good.

Goal Setting

• Getting better — organisation-wide

• Strat plan — awareness (tick)

• People know — how it ties together

• All ties together

• Corporate — Road Tek is good

• Action Plans

• Team is not as strong

• SP&D/Business Plan

• All involved at different levels

• Priorities from Neil

• Operation — hard copy

• Getting better

• Developing capabilities into future

• Strategic approach.

287.

Session 2

• Voluntary clause? Wording

• Benefits for

o you

o and the organisation

• You will not be identified

• Independent analysis

• Reply paid envelope

• Team Research — not individual

• Main Roads logo — management sign off

• Main Roads feedback

• ‘Partnering’ with the university

• Plain English

• Page 1

o Explain unique identifier

o Team results

o Allow link to future survey

o Mother’s maiden name?

o Perhaps mother’s first name?

o Q5

o Position rather than role?

o Manager — need to be specific

o Extra room for additional courses

o Demographics

o Business units.

• Page 3

288.

o Put questions in lots of 10 — visual rest

o Line follow.

• Page 4

o Q3 — wording

o ???

o Q15 — wording, flowery

o Q23 — Plain English

• Qualitative responses?

• Put 5-response items together

• Assumptions — need to define them

o Team has goals

o Outcomes as goals

o Milestones as goals

o *Achievements

• Are goals

o Work

o Team

o Personal

o Task

• Need to define team vs. personal.

289.

APPENDIX I

Emotions in the Workplace Survey

Feedback On Results – Sample Report

Thank you for participating in the ‘Emotions in the Workplace’ program!

To give meaning to the survey, we have compared your results with the results from 30 of

your peers from Senior Advisors (Service Management) and 94 employees from Main Roads

who reported a similar classification level. This comparison was carried out by calculating the

mean or average and then conducting a statistical comparison. Please be aware that all measures

in this survey were based on self-reports. These types of measures can differ depending upon a

range factors at the time of completion. Examples of these factors include, amongst others, your

mood, time constraints and level of interest in the survey content. The comparison ratings

provided in this report should, therefore, be read in light of the accuracy of your own and others’

self-reports.

The three different areas measured by the survey were Emotional Intelligence,

Organisational Citizenship and Goal Setting. An overview of what is measured in each of these

areas is presented below.

Emotional Intelligence can be defined as the ability to monitor your own and others’

emotions, to distinguish between both the positive and negative effects of emotion, and also to

use emotional information to guide one’s thinking and actions. There were two main dimensions

that were measured in the survey, both with a number of supplementary areas:

1. The ability to deal with Own emotions

a. Awareness of own emotions

b. Ability to discuss own emotions

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c. Using own emotions to assist thought (for example, calming yourself

down to do detailed and accurate work).

2. The ability to deal with Others’ emotions:

a. Ability to recognise the emotions of others

b. Managing others’ emotions (for example, assisting colleagues to overcome

sadness or disappointment)

c. Ability to detect others’ false displays of emotions (for instance, knowing

when someone is only pretending to be happy).

Organisational Citizenship is defined as displaying behaviours that go above and beyond

formal role requirements, for example, helping others with tasks and putting in more effort than

is required of you. This was calculated on two different dimensions:

1. Interpersonal Facilitation, which includes cooperative, considerate and helpful acts

that assist co-workers’ performance

2. Job Dedication, which includes self-disciplined, motivated acts such as working hard,

taking initiative and following rules to support the objectives of the organisation.

Goal Setting was measured using six different subsets. These were:

1. Supervisor Support/Participation, which indicates the perception of he supervisors’

supportiveness and willingness to let employees participate in goal setting

2. Goal Stress, which concerns the amount of difficulty and the stressfulness of the goals

and whether there is a failure to attain the goals

3. Goal Rationale, which demonstrates how much of a link there is between

performance outcomes and the goal that is set

4. Goal Efficacy, which is a measurement of whether you have a plan of action to

achieve and how much enjoyment there is in reaching goals

5. Goal Clarity, indicating how clear or specific goals are and whether there is a clear

priority for achieving goals

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6. Goal Conflict, which identifies whether goals cause internal conflict, for instance,

having too many goals or goals that conflict with personal values.

(i) Your Results

Your overall results for each of the above mentioned areas are presented in the graphs on the

following pages. These graphs can be interpreted as follows:

1. Column 1 = your own result

Column 2 = your business units overall result

Column 3 = the Main Roads sample result

2. Items marked with an * or ** signify a significant difference (either above or below)

between your own result and the results of your business unit or the larger Main

Roads Sample. Items marked with NS signify that there is no significant difference

between your own result and the result of your business unit or the larger Main Roads

sample.

3. If your result is lower than your own business unit or the Main Roads average, this

may be an area you wish to highlight for future development. Two exceptions to this

are the areas of Goal Stress and Goal Conflict, where results lower than the business

unit/Main Roads average signify that you experience Goal Stress and Goal Conflict at

a lower level than your peers.

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EI Total Own Others

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EI Total Own Others

SA ns ns ns

Main Roads * ns **

Emotional Intelligence Subscales

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SA ns ns ** ** ns *

Main Roads ns ns ** ** ** **

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Organisational Citizenship

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Goal Setting

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Efficacy Clarity Conflict

SA ns ** * * ns ns

Main Roads ** ** ** ** ** ns

294.

Once again, we would like to thank you for participating in the program. If you have any

questions, please feel free to contact Paul Connors in Organisational Development (ph: 3405

5432), Peter Jordan at Griffith University (ph: 3875 3717), Jane Murray at Griffith University

(ph: 3875 7998) or Sandra Lawrence at Griffith University (ph: 3875 3717).

All the best from the project team!

AN EXAMINATION OF THE IMPACT OF TRAINING ON THE EMOTIONAL ... · A thesis submitted in fulfilment...

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