An Examination of Motivations for the Use of Supplementation in Young Athletes

8/6/2019 An Examination of Motivations for the Use of Supplementation in Young Athletes

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An Examination of Motivations For The Use of Supplementation in Young Athletes

Abstract/Introduction

Studies of high school athletes over the last decade show that a large percentage of

young athletesthose in high school and collegeuse performance enhancing athletic

supplements,with the percentage ranging between thirty and seventy percent. To explain these

numbers, the vast majority of researchers and studies have concluded that a simple desire to

increase performance is responsible for young athletes use of supplements. Some research,

however, has shown that there may be other factors behind athletes use of supplements. From my

analysis of this research, I find that while a simple desire for increased performance is generally

accepted as the explanation for young athletes use of supplements, sociological and

psychological factors are likely to play a significant role in young athletes decision to use

performance enhancing/athletic supplementation.

Prevalence of Supplement Use in Young Athletes

In Student Use of Supplements and the Role of Trainers and Dietitians - Nutrition

Supplement Use, a survey was conducted of 236 NCAA Division I university athletes. Eighty-

eight percent of the surveyed students reported the use of at least one nutritional supplement and

58% reported using two or more. No specifics are given about what sort of supplements the

athletes used, thoughafter one looks at other data on the use of supplementsit can besafely

assumed that not all of the supplements used are performance enhancing supplements.

Nevertheless, the numbers are astounding. For the first group, the eighty-eight percent group, it

is likely that a significant portion use a simplemultivitamin, but for the second group of fifty-


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eight percent who use two or more supplements the odds are very good that one or more is a

performance enhancing supplement (Student).

In A Survey of High School Athletes Nutritional Supplement Usage and Resources

author W. J. Moreau examines the data from a survey of 3,232 Iowa Athletes in grades 9-12. In

this study 1,734 boys took part and 1,498 girls. Less than 4% of the athletes surveyed reported

that they did not use supplements. The most common supplements for male athletes were Multi-

vitamins (674), energy boosters (526), Creatine (302), and meal replacement bars (295). The

four most often used supplements for female athletes were multivitamins (544), energy boosters

(261), meal replacement bars (188), and weight loss products (101). Multi vitamins and energy

boosters are both common products used by both athletes and non athletes, as are weight loss

products. Meal replacement bars and Creatine, however, are not (normally) used outside of

athletics. In this sample, just over 17% of the males surveyed reported the use of the supplement

Creatine, one of the most popular performance enhancing supplements on the market, which is

equivalent to 10% of the total sample. Since the womens numbers for Creatine use are not

given, the actual percentage of the sample group that uses Creatineis undoubtedly at least slightly

higher. 15% of the total sample reported use of meal replacement bars (Moreau).

In CreatineSupplementationinHighSchoolFootballPlayers, author Timothy

McGuinelooks exclusively at the Creatine supplementation of high school football players. His

study was of 1,349 high school football players from 37 schools in Wisconsin, all from grades 9-

12. In the study, 30% of respondents reported Creatine use. The percentage of users was smaller

in lower grades than in higher grades. 10.4 of freshmen football players used Creatine, while

50.5% of senior football players took the supplement. Interestingly, 41% of players at small

schools reported taking Creatine, while only 29% of the players at large schools reported it.


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Unfortunately, what exactly makes for a small or a large school is not explained in the articles

abstract, the only part of the article I have access to (McGuine374-53).

Attitudes Towards Supplements and Supplementation

In Negative Beliefs as a Moderator of the Intention-Behavior Relationship,

authors Tonya Dodge and James Jaccard look at attitudes towards Performance Enhancing

Supplements within the athletic community. In their study, the authors surveyed over four

hundred athletes from an NCAA Division I school about their attitudes toward and perceptions

of Performance Enhancing Supplements. In two questionnaires separated by six weeks,

respondents were given questions such as How likely are you to take a Performance Enhancing

Substance in the next six weeks and asked to rate their answers from -10 to 10. More

importantly, in addition to questions dealing with the athletes intention to use or not use athletic

supplements, respondents were also asked to list the benefits and downsides of using

supplements in one part of the survey if they chose to start using supplements within the next six

weeks. In this segment of the test it was found that 240 of the athletes believed that supplements

would make them stronger, 155 believed athletic supplements would make them stronger, and

140 believed that they would have greater endurance. These numbers are approximately 42%,

27%, and 25% of the 574 survey sample, showing that a very significant number of athletes view

supplements as something that can give them a significant boost in performance. In contrast, on

the negative side 195 respondents believed that there were significant health risks. The next

highest disadvantage response was that supplements were not natural, with 44 athletes reporting

this belief, followed by a feeling that it was wrong or cheating, which was exhibited by only 39

of the athletes. The percentages of these are approximately 34%, 8%, and7% respectively. What

this study shows is that positive perceptions about supplements by athletes greatly outweigh the


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negative perceptions of them in the athletic community, but that negative worries are certainly

still present, if not in the numbers with positive perceptions (Dodge).

In another study of perceptions toward supplements, Nutritional Supplement and

Anabolic Steroid Use in Adolescents, 3,248 students in grades eight to twelve from twelve

states within the U.S. mainland were surveyed on their use and perceptions towards anabolic

steroid and performance enhancing supplement use. When the results were compiled and

analyzed, it was found that over 70% of the questioned students had used a supplement of any

sort at least one time in their lives. Over half of the students (nearly 60%) had used multi-

vitamins, 15% had used Protein shakes and over a third (35%) had used some sort of Body Mass

reduction supplement, such as diet pills. One remarkable thing about this study is how the

supplement use is broken down by grade, allowing you to see how supplement use varies by age.

Almost 40% of male high school seniors reported using protein shakes in this study, along with

32% of men in the 11th

grade. Only 8% of 8th

grade boys, however, reported the use of Protein

shakes. Interestingly, the use of protein shake jumps to 22% for the freshman group. This huge

jump in the use of a particularly popular performance enhancing supplementa 275 percent

increasesuggests that something other than simply a gradual discovery of supplements is

taking place. When it comes to Creatine, probably the most popular supplement in use today

after protein powder/protein shakes, less than 1% of male eighth graders report using it, jumping

to seven percent in the freshman class. In the 12th

grade 22% of men surveyed report using it. As

with Protein shakes, the jump in use between the eighth grade and freshman year is clearly

present (Hoffman).

Despite the interesting results, the thing that makes this survey unique is the attempt

to look at how the use of athletic supplements and an individuals goals intertwine. On the


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survey, youths are asked several questions about if theyd use a supplement depending on its

side effects. They are first asked if theyd be willing to use a supplements if it guarantees they

reach their fitness goals without side effects. 45.6% of 12th

grade men and 23.4% of 12th

grade

women responded yes to this question, while 15% of 8th grade boys and 7% of 8th grade girls

responded yes. This result is interesting because it clearly shows that during high school

something happens that causes a radical shift in an individuals willingness to use supplements.

When respondents are asked whether theyd use a supplement that guarantees theyd achieve

their fitness goals even if it may harm their health only 3.2% of 8th

grade males and 2.3% of 8th

grade females are willing to use supplements. When compared to seniors in high school, the

huge shift in willingness to use a supplement that was present when there were no side effects

specified is now present even with health risks. 14.7% of 12th

grade men and 8.6% of 12th

grade

women are willing to use a substance of this nature. Even when students are told that the use of

this substance will shorten their life, as they are in the third question, this trend is still present,

even if less dramatically. Only 3.2% of 8th grade males would be willing to use a supplement of

this sort, while 8.6% of 12th grade men would be willing to. When this question is asked to

women the trend is actually reversed3% of 8th

grade girls would be willing to use such a

supplement, while only 2.3% of 12th

grade women would be willing to do the same.

Where do athletes get their information about supplements?

In his study A Survey of High School Athletes Nutritional Supplement Usage and

Resources.author W. J. Moreau examines the data from a survey of 3,232 Iowa Athletes in

grades 9-12 about supplements. In addition looking at the particular sorts of supplements athletes

use, he also investigates where High School athletes get their information about supplements.


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For male athletes the three most common resources for supplements were friends (N=759),

coaches (N=649) and parents (N=648). For female athletes the three most common resources for

supplements were friends (N=749), coaches (N=529), and parents (N=529). Doctors were an

infrequent resource used by females (N=196) or male athletes (N=102).

For both sexes, friends and coaches were the most common sources for information

about supplements, while doctors were almost unused by comparison. Out of 3,232 surveyed,

only 298 listed doctors as a source for information about supplements, less than ten percent of

the group. Unfortunately for the athletes getting their information from these groups, friends and

coaches are probably the worst two sources an individual could get information about

supplements from. Friends and coaches are not nutritionists, they are not physicians. They do not

know much at all about the product they are recommending. They do not know the side effects,

how it works, or possibly even its benefits. They are not qualified to be making

recommendations about supplements, yet it seems athletes prefer their advice to qualified,

professional recommendations.

In Moreaus study it is clearly shown that the vast majority of athletes get information

about supplements from friends. Because of this, the manner in which supplements are portrayed

by an individual along with any sort of pressure to use substances that a friend applies would be

a critical factor in an athletes decision to start using performance enhancing substances. In

addition, teens and adolescents are notorious for the way they can influence one another, with

abilities to do so far beyond that of parents and other authority figures. Therefore, any

recommendations made to one another, combined with pressure from other individuals to take

them and positive portrayals and the downplaying of side effects could quite possibly enough for

many young athletes to begin using performance enhancing supplements.


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Psychological and Sociological Reasons for Supplementation (or What Reasons Besides

Performance Could Motivate Young Athletes to Use Supplements?)

In his paper Young Athletes and the Psychology of Supplementation, author

Jeffrey Cherubini discusses what he feels are several potential reasons for the use of supplements

by young athletes. He says that Motivations for supplement use include perceived health

benefits, performance advantages, sport-specific incentives, competitiveness, pressure for

success, and body image considerations, Socio-cultural factors also influence supplement use,

such as messages from the media, parents, peers, and perceived social pressure (Cherubini 44).

After laying down these reasons, he looks at how the modern day sport culture (Cherubini 45)

can drive athletes to sacrifice for the sake of the team or the game because they want to be

perceived by others as real athletes (Cherubini 45). He writes that A very powerful motive

driving supplement use is the establishment and confirmation of athletes identity as real

athletes. Young athletes construct their identities through observation of the sport culture in

which they train and compete. In this context, athletes may adopt a course of action that is likely

to further support their identities and confirm a commitment to the sport (Cherubini 45). After

this, he briefly mentions how young athletes increase levels of sacrifice and commitment

(Cherubini 45) for the sake of the sport and the team, as well as recognition for fellow athletes.

Next, he talks about why this attitude of sacrifice for the team can be dangerous for

young athletes because of the expectations that peers, coaches, and even society have about

athletes. Although sacrifice and commitment are perceived as voluntary means to achieve

individual and team goals, athletes are often expected to behave in ways that may go beyond that

which is considered healthy or normal for the general population . . . In a competitive


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environment that imposes pressure for success on young athletes, supplement use is often

perceived as an expectation. The more exclusively an individual's self-identity is tied to sport

(personally and socially), the more likely he or she will unconditionally conform to expected

behavior. Because athletes will do just about anything to improve performance, they are willing

to go beyond that which is considered normal in order to achieve success (Cherubini 45).

Cherubini believes that supplement use is simply thats expected of young athletes in

todays culture that emphasizes athletic success. He believes that pressure to use supplements by

peers and authority figure such as coaches, a desire to achieve athletic goals, and expectations to

meet societys perceptions of athletes are a powerful factors that come into play when young

athletes consider the option of athletic supplement use.

In Positive Deviance AmongAthletes authors Robert Hughs and Jay Coakley look

at this pressure to conform to societys perception of athletic norms. They write that

Throughout their lives, athletes have heard again and again of the need to be dedicated, to set

goals, to persevere until goals are achieved, to define adversity as a challenge, and to be willing

to make sacrifice and subjugate other experiences generally associated with growing up all for

the sake of their quest to become all they canbe in sport. Coaches have emphasized the need to

pay the price, to lay with pain, and to shoot for the top . . . Most people in sports, including

journalists, fans, owners, sponsors, commentators, coaches, trainers, and athletes, accept these

norms. Indeed they often internalize them and use them as standards for evaluating themselves

and others as real athletes. In many cases, strict conformity to these norms becomes the basis

for acceptance onto a team and a measure of status among athletes themselves. This encourages

some athletes to over conform to these norms (Hughs 208).

InterviewsWith Athletes


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For this project, I chose to question several of my friends with broad experiences in

the athletic community about their experiences involving and perceptions of performance

enhancing supplements. These participants consisted of a bodybuilder, two soccer and volleyball

players, two football players, and a state-level track runner. In my interviews, I asked questions

dealing with several potential factors that could motivate young athletes to use supplements

including peer pressure, knowledge (or the lack thereof) about side effects, and how information

about supplements is spread in the athletic community. Predictably, all of those responding to my

survey reported that a desire for increased performance was a major reason for the use of athletic

supplements, with the perceptions of supplements varying by the sport. The athletes who

participated in sports considered to be those built around power or strength, football and weight

lifting, viewed supplement use in a more positive light, while those who participated in less

strength-driven sports (Volleyball, Soccer, and track) viewed them in a more negative manner.

The athletes knowledge about the harmful side effects off supplements varied depending on the

sport. The athletes in the more intense sports (football, weightlifting) reported that most athletes

knew little about side effects, while those playing less intense sports (volleyball, soccer) reported

that side effects were well known and often discussed. All of those spoken with believed that

most athletes undergo at least some degree peer pressure to use supplements, though the

volleyball players did not report any pressure to do so. The Football players, however, reporteda

great degree of pressure not only from peers, but also from coaches. The weight lifter said that

while there is no direct peer pressure in bodybuilding the fact that others take it and it

(supposedly) helps them achieve better results is a powerful and unique form of pressure to take

supplements that athletes in his sport deal with.


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Word of mouth communication was believed to be the most important form of

communication by athletes for spreading information about supplements. The only other source

offered up by a participant was the internet, suggested by the bodybuilder, because the

bodybuilding community has a number of popular websites with information on supplements,

such as bodybuilding.com.

My Results

From my interviews, one can get a general feel about how athletes of a variety of

different sports feel about and view the use of performance enhancing supplements. It also gives

an idea about how information about supplements is spread, and the role other people play in the

decision to use performance enhancing substances. The findings of myself and others suggest

that sociological factors may play a significant and powerful role in athletes use of performance

enhancing supplements.Even if there is no direct pressure from coaches or teammates, thoughts,

feelings and beliefs along the lines of not wanting to let the team down and giving the sport

all youve got, are very powerful influences on young athletes considering whether or not to

take supplements. In our sport culture athletes feel pressured to sacrifice for the the team or

the game, even at the expense of their own health.

Conclusion and Suggestions for Future Research

We live in a society that overvalues sports to such a degree that athletes are socially

expected to give everything theyve got to a sport, regardless of the harm that may come to them.

Pressure from coaches, peers, sports authorities, and a great many other sources serve as a


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mechanism to drive young athletes to supplement use, most of whom never consult a physician

or a nutritionist before using performance enhancing supplements and therefore further risk

permanent physiological harm.I feel further research into the psychological and sociological

factors that motivate young athletes into using supplements should be made, particularly looking

into peer pressures role in the decision. Through further research into this topic, valuable

insights can be gained about the social interactions among young athletes, which can be used to

better educate them about both the benefits and downsides of performance enhancing substances,

allowing them to make more informed choices about supplement use.


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Works Cited

Cherubini, Jeffrey M. Young Athletes and the Psychology of Supplementation. Athletic

Therapy Today. 13 (2008): 44-6.

Dodge, Tonya and James J. Jaccard. Negative Beliefs as a Moderator of the IntentionBehavior

Relationship: Decisions to Use Performance-Enhancing Substances. Journal of Applied

Social Psychology. 37 (2007): 43-59.

Hoffman, Jay R, Avery D. Faigenbaum, Nicholas A. Ratamess, Ryan Ross, Jie Kang and

GershonTenenbaum.Nutritional Supplementation and Anabolic Steroid Use in

Adolescents.Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 40 (2008): 15-24.

Hughs, Robert and Jay Coakley. Positive Deviance Among Athletes: The Implications of

Overcomformity to the Sports Ethic. Sociology of Sport Journal. 8 (1991): 307-325.

McGuine, Timothy. Creatine Supplementation in High School Football Players.Clinical

Journal of Sports Medicine.11.4 (2001) 374-53.

Moreau, W. J., A Survey of High School Athletes Nutritional Supplement Usage and

Resources.DC Online.Palmer School of Chairopractic. 28 Nov. 2008.

.

Student use of supplements and the role of trainers and dietitians - Nutrition Supplement

Use.Bnet Business Network. 2004. findarticles.com. 28 Nov. 2008.

.


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An Examination of Motivations for the Use of Supplementation in Young Athletes

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