1

AN ASSESSMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND

REHABILITATION PRACTICES OF ARTISANAL AND SMALL-

SCALE MINERS IN OKPELLA, EDO STATE, NIGERIA.

BY

EDIAWE, JEREMIAH ROLAND

PG/MSC/09/54403

INSTITUTE FOR DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA,

ENUGU CAMPUS.

DECEMBER, 2011.

2

AN ASSESSMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND

REHABILITATION PRACTIES OF ARTISANAL AND SMALL-SCALE

MINERS IN OKPELLA, EDO STATE, NIGERIA

A

PROJECT REPORT

BY

EDIAWE, JEREMIAH ROLAND

PG/MSC/09/54403

SUBMITTED

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

MASTER IN SCIENCE (M.SC) DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

TO

INSTITUTE FOR DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA,

ENUGU CAMPUS.

SUPERVISOR: UMOH, B.D (MR)

DECEMBER, 2011.

3

CERTIFICATION

I hereby declare and certify that the work embodied in this project report is

my own and original. I further aver that to the best of my knowledge, it has

not be submitted before either in part or full for any degree or diploma of

this or other University/ Higher Institution of learning within or outside

Nigeria and that in all cases where other people’s ideas or works were used,

they have been duly acknowledged by complete references.

Signature ………………………………

Name ……………………………………

Date ………………………………………

4

APPROVAL PAGE

This research work has been read and certified as the original work of

Ediawe, Jeremiah Roland an M.Sc student with Reg. No.:

PG/M.SC/09/54403 of the Institute for Development Studies, University of

Nigeria, Enugu Campus.

The work has been approved as meeting the partial requirements of the

Institute for Development Studies, University of Nigeria, Enugu Campus for

the award of Degree of Master of Science (M.Sc) in Development Studies.

_________________________ Date: __________________

Umoh, B.D.

Supervisor

_________________________ Date: __________________

Prof. Osita Ogbu

Director,

Institute for Dev. Studies,

University of Nigeria,

Enugu Campus.

5

DEDICATION

TO GOD BE THE GLORY

This project work is dedicated to my dear wife, children and my parents for

their love, support, understanding, encouragement and sacrifice and to all

who in one way or the other, the Lord Almighty have used to contribute to

my success in life.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to acknowledge with a deep sense of gratitude, the assistance of many

people who have in various ways contributed to the successful completion of

this study. Specifically, I wish to express heartfelt thanks to my supervision,

Mr. Umoh, B.D., for the patience, guidance and encouragement in shaping

and giving a direction to this research study. I am also grateful to staff

members at the Institute for Development Studies, University of Nigeria,

Enugu Campus for their listening ears, guidance and facilitation.

I am deeply indebted to my wife of inestimable value, and my lovely children

for their sacrifice, support, love, care and encouragement. Also I am greatly

indebted to my parents who in tears and pains laid the foundation of the

success story of my life today.

To all my class mates particularly James, Onah, Omenma, Francisca, Onoh,

Rev. Fr. Cyril, Ejike, Nkwuo and Igwielo thank you for the wonderful and

eventful time together, you will always be remembered. Above all, I give all

the honour and glory to God.

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Table of Content

Certificate 3

Approval Page 4

Dedication 5

Acknowledgement 6

Table of Content 7

List of Abbreviations 9

Abstract 10

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

1.1 Background to the study 11

1.2 Statement of the Problem 14

1.3 Objectives of the study 16

1.4 The research Question 17

1.5 Significance of the Study 18

1.6 Scope of the study 20

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Literature Review

2.1 Introduction 21

2.2 Brief History of Mining in Nigeria 22

2.3 Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM) Concept, 23

Definition and Characteristics

2.4 Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining and Sustainable 30

People’s Livelihood

2.5 Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining and Sustainable 37

Development

2.6 Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining and the Environment 42

2.7 Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining and Occupational

Health and Safely 54

2.8 Post Mining Activities and their environmental Implications 58

2.9 Imperative for a collection solution to Environmental

Problems of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining. 61

2.10 Imperative for a Collection Solution to Environmental

Problems of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining 67

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CHAPTER THREE

Methodology

3.0 Introduction 70

3.1 Area of Study 70

3.2 Choosing a Methodological Approach 75

3.3 Why is Artisanal and Small – Scale Mining a Case Study? 77

3.4 Sampling Techniques 79

3.5 Sources of Data 80

3.6 Data Recording and Analysis 85

3.7 Trust Worthiness 87

CHAPTER FOUR

Data Presentation

4.0 Introduction 90

4.1 Who Engages in Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining 90

4.2 The Type of Mining Activities 94

4.3 Knowledge of and Attitude to Impact of Mining on the

Environment 97

4.4 The Mining Processes/Operations 97

4.5 Impact on the Environment/Mitigating Measures Adopted 100

4.6 Occupational Health and Safety 103

4.7 Regulatory and Operating Standards 106

CHAPTER FIVE

Discussion of Results 109

CHAPTER SIX

Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations

6.1 Summary 118

6.2 Limitation of Study 120

6.3 Conclusion 121

6.4 Recommendation 123

References

Appendix I: Table of Findings

Appendix II: Questionnaires

9

LIST OF ABBREVIATION

ASM Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining

CASM Communities and Small-Scale Mining

CBOs Community Based Organizations

DFID Department for International Development

GDP Gross Domestic Products

HDI Human Development Index

IIED International Institute for Environment and Development

ILO International Labour Organization

MCO Mining Cadastre Office MDGs Millennium Development Goals

ML Mining Lease

MMSD Ministry of Mineral and Steel Development

MMSD Mining, Mineral and Sustainable Development

NGOs Non-Governmental Organizations

NEMA National Emergency Management Authority

NMMA Nigeria Minerals and Mining Act

SAP Structural Adjustment Programme

SIDA Swedish International Development Co-operation Agency

SMMRP Sustainable Management of Mineral Resources Project

SSML Small – Scale Mining Lease

UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development

QL Quarry Lease

WHO World Health Organization

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ABSTRACT

The presence of informal economy in our rural communities has been

recognized for broadening income, livelihood strategies and social equity in

face of growing poverty away from purely crop and livestock production

towards non-farm activities. Among the non-farm informal activities is

Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM) which is a mineral extraction activity

that involves the mining and quarrying of industrial minerals and construction

materials with the use of rudimentary tools coupled with intensive labour

activities like digging, breaking and carrying by hands as found among the

people of Okpella and other rural mining communities across Nigeria.

The activities of these classes of miners are usually illegal and employ mining

processes that poses potential negative impact on the environment, both

during and after the mining operations. It is in this context therefore, that this

research study seeks to assess the environmental impact rehabilitation

practices of artisanal and small scale miners with the aim of addressing the

environmental degradation and health problems and concerns arising from

their operations in Okpella.

The study relied on information collected qualitatively through individual

interviews coupled with personal observations in addition to documented data

from published an unpublished articles and works. The research findings

revealed that the mining activities causes environment degradation and poses

health problems to the mining communities and the people. The findings

further showed that little or no efforts have been made to address these

problems and concerns both by the miners, community members and

government regulatory agencies.

In view of these findings, the study puts forward a number of

recommendations focusing on legislation, regulatory and operational policies

all aimed at formalizing and mainstreaming the miners operations into the

nation’s formal mining sector and to evolve not only a sustainable

development but a sound environmentally sustainable artisanal and small

scale mining activities in Nigeria.

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Chapter One

Introduction.

1.1 Background to the Study

Most studies and intervention programmes carried out on rural areas

especially in developing nations have tended to focus more on

agriculture. There tend to be an erroneous general agreement that

everything rural has to do with agriculture. In contrast to this

position, Brycenson (2002) noted that rural communities are not

totally depended on agriculture but also on other non-agricultural

(farm) activities too. In an earlier work by Colman and Garbett (1976),

they aptly captured this stand when they stated that “Agriculture” and

“Rural” are often used interchangeably, with a similar tendency as

equating “Industrial” with “Urban”. They pointed out that the rural

areas contain much more economic activities even in poor countries

than just primary agriculture, which is farming. Wilmot (1977) in the

same vain posited that the old held belief is that rural development

mainly concerns farm families living in rural communities.

The Swedish International Development Co-operation Agency, SIDA

(2004) acknowledges the importance of non-agricultural activities in

providing employment to 80% of the Africans population, as well as

income to 30-50 percent of households in sub-Sahara Africa and Asia.

Smith (2001) asserts that the presence of “informal economy” in rural

areas has been recognized for broadening income and livelihood

strategies away from purely crop and livestock production towards

both farm and non-farm activities among which is artisanal and small

scale mining.

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The International Labour Organization, ILO (1999) defines Artisanal

and Small-Scale Mining (ASM) as a mineral extraction activity that

involves the mining and quarrying of industrial minerals and

construction materials such as limestone, coal, zinc, gypsum, clay,

gold, feldspar and granite among others and involves the use of

rudimentary tools such as hoes, pick axes, chisels and shovels,

coupled with labour activities like digging, breaking, panning, sorting

and carrying by hand. Statistics by ILO (1999) revealed that close to

80-100 million households and an estimate of 13 million workers are

directly engaged in Artisanal and Small Scale Mining (ASM) worldwide

and out of this population, about one million are children aged

between 5 and 17 years. Hoadley and Limpithaw (2004), also

estimates that globally, about 13 million people earn their living

directly from artisan and small-scale mining and up to 100 million

people depend on the sector and that these activities often cause

extreme environmental and social impacts and seldom contribute to

government revenue.

Nigeria as a nation is rich in solid mineral resources with proven

reserve in 33 types of minerals in over 400 locations (Lawal, 2002).

Ironically, solid mineral exploitation constitute a more 1% of its GDP

as most of the mining activities are still mainly carried out at the

informal sector with over 95% of mining activities being artisanal and

small scale of which 95% of these are illegal (Uzoka, 2001).

Governments in most countries, Nigeria inclusive regard ASM as an

illegal activity. The consequent lack of adequate regulatory and policy

13

framework do prevent formalization of this sector. This, in turn,

makes improvement in the livelihood of miners and their dependent

communities difficult to achieve. Most importantly, this absence of

formalization also makes improvements in environmental performance

much more problematic. No doubt, artisanal and small scale mining

can be extremely environmentally damaging and often has serious

health and safety consequences for the workers and surrounding

communities. This is generally due to poor practices in mining and

processing target minerals (Hentschel et al, 2003).

The nature of mining processes especially as employed by the

artisanal and small scale miners creates a potential negative impact

on the environment, both during the mining operations and for years

after the mine is closed. The impact has led to most of the world’s

nations adopting regulations to moderate the negative effects of

mining operations on the environment. These environmental issues

and concerns include erosions, formation of sinkholes, and loss of

biodiversity and contamination of soil, groundwater and surface water

by chemicals from mining processes which in turn creates safety and

health challenges to the people living within and around the mining

communities (Adekoya, 2003).

Oota (2011) quoting the National Emergency Management Agency

(NEMA), disclosed that “more than 400 infants have died and over 500

persons were admitted in various hospital in Zamfara state as a result

of the outbreak of lead poisoning just as experts have blamed illegal

miners for the scourge.” Reacting to the allegation of government’s

14

negligence at the heat of the crisis in December 2010, Governor Aliyu

Shinkafi of Zamfara state was reported as saying in the Leadership

Newspaper of 18, December 2010 that his administration has taken

all necessary steps to curb illegal mining in the state, however, that

such measure were overwhelmed by the high number of illegal

artisanal and small scale miners.

According to him, there exists an estimated number of over 10,000

illegal miners between two local government of Anka and Burkkuyum

engaged in the mining of gold, which in the process, washes away lead

contents into and contaminates their wells, streams and rivers which

serves as their only sources of drinking water that eventually led to

the poisoning incident. It is against this backdrop of the lead

poisoning incidence and many other unreported cases of

environmental degradation, health and safety concerns arising from

mining activities in our rural mining communities that necessitated

this study which focuses on the environmental issues in relation to

artisanal and small scale mining activities in Okpella, Edo states.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Mining operations worldwide comes with their associated

environmental, health and safety problems and challenges. Nigeria

according to Lawal (2002) possesses proven reserves in 33 types of

minerals in over 400 locations. The Ministry of Minerals and Steel

Development, MMSD (2008), states that the Federal Government of

15

Nigeria has mapped out strategies for the entire mining sector to tap

its potentials as a source of major foreign earnings and wealth

creation to the government and people of Nigeria. Specifically, the

ministry has evolved strategies for the development of Artisanal and

Small Scale Mining (ASM) operations in the country through the

Sustainable Management of Mineral Resources Project (SMMRP), a

World Bank assisted project with the ministry as the implementing

agency which is part of the larger governments efforts at diversifying

the nation’s economy with a view to meeting the vision 20, 2020.

Ofikhena (2010) reported that the project (SMMRP) has started

yielding results as production in artisanal and small scale mining

sector has recorded 500 percent increase in production of some

project beneficiaries. Quoting Kunle Bolukojo, ASM Grant National

Co-ordinator of SMMRP, “the quarterly report we got from Sokoto, the

Gypsum Miners Association report for the last quarter of 2009 shows

an increase of 500 percent at least for a start. The Abaomoge Women,

who were producing one truck in a week, now produces one truck in a

day. It is well above 500 percent increase and this will now culminate

in increased earnings for them”.

No doubt, any success story of good performance from any non-oil

sector will be a welcome development to the government and people of

Nigeria especially when the focus of all is the diversification of the

nation’s economy thereby reducing its reliance on crude oil earnings.

However, studies have shown that the environmental costs of ASM are

in general higher than those of other types of mining. This means that

16

ASM is dirtier per unit of output than medium-sized or large and

modern mining operations. Another problem of ASM is the great

individual number of polluters, normally concentrated in a specific

area, which causes significant local impact. It is also very difficult to

control or monitor environmental violations or enforce regulations

because of the lack of resources and the inaccessible nature of most

operations (Hentschel et al 2003). Arising from these issues therefore,

the pertinent question is “how do we define, regulate and enforce the

desirable conditions for a sound environmentally sustainable artisanal

small-scale mining sector whose operations depend on the exploitation

of a non-renewable resource?”

The overriding purpose of this study therefore, is to assess the level of

understanding and attitude of local miners in Okpella to the

environmental issues arising from their operations, and the

remedial/rehabilitation practices being undertaken by the miners,

aimed at addressing the environmental, health, and safety concerns.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

This study will specifically focus on artisanal and small scale miners

of granite, feldspar and limestone which are some of the predominant

rural informal activities that have engaged Okpella residents for about

two decades now.

Specifically, the study is aimed at:

i. Determining those that are engaged in the mining activities in

Okpella, methods and processes employed and their level of

awareness, understanding and attitude to the environmental,

17

health and safety issues and concerns arising from their

operations.

ii. Assessing the rehabilitation and remedial practices being put in

place by the miners to address these issues and concerns, and

their effectiveness.

iii. Assessing the roles of the supervisory and regulatory agencies in

ensuring, a clean and sustainable environmentally friendly

artisanal and small scale mining operation by the miners

through education, regulation and enforcement of standards.

1.4 The Research Questions

Arising from the objectives of the study, the following research

questions are posed.

i. Who are engaged in artisanal and small scale mining of granite,

feldspar and limestone in Okpella.

ii. What are the environmental issues, concerns and their impacts

arising from the mining activities on the immediate and

surrounding environments?

iii. Does the knowledge, appreciation and positive attitude of

miners in Okpella of the effects, of their operations on the

environment influences their practices of remedial and

rehabilitation programmes?

iv. In all these, what are the roles and concerns of operating

community members and relevant government agencies to the

environmental concerns and issues arising from the mining

operations?.

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1.6 Significance of the Study

The Federal Government of Nigeria has over the past decade embarked

on extensive review of the solid mineral sector, starting with the

creation of a Federal Ministry of Solid Mineral Development in 1995.

This was structured to offer a viable alternative to petroleum for

foreign exchange earnings, creating the much needed employment as

well as contributing to the country’s overall economic development.

This was followed with the signing into law of the Nigeria Mineral and

Mining Act (NMMA) of 2007 to regulate all mining activities in the

country.

In recognition of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM)

importance and potentials to raise internal revenue, create

employment, reduce poverty through wealth creation especially in

rural areas, an Artisanal an Small-Scale Mining (ASM) Department

was established in the Federal Ministry of Mineral and Steel

Development (MMSD) to develop and mainstream the activities of ASM

operators who are largely illegal miners into the national minerals

development framework. In recognition of the critical role this sub-

sector can play in the nations’ quest for rapid economic development

especially at the rural communities level, this study will therefore, be

of significance to the Government at all levels, Non-Governmental

Organizations (NGOs), the Mining Communities, International

Development Partners, the Mining Operators and the Financial

Institutions as its findings and recommendations will help them in

policy formulation and implementation especially as it relates to:

19

i. Design of policies and programmes aimed at mainstreaming

this often neglected but vital informal sector into a veritable

vehicle to transforming the socio-economic lives of the rural

people in mining communities across the country.

ii. Enhance the sustainable management of mineral resources

with focus on local (illegal) miners in light of the fact that

their operations are currently largely unguided,

unregulated, un-trained which cumulatively helps in their

high contribution to environmental degradation.

iii. Help to bring to the fore the knowledge gap (if any) on

environmental issues and concerns among artisanal and

small scale miners and their operating community members

and proffering appropriate solutions.

iv. Help in meeting the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)

especially in relation to goal (7) seven aimed at ensuring

environmental sustainability.

v. Serve as a resources and reference document to future

researchers on environmental issues in relation to mining

industry in Nigeria.

vi. Serve as a resources and reference document to the

Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM) Department of the

Federal Ministry of Mineral and Steel Development and

other government environmental safety, protection and

regulatory agencies in the design of policies and

programmes aimed at addressing environmental issues.

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1.6 Scope of the Study

The extraction and exploitation of solid mineral resources in Edo State

are mainly carried out in Etsako East and Akoko Edo Local

Government Areas of the state. The study is limited to the extraction

and exploitation of solid mineral by local miners classified as artisanal

and small scale miners in Okpella Clan of Etsako East Local

Government.

Specifically, the study covers artisanal miners of granite, limestone

and feldspar who extracts these natural resources using rudimentary

tools coupled with labour intensive activities as well as small scale

miners engaged in the mining of these three natural resources that

employs the use of limited mechanized operations either through the

use of explosives in extraction or in processing of extracted materials

into semi industrial raw materials and engages a labour force of not

more than ten workers. In all, the miners are those that either mines

the natural resources for their personal/household use or as a means

of livelihood being for commercial purposes.

Also, the study will attempt to look at environmental and health

related problems and concerns arising from artisanal and small scale

mining operations especially in the areas of degradation of land and

vegetation, water pollution, air, noise and vibration pollution,

degradation of natural landscape, geological and radiation hazards

and occupational health and safety of the miners and community

members.

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Chapter Two

Literature Review

2.0 Introduction

Several researches and studies have been conducted on mining and

its effects as well as contributions to economic development of

countries endowed with mineral resources. Whereas some studies

highlight the benefits of mining to economic development, others focus

on the negative impacts of mining on the overall development of such

economies. However, not much attention has been given to Artisanal

and Small-Scale Mining (ASM) an important sub-sector within the

mining sector in terms of research and studies.

This chapter reviews what has been documented regarded mining and

artisanal and small scale mining as a concept and its characteristics.

It also, attempts a brief history of the Nigeria mining industry and the

relationship between artisanal and small scale mining, sustainable

development and people’s livelihood and most importantly, its impact

on the environment and health of the people living in mining

communities with emphasizes on their concerns and challenges with

respect to degradation of land and vegetation, water pollution, air,

noise and vibration pollution, degradation of natural landscape,

geological and radiation hazards, occupational health and safety

issues through to proffering possible strategies and solutions aimed at

achieving an artisanal and small scale mining sector that does not

only contributes to human livelihoods and growth but also

sustainable and environmental friendly.

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2.1 Brief History of Mining in Nigeria

Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological

materials from the earth, usually from an ore body, vein or coal seam.

The term also includes the removal of soil. Minerals recovered by

mining include based metals, precious metals, irons, uranium, coal,

diamond, limestone, oil shale, rock, salt and potash. Any material that

cannot be grown through agricultural processes, or created artificially

in a laboratory or factory, is usually mined. Mining in a wider sense

comprises extraction of any non-renewable resources (Ibrahim et al,

2010). Warhurst (1999) asserted that the term “mining” covers all

aspect of metal production, including mine development, extraction,

smelting, re-mining and waste management. Hence, mining is

regarded as the process through which man wins minerals from the

earth and turns them into valuable goods for his use. The process of

mining according to Dung-Gwon (2007) among others involves;

i. Exploration

ii. Exploitation (extraction)

iii. Processing

iv. Re-mining

v. Waste management

vi. Mine closure and

vii. Post-mining activities

Mining of stones and metal has been taking place since pre-historic

times. Modern and organized mining began in Nigeria in 1903 with the

Mineral Survey of the Northern Protectorate by the British colonial

23

government. A year later, the Mineral Survey of the Southern

Protectorate was made. The first legislation on mining was enacted in

1946 which was only reviewed in 1999 before the present operational

Nigeria Mineral and Mining Act (NMMA), 2007 (Chaada et al, 2010).

By the 1940s, Nigeria was a major producer of tin, columbite and coal.

The discovery of oil in 1956 hurt the mineral extraction industry as

government and industry operators both began to focus on this new

resource. Also, the Nigeria civil war in the late 1960s led to the exodus

from the country by many expatriate mining experts. The cumulative

effects of these developments greatly affected the mining industry to

the extent that the sector now only account for 0.3% of the nation’s

Gross Domestic Product (GDP).

Also, the Nigeria domestic mining industry is so under-developed to

the extent that the nation imports minerals that it could produced

domestically such as salt or iron ore. (MMSD, 2008). Ironically,

Nigeria is richly endowed in minerals resources, there are about thirty

four (34) different solid minerals in the country and these are located

in various parts of the federation. The former Minister of Solid

Minerals Development (Oby Ezekwesili) had noted that solid minerals

are found in more than 450 different locations in Nigeria. Some of

these include, tantalite, Kaolin, mica, barite, coal, gypsum, feldspar,

gold, clays, limestone, columbite, tin, bitumen, lead, zinc, iron ore,

marble, gemstone etc (ibid).

24

Mining regulation is handled by the Federal Ministry for Minerals and

Steel Development (MMSD), Abuja which oversees the management of

all mineral resources. Mining law is codified in the Nigeria Mineral and

Mining Act (NMMA) of 2007. Historically, Nigeria mining industry was

monopolized by state-owned public corporations such as the Nigeria

Coal Corporation, Enugu and the Nigeria Mining Company, Jos.

Characteristic of all public enterprises in Nigeria, they were

mismanaged which led to a decline in production and in some

instance complete close of operations. The process of selling-off these

corporations to private investors began with the coming of the civilian

dispensation in 1999.

The collapse of the big mining companies in the early 1970s led to

massive unemployment of mine workers without any means of

livelihood. Many of them went into illegal mining activities to survive.

Also, the increased global demand for solid mineral and the

introduction of Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP), created a

ready market for products of illegal mining activities, this led to the

emergence of middlemen and mineral smugglers. The official response

to these phenomena was wild and not sustained. Illegal mining

activities have continued to flourish uncensored due mainly to lack of

alternative gainful employment and lack of capacity by the relevant

government agencies to effectively regulate, supervise and monitor

their activities. Government cannot longer ignore these illegal

activities because of the huge revenue loss and the attendant

environmental degradation as well as other social problems (Chaanda

et al, 2010).

25

2.2 Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM): Concept, Definition

and Characteristics.

Broadly speaking, artisanal and small-scale mining refers to mining

by individuals, groups, families or cooperatives with minimal or no

mechanization, often in the informal (illegal) sector of the economy.

Despite many attempts, a common definition of artisanal and small-

scale mining has yet to be established. In some countries a distinction

is made between “artisanal mining” that is purely manual and on a

very small scale, and “small-scale mining” that has some

mechanization and is on a bit large scale. In some West Africa

countries for example Mali, small scale mining is differentiated from

artisanal mining by the presence of permanent, fixed installations that

are established once an ore is confirmed. (Hentschel et al, 2003).

However, in Nigeria, there is no distinction between artisanal and

small scale mining, hence the creation of a department of Artisanal

and Small-scale Mining (ASM) in the Ministry of Mineral and Steel

Development, Abuja, charged with the responsibility to organize,

support and promote Artisanal and Small-scale Mining (ASM).

Using the legal rubric governing mining activities in different

countries, it is possible to group together the criteria normally used

and stratify the mining industry. In particular artisanal and small-

scale mining activities may be categorized. This does not exclude the

simultaneous use of more than one criterion. There are countries that

have programmes for small mining such as Nigeria despite the fact

26

that their activities are largely unrecognized by the mining laws of

these countries.

Chaparro (2000) postulated the following criteria in the determination

of artisanal and small-scale mining:

i. Production volume

ii. Number of people per production unit

iii. Intensity (volume) of capital employed

iv. Labour productivity

v. Size of mine claimed

vi. Quantity of reserve

vii. Sale volume

viii. Operational continuity

ix. Operational reliability and

x. Duration of the mining cycle

Each of these criteria has its advantages and difficulties depending on

the country, type of mining, mineral produced, political conditions

and the number of miners in each country.

While many attempts have been made to define artisanal and small-

scale mining, a common definition of the term has still not been

found. Previous definitions made use of the limited investment volume

of the operation, the small work force or the limited mineral

production. The local definition varies from country to country

according to the macro economic situation, the geological framework,

the mining history and the legal conditions. Artisanal and small scale

mining has been in existence in Africa for a long time. Its definition

often times is limited into two types: the artisanal miner who has

27

made mining a permanent profession and the seasonal artisanal and

small-scale miner who operates occasionally and migrates frequently

in search of fortune. Nevertheless, artisanal and small-scale mining

according to Hentschel et al (2003) is characterized by a number of

conditions principal among which are:

i. Lack of or limited use of mechanization and lot of physically

demanding work

ii. Low level of occupational safety and health care

iii. Poor qualification of personnel at all level of the operation

iv. Inefficiency in exploitation and processing of mineral

production (low recovery value)

v. Exploitation of marginal and/or very small deposits, which are

not economically exploitable by mechanized mining

vi. Low level of productivity

vii. Low level of salaries and income

viii. Lack of social security

ix. Insufficient consideration of environmental issues and

x. Chronic lack of working and investment capital

Looking at Artisanal and Small- Scale Mining within the Nigeria

context, Coppin (2005) in the Final Report by Wardell Armstrong in a

commissioned project: Sectoral Environmental and Social Assessment

under the Nigeria Sustainable Management of Mineral Resources

Project (SMMRP) a World Bank/FGN Sponsored Project, asserted that

Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM) operations dominate mining

in Nigeria, particularly from around 1903 up till 1940s when there

was an amalgamation into more commercial large ventures and that

28

however, there was a re-emergence of ASM outfits especially for metals

and gemstones after independence in 1970s resulting from the

declining tin prices, civil war (1967-1970) and other factors. The

report further posited that today, the situation in the ASM sector in

Nigeria has been described by some as utterly chaotic with virtual

breakdown in law and order in the mining areas (especially since the

dissolution of the mines field police force). It however noted that this

disorganized sector probably provides a rural livelihood to many

thousands of informal artisanal miners in Nigeria in all the six

regional mining zones. That since there is currently no clear definition

of ASM in Nigeria, and because the vast majority of these miners work

casually, seasonally or informally, it is impossible to determine the

actual number of workers in the ASM sector, which some claim may

be as many as 400,000 people.

According to the report, as with many other Africa countries, the

Nigeria ASM sector is characterized by:

i. Abject poverty – with many rural Nigerians living in an

increasingly vulnerable environment and faced with dwindling

livelihood choices (70% of Nigerians live on < 140 N1day and

90% on < 300 N 1day)

ii. Seasonality – subsistence farmers mine in the dry season when

there is less agriculture work in order to supplement their

meager incomes.

iii. Economic Stagnation – many Nigerians have been forced into the

ASM sector during continued periods of national economic

decline.

29

iv. Rush/Migratory Miners – some Nigerians have been suddenly

drawn into mining following the discovery of new minerals

reserves especially gemstone.

v. Illegality – the vast majority of miners and sponsors are

operating without valid license and many artisanal miners have

illegally invaded concessions covered by Exclusive Prospecting

Licenses (EPLs) and dormant Mining Leases (MLs).

vi. Large Scale Mining (LSM) Retrenchment – Nigerians have been

forced to seek informal work due to insolvency of the Nigerian

Mining Corporation, subsidiary mining parastatals and

companies.

vii. Commodity Prices – the number of miners has also fluctuated

with the international demand – and thus price – for a

particular mineral e.g. Coltan.

viii. FGN Apathy – in the past, the FGN has neglected the sector and

been unsure as to what their long-term goals were for the

sector. The FGN may have been caught between the shorter-

term national economic benefits that could be gained from

encouraging foreign Large Scale Mining (LSM) versus the

idealized vision of having a formalized, mainly local, ASM sector.

ix. ASM Policy – there is a lack of appropriate policy and

institutional capacity in Nigeria to help formalize and assist the

ASM sector.

x. Rural Education – there are declining levels of education in

mining regions - poor educational facilities and low quality of

education.

30

xi. Rural Health – there are deteriorating health conditions in

mining areas (including malaria and the growing threat of

HIV/AIDS that has already ravaged other parts of the

continent).

In all, artisanal and small-scale mining is a significant sector with

potentials to providing livelihood for millions of people around the

world Nigeria being no exception and can also produce a sizeable

proportion of the world’s extractive commodities. Thus, it is an

important sector that the international community can ill afford to

discount or overlook. Not only are the social consequences for

disregarding this sub-sector high, but the sector has the potential to

provide substantial benefits to efforts focused on reducing poverty and

stimulating economic growth which, in turn, could contribute

significantly to political and economic stability especially to solid

mineral endowed developing nations such as Nigeria.

2.3 Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining and Sustainable People’s

Livelihood

“Sustainable livelihoods” is a development concept that has been

around since the 1990s. It is widely thought to have originated from

the United Nations systems, particularly the United Nations

Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED). Sustainable

livelihood can be seen as a goal that communities wish to attain and

covers such socio-economic factors as employment, education, access

to infrastructural services, health care and investments. However, it is

also a development approach whereby communities are at the centre

31

of all the processes, and are making decisions that affects how they

sustain themselves. Sustainable livelihood approaches supports

interventions that lead to development (DFID, 1999).

A livelihood according to Chambers and Conway (1991) comprises of

capabilities, assets both material and social resources, and activities

required for a means of living. A livelihood is considered sustainable

when it can cope with and recover from stress and shocks, maintain

or enhance its capabilities and assets, and provide sustainable

opportunities for the next generation; and contribute net benefit to

other livelihoods at the local and global levels and in long and short

term.

Ellis (2000) also defined livelihood in relation to assets and activities,

influenced by social relations, gender, class, kin and institutions.

Helmore and Singh (2001), identify a sustainable livelihood as one

that maintains ecological integrity of the environment. Thus, a

livelihood is considered environmentally and socially sustainable if it

maintains or improves the local and global assets and is able to

recover from stress and shocks and the assets are able to provide for

future generations.

From a livelihoods perspective, artisanal and small scale mining is

often poverty driven and located in rural areas. Miners are generally

unskilled and earn little. According to Hentschel et al (2003)

individuals may be involved in a number of different types of artisanal

and small scale activities such as:

32

i. Gold or diamond-rush, which is characterized by unstable

communities which are prone to conflict.

ii. Temporary artisanal and small-scale mining activities fuelled

by economic recession. Examples are available from

Zimbabwe, Peru, Venezuela and Bolivia (all gold mining).

Initially unstable communities with high population

fluctuations may disappear after some years or evolve into

long-term settlements.

iii. Isolated and remote artisanal and small-scale mining

activities with little or no involvement with nearby

communities.

iv. Seasonal artisanal and small-scale mining activities within

an agricultural cycle. This is possibly the most common

activity and normally stable communities are involved and

v. Traditional year-round artisanal and small-scale mining

activities, which are generally associated with stable

communities.

A principal development issue is how to ensure that ASM does not

harm the community, but creates the basis for poverty reduction and

sustainable development. How this can be achieved depends partly on

the nature of the mining for example, if exploitation is sudden such as

in rush activities and short lived, particular efforts should be made to

stabilize the local community. In the case of remote, seasonal

operations the main issue will be how to integrate the ASM sector into

the local community and encourage the business to invest their profits

33

in other forms of economic activity and services such as farming,

animal husbandry, petty trading, schools and health services.

According to Hoadley and Limpitlaw (2004) ASM can be used to

promote the sustainability of poor people’s livelihood in four inter-

related ways:

i. Improving the community’s ability to cope with, and recover

from, shocks and stresses;

ii. Promoting ecological integrity by ensuring that livelihood

activities do not irreversibly degrade natural resources

within a given ecosystem;

iii. Improving economic effectiveness, or the use of minimal

inputs to generate a given amount of output; and

iv. Enhancing social-equity, which suggests that promotion of

livelihood opportunities for one group, should not reduce

options for other groups, either now or in the future.

In the same vain, the United Nations Department for Economic and

Social Affairs has developed an interesting sustainable livelihood

approach for artisanal mining community which is currently under

pilot implementation in Mali, Ethiopia, Ghana and Guinea. The main

recommendations for this approach, according to Labonne and

Gilman (1999) are:

i. Mainstreaming poverty eradication into national

policymaking in all sectors including mineral.

ii. Promoting artisanal and small-scale mining as a catalyst and

anchor for other productive activities to stimulate the

34

development of complementary and alternative productive

ventures necessary for sustainable poverty alleviation.

iii. Placing people first through both pro-poor strategies and

participatory strategies aimed at strengthening the

organizational capabilities of grassroots’ communities,

thereby favoring of bottom-up approach.

iv. Reversing the focus from “hand-on state intervention” (which

has rarely been successful) to the creation of private

enterprises, particularly micro enterprise or cooperatives.

In all these, the organizational aspects play a key role in this context.

In the view of Hentsche et al (2003), the common tools for supporting

the ASM sector with a view to meeting people’s livelihood can be

implemented by improving:

i. Organizational and legal support

ii. Access to prospective land

iii. Training

iv. Dissemination of best practices

v. Business management

vi. Availability of micro-credits and other instruments; and

vii. Use of revenue.

Hoadley and Limpitlaw (2004) are strongly of the assertion that ASM

holds a huge potential for the transformation and building of different

capitals for sustainable livelihoods and proffered some measures to be

taken by all stakeholders with active state support as follow:

35

1. Formations of ASMs into co-operatives and associations which

will increase:

(i) Social capital, by involving ASM in formal and informal

networks.

(ii) Human capital, by making it possible to access training to

skills and information relevant to the sector

(iii) Physical capital, by improving access to appropriate

technology and

(iv) Natural capital, by the exploitation of viable ore bodies.

Co-operatives and associations have internal self-regulation,

and hold greater potentials for ASM to contribute to economic

efficiency and environmental integrity. Also, co-operatives and

associations reduce marginalization, open access to funding,

training, technology, extension services (building social, human,

and physical capital).

2. Legalized buying and selling channels to ensure fair prices to

the miners. This will put the state in a good stead to insist on

licensing and payment of taxes by ASMs, thus, making it a

viable and veritable source of revenue to the government coffers.

3. Legalizing the sector will put a stop to present practice of

operating outside the law which breeds and increases social

instability and decrease access to social security nets, health

and educational services.

4. More involvement of NGOs and development agencies. To this

end, extension services to ASM operators should be encouraged

and adequately resourced. Their involvement can also

36

compensate for lack of enforcement and monitoring which will

increase natural, economic and social capital.

5. The formed associations and co-operatives by ASM operators

can augment government capacity to enforce rules and monitor

their operations as such associations are better placed to

ensure members recognize their responsibility towards the

surrounding community and accept responsibility for a large

degree of self-regulation.

Finally, the potentials for ASM to enhance peoples’ livelihood and

poverty reduction is not in doubt as the correlation between low

Human Development Index (HDI) and high employment in the ASM

sector in mineral endowed developing nations, clearly emphasizes the

poverty alleviation potentials that the poor people see and to some

extent, find in Artisanal and Small-scale Mining (ASM). Thus,

government especially in mineral endowed developing countries

wishing to address poverty need to focus much more on this sub-

sector, where a large percentage of their citizens are daily trying to

earn a livelihood in adverse conditions with significant negative effect

on local communities and the environment.

37

2.4 Artisanal and Small - Scale Mining, and Sustainable

Development

The inevitable co-existence of development and resource utilization led

to the development of the concept of sustainable development. The

term was first used in early 1980s in the World Commission on

Environment and Development through the report; “Our Common

Future” (Hettne, 1995).

With emphasis on sustainability, development is define as “one that

meets the present needs without compromising the ability of the

future generations to meet their own needs” (Potter et al, 1999). The

issue of meeting people’s need and preserving natural resources

became a global concern with consequential international conferences

such as the Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, followed by

the Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg a decade

later. During these meetings, it became widely accepted that

development and the biophysical environment were inseparable and

that one was interdependently connected to the other. At its core,

sustainable development seek to open a path by which economic

development can progress, whilst simultaneously enhancing human

development and ensuring the long term viability of those natural

system on which development depends.

Dreschler (2001) supplement that the concept of sustainable

development was as a result of increased awareness of how finite

resources such as mineral would be preserved and at the same time

support livelihood. The utilization of non-renewable resources

therefore engaged looking beyond ecological sustainability. With

38

respect to artisanal and small scale mining, emphasis should be

placed on other activities which would sustain a community long after

the minerals were depleted. Hence sustainable development in mining

in general should be such that ensures efficient mining to minimize

environmental impact and rehabilitation of abandon mines to make

land useful for other users.

For example, Aguigwo (1997) estimates that the extent of landscape

originally disturbed by the tin mining operations on the Jos Plateau is

put at 325KM2 which represents more than 17% of the agricultural

land within the 8,600KM2 of the entire Jos Plateau region, the bulk of

which is virtually covered by rock outcrops. Also, in an article by

Ibrahim et al in the Leadership Newspaper of December 18, 2010, it

was reported that a check conducted by the writers revealed that

there are more than (1000) one thousand abandon mining ponds, the

relics of the colonial mining activities of tin and columbite in Jos

Plateau which now poses all sorts of environmental hazards to the

people of the state.

While it is difficult to define sustainability for an operation that

exploits a non-renewable resource, Hentscel et al (2003) drew up

desirable conditions which could guide us in defining and determine

the contribution of artisanal and small-scale mining to sustainable

development. The desirable conditions are:

i) Artisanal and small scale mining should make a positive

contribution to the rural and regional development.

39

ii) Activities should operate legally in harmony with national

mining sector development policies and existing legal

framework.

iii) Operations should comply with international social

standards, such as social security, occupational health

and safety, labour regulations (including ILO convention

about child labour), access to social infrastructure

(schooling, medical etc) and an acceptable level of income.

iv) Operations should be environmentally sound.

v) There should be no conflict between small miners and

local communities and no degradation of traditional

values.

vi) There should be harmony between small and large mining

operations

vii) Exploitation should concentrate on products with high

recovery value and systematically develop these deposits.

viii) There should be continuous operation over a longer

period of time.

Given the great importance of the employment opportunities, wealth

creation and poverty reduction in the rural mining communities

context; the potential for a beneficial contribution is very high.

However, environmental and social concerns must be integrated into

any mining operation so as to make it sustainable as the challenge

faced by most mining developing nations today especially with respect

to artisanal and small-scale mining lies being able to balancing the

economic benefits of mining with the environmental and social cost of

40

the activity. To the extent to which a positive balance is achieved

makes the difference between nations.

In the opinion and view of Hentschel et al (2003), there is the urgent

need to create a straightforward, steady sustainable development in

the artisanal and small-scale mining sub-sector that will best place it

to contribute to rural development and its integration into the formal

economy by governments of mining nations through sound policies

which will be based on four strategic pillars of poverty alleviation, a

good business climate for the artisanal and small-scale mining sub-

sector, sustainability, and stabilization of government revenue from

the sector.

41

Figure I

The Four Main Strategic Pillars of Good Governmental Policy for

Effective Contribution of ASM to Sustainable Development.

Source: Hentschel et al (2003).

Alleviate Poverty

Through ASM:

* Regional /Local economic development: coordinate efforts with government institutions, miners and community-based organizations towards sustainable contribution from ASM.

Ensure Sustainability:

* Environmental and occupation health management to mitigate risks to the poor.

Good governance of mineral (respect and implement mining code )

Improved Business climate for legal ASM:

Enabling environment: legal/regulatory adaptations, incentives for legal operation and legalization, organization and institutional building

Establish extension services delivery towards ASM community and mineral-based Industries.

Stabilize Macroeconomic Fiscal Regimes:

Sustainable management of mining taxation revenue

Promote opportunities for adding value to mineral production in the country

Avoid black market

Integrated

Management

Of

ASM

42

They went further to develop some tools which will help governments

to meet these objectives among which are:

i. Demand – oriented extension services (legal,

organizational, economic and technical) for the sub-sector

ii. An incentive scheme for legal ASM operations (including

tax aids for young business, exemptions from import

duties, access to finance, free markets and improved

export facilities).

iii. The integration of all relevant government institutions into

the sector policy implementation (finance ministry, mining

ministry, social issue authorities, provincial and local

administration).

iv. A transparent and appropriate legal framework.

v. Strict control of compliance with the legal framework and

sanction against infractions.

vi. Support for the private sector.

2.5 Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining and the Environment

The adverse environmental impacts of mining activities on the

environment are well documented (Heath et al, 1993; Warhurst, 1994;

and 1999). However, in all of these studies and many more, particular

attention has been directed towards the impact of large scale mining

activities on environmental contamination and degradation. Much

emphasis has not be given to artisanal and small scale mining

activities (often termed illegal mining) impact on the environment in-

spite the high number of operators in this sub-sector globally. The

43

environmental implications of their operations are quite diverse. The

first is that it destroys farmlands and distorts the livelihood of the

agrarian rural communities. The trenches dug for these mining

activities are often abandoned after the mining is over. They therefore

become death traps and easy entry points for devastating gully

erosion.

According to Hentschel et al (2003), the environmental cost of

artisanal and small scale mining activities are in general higher than

those of other types of mining. This means that artisanal and small

scale mining is dirtier per unit of output than medium-sized or large

and modern mining operations. They further asserted that another

major problem of artisanal and small scale mining is the great

individual number of polluters, normally concentrated in a specific

area, which causes significant local impact and by nature of their un-

regulated and non-formalized operations, it becomes very difficult to

control or monitor environmental violations or enforcement of

regulations and standards by the relevant regulatory agencies due

largely to inadequate resources and inaccessible nature of most of

their operations.

The physical and social harms done to the environment by their

activities cuts across the different stages of mining: exploration,

exploitation, processing and closure. The most common and important

environmental problem arising from their operation in the view of

Hentschel et al (2003) are:

44

i. Landscape destruction

ii. Garbage and solid waste

iii. Erosion damage and deforestation

iv. Tropical diseases such as malaria

v. Mercury pollution

vi. Cyanide pollution

vii. Direct dumping of affluent into rivers

viii. Improper closures

ix. River siltation

x. Acid rock drainage

xi. River damage in alluvial areas

xii. Cultural damage due to invasion of sensitive tribal lands

and

xiii. Uncontrolled ASM activities in protected areas.

They went further to outline the many causes for the severe

environmental impact that result from their activities as:

i. Lack of knowledge, education and training (technical and

environmental)

ii. Inefficient technology and limited techniques

iii. Inefficient administrative management

iv. Errors in human control

v. Economic limitations

vi. Lack of access to better techniques

vii. Lack of information about good and modern practices

viii. Lack of control and enforcement; and

ix. Inadequate environmental legislation.

45

Coppin (2005) asserted that since most of the mining operations in

Nigeria are artisanal and subsistence activities that struggles to

survive from day-to-day, miners are forced to focus more on

immediate concerns than the long-term consequence of their

activities. This according to the report is compounded by the fact that

the FGN lacked the capacity to effectively monitor or control these

informal activities that occur in remote and sometimes inaccessible

locations. It went further, to highlight the particular environmental

problems associated with the ASM in Nigeria as summarized sector in

the table below:

Table I: Environmental Problems of ASM in Nigeria

Nigeria ASM Environmental Impact

Destruction of natural habitat of ASM site and

at waste disposal site

Destruction of adjacent habitats through

emissions and discharges

Destruction of adjacent habitats from influx of

migrant workers and encroachments

Adverse changes in river regime and ecology due

to pollution, salination, sedimentation and flow

modification

Alternatives of water table

Soil contamination from treatment residues and

chemical spillage

Deforestation, destruction of land forms and soil

erosion.

Nigeria ASM Pollution Sources

Drainage from mining sites, including

acid mine drainage and discharge mine

water

Direct dumping of mine wastes

Sediment runoff from ASM sites

Pollution resulting from ASM operations

in river beds

Effluents from mineral processing

operations

Sewage effluents from ASM sites

Oil and fuel spills

Leaching of pollutants from tailings

residues, disposal areas and

contaminated soils

Air emissions from minerals processing

diesel equipment and blasting activities

Dust emissions from sites close to

villages and habitats

Source: Coppin (2005)

46

In Nigeria and some other developing countries, the few studies that

focused on artisanal and small-scale mining especially in rural

communities have revealed that environmental concerns, issues and

problems such as land and vegetation degradation, pollution and

others are associated or caused by the operations of artisanal and

small-scale local miners. Some of these are discussed below:

2.5.1 Degradation of Land and Vegetation.

Land and vegetation in form of crop plantation or natural forest is

usually the first casualty to suffer total or partial destruction or

degradation during the exploration and exploitation of minerals in a

locality. The land and vegetation damage is more extensive during the

mine development and operations and it becomes more expensive

when crop plantation is affected. This even becomes worse when

additional forest logging is done in the mining vicinity to increase the

available room for the storage of the created debris and soil.

In a study carried out on the environmental impact of mining

activities in Tarkwa, Ghana by Akabzaa and Darimain (2001), it was

revealed that in most part of Tarkwa, the environment has undergone

a rapid dreadful conditions and its immense economic value has

dwindled from year to year, due mainly to the high concentration of

mining activities in the area. Agricultural lands were not only

generally degraded, but the loss of land for agricultural production

has also led to a shortening of the fallow period from 10-15 years to 2-

3 years. The traditional bush fallow system which sufficiently recycled

47

substantial amounts of nutrients and made the next cycle productive

was no longer been practiced due to insufficiency of land. The mining

activities have also diminished the vegetation of the land to levels that

are vicious to biological diversities.

They also contended that the deforestation that has emanated from

surface mining activities has long-term effects even when the top soil

is replaced and trees are planted after mines decommissioning. The

new species that might be introduced have the potential to influence

the composition of the topsoil and then determine soil fertility and

fallow period for certain crops. In addition to erosion when surface

vegetation is depleted, there is deterioration in the viability of the land

for agricultural activities and loss of habitat for birds and other

animals. This has degenerated into destruction of the luxuriant plant

life, biodiversity, cultural sites and water bodies (ibid).

In the same vain, Chaanda et al (2010) asserted that the mining of

barytes by artisanal miners in Azara area of the middle belt trough of

Nigeria has devastated over 1,000 ha of arable land. It is also

estimated that the extent of landscape originally disturbed by tin

mining operation on the Jos Plateau is about 325KM2 which

represents more than 17% of the agricultural land, within the

8,600KM2 of the entire Jos Plateau region, the bulk of which is

virtually covered by rock outcrops (Aguigwo, 1997). Also, an

environmental impact study of limestone mining and cement industry

operations in Sagamu area in Ogun state of Nigeria revealed a

declining Kola nut output from the plantations within a few radius of

the cement factory. This phenomenon is most probably associated

48

with dust pollution as plenty of dust is discharged into the air mainly

from the cement factory. The particulate matter eventually gets

deposited on the kola nut leaves and flowers as well as the soil

supporting the plants. The overall effect of this is that the

photosynthetic and fruiting ability of the kola nut trees are impaired

with a consequent decrease in kola nut production (Aigbedion and

Iyayi, 2007).

2.5.2 Water Pollution

Water pollution occurs when a body of water is adversely affected due

to the addition of large amount of materials to the water or water

source. Waste (contamination) or pollutants enter into the water

source such as ocean, river, lakes, and wells leaking into ground

water, liquid spills, and waste water discharges and littering. Water

pollution has been suggested to be the leading worldwide cause of

deaths and diseases accounting for the death of more than 14,000

people daily (Pink and Daniel, 2006).

Mining operations causes both surface and ground water pollution.

Four main problems of water pollution are common with mining

operations. These are chemical pollution of ground water and streams,

siltation through increased sediments lead, increased faecal matter

and dewatering effects (Akabzaa and Darimani, 2001). In a study on

the tin mining operations in Jos Plateau, Lindslay (1975) observed

that leachates from mine wastes can pollute the water in the mine

ponds, which in turn can infiltrate the ground and pollute the ground

water if it gets at it, while the rain could also wash off heavy metals

49

and radioactive materials in mine tailings, which as surface run off

could pollute the water. Still on the tin mining activities in Jos, Gyang

and Ashano (2009) wrote that the mine ponds left by these mining

activities are today used for irrigation, domestic and industrial

purposes and that the quality of these waters and indeed that of the

underground water with which they may have possibly interact are

not known.

Baryte as a mineral contains galena (Pb-Zn), hence areas where it is

mined faces the potential danger of the release of Pb associated toxic

elements (As, Cd, Sb, etc) into the water system. A trace elements

study on the effects of the mineralizations within the Middle Benue

trough by Lar and Sallau (2001) revealed that Pb, As, Cd and Sb etc

are released from Pb-Zn mineralization into water bodies rendering

such water unsafe for human consumption. The negative impact of

artisanal and small-scale mining on water by way of pollution was

brought to the fore and received global attention with the lead

poisoning incident that happened in Zamfara state of Nigeria in the

middle of 2010. The Zamfara tragedy as it is commonly referred was

as a result of lead contamination of drinking waters arising from the

mining of gold by the local artisan miners.

Writing on the tragic incident, Uche Igwe (2010) in his seminal paper

titled “Resource Curse and Wakeup Call” he stated and I quote “the

discovery of natural resources worldwide ought to be a blessing. This

is because when such natural resources are exploited, it is expected to

bring in revenue to contribute to the development of local

communities. However, in these communities in developing countries,

50

the reverse is usually the case. No single event illustrates this more

than the recent tragic events in Zamfara State in northwestern

Nigeria. It was supposed to be the World Environmental Day

celebration on 5th, June 2010 but the inhabitants of gold-bearing

communities of Anka and Bukkuyum local governments in Zamfara

State had a different fate in stock for them. About 335 suspected

cases of strange ailments were reported in several hospitals in the

locality. It turned out that 163 lives were lost out of which 111 of them

were children between the ages of five to ten years old”.

Ironically, viewed against the country’s poor health facilities and

outcomes, the activities of the local miners’ gives room for more

concerns. An eyewitness account stated that “reports of vomiting and

stomach pain among children in Zamfara State began to come in a

year ago. As is usual in most communities, deaths are attributed to

one spirit or another. The death toll continued to rise until the blood

samples of patients were taken abroad for adequate tests”:. Experts

reported that lead poisoning as in the case of Zamfara can persist in

the environment for up to 15 years. There are also other long-term

health problems such as permanent learning and behavioral problems

and brain damage. Lead for instance is known to bio-accumulate and

propagate within the ecosystem, giving rise to cancer causing cells

popularly called oncogens (ibid).

51

2.5.3 Air, Noise and Vibration Pollutions

Mining operations generally no matter the scale of operations

discharge particulate matter into the ambient air. The common

complains of most mining communities are usually centered on its

effects on air quality, emission of black smoke, noise and pollution.

Airborne particulates of major concern to most mining communities

includes dust, sulphur dioxide (So2), nitrogen dioxide (No2), carbon

monoxide (Co) and black smoke. The discharge of these airborne

particulate matters into the environment principally as minute dusts

and gas poses health threats to the people in mining communities and

its surroundings (Akabzaa and Darimani, 2001). Also, the impact of

high-pitched vibrations and other noises from equipments, air blasts

and vibrations from blasting is known to cause damages to the

auditory system, cracks in buildings, stress and discomfort (ibid).

Unfortunately, the mining operators have no laid down adequate

measures to prevent harmful emissions of dust into the ambient air.

The artisanal small scale miners are not only guilty of this practice as

it pervades all classes of mining activities despite modern technology

to prevent these harmful practices as employed in the advanced

nations. It is a common sight of seeing black smoke from fuel burning,

fumes from ore roasting from mining operations across the country

which beside the health risk and hazards to plants, animals and

humans, contributes greatly to global warming and climate change. In

all these, the failure of the various environmental, health and safety

52

regulatory agencies to enforce controls at least among the large and

medium scale operators cannot be rationalized under any excuse.

2.5.4 Degradation of Natural Landscape

One of the most common negative effects of mining minerals from the

earth’s surface is the destruction of its natural landscape, creating

open space in the ground and generating heaps of rock wastes that

cannot be easily disposed off especially by artisanal miners. These

phenomena are amply demonstrated in several parts of Nigeria, where

commercial or subsistence mining or quarrying had occurred in the

past or is currently taking place.

In the Younger Granite Province, especially the Jos Plateau, tin and

columbite mining has resulted in the destruction of the once beautiful

and scenic landscape which is now replaced by unsightly large

irregular holes and heaps of debris produced by the open cast method

of mining (Brooks, 1974). Writing in the Weekend Leadership

Newspaper of December 8, 2010, Ibrahim at el states that “another

major hazard of mining on the general well-being of Nigerians is the

existence of mining ponds that are often the relics of tin and

columbite mining. In our checks in plateau state for instance, revealed

that there are more than 1,000 such mining ponds; the relics of the

colonial mining activities of tin and columbite that has greatly defaced

the once beautiful and scenic landscape as well as posing all sorts of

environmental hazards to the people of the state”. The alteration of the

landscape by mining operations almost invariably creates a problem of

erosion in the mining localities with the result that most of the open

53

cast pits are filled with water. A similar situation exists in all the

limestone and marble quarries in different proportions at Ewekoro,

Sagamu, Nkalagu, Okpella, Gboko, Ashaka, Jakura etc. (Aigbedion

and Iyayi, 2007).

In recent times, the search for gemstone in Oyo, Kwara, Edo and Ondo

States by illegal miners (artisanal and small scale miners) have

resulted in haphazard pitting and trenching of the Older Granites

pegmatites that host the minerals, without regard to the mining

regulations. At present, irregular holes and heaps of rock materials

characterize the areas that have fallen victim of illegal miners. Notable

examples can be found at Ijero, Ekiti state, Igbojanye, Olode, Falansa

and New Target in Shaki area of Oyo state; Iwo, Osun state, and Oro

in Kwara state. The natural landscapes in these areas are now

replaced by a kind of bad land or hummock topography punctuated

by irregular holes. (ibid).

2.5.5 Geological and Radiation Hazards

Mining operations normally upset the equilibrium in the geological

environment, which may trigger off certain geological hazards such as

landslide, subsidence, flooding, erosion and tremors together with

their secondary effects. For instance, minor earth tremors are

generated due to blasting of rocks in various quarries. Villages and

settlements in the neighborhood of the quarries have experience

unpleasant earth movements when rocks are blasted. Some buildings

are often times damaged by developing cracks due to minor tremors

occasioned by the incessant blasting of the rocks (Ajakaiye, 1985).

54

Also, exposure to natural radiations emitted by some radioactive

minerals is a major source of health hazards. The radiation intensity

increases when the minerals are concentrated. It has been established

that some minerals such as monazite, pyrochlore and xenotime which

are obtained as by-product of tin mining in the Jos Plateau, are

radioactive. Because of lack of market, most of these minerals which

were in form of concentrate are abandoned in many previous mining

sites on the plateau some of these sites had mining communities,

which developed into villages where a high level of radiation has been

recorded. According to Aigbedion (2005), a few of such villages has

been abandon or nearly deserted because of the death of many people

under mysterious circumstances. The mysterious deaths are now

attributed to a high level of radiations released by monazite rich sand

used for building the houses the deceased lived.

2.6 Artisanal and Small Scale-Mining (ASM), and Occupational

Health and Safety.

Health can be defined as a state of complete physical, mental and

social well being of an individual, and not merely the absence of

diseases and infirmity (WHO, 2005). An alteration in the living cells of

the body which jeopardizes survival in the environment results in

diseases. Health problems arise from a variety of man’s activities

including industrialization, farming, mining, migration and others.

There are past research works and literatures that has examined the

impact of mining on the health of both the mine workers and the

people within the surrounding communities of the mines among them

55

being Stephen and Alern (2001), who asserted that “mining remains

one of the most perilous occupations in the world, both in terms of

short term injuries and fatalities, but also due to long term impacts

such as cancers, and respiratory conditions such as silicosis,

asbestosis and pneumoconiosis”.

Occupational health and personal safety issues are frequently on the

agenda when artisanal and small-scale mining is discussed. However,

reliable data or official statistics about accidents or occupational

diseases are generally unavailable. According to International Labour

Organization (ILO), there are five major health risks in artisanal and

small-scale mining and processing (Jenning, 1999). These are:

i) Exposure to dust (silicosis)

ii) Exposure to mercury and other chemicals

iii) Effects of noise and vibration

iv) Effects of poor ventilation (heat humidity, lack of oxygen)

v) Effect of over-exertion, inadequate work space and

inappropriate equipment.

The most frequently cited causes of accidents in artisanal and small-

scale mines were; rock fall, subsidence, misuse of explosives; lack of

knowledge; lack of training; violation of regulations; and obsolete and

poorly maintained equipments (Jenning, 1999). Ordinarily,

inappropriate working conditions such as lack of safety equipments or

unsafe working practices would suggest high accidents rates in

artisanal and small-scale mining compared to formal medium or large

scale mining operations. In reality, this is not always the case

especially in non-coal small-scale mining. This is because by the

56

nature of their operation, self employment, low mechanization, and

low productivity means that some accident related risk are likely to

occur than in formal medium – or large-scale mining. However,

methane and coal-dust exposures are high in occurrence in small-

scale mining operations.

For self-employed artisanal miners, the use of safety equipment

depends almost exclusively on their wish and conscience. Also,

artisanal mine workers employed by small-scale mining operators

usually use their own safety equipment if ever they use. Basic safety

equipments like helmet, safety boots, gloves and dust masks are

considered as significant investment for most miners. To the extent

that these basic safety equipments do not contribute directly to their

daily income, they are treated as low priority and thus not provided by

most operators for their workers. According to Hentschel et al (2003),

the causes of occupational health and safety deficiencies in artisanal

and small-scale mining can be summarized as:

1. Most small-scale mines are working under marginal

economic conditions, providing no more than a daily living

for their owners or workers. As even basic safety

measures have some cost in cash or kind implications. An

artisanal and small-scale miner is unlikely to spend

money in thing any that does not generate immediate

income.

2. Safety regulations for medium-or large scale mining

operations are not generally appropriate for artisanal and

small-scale mines without adaptation. Exaggerated safety

57

requirements tend to discourage the miners, leading them

to simply ignore all safety advices as “utopian”.

3. Enforcement of mine safety requirements is frequently

used by authorities as a device to identify guilty parties of

accidents and to apply corresponding sanctions. Fear of

sanctions is one of the main causes of the under-reporting

of accidents or diseases, and is an obstacle to

improvements.

4. There is a lack of awareness of risks, especially risks of

chronic occupational diseases such as dust, vibration,

nitrous gases, mercury, cyanide etc. This often stem from

inadequately implemented education and training.

Education and training programmes need to be designed

according to social, cultural and ethnic characteristics of

the miners’ communities.

5. Introducing fast-track mechanization without

implementing complementary safety measures. While

purely manual operations have relatively low safety and

health risks, mechanized working requires the correct

application of technology. Risk increase dramatically with

activities such as blasting, pneumatic drilling,

electrification in coal mines, or mechanical transport to

access deeper stopes.

Education, training, demonstration and surveillance are the key and

vital elements of any programme to improve occupational safety and

health in artisanal and small-scale mining. The authorities and other

58

stakeholder have the singular responsibility to help both the mine

owners and workers to realize the fact that accident prevention and

improved occupational health are valuable goals in their operations. In

the short term, safety and health has a cost, in the mid to long term it

generates income.

2.7 Socio Economic Impacts from Artisanal and Small-Scale

Mining Operations.

Coppin (2005) highlighted a number of potential social and local

economic impacts that may apply exclusively to ASM in Nigeria. Some

of these impacts are more likely to be associated with particular

minerals and whether the mining or quarrying activity takes place

close to or distant from established communities. According to the

report, most of these impacts outlined in the table below are negative,

indicating the range of challenges faced but some of the largest

potential impacts are positive and these are identified (by a “+”):

Table 2: Potential Socio-Economic Impacts from ASM operations

Miners Close To Settlement:

Community – Miner Interaction /Influx Of Migrants Resulting In:

Damage to community (farm) land

Loss/damage to graves/scared places

Conflict Over:

- compensation for damages

- access to natural resources (water/fuel wood) and facilities

- mining benefits being limited to a section of the community (i.e.

Chief Council and Local Miners).

Access to the mineral deposits

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Role of women in the mining activity

Increase in cultural and ethnic clashes

Increase in crime (theft by miners)

Increase in prostitution and STDs/HIV

Increase in alcohol abuse

Excess burden on existing infrastructure such as health/educational

services and sanitation

Changes in livelihood and standard of living of the community

Increased influx of cash (from miners) in the community:

- procurement of local goods thus creating local income although

may disadvantage some due to price rises (+)

- increased employment opportunities (mining, processing, service

provision (+).

Health:

Of the Miners:

Increased risk of diseases due to inadequate logistic and sanitary conditions

in miners camp

Exposure to noxious chemicals

Effect of noise and vibration

Effects of poor ventilation

Over exertion

Of the Community:

Effect of water/soil pollution on community

Increased risk of malaria – dams and filled pits during raining season

Safety

Of the Miners:

Risk of occupational accidents due to:

- rock falls

- collapse of pits

- obsolete and poorly maintained equipment

- misuse of explosive

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- lack of protective clothing

Of the Community:

Risk of safety of the community as:

- community members (children) may fall into the open pits (need for

securing mining areas)

- transport of minerals through the community may increase road

accidents

Illegal practices through:

- child labour

- unlicensed mining and selling

Source: Coppin (2005)

2.8 Post-Mining Activities and their Environmental

Implications

Mining is a temporary use of land. Mines are born; they mature, age

and also die. So mining is of a transitory activity, which will pass over

some day. Post mining activities or operations are the uses/activities

take place after mines have be officially closed or abandoned. The

types of activities/operations that emerge depend on the legal regime

and policy requirements that are in place on the management of

mined lands. In some countries there are strong requirements on

mined lands remediation; restoration and specific end-uses which are

stipulated. In countries where there are no legal requirements on

enforcement procedures, post mining would develop out of

expediency, local situations and need (Dung-Gwon, 2007). Post

mining activities/operations (ibid) among others include:

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i. Agriculture

ii. Tourism (based on mining heritage and landscape)

iii. Recreation

iv. Fish farming

v. Winning of alluvial leaps/rock wastes, for construction

purposes.

vi. The winning of sand and other aggregates for construction

purposes

vii. Lakes, water ponds being used as sources for domestic and

industrial water supply

viii. Diversification of the economy of mining settlements

Limpitlaw et al (2005) drawing examples from experience in South

Africa advocated for a holistic approach to closure planning for mines

arising from mining activities. He posited that such approach should

include the following:

i. An assessment of the economic viability of the plan

including the funding of post closure care and maintenance

ii. Inclusion of the closure plan as part of broader regional and

economic development plans, relevant to the skills profile of

the area which would allow the local community to built in

to the plan.

iii. Post closure land capacity targets and related land use

option(s) Identified from the onset (pre-mining) with review

during the operational phase of the mines, and

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iv. An avoidance of creating a culture of dependency in the

local community.

The implication of this is that there should be closure plan from the

very beginning in the life of a mine as well as clearly laid down

procedures for mine closure. According to Dung-Gwon, (2007), before

any post mining operations, mine closure must ensure that mine sites

are safe, physically and chemically stable, no future pollution risks

are likely and that public health and safety are guaranteed. Post

closure activities would examine issues and concerns such as the

management of soil resources after mining, how to endure and

promote biodiversity, and how to deal with likely future risks arising

from mine closure.

In the same vain, Dung-Gwon (2007) further postulated three broad

uses for post mine land namely; agricultural and forestry uses; native

conservation/ecosystem enhancement uses and other beneficial uses.

In all these, when a land is to be returned to its pre-mining suitability

status, rehabilitation should be carried out to achieve the key criteria

levels as agreed from the land suitability assessment.

The agricultural and forestry uses is adopted in a situation where an

area has a pre-mining suitability for arable farming, then the land

should be returned to that status after the mining

activities/operations. In such circumstances, the rehabilitation should

provide for slopes which are within a suitable range to allow such

farming and the soils with physical and chemical properties consistent

with undisturbed arable soils in that region.

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The nature conservation/ecosystem enhancement uses include

wetlands; fauna and flora conservation areas; and native ecosystem.

The criteria for conservation or enhancement as a post-mining land

use are based on its technical feasibility to be able to establish a self-

sustaining habitat; the compatibility of the habitat with or an integral

part of the broader ecosystem within the locality and that the use will

deliver environmental and community benefits equal to or exceeding

those that existed prior to mining. Finally, other beneficial uses

include any use which is neither for agriculture, forestry or nature

conservation.

2.9 Evolving a framework for Environmental Management Plans

for Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM) in Nigeria

The key task for all stakeholders in the ASM sector in Nigeria is the

need to ensure that the operators comply with the requirements for

minimizing the numerous negative environmental impacts attributable

to their unregulated activities. Research and studies into the activities

of ASM has shown and demonstrated that in jurisdiction where

environmental, health and safety regulations do not differentiate

between ASM and LSM needs, problems with compliance by the ASM

quickly develop and deteriorate of which Nigeria is a classical

example.

Coppin (2005), arising from their research studies into ASM’s

operations in Nigeria, asserted that by their very nature, ASM

workings are illegal and increased legislation will be ineffective in their

regulation and that better enforcement of existing legislation is one

64

approach that could limit or curtail their operations. Therefore the

task before the FGN is the need to develop appropriate, easily

understood and enforceable legislation that will draw the ASM sector

into national programmes for environmental management and

protection. In an attempt to achieve this objective, there is the need

for simple environmental management guidelines which will be

developed to encourage the miners to adopt methods that are

appropriate to the Nigerian mining sector in terms of efficiency, health

and safety standards, and minimization of negative environmental

impact.

Towards achieving this objective, the report went further to develop a

Framework for Environmental Management Plan for ASM to be used

for the six Pilot ASM Projects across the six goo-political zones of

Nigeria under the Sustainable Management of Mineral Resources

Project (SMMRP), covering a range of mineral commodities. The

framework could be adopted as a National Working Guide for ASM

operations in Nigeria with modifications based on mineral and site

specific. The framework is as outlined in table below:

Table 3: Environmental Management Plan Framework for ASM

Projects

Threat or Impact

Mitigation Responsibility Performance

Indicators

Degradation of

land, water, culture

and biodiversity

resources due to

activities

Assessment of impacts and

threats specific to that site and

operation, as a basis for

defining environmental

protection procedures,

monitoring and reclamation

MSMD Have studies been

carried out and

plans prepared?

Environmental

monitoring records

and statistics

A programme of training MSMD in Training man-days

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miners to raise awareness of

environmental, health and

safety risks and proper

procedures

association with

EPAs

delivered against

curriculum

Enforcement of environmental

protection procedures;

monitoring of compliance

MSMD in

association with

EPAs

Number of incidents

and frequency of

non-compliance;

action taken.

Social

disadvantage,

exploitation and

child labour

A programme of training

of miners and the community

to raise awareness and promote

effective participation

MSMD in

association with

LGAs

Employment

statistics in the mine

area

Building capacity at local

government level

MSMD and LGA Number of LGAs

with designated ASM

responsible

Occupational

health and safety

violations

continuing poor

safety records

A programme of training of

miners and the community to

raise awareness of

environmental, health and

safety risks and proper

procedures.

MSMD Health and safety

records, accidents

statistics and health

conditions

Health screening and

evaluation in community

MSMD in

association with

state Health

Authorities

Health records and

frequency of disease

and medical

conditions

associated with

mining.

Source: Coppin (2005)

The report went further to propose the process that could be adopted

in the task of preparing an environmental management plan for each

of the six ASM pilot project areas, which by extension, can be adopted

for ASM projects in the country as fellow:

i) Audit and survey of the current conditions and baseline

environment, to include consideration of physical,

66

chemical, ecological, land use, social and demographic

factors.

ii) Definition of the boundary or envelop of the pilot project

area, based on both the extent of geological resource and

environmental sensitivity (as identified in the

audit).

iii) Definition of the project and the environmentally

significant environment and social releases and effects;

consumption or use of local resources, services and

labour; revenues and economic implications.

iv) Assessment of the significant environmental and social

impacts, threats and risks – ESIA.

v) On the basis of this, devise a site-specific mitigation and

environmental management plan.

2.10 Imperative for a Collective Solution to Environmental

Problems of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining.

In the last decade, concerns over environmental problems have

steadily increased. As a result, environmental laws have been

formulated and governmental environment agencies have been set up.

The implementation of these new laws has been fairly straight forward

for large-and medium-scale mining enterprises. However, many

countries such as Nigeria have not yet been able to effectively include

artisanal and small scale mining sector in her formal legal-

environmental system. Instead, the environmental agencies, being

unable to handle multiple issues, push artisanal and small scale

67

mining further into illegal situations because of non-compliance with

legislation. Sometimes the miners intentionally evade the legislation

by doing so, making it even more difficult for the government to fulfill

their control duties.

In the opinion of Hentschel et al (2003), new concepts must be

developed in the area of environmental management of artisanal and

small-scale mining to combat the administrative over load of

regulators in managing individual enterprises. Only collective

solutions for the sub-sector are likely to succeed. While organization

of the sector is a prerequisite for substantial changes, incentives for

environmental compliance are better based on collective solutions.

Also, the need for effective networking and communication among all

stakeholder locally, nationally and globally through informal

decentralized networks and formal centralized networks cannot be

over emphasized in the task of achieving an environmentally

sustainable artisanal and small-scale mining operations. Through

these networks, information, ideas and new techniques of production

and processing can be easily shared. In this context, formal

centralized networks related to artisanal and small-scale mining with

international participation are relatively scarce, compared to other

disciplines. However, the works of the International Institute for

Environmental Development (IIED) through its Mining, Minerals and

Sustainable Development (MMSD) project and those of the

Communities and Small-Scale Mining (CASM) a World Bank and

International Agencies sponsored global organization, need a special

68

mention and commendations in their efforts at developing a global

comprehensive strategies to mitigate the environmental impact of

Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM) through the development of

training materials to preserve the health, safety and environment of

artisanal miners (CASM, 2010).

In all these as emphasized by Stephen and Alern (2001), is the need

for openness and transparency in the entire mining sector in addition

to undertaking an in-depth long-term evaluation of the impacts of

mining on the environment and health of workers and communities

particularly in mining countries of Latin America, Asia and Africa as

evidence abound that the sector’s activities as currently carried out,

undermines the human and environmental objectives of sustainable

development.

No doubt, there is a long way to go before mining becomes a healthy

work or a healthy development activity to take place in a community.

There is also a long way to go before the industry particularly the

artisanal and small scale miners, the workers and the communities

agree on the real environmental, health and safety issues of the sector

and the real and actual responsibility (ies) of each of the actors in the

sector. It is only when these issues, concerns and challenges are

collectively put in proper perspective by all stakeholders that a truly

collective solutions to environmental and human impact of artisanal

and small-scale mining in our communities can then be said to have

commenced.

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Chapter Three

Methodology

3.0 Introduction

Research design as defined by Padgell (1998) is the procedures and

plans that a researcher follows to attain the objectives of a study. Yin

(1994) supplements that; research design is the logic that links data

to be collected and the conclusions to be drawn to the initial questions

of a study. In view of this, presented in this chapter are the

methodology and a justified account for its applicability in this study.

Discussed also, are the different data collection techniques, their

strengths and weaknesses, the preparatory measures taken prior to

data collection as well as how the collected data will be analyzed, in

order to attain the desired findings, conclusions and

recommendations of this study.

3.1 Area of Study

Okpella clan is located in Etsako East Local Government Area of Edo

State, Nigeria. The area is defined by latitude 70 20’ and 70 15’ North

of the equator and longitude 60 10’ and 60 25’ East of the Greenwich

meridian. The clan which is made up over thirty (30) villages is

situated along Benin-Abuja Highway in-between Auchi and Okene

Towns. It borders Uzuaria clan in Etsako West LGA to the South,

Okene in Kogi State to the North, Atteh and Unemeh clans both of

Akoko-Edo LGA to the west and North Ibie clan of the same Etsako

East LGA to the East.

70

History has it that the Okpella clan was founded by a man called

Ikponwusa meaning “I give thanks to God” in the 14th century. He was

said to have migrated from a place called “Ekae” in the ancient Benin

Kingdom during the tyrannical reign of Oba Ozolua. In culture,

language and other traditional institutions, they have close semblance

with the Bini people which are still being maintained to the present

times.

The study area’s climate falls within the warm-humid tropical climate

region which is characterized by wet and dry season. Taking

advantage of the fertile land, the people are traditionally

predominately farmers and are known to grow in large numbers food

and cash crops such as cassava, yam tomatoes and cocoa. The area

lies within the basement complex and the cretaceous to recent

sediment of South Western Nigeria. According to Oyawoye (1970), and

drawing from the geological basin evolution of the Southern Nigeria

basin, three major tectonic sedimentation cycles are attributed to

geological history of Southern Nigeria. These tectonic phases took

place in Albian, Santonia and late Eocene to early Oligocene times

which resulted in the displacement of the main basin axis. The three

main basins are:

(i) Benue – Abakaliki basin

(ii) Anambra and Afikpo basin

(iii) Niger Delta basin

The study area falls within the Anambra and Afikpo basin which

formed the second sedimentary cycle (ibid). No doubt, these geological

71

formations may have accounted for the presence of various natural

mineral resources in Okpella. The mineral resources which are found

in the area among others are limestone, granite, kaolin, feldspar, gold

and quart in proven commercial reserve quantities. Arising from the

preponderance of these natural mineral resource deposits, a number

of minerals processing industries were attracted to the area in the mid

1960s through the 1980s prominent among them is the moribund Edo

Cement Company Limited which was established by the then Mid-

West Regional Government in 1964. Other companies cutting across

granite crushing, chemical and fertilizer companies industries were

Crush Rock Industries, Edok-Eter Mandilas Limited, Solarog

Chemical Industries, Freedom Chemical Industries and West Africa

Fertilizer Company Limited. Ironically, most of these companies are

either moribund or epileptic in operations. The demand and supply

vacuum created by the non-operation of these companies especially to

meet the demand for granite aggregates for the construction

industries, milled limestone and feldspar for chemical and glass

manufacturing companies created the Artisanal and Small-Scale

mining operators primarily to an extent fill the created demand gap as

the erstwhile customers who hitherto use to patronized the formal

companies still scout the area to meet their demands.

This mining operation has over the years continued to grow in scope

and operations cutting across sexes and ages. Their activities can be

broadly classified into three, namely:

72

i) Extraction of granite and its subsequent quarrying into stone

chippings (aggregates) for use in constructions industry.

ii) Extraction of limestone and its subsequent milling to raw

materials for use by paints cosmetic and allied chemical

industries.

iii) Extraction of feldspar and its subsequent milling to raw

materials for glass and allied chemical industries.

Okpella clan like every other semi urban community in Nigeria lacks

the needed basic infrastructures for economic and social growth and

development. The various villages are inter-linked with feeder un-

tarred roads connected to the main tarmac road transport of the

Benin-Abuja Highway. The area boasts of a number of both public and

private primary and secondary schools, health care centers and

hospitals with only one commercial bank outlet. There is the presence

of the four major GSM service provider’s networks in the area which

makes mobile telephone communication common among the people

which have opened the area to the outside world.

It is being hoped with high expectations that the buying over of Edo

Cement Company Limited by BUA International Group from the

formal core investor arising from the privatization exercise ScanCem of

Norway and their planned construction of a modern green field cement

plant, economic and social development and activities will soon be on

the up- swing. This no doubt, will have a multiplier effect on other

economic activities especially the Artisanal and Small Scale mining

industry in Okpella.

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Map I

Map of Edo State Showing Natural Minerals Locations.

Source: Map of Edo State. Available at www.nigeriagalleria.com/nigeria

74

3.2 Choosing a Methodological Approach

Methodology as described by Starss and Corbin (1980) is a way of

thinking about and studying a social reality; stressing that the

methodology gives a vision to what the research should involved.

Methods, on the other hand are a set of procedures and techniques

used for gathering and analyzing data. It is through these techniques

that the analysts see the ordinary and are able to arrive at a new

understanding of a social life (ibid).

Qualitative and quantitative methodologies have been used by social

scientists to generate knowledge. In quantitative methodology,

questionnaires are suitable when a researcher seeks short and precise

answers from respondents. The responses obtained can easily be

compared, aggregated, statistically analyzed, tabulated and displayed

diagrammatically. The close –ended question exposes the researcher

to a variety of opinions from different respondents within a short

period. To note however, is the fact that responses from close – ended

questionnaires lack depth.

Observation, individual and group interviews as identified by Limb

and Dwyer (2001) are techniques that are useful in collecting

qualitative data. Qualitative methodology is based on direct quotation,

careful description and interpretation of the respondents’ views,

seeking to capture what the people say about their lives, experiences

and their interactions, in their own words (Patton, 1980), in response

to open-ended questions, in addition, to bringing content-specific,

qualitative methodology is most suitable when exploring individuals’

perceptions, attitudes and priorities. Limb and Dwyer (2001) assert

75

that social reality can be understood better through qualitative

methodology through their statistical description or generalized

prediction. Quantitative methodology is distinguishable from

quantitative because it perceives the world as dynamic which is

constantly being shaped by socio-economic and political processes.

However, one common criticism levied at qualitative methodology is

that the results of the study may not be used to generalize large

population because the interviewed population is small and the

respondents were purposively chosen (Hancock, 1998). In spite of the

weakness and strengths of the qualitative and quantitative

methodologies, research questions will always determine the data

collection techniques to be used in a study as limb and Dwyer (2001)

emphasized.

In the quest to determine and assess the attitude to and

environmental impact rehabilitation practices of local miners in

Okpella, the study found it appropriate to use close-ended questions

to generate quantifiable information; in relation to the socio –

demographic characteristics of the mine owners and workers; reasons

they engage in mining, their knowledge and attitude to the

environmental, health and safety issues and concerns; impacts of the

mining operations on the people and community; the rehabilitation

and remedial practices being employed; level of their effectiveness, and

the roles of regulatory authorities and agencies in enforcing

operational standards in relation to environmental, health and safety

issues.

76

Also, in the drive, to explore in details these information, smaller

groups drawn from mine owners, operators, workers and government

officials referred to as “key informants were interviewed using open-

ended questions. These key informants were purposively selected. The

information accrued from close-ended questions was used to

supplement and confirm some of the responses acquired from open-

ended questions. This study was therefore based on qualitative

methodology since it aimed at describing phenomena through rich

contextual data by unearthing information that could not be easily

qualified. The close-ended questions were aimed at obtaining the mine

owners and workers socio-demographic and environmental practices

information and any other quantifiable information related to their

mining activities which were found useful during interpretation of the

research findings. Similarly, the open-ended questions provided

systematic contextual knowledge about the respondents and their

mining activities and were used to supplement and confirm the

information generated through close-ended questions.

3.3 Why is Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM) in Okpella a

Case Study?

Case studies have often been used to elicit information about

individuals in medical and psychological research. Social scientists on

the other hand, use case studies to obtain information from

individuals, groups, organizations and communities, or about social,

economic or political phenomena (Yin, 2001). In the same vain, Yin

(1994) adds that, case studies tend to be selective focusing on one or

77

two issues that are fundamental to understanding the system being

examined, and they are usually suitable in incidences where a

researcher needs to make an in-depth holistic investigation.

The importance of selecting case studies is also to maximize what can

be learned in the period of time available for the study. This particular

study therefore focused on Artisanal and Small-scale Mining (ASM) in

Okpella, Edo State of Nigeria with the aim to ascertaining and

assessing the miner’s knowledge and attitude to environmental issues

arising from their operations, their present remedial and rehabilitation

practices and their effectiveness.

Multiple sources of evidence that converge to the same set of findings

are important in case studies because of the content-rich information

collected. This actually concurs with Huberman and Miles (2002) who

acknowledge the importance of interviews, questionnaires, direct

observation and documented information as source of data in case

studies. The focus on a particular case under investigation provides

in-depth information and helps to understand complex social

phenomena.

Further assertion by Yin (1994) suggests that case studies are a

preferred strategy when “how” or “why” questions are being posed and

when focus is on a contemporary phenomenon within some real life

context. This particular case study, therefore, relied on both primary

and secondary data sources which provided complementary as well as

supplementary information; which were used to find out “why” people

are engaged in artisanal and small-scale mining in Okpella and “how”

their operations and activities impact on the environment and health

78

of mining community members and the remedial and rehabilitations

practices being adopted by the miners to mitigate and ameliorate

them. Based on these features, a case study as a strategy was found

relevant to this study.

3.4 Sampling Techniques

Before collection of primary date, a reconnaissance survey of the study

area was carried out, to establish and confirm the most viable

sampling technique to be used. Based on the research questions the

study had to address and given the different respondents planned to

cover, probability and non-probability sampling method was adopted.

Through random sampling the probability of selection is the same for

every case in the population. The sampling frame was the register of

the local Association of Miners in Okpella for mine owners from which

twenty (20) respondents cutting across miners in limestone, feldspar

and granite mine owners/operations were selected for face to face

interviews. Thirty (30) mine workers were randomly selected out of an

estimated over five hundred (500) workforce both of which a semi-

structured interviews were administered. Based on Patton (1980),

random sampling is an appropriate strategy, when one wants to

generalize from the sample studies to some large population. Through

random sampling there is increased likelihood that the data collected

are a representative of the whole population of interest (ibid).

Similarly, Peil (1982) asserts that sampling is the selection of a part to

represent the whole. Another reason why random sampling was

adopted for this study is to avoid bias by giving all units in the target

79

population equal chances of being selected as suggested by Nichols

(1991).

In order to have more insight and understanding of the environmental

impact rehabilitation practices of the miners, the miner’s Association

Chairman; the leader of the mine workers; two community leaders

made up of the youth leader and a member of the traditional cabinet

were purposively selected for unstructured interviews. Similarly, to

assess information related to the roles of supervisory and regulatory

government bodies and agencies, an official of Artisanal and Small-

scale Mining (ASM) Department of the Federal Ministry of Minerals

and Steel Development (MMSD), Abuja was purposively selected for

unstructured interview. The purposive selection of key informants was

based on Lewis-Beck et al (2004) who identify them as individuals that

provide in-depth and proficient information about a particular

phenomenon.

3.5 Sources of Data

3.5.1 Primary sources

The physical proximity with the respondent especially at the mining

sites during the primary data collection afforded the study to access

both verbal and non-verbal information which had not been

documented elsewhere. However, primary data collection required

much more patience and the development of positive rapport

especially when dealing with respondents from different socio-

economic background.

80

3.5.1.1 Semi-Structured Interviews

A total of fifty (50) respondents made up of twenty (20) mine

owners/operators, and thirty (30) mine workers were covered during

the semi-structured interviews through the same set of open-ended

and close-ended questions for comparative purposes and also to

reduce variation of the information. The responses yielded were

convenient to transcribe, analyze, interpret and represent in form of

tables, graphs and charts and were also useful in discussing the

findings as shown in chapters four and five of this thesis.

The nature of questions and mode of administration made it

convenient for the study to cover the fifty respondents which would

not have been possible with in-depth interviews given the minimal

time available for the field work in consideration of many constraining

factors. The use of semi-structured interview is viewed important in

this study because it provided different views from a wide section of

respondents in relation to the study objectives. This was based on

Mikkelsem (1995) who also gives examples of semi-structured

interviews and group interviews; as techniques developed to optimize

the knowledge; attitudes and practice of different individuals and

groups.

3.5.1.2 Unstructured Interviews

Based on open ended questions, these interviews were explorative and

were aimed at obtaining detailed information from key informants. The

key informant approach was incorporate to the data gathering strategy

based on Nichols (1991) who described them as members who are

particularly knowledgeable and reliable about factual matters in a

81

community. The informants for that matter in this study included the

local chairman of the Miners Association, selected community leaders,

the leader of the mine workers and a government official with the

responsibility for Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM) activities in

the Ministry. These informants not only provided the practical and

factual details in relation to the study but also secondary information

related to medium and large-scale mining which are useful for

comparative purposes.

The unstructured interviews were also found to be appropriate for the

study as the open-ended questions allowed the participants to express

themselves as much as possible in relation to the questions

addressed. It also allows for a-two way traffic to know about the

respondents and allowing them to ask questions which they thought

would be important and useful to the study. Also, since the

respondents were free to express themselves, they felt proud to be part

of the study which was different in the case of semi-structured

interviews that were more of a question and answer session.

In relation to the weakness of unstructured interviews, the informant

at times provided information that is irrelevant to the study. This was

time consuming during the interaction as well as when the data are

being analyzed. However, in comparison to semi structured interviews,

unstructured interviews required time and patience right from

booking appointments and through to the actual interviews as the

respondents narrated their stories.

82

3.5.1.3. Personal Observation

Observation was important to this study as it provided the much

needed background information about the environment of the study

area. In addition to the interviews, non-verbal information were

gathered through observations. Observation becomes more suitable in

this study as the physical environmental impact of mining activities

could easily be ascertained through physical site inspections.

Although observation is often related to seeing, Hays (2000) points out

that, observation goes beyond the visual aspects; by touching,

smelling and hearing. Peil et al (1982) also asserts that observation in

social studies is more than just observing. It involves listening, asking

questions and at times participating in activities so as to get firsthand

experience of what daily life involves. In an effort to assess the

physical environment impact of the mining activities on the study

area, observation became very relevant as it afforded a first-hand

inspection of such impacts in form of gully erosions, ponds, wasted

farm lands cracked buildings, sustained injury body marks etc.

Different from other methods of data collection, observation was a

continuous process that was used to obtained information before,

during and after other structured descriptive forms of data collection

such as interviews. Beside, because of its validity, it was convenient to

use it. By observation, it was easy to compare the environmental

rehabilitation practices the mine owners, operators and workers

claimed are being implemented during the interviews and what is

physically obtained to affirm validity and consistency.

83

Photographs are a good way of collecting observable data of

phenomena that can be captured in a single or series of shots.

Photographs in this study supplemented interviews and observation

data collection techniques. And they were significant in showing the

real existence of these informal mining activities and the related

environmental impacts that could not be verbally explained as showed

in this study.

3.5.2 Secondary Data collection

Secondary data collection is a process that began upon

commencement of the study and continued until the end of the study.

Secondary data among others involved reading, analyzing and

recording information relevant to the study from published and

unpublished books, Government and International Reports, Journals,

News papers and Magazines. These materials in the course of this

study were sourced from different resource centres in Nigeria. Also,

the internet was a very rich, important and vital source of information

in accessing information especially those that were unavailable in the

print sources.

Secondary data collection was based on Mikkelsen (1995) who points

out, that secondary data source provide a wealth of information from

different studies which can be utilized to shape and mould a research

study. Information from the secondary sources not only supplemented

the primary data that were collected, but also gave more insight about

different aspects linked to the study topic.

84

Although most of the secondary data were accessible, it was not easy

to acquire information that was directly linked to the study topic with

particular emphasis on Nigeria. Information about non-agricultural

activities and sustainable use of non-renewable natural resources

especially among rural dwellers/communities in Nigeria are lacking in

most resource centres. The research work relied mainly on studies

carried out in other Africa countries such as Ghana, Mali, Uganda,

and South Africa among others. Also, studies carried out in Latin

America, India and other developed Western and North America

nations were used as these countries has an active Artisanal and

Small-Scale Mineral extractive industry with published studies on the

impact of their activities on the environment.

3.6 Data Recording and Analysis

In Most Publications such as Limb and Dwyer (2001) Patton (1980)

they did recommended the use of tape recorder in research data

collation. In this study, the respondents at the initial stage were very

conscious that they are being recorded; hence tend to give Skewed

information. They either exaggerated some aspects or sparingly

contributed to some topics. In the case of the workers who were

willing to contribute to the study, they requested not to be tape

recorded either for fear of the mine owners (employer) or for personal

privacy. Ethically, their decision has to be respected. In the case of the

mine owners, after reviewing the initial outcomes of the first two tape

recorded interviews, it was discontinued. Thus note taking method

85

was used in recording the interview proceedings in subsequent

interviews.

Data collection in research is incomplete without analysis,

interpretation and presentation of findings. The process of

interpretation and analysis involve making sense out of what people

has said, looking for patterns, putting together what is said in one

place with what is said in another place, and then integrating what

different people have said (Patton, 1980). According to Huberman and

Miles (1994), data analysis involves the different procedures

encountered in converting information recorded during fieldwork for

example field notes, into partially processed data such as write-ups

which are later coded and analyzed with an aim of answering the

research questions and consequently drawing conclusions in relation

to the study. Patton (1980), supplements by asserting that, the basic

purpose of qualitative analysis is to retrieved and filter the information

gotten from the different interviews. Analysis is only meaningful when

it yields and advises on response to question under investigation

(ibid). This involves analyzing the detailed conversation and extracting

what was pertinent to the study. It also involves coding variables such

as age, sex, marital status and level of education of respondents.

These were in this study, quantitatively analyzed using Statistical

Programme for Social Scientists (SPSS) and the simple statistics

generated were presented in charts, graphs and tables.

86

3.7 Trust Worthiness

A trust worthy study is one that is carried out fairly and ethically and

whose findings represent as close as possible the experiences of the

respondents. The trust worthiness of a research is shown by how valid

and reliable the methods and the results collected from a research

are. Reliability according to Peil et al (1982) is based on consistency. If

a measurement system is reliable, then it should provide the same

result consistently over time across a range of observations.

Through individual interviews for both structured and semi structured

questions, the study discovered that the responses to the research

questions had an aspect of similarly. Peil et al (1982) further observed

that measures are reliable if the same people are asked the same

questions again and they give the same answer. During the field work,

there were instances when respondents who had earlier been

interviewed were casually asked the same question on running into

them presenting such interaction as avenue to seek more

clarifications, and it usually turns out that there was not much

variation with what they had earlier said. Also, the reliability of the

information given were also assessed through observations. This helps

to prove or disapprove what they said during the interviews from what

obtains on ground.

Validity in social research is determined when the researcher reports

correctly what happened; and measures exactly what the research is

supposed to measure. External validity is based on whether the

researcher reported what the respondents said while internal validity

87

is determined by whether the researcher reports in accordance to the

research questions. Drawing from Kvale (1996), validity refers to the

truth and correctness of a statement. A study that is valid will

produce a well grounded, justifiable, strong and convincing report. On

the same note, validity determines whether the research truly

measured what it was intended to measure and how truthful the

results of the study are. In this study, to ensure validity of the data, a

combination of observation and individual interviews were found

useful for comparative and supplementary purposes for the different

responses.

Also, in the course of data collection, it was discovered that none of

the data collection methods was perfect as each presented its own

strengths and weaknesses. The utilization of a variety of methods in

data collection is recommended by Tasshakori et al (1998) who refer to

it as “triangulation”. This entails combining different data collection

techniques to study the same phenomena. One of the methods of

triangulation by Patton (1980) includes methodological triangulation

which uses multiple methods to study of a research problem. By using

different methods of data collection, triangulation reflects an attempt

to secure an in-dept understanding of a phenomenon in question. The

combination of multiple methods is a strategy that adds richness and

breadth to an inquiry. The importance of triangulation in social

research is evidently important in overcoming problems of bias

common when one method is used.

88

In the quest to have an in-dept understanding of the attitude to and

the environmental impact rehabilitation practices of the local Okpella

miners, the use of semi-structured, structured interviews as well as

observation were employed. Thus triangulation in data collection is

worth consideration because the weaknesses of one method of data

collection are offset by the strengths of another. Ultimately, this goes a

long way in improving the quality and quantity of data collected

during a given study as employed in this study.

89

Chapter Four

Data Presentation

4.0 Introduction

The generated data from the fifty (50) questionnaires administered

through semi-structured interviews cutting across various players in

the artisanal and small scale mining industry in Okpella, unstructured

interviews held with key informants and official of the Federal Ministry

of Solid Minerals Development, Abuja, were quantitatively analyzed

using statistical programmes. The simple statistics generated were

presented in charts, graphs and tables.

Specifically, the data were filtered and analyzed to maximally proffer

answers to the research questions and consequent upon which

conclusions were drawn in relation to the study.

4.1 Who are Engaged in Artisanal and Small - Scale Mining?

4.1.1 Age of Respondents

Artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) just like most informal activities

especially in rural communities engages all groups of people without

much regard to age. From the interviewed respondents, findings show

that (5) 10% were less than 18years, (18) 36% were between 18-

30years, (21) 42% were aged between 31-49years and (6) 12% were

above 50years. (Appendix I, Table I). Interestingly, a greater

number/percentage of (39) 78% were from the active and productive

age bracket of between 18-49years. There tend to be an increasing

decline of those that engaged in mining activities with increase in age

90

especially among above (50) fifty years. This trend was observed to be

attributed to the strenuous nature of the mining operations which

involves the use of simple tools and limited mechanization in extracting

and processing of the minerals.

050

100150

Less than 18

18 – 30 31 – 49 Above 50

Total

No of Respondents out of 50

% of Respondents

Fig. 2 Source: Author’s Field Work, 2011

Also, it was observed that the under aged of less than 18years that are

engaged in the mining activities are mainly children of the men or

women that works in the mines. To a large extent, they assist their

parents. No doubt, the energy sapping nature of the mining activities

accounted for the high number of the productive and active aged group.

4.1.2 Gender

Table 2 in Appendix I, shows the gender composition of the

respondents. The findings revealed that artisanal and small-scale

mining activities engage more of male compared to the females. Out of

the total number of fifty (50) randomly selected respondents, the males

were (34) 68% while the females were (16) 32%. It was observed that

ownership of milling equipment and marble quarrying sites were mainly

91

dominated by the men. However, few women own mineral exploitation

(extraction) sites which were farmed out to them by either their

husbands or fathers as land ownership is mainly patria linear in nature

in Okpella.

34

16

50

Frequency

Male

Female

Total

Fig. 3 Source: Author’s Field Work, 2011

However, it was observed that the crushing of boulders be it marble,

limestone or feldspar into granite aggregates, or smaller sizes of

limestone and feldspar for eventual milling into raw materials is

dominated by the females using hand hammers.

Generally, the involvement of any of the sexes in each of the mining

stages is relative to the energy demands and hazardous nature of the

activity for instance, it was observed that mineral extraction using

either manual or explosives is done only by the male folks. The women

tends not to be too permanent at the mine and milling sites as they

often take time off to attend to domestic chores which involve their

reproductive roles such as child bearing, rearing and taking care of

household responsibilities.

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4.1.3. Educational Level

The level of an individual’s education is a determining factor in securing

employment opportunity in the formal sector hence Aboagye (1986)

associated informal sector activities with low level of education

especially in rural communities. This assertion was to an extent

reflected from findings obtained from the interviews.

As shown in Table 3, Appendix I, (2) 4% of the respondents never had

any formal education; (24) 48% ended their schooling at the elementary

level, (20) 40% attended secondary school and (4) 8% went through a

tertiary institution. It was observed that those that had higher

education own either a mine extraction site or milling equipments;

thus, they own their businesses and are employers of labour.

0 50 100 150

None

Primary

Secondary

Tertiary

Total

% frequency

Frequency

Fig. 4 Source: Author’s Field Work, 2011

The limited educational qualification of a majority of the respondents

may have accounted for their taking into mining operations which

according to Aboagye (1986) involves activities that are usually labour

intensive, relying on adapted technology, with skills acquired outside

the formal school system.

93

4.2. The Type of Mining Activity (ies)

4.2.1 The Type of Mineral Exploited and Duration, Engaged in

Mining Activities

The finding from respondents shows that a great number of those that

engaged in artisanal and small scale mining are found in the

exploitation of marble and subsequent quarrying into granite aggregates

for the construction industry compared to those engaged in extraction

of lime-stone, and feldspar and subsequent milling into industrial raw

materials.

As showed in Table 4, Appendix I, (33) 66% of the respondents are

engaged in the exploitation of marble and subsequent quarrying into

granite aggregates, (6) 12% are engaged in exclusive extraction of

limestone and milling into industrial raw materials, (2) 4% are

exclusively engaged in extraction of feldspar and milling into industrial

raw material while (9) 18% combines the extraction of limestone and

feldspar and subsequently milling of the raw materials into industrial

raw materials.

050

100150

No of Respondents

% of Respondents

Fig. 5

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2011

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Also the findings revealed that most of the respondents has been

engaged in mining activities for between five and ten years as showed in

Table 5, Appendix I, were (2) 4% has been engaged in mining activity for

less than a year who can be classified as new entrants, (7) 14% has

spent between a year and five, (29) 58% between six and ten years and

(12) 24% above ten years.

050

100150

Number of years engaged in many activities

Frequency

Fig. 6

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2011

In all, (41) 82% of the respondents has been engaged in mining

activities for above five years. This trends tends to show the consistency

of the people in the activity, thus can be concluded that mining has

been taken and forms one of the permanent occupation of the people of

Okpella as against the general held believe that people take into

artisanal and small scale mining as a seasonal or occasional

engagements.

95

Responses from unstructured interviews with key informants revealed

that people tend to engage more in granite quarrying using simple land

fools as against the mechanized quarrying equipments due to the

abundance of the mineral (marble stones), easy of accessibility and low

capital requirement to set-up a site as against the extraction and

milling of limestone and feldspar whose mineral deposits are not

common and claimed to be owned by a powerful few in the community

who farm-out to the miners for a fee and the capital requirement

needed to set up a milling operations. It was observed that as against

the traditional heating of the exposed rock using firewood or old car

tires to enhance cracking the stone deposit into boulders using 10kg

and 20kg hammers, some mine owners now uses dynamites to blast the

rock formations.

4.2.2 Why they engage in Mining Activities

In response as to why the respondents engage in mining activities, six

key factors were adduced by them in order of frequency as poverty, level

of education, to provide for household basic needs, loss of formal

employment, the desire to meet school requirements and financial

savings to invest in other business ventures (responses to Question No.

7, Appendix 11).

96

4.3. Knowledge of and Attitude to Impact of Mining on the

Environment.

The field study revealed that almost all the operators are aware and

conscious of the fact that their mining activities impacts negatively on

the environment they operates as 46 respondents representing 92%

agreed while 4 (8%) did not agree that their operations has negative

impact on the environment (responses to Question No. 8, Appendix 11).

In the same vain, 40 (80%) of the respondents acquired their knowledge

of the adverse effect of their operations on the environment through

physical observation, why 6 (12%) acquired such knowledge and belief

through formal learning process (responses to Question No. 9, Appendix

11).

Ironically, field study revealed that none of the respondents 50 (100%)

has ever benefited from any formal or informal environmental health

and safety impact sensitization campaign or training either by

government agency or non-government organization (NGO) since they

have been in the mining business (responses to Question No. 10,

Appendix 11).

4.4 The Mining Processes/Operations

Artisanal and small-scale mining operations traditionally usually adopt

simple hand-made-tools and manual operations in the extraction and

processing of the raw materials. However, with passage of time, the

application of medium size mechanized equipments and the application

and use of explosives to extract and process the raw materials are now

being adapted. Also the extraction processes to a large extent determine

the degree and level of environmental degradation and effect.

97

The field study revealed that 28 (56%) of the respondents are engaged

in surface mining operations, 7 (14%) in underground mining while 15

(30%) adopts both surface and underground mining processes in the

extraction of their raw materials be in granite, limestone or feldspar.

The implication of these findings is that all of their operations have the

potential of affecting the environment.

In response to the type of tools and equipments used in the extraction

process, the findings as shown in Table 6 in Appendix I revealed that 32

(64%) of the respondents uses simple hand-made rudimentary tools

such as hoes, pick axes, hammers, chisels and shovels 6 (12%) adopt

the use of explosives (dynamites) to blast the rock/stone formations, 4

(8%) uses wood fuel or horn out tires to heat the rocks to enhance

expansion and cracking. While 8 (16%), of the respondent’s, uses a

combination of any of the aforementioned processes, thus not relying

on a single process of mineral extraction.

32

648

50

Simple hand-made

Explosives

Wood fuel

Combination

Total

Fig. 7 Source: Author’s Field Work, 2011

It was observed that in any of the tool/equipment method adopted, they

all pose occupational health hazard and environmental pollution and

98

degradation impacts. The mine workers using simple hand – made tools

are prone to high injuries. The use of wood fuel and worn-out old car

tires not only generate a thick dark smoke, but the workers also inhale

the toxic substances which are released from the burnt wood and

rubber, hence making them susceptible to respiratory tract infections

and complications as well as contributing to global warming and ozone

depletion. Also, the novel adoption of the use of explosives (dynamites)

besides its observed high propensity to generating vibration which has

created cracks on buildings, also poses high security issues and

concerns as it was observed and also findings from un-structured

interviews with key informants confirmed that the handlers of the

dynamites are not legally licensed and the sources of securing the

explosives are also in suspect.

In response to the processing method being used to process the raw

materials marble, limestone and feldspar to granite and milled

industrial raw materials respectively, 36 respondents representing 72%

uses hand-made/operated tools for the processing of their raw-

materials to finished or semi-finished goods while 14 (28%) uses

mechanized equipments as showed in Table 7 of Appendix I. It was

observed that majority of those that are engaged in the processing of

marble rock to granite uses hand-operated tools such as hammers and

chisels to break the extracted boulders into smaller aggregates of

various sizes. Those engaged in mining of limestone and feldspar used

locally fabricated or imported milling machines to mill the extracted

boulders into coarse or smooth powdered form.

99

050

100

Hand operated

tools

Mechanized Equipments

Total

Frequency

% frequency

Fig. 8

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2011

In any of the processing method adopted it was observed that they both

have their environmental and occupational health challenges and

concerns for instance, evidence of injury scars and marks are common

among the mine workers using hammers to break boulders into granite

aggregates beside the inhaling of the dusts being generated. On the

other hand, the milling processes of limestone and feldspar comes with

their attendant noise, air and vibration pollutions.

4.5 Impacts on the Environment/Mitigating Measures Adopted

There was a near consensus by the respondents that the extractive and

processing methods and equipments be employed by them negatively

impacts on the environment, health of the operatives and community

members as 45 (90%) of the respondents holds this belief and view,

while 5 (10%) still hold a contrary view. However, the observed physical

environmental impacts by way of land degradation, erosions, gullies,

cracked buildings among others are evident enough.

100

To buttress the above view and belief of majority of the respondents on

the environmental impact of their operations, the degree and type of the

environmental impact were ranked thus (Table 8, Appendix I) land and

vegetation degradation 46 (92%). Air pollution 39 (78%); Noise pollution

33 (66%); creation of erosions and gullies 32 (64%); water pollution 21

(42%); creation of artificial ponds 18 (36%) and resulting to crack

buildings 6 (12%). Field observations and pictures taken greatly

collaborated the responses of the respondents on the impacts of their

operations by way of wasted and degraded farm lands, dusts and noise

pollutions, craters, gullies, erosions and crack building walls that all

abound at the various quarries, processing sites and the community

evidencing the environmental impact of their operations.

Fig. 9

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2011.

Despite the acknowledgement by the respondents that their operations

impacts negatively on the environment as well as identifying and

0102030405060708090

100

No of Frequency out of 50 respondents

% frequency out of 50 respondents

101

ranking areas of such impact, field study shows not much has been

done to mitigate these impacts and effects by the operators as shown in

their responses outlined in Table 9, Appendix I from the responses, 3

(6%) have employed re-a forestation measures on the wasted and

degraded land, 7 (14%) has embarked on erosion control measures, 2

(4%) has carried out sand filling of created pits and quarries, 1 (2%)

undertaken measures to control the dust created by their operations, 4

(8%) taken measures to reduce the noise being generated from their

operations, 5 (10%) actually paid compensation/repair of damages

arising from their operations and finally, 2 (40%) have reviewed their

operational methods by way of adoption of her technologies to mitigate

the adverse effect of their operations. However, none has made attempt

at providing alternative source of drinking water despite the pollution of

waterways by their operations nor pay any monetary compensation to

community members for damages arising from their operations.

The simple deduction from the above findings is that despite the glaring

adverse environmental and social impacts arising from the local

artisanal and small scale mines in Okpella, their attitude to and

implementation of remedial measures aimed at mitigating these impacts

are still very low and poor as revealed by their responses. This

deduction was further established by the respondent’s responses to

question 21 in Appendix II were 38 (76%) attested to the fact that their

efforts at reducing the environmental impacts has not be satisfactory

nor effective. The two common reasons given by the respondents forthis

state of affairs were that their operations cannot generate the needed

finances to adequately address such impacts and that the elements of

102

nature especially the rains usually erodes their remedial efforts

especially in erosion and gully controls during the raining seasons.

4.6 Occupational, Health and Safety.

The findings from the field study revealed a poor attitude and concern

to health and safety issues arising from the mining operation to both

the miners and community members despite the consciousness and

appreciation of the adverse health challenges mining activities poses to

their health as shown in their responses to question 23 outlined in

Table 10 of Appendix I. The finding, show that 43 (86%) agreed that

mining operations exposes them to dust; 40 (80%) to body injuries; 39

(78) to noise pollution; 33 (66%) to effects of over - exertion; 18 (36%) to

vibration effect; 16 (32%) to rock fall exposure; 12 (24%) to chemical

exposure; 5 (10%) to effects of poor ventilation and finally 3 (6%) to

misuse of explosives.

0102030405060708090

No of Frequency out of 50 respondents

% frequency out of 50 respondents

Fig. 10 Source: Author’s Field Work, 2011.

103

Ironically despite the high awareness of the adverse health and safety

challenges pose by the mining activities, basic provisions to mitigate

these challenges are not being contemplated as out of the twenty (20)

mining and milling sites covered by the study, none had a first Aid Box

and its basic requirements. In the same vain, the study revealed that

basic and mandatory safety equipments for mining activities are not

adequately provided or used as shown in Table 11 of Appendix I. 22

(44%) uses hand gloves, 7 (14%) uses dust masks despite the high

exposure, and 5 (10%) uses helmet and safety boots respectively.

5

22

75

No of Frequency out of 50 respondents

Helmet

Hand gloves

Dust masks

Safety books

Fig. 11

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2011

This low provision and usage rate of safety equipment cannot be trance

to low or absence of occupational accidents as 43 (86%) agreed that

there has been incidence of occupational accident either minor or major

as their sites as against 7 (14%) that claimed non occurrence of any

occupational accident at their sites.

104

In response to the common ailment and diseases usually suffered by

the miners, cold and catarrh 36 (72%) ranked highest, followed by

malaria 32 (64%), skin diseases 21 (42%) and diarrhea 13 (26%) as

shown in Table 12 of Appendix I. Also, 41 (82%) of the respondents

believe that these ailment and diseases can be attributed to the nature

of their work (mining) while 9 (18%) disagreed.

32

1321

36

No of Frequency out of 50 respondents

Malaria

Diarrhea

Skin diseases

Cold and catarrh

Fig. 12 Source: Author’s Field Work, 2011

Interpretation of above two findings indicates that the mining

operations poses health challenges and problems to the operators, as

the agreed common ailments of cold, catarrh, malaria and skin

diseases can be attributed to the dusty nature and strenuous

demands of the mining operations. This was collaborated by their

responses and information gathered through unstructured interviews

with key informants.

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4.7 Regulatory and Operating Standards

One of the key issues which have been acknowledged globally as vital

to achieving a sustainable mining operation being it large, medium or

artisanal and small scale is the level and degree of effective and

efficient regulatory and operational frameworks and standards put in

place by the various governments. Given the fact that the federal

government of Nigeria has the singular authority and control over all

natural mineral resources as found in the sub-national territories, the

soundness of it’s regulatory frameworks and the extent to which they

are effectively and efficiently implemented will greatly determined to a

great extent how sustainable the mining operations are.

The field findings as shown in Table 13, Appendix 1, highlighted the

gross failings of the relevant authorities to undertaken steps and

actions that have created the needed awareness on the part of

artisanal and small scale mining operations on the likely environment

challenges and impacts arising from their operations. This was trance

and collaborated from responses gathered through unstructured

interviews with key informants as a fall-out of the long neglected

efforts at main streaming the activities and operations of the artisanal

and small-scale miners into the National mining policy, rather, they

were all along be regarded and treated as illegal operators.

Analysis of the responses shows that 49 (98%) of the respondents

operations were not covered by any operating permit/license/lease

from the regulatory agency the Mining Cadastre Office (MCO), of the

Federal Ministry of Solid Mineral Development, Abuja. The only

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operator the claimed to have the legal permits on further inquiry

revealed that he mines limestone deposits on a sub-lease agreement

from the original title owners to the deposit.

Also, In response to Question 33 in Appendix 11, 34 (68%) of the

responded claimed not to have been visited or interacted with any

government official by way of inspection of their mining activities. 16

(32%) claimed to have had such visit/infraction. However further

inquiry revealed that officials that have made visits to the mining and

processing sites were official from Edo State small and Medium

Enterprise Agency, an Agency recently established by the state

government aimed at developing the capacities of small and medium

Enterprises in the state. Also, it was also revealed that Etsako East

Local Government Revenue Officials do come yearly to collect annual

operational levy. The fall-out of this state of affairs as revealed by the

study that none of the respondents has attended any formal training

or sensitization program organized either by government agency or

non-state actors to educate than effect/impact of their mining

operations on the environment and the appropriate remedial actions

to mitigate such impact.

Ironically in spite the classification of their operations as illegal, all the

respondents 50 (100%) claimed that they pay levies to the local

government council revenue officials and representatives of the

operating communities (response to Questions 35 and 36. Appendix

11). They claim to pay three types of levies comprising of an annual

operating levy to the local council, agreed amount on every truck lead

of milled limestone, or feldspar and granite to both the local council

107

revenue official and operating community representatives. All these

levies are receipted which were sighted during the field study.

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Chapter Five

5.0 Discussion of Results

This study is aimed at assessing the rehabilitation practices of artisanal and

small-scale miners that will ultimately mitigate the adverse environmental,

occupational and health effects had impacts arising from their mining

activities in Okpella. A great attention was paid to the methods and

processes adopted by the miners in extracting and milling of the raw

materials into various finished and semi- processed products for sales.

In doing this, research questions were designed and administered to the

mine operators and workers. Opinions of community leaders, trade

association executives and government agency officials were obtained

through semi structured and un-structured interviews. The responses

obtained from these interviews were supplemented with non-verbal

information from personal observations made during the field study.

Consequently, in this chapter, the main findings of the study would be

identified.

Based on the analyzed and interpreted data in Chapter Four, the following

findings / results were made in relation to the study objectives:

Who are Engaged in Mining Activities and Level of Awareness of

Environmental, Health and Safety Impacts of their Operations.

The study revealed that artisanal and small-scale mining activity despite its

illegal nature and outlook as carried out in Okpella, has been generally

accepted as a way of life by the people who sees the natural resources

endowed in their communities as their God’s give gift which can be exploited

without recourse to any approving authority. With this mindset and

disposition therefore it is seen by the people as any rural community

members will see the act of farming food and cash crops as a source of

livelihood. In effect, it is taken as a way of life accommodating all ages of

people with no gender barriers or inhibitions. Also, there is no barrier to

entry or exit beside the traditional land ownership rights. This is more so, as

the study revealed that no formal training or specialized skills are required

to be so engaged in any of the activities. In a nutshell, their activities are not

perceived by the miners as illegal in spite their not having any official

permits to so mined the mineral resources.

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Also, the study revealed that the people resorted to mining mainly as a

livelihood strategy in the absence of better alternatives. The respondents

adduced various reasons for their taking into mining amongst which are to

provide for the basic needs of life and their families, meeting children’s

school fee, being the easily available option after loss of formal employment

especially after the closure of Edo Cement Company, Okpella and as a

veritable means of accumulating savings for lesser strenuous future

undertakings such as trading.

The use of non-renewable natural resources with a growing in-satiable

market demand acknowledged sustainability beyond preserving the

ecological integrity of the resource. Interestingly, the study revealed that

artisanal and small scale mining activities although negatively impacts on

the environment, but has largely serve as a veritable source of livelihood

strategy and growth of other forms of livelihoods to the rural mining

communities members. This aspect of source of livelihood and social equity

was evident in modest infrastructural, social and economic enhancement of

Okpella People and the communities in comparison to neighboring

communities who are not so natural mineral resource endowed. These

modest differences were attributed by the study to the livelihood

opportunities being offered by the ASM activities to the Okpella people.

The above findings goes to buttress the assertion of Coppin, 2005 (ibid) in

the Final Report by Wardell Armstrong in a commissioned project: Sectoral

Environmental and Social Assessment under the Nigeria Sustainable

Management of Mineral Resources Project (SMMRP) a World Bank/FGN

Sponsored Project, where it was stated that “Artisanal and Small-Scale

Mining (ASM) operations dominate mining in Nigeria, particularly from

around 1903 up till 1940s when there was an amalgamation into more

commercial large ventures and that however, there was a re-emergence of

ASM outfits especially for metals and gemstones after independence in

1970s resulting from the declining tin prices, civil war (1967-1970) and

other factors”.

The report further posited that today, the situation in the ASM sector in

Nigeria has been described by some as utterly chaotic with virtual

110

breakdown in law and order in the mining areas (especially since the

dissolution of the mines field police force). It however noted that this

disorganized sector probably provides a rural livelihood to many thousands

of informal artisanal miners in Nigeria in all the six regional mining zones.

That since there is currently no clear definition of ASM in Nigeria, and

because the vast majority of these miners work casually, seasonally or

informally, it is impossible to determine the actual number of workers in the

ASM sector, which some claim may be as many as 400,000 people.

Ironically, the study showed that there is a general consciousness and

awareness amongst the mine owners, workers and community members of

the glaring and inherent effects and impacts arising from the mining

activities to the environment and health of the operators and community

members. The environmental degradations and health hazards are evident

through the numerous gully erosions; abandon mine pits creating artificial

ponds, waste farm lands and vegetations, cracked building walls, dust and

noise emissions/pollutions which form daily part of their operations.

The negative impact of their operations was aptly captured by Hentschel et

al (2003) who asserted that “the environmental costs of artisanal and

small scale mining activities are in general higher than those of other

types of mining. This means that artisanal and small scale mining is

dirtier per unit of output than medium-sized or large and modern

mining operations”. They went further to highlight the most common

and important environmental probems arising from their operations

as:

i. Landscape destruction

ii. Garbage and solid waste

iii. Erosion damage and deforestation

iv. Tropical diseases such as malaria

v. Mercury pollution

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vi. Cyanide pollution

vii. Direct dumping of affluent into rivers

viii. Improper closures

ix. River siltation

x. Acid rock drainage

xi. River damage in alluvial areas

xii. Cultural damage due to invasion of sensitive tribal lands

and

xiii. Uncontrolled ASM activities in protected areas.

In the same vain, Chaanda et al asserted that the mining of barytes by

artisanal miners in Azara area of the middle belt trough of Nigeria has

devastated over 1,000 ha of arable land.

Environmental, Health and Safety Remediation and Rehabilitation

Practices by the Miners and their Effectiveness.

The study revealed that the miners has no rehabilitation programs rather,

any environmental remedial measures undertaken were done mainly to have

access to the mineral resources not as a compulsive need to remedy the

damage done to the environment. The belief among the miners is that their

operations do not generate the needed financial resources required to

remedy the ecological damages arising from their operations.

It was also discovered that the issue of wearing of protective gears against

health and occupational hazards by the workers which should have served

as protection against shocks such as ill health, accidents occasioning body

injuries and at times death were treated with utmost levity. The mine

owners regards the provision of simple protective gears such as hand gloves,

dust masks, helmet or safety boots as too financial involving and demanding

on there merger operating capital. This is against the back drop that almost

all the mines has recorded incidence of occupational mishaps of varying

112

degree ranging from falling rocks injuries, misuse of explosives and deaths

which are not formally reported to appropriate authorities. The commonest

of occupational health preventive measures through the provision of First

Aid Boxes were not found or provided by the mine owners.

Closely related to above finding is the consensus by the mine owners,

workers and community members that the mining activities contributes

largely to the cause of most of the common ailments the workers and

community members often suffer from. In order of ranking the identified

common ailments were cold and catarrh, malaria, skin diseases and

diarrhea which they tend to attribute to the dust and air pollutions, mine

pits turned to ponds that breads mosquitoes especially during the raining

seasons, contaminated drinking water and over-exertion from the energy

sapping nature of the mining activities. These could better be appreciated

against the background of poor health outcomes and facilities in the

communities.

Also, the study revealed a new growing phenomenon which is the increasing

use of explosives (dynamites) by the local miners in the extraction of the rock

materials as against the traditional using of fire to reduce the strength of the

rock material before using hammer to break it into boulders. Hitherto,

dynamites were only used by the medium and large scale miners under a

controlled and regulated regime. In light of the security issues and concerns

associated with the free use of dynamites in an informal, illegal and un-

regulated activity, no doubt added security and social concerns and

demission to the already identified environmental problems more so in light

of recent security challenges and bomb planting in the country.

Stephen and Alern (2001), asserted that “mining remains one of the

most perilous occupations in the world, both in terms of short term

injuries and fatalities, but also due to long term impacts such as

cancers, and respiratory conditions such as silicosis, asbestosis and

pneumoconiosis”. No doubt occupational health and personal safety

issues are frequently and will always be on the agenda when artisanal

and small-scale mining is discussed. However, reliable data or official

statistics about accidents or occupational diseases are generally

113

unavailable in Nigeria. According to International Labour Organization

(ILO), there are five major health risks in artisanal and small-scale

mining and processing (Jenning, 1999). These are:

i) Exposure to dust (silicosis)

ii) Exposure to mercury and other chemicals

iii) Effects of noise and vibration

iv) Effects of poor ventilation (heat humidity, lack of oxygen)

v) Effect of over-exertion, inadequate work space and

inappropriate equipment.

According to (Jenning, 1999), the most frequently cited causes of

accidents in artisanal and small-scale mines are; rock fall,

subsidence, misuse of explosives; lack of knowledge; lack of training;

violation of regulations; and obsolete and poorly maintained

equipments which the study findings corroborated.

Effectiveness of the Roles of Supervisory and Regulatory

Agencies.

In respect to the issues of regulation and enforcement of operating

standards, the study revealed that almost all the miners has no legal permits

authorizing them to mine the natural resources. Hence, they are illegal

miners. The illegal nature of their activities does not give room for the

standardization of their operations and processes in consonance with the

operating guild lines as outlined in the Mineral and Mining Regulations,

2010 made under and pursuant to the Nigeria Mineral and Mining Act,

2007.

Drawing from the semi-structured interview with official of the Sustainable

Management of Mineral Resources Project (SMMRP) Abuja, it was revealed

that much is being done to main-stream the activities of Artisanal and

Small-Scale Miners whose activities are mainly officially regarded as being

illegal into the National Mining Policy and Framework through capacity

114

building, exposures to modern mining technologies, formation of co-

operative societies, financial grants and technical support.. To date, a total

number of eighty-six (86) ASM’S and Mining Communities have benefited

from the Micro Grant (Credit) Scheme of the project out of the targeted Two

hundred and fifty (250) ASM Co-operatives and Communities of the project..

Ironically, a critical aspect of ASM operations which has to do with

environmental degradation and pollution which can best be checked through

an effective and efficient field operations policing and monitoring is not been

given a serious thought and consideration by the various regulatory agencies

as revealed by the study. Hence, the increasing case of environmental

degradation and pollution from the activities of ASM’s across the country.

In recognition of this perennial problem, by Hentschel et al (2003) asserted

that one major problem of artisanal and small scale mining is the great

individual number of polluters, normally concentrated in a specific area,

which causes significant local impact and by nature of their un-regulated

and non-formalized operations, it becomes very difficult to control or monitor

environmental violations or enforcement of regulations and standards by the

relevant regulatory agencies due largely to inadequate resources and

inaccessible nature of most of their operations. They went further to state

that “there is the urgent need to create a straightforward, steady

sustainable development in the artisanal and small-scale mining sub-

sector that will best place it to contribute to rural development and its

integration into the formal economy by governments of mining nations

through sound policies which will be based on four strategic pillars of

poverty alleviation, a good business climate for the artisanal and

small-scale mining sub-sector, sustainability, and stabilization of

government revenue from the sector.

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Chapter Six

Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations

6.1 Conclusion

In assessing the environment rehabilitation practices of the artisanal and

small scale mining activities in Okpella, it can be deduced that:

(i) The problems and concerns of environmental degradation, pollution

and devastation arising from the operations of artisanal and small

scale miners in Okpella and by extension other Nigeria rural mining

communities are real, grievous, environmental and human

threatening.

(ii) Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining activities in spite of serving as a

veritable source of livelihood and provision of social equity to the rural

community households, it’s environmental sustainability issues and

concerns poses a great challenge to mining communities and the

nation at large. For instance, it has been established that there over

thousand (1,000) mining ponds being relics of mining of tine and

columbine in Plateau State in the 1960’s through 1980’s. Ironically, it

is estimated that it will cost the government of Plateau States today

over N20 billion to re-claim and restore the mining ponds for any

meaning use which for outstripped the economic value that was

derived from the mining operations years back.

The glaring deduction we can make from above is the fact that

environmental concerns are not sufficiently and adequately integrated

into the nation’s mining policies formulation and implementations to

make mining activities development and environmentally sustainable

be it at artisanal or large scale levels. To this end, the challenge to

government and operators especially at the ASM Level should be to

evolve operational policies and regulations aimed at balancing the

“economic benefits of (ASM) Mining with the environmental cost of the

activity” If future generations in the mining communities could indeed

grow up to meet an environment they can truly call a habitat.

116

(iii) The illegal nature and scope of the artisanal and small scale mining

begets illegal operational outcomes by way of environmental

degradation, since they do not operate under any operational

guidelines and standards. In order to ensure environmental

sustainability of their operations, there is the need to recognize and

mainstream their operations into the National Mining Policy and

Framework by policy makers. This is against the back drop of the that

about 95% of the mining sector’s contribution to the nation’s Gross

Domestic Product (GDP) comes from the artisanal and small scale

miners of which over 90% of them operates illegally, there is the

urgent need therefore to remove the tag of “illegal operators” from

these miners and formalize their operations as part of efforts aimed at

preserving these finite natural resources for the future generations.

(iv) The artisanal and small scale miners are further driven to embrace

illegal operations and resist formalization and mainstreaming into the

formal mining framework due largely to the stringent, cumbersome

and high demanding technical and financial requirements for the

formalization of their operations by way of obtaining a Small-Scale

Mining Lease (SSML) from the Mining Cadastre Office (MCO), Abuja.

The requirements as outlined in sections 43-50 of the Minerals and

Mining Regulations, 2010 made under and pursuant to the Nigeria

Minerals and Mining Act, 2007and the Mining Cadastre Office (MCO),

Guide for Mining Rights Applicants are almost the some as the

requirements for the acquisition of Mining Leases (MLs) and Quarry

Leases (QLs) without taking into consideration the peculiar technical

and financial constrains and limitations of the artisanal and Small-

Scale Miners.

117

6.2 Recommendations

In an attempt to postulate and put forward workable recommendations

aimed at addressing the environmental concerns and challenges arising from

the activities of artisanal and Small Scale miners in Okpella and by

extension other rural mining communities in Nigeria, a holistic approach

was adopted, as it has been established by the study, that the environmental

issues and concerns arising from the mining activities are a by product of

the generic and institutional created problems, limitations and constrains.

Hence, limiting our focus to the environmental issues alone, will amount to

treating a symptom instead of the ailment. Therefore, the recommendations

put forward by this study are aimed at addressing the legal, regulatory and

operational constrains and problems especially as they relates to the

environmental issues and concerns of the artisanal and small scale mining

sub sector of the Nigeria mining industry.

(i) Review of Legislations

There is the need to review the legislations regulating the access to

natural mineral resources and the environmental concerns arising

from the operations of the ASMs. The present legislations to a large

degree restrict their ability of meeting the stringent technical and

financial requirements for the acquisition of a Small Scale Mining

Leases (SSML). A downward review is imperative.

Also, the present legal provisions for penalties and punishments

dealing with illegal mining and environmental degradation through

mining activities are at best very derisory and as such, the fines and

prison terms should be reviewed upward taking into consideration,

the level of damage, mineral type and location as this step will

substantially discourage illegal mining and its attendant

environmental degradation.

(i) Integration / Mainstreaming Policies and Programmes.

Policies should as a matter of priority be developed to effectively

integrate and mainstream the artistanal and small- scale miners into

the national mining policy framework by way of evolving policies plans

and programmes that will aid them to easily formalize their miming

118

titles and rights, access to geological information and data, enhance

their technical and managerial skills and capabilities. The relevant

government agencies can enlist the support and assistance of our

various Universities, Polytechnics, Research Institutions and other

nations such as Canada and South Africa that has successful

integrate their ASM in this regard.

(iii) Establish an Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Agency.

As presently obtain, artisanal and small-scale mining activities are

subsumed under a department in the Federal Ministry of solid

Mineral Development without the desired attention and focus.

Ironically not much is done at the state and local government levels

were much of these activities are carried out. To this end therefore,

there is the need to a full fledge agency under the Ministry with the

sole task of developing the artisanal and small scale mining sub

sector. The existing structures and operational machineries of the on-

going World Bank Assisted sustainable Management of Mineral

Resource Project (AMMRP) due to its present national reach can be

transformed into the proposed agency with the necessary legislative

back-up at the end of the project.

(iv) Formation of Miners Association and Co-operative Societies

In a developing field such as ASM where experience, finance, skill and

technical know-how are lacking, the need for co-operation and

synergy cannot be over emphasized. Government should help and

encourage the formation of ASM Associations and Co-Operative

Societies especially at communities and mineral(s) type levels. The

present initiatives of SMMRP in this regard should be encouraged,

adopted and replicated by every solid mineral endowed state and local

government across the country.

Through such trade associations and co-operative societies, it will be

easier for them to mobilize funds, organize trainings, awareness and

sensitization programmes for the miners. Also, from the rules that

govern the associations and co-operative societies, it will be easier to

implement environmental and safety measures so as to reduce on

environmental and health hazards that affects the environment and

constrain the activities of the miners.

119

(v) Provision of Financial, Vocational Training Assistance and

Improved Mechanization

Lack of financial capital has been identified by the operators and

workers as a main hindrance to their activities especially the

acquisition of appropriate extractive and processing equipments.

Given the different socio-economic background of people involved in

the sub-sector, it becomes difficult to extend financial assistance to

individual operator hence, the recommendation for the formation of

trade associations and co-operative societies where this financial

assistance can be channeled through.

Apart from financial assistance, the sub-sector also needs assistance

in kind through the provision of extractive and processing equipment

through a Hiring Scheme to be put in place by the concerned local,

state and federal government agencies and ministries. The Miners can

further be assisted by government through importation of simple and

easy to operate extractive and processing tools and equipment at

subsidized cost. Also, through concern ministries, the government can

support research, at tertiary and research institutions to design and

provide simple, cost effective and sustainable mining technology.

In all there, the roles of adequate skills and competences cannot be

over emphasized. To this and, there is the need for formal and semi

formal training for the miners using the extension workers from the

relevant government agencies and Non Government Organizations

(NGOs) as currently obtains in the agricultural sector.

(vi) Occupational Safety and Sensitization Programmes

Due to the illegal and informal nature of their operations, accidents

and deaths that do occur at the mine sites are often under reported or

not reported at all. The lack of awareness about safety measures

against these accidents and preventable diseases coupled with poor

tools do jeopardize their lives. Through the various government

agencies, NGOs and local communities groups, awareness campaigns

and sensitization meetings can be organized periodically for the

miners.

120

The miners need to be alert at all times about the effect of their

activities and encouraged to take pre-emptive measures to mitigate or

reduce the negative impacts. Also, with the miners buy –in, local

newspapers advertisements and radio programmes can be used to

increase health and safety awareness. During these programmes,

specialists in occupational health, safety and mining operations can

be invited to contribute to the programme especially in relation to

hygiene practices, purchase and use of safety gears and work place

safety measures to reduce on the common preventable diseases and

accidents.

(vii) Environmental Awareness

Finally, the study has established the fact that the activities of ASMs

in Okpella just like in every other Nigeria rural mining communities

are undoubtedly environmentally degrading. However, being a source

of livelihood and social equity to a number of rural mining

communities dwellers and its great potentials for the economic

transformation and employment generation in Nigeria, adequate and

effective measures need to be adopted to reclaim the destroyed lands

and mitigate future degradation. One of the measures suggested for

adoption involves the re – claming through sand filling of the

unproductive or abandon pits with soil so as to make them useful for

other future uses.

Also, the miners should be trained and encouraged to plant fast

maturing trees in order to preserve the species that take a long time

to reach maturity. In al these, there is need for intensive

environmental awareness and sensitization campaigns and

development of environmental preserving programmes targeting the

ASM sub-sector as part of the national mining policy which should be

implemented from the federal down to the states and local

government levels. More importantly, the whole process will require

prior consultation and participation by all the stakeholders especially

the local miners and mining community members so as to

accommodate their views, pleas and aspirations. In other words, there

is the need for a bottom-up approach if the desired results are to be

achieved.

121

It is the researchers’ believe that if these modest policy statements as

outlined in the conclusion and the recommendations of this study are given

due consideration in mining policies formulation and implementation by

policy makers at all levels of government, mining operators and stakeholders

especially as it affects the artisanal and small- scale mining, the nation’s

drive towards achieving the much desired economy diversification,

employment and wealth creation, arrest of urban and rural migration, rapid

development of our rural communities and the attainment of Vision 20, 2020

will not only have be given the desired boost, but also help in the drive for

the attainment of not only a socially and environmentally sustainable

artisanal and small scale mining activities but that which will meet the key

indicators of sustainable development in our rural mining communities

across Nigeria.

122

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130

APPENDIX I:

TABLES OF FINDINGS

Table I: Age groups of Respondents

Age Grouping in years No of Respondents out

of 50

% of Respondents

Less than 18 5 10

18 – 30 18 36

31 – 49 21 42

Above 50 6 12

Total 50 100

Source: Fieldwork findings

Table II: Gender of Respondents

Sex of Respondents Frequency % frequency

Male 34 68

Female 16 32

Total 50 100

Source: Fieldwork findings

Table III: Level of Education

Education Level Frequency % frequency

None 2 4

Primary 24 48

Secondary 20 40

Tertiary 4 8

Total 50 100

Source: Fieldwork findings

131

Table IV: Type of Mineral Exploited

Type of Mineral No of Respondents % of Respondents

Marble (Granite) 33 66

Limestone 6 12

Feldspar 2 4

Limestone and feldspar 9 18

Total 50 100

Source: Fieldwork findings

Table V: Number of Years Engaged in Mining Activities

No of Years Frequency % frequency

Less than one year 2 4

1 – 5 years 7 14

6 – 10 years 29 58

Above 10years 12 24

Total 50 100

Source: Fieldwork findings

Table VI: Tools/Equipments Used in Extraction of Raw Materials – Question

No 13

Tool/Equipment Frequency % frequency

Simple hand-made 32 64

Explosives 6 12

Wood fuel 4 8

Combination 8 16

Total 50 100

Source: Fieldwork findings

Table VII: Processing of Raw-material Methods Adopted – Question No 15

Processing Method Frequency % frequency

Hand operated tools 36 72

Mechanized Equipments 14 28

Total 50 100

Source: Fieldwork findings

132

Table VIII: Environmental Impact of Mining/processing activities –Question No

17

Type of Impact No of Frequency out of 50

respondents

% frequency out of

50 respondents

Land/vegetation degradation 46 92

Creation of artificial ponds 18 36

Creation of erosions/gullies 32 64

Water pollution 21 42

Air pollution 39 78

Noise pollution 33 66

Crack buildings 6 12

Source: Fieldwork findings

Table IX: Environmental Impact and Mitigating Measures Adopted by the Miners

- Question No 20

Mitigating measure employed No of Frequency out of 50

respondents

% frequency out of

50 respondents

Re-aforestation 3 6

Erosion control 7 14

Sand filling of pits 2 4

Provision of alternative sources of

drinking water

- -

Dust control 1 2

Noise reduction 4 8

Payment of compensation/ repair of

damages

5 10

Reviewing methods of operations 2 4

Monetary compensation to

persons/community

- -

Source: Fieldwork findings

133

Table X: Health and Safety Effects – Question No 23

Health Effects/Exposure No of Frequency out of 50

respondents

% frequency out of

50 respondents

Exposure to dust 43 86

Exposure to chemical 12 24

Effects of noise 39 78

Effects of vibration 18 36

Body injuries 40 80

Effects of poor ventilation 5 10

Effects of over – exertion 33 66

Exposure to rock falls 16 32

Misuse of explosives 3 6

Source: Fieldwork findings

Table XI: Provision/Use of Safety Equipment – Question No 27

Safety Equipment No of Frequency out of 50

respondents

% frequency out of

50 respondents

Helmet 5 10

Hand gloves 22 44

Dust masks 7 14

Safety books 5 10

Source: Fieldwork findings

Table XII: Common diseases suffer by miners

Common diseases No of Frequency out of 50

respondents

% frequency out of

50 respondents

Malaria 32 64

Diarrhea 13 26

Skin diseases 21 42

Cold and catarrh 36 72

Source: Fieldwork findings

134

Table: XIII: Regulatory and Operational Standards

Issue/Question Yes Response

out of 50

Respondents

No Response Out

Of 50

Respondents

Number % Number %

i) Ave the Mining operation covered by regulatory

permits

1

2

49

98

ii) Has any government official visit the mining or

milling site(s) to inspect your operations

16

32

34

64

iii) Have you ever attended any

training/sanitization program on effect of

mining in the environment.

Nil

Nil

50

100

i) Do you pay any form of tax or levy 50 100 - -

Source: Fieldwork findings

135

APPENDIX I1:

QUESTIONNAIRES

Institute for Development Studies,

University of Nigeria (UNN),

Enugu Campus,

Enugu.

2nd May, 2011.

Dear Respondent (Mr./Mrs.………………………)

This questionnaire is part of an academic exercise required by the Institute

for Development Studies, University of Nigeria, Enugu Campus, for the

award of an M.Sc Degree in Development Studies. The questionnaire is

designed to obtain necessary information required for a study titled "An

Assessment of the Environmental Impact Rehabilitation Practices of

Artisanal and Small- Scale Miners (ASM) in Okpella.

All information obtained in the course of this study would be treated with

utmost confidentiality. Therefore, as a mine owner/worker/stakeholder, your

positive response would be of primary importance. Consequently, your co-

operation in this regard will be highly appreciated.

Thank you.

Ediawe, Roland J.

Researcher

136

GUIDELINES FOR COMPLETING THE QUESTIONNAIRE

Tick in the relevant box or write out the relevant information as may

be appropriate. Use additional paper where space provided on the

questionnaire is not adequate.

i) Date of Administration/Interview …………………………………

ii) Location of Respondent …………………………………………….

iii) Respondents Number ……………………………………………….

A) Demographic Information

1) Age:

(a) Less than 18years (b) 18 - 30years

(c) 31 – 49years (d) 50 + years

2) Sex: a) Male (b) Female

3) Level of Education: a) None (b) Primary

c) Secondary (d) Tertiary

4) Marital Status: a) Single (b) Married

c) Divorced (d) Widow

137

B) The type of Mining Activity(ies).

5) Type of mining activity engaged: (tick all that apply)

(a) Marble extraction only

(b) Marble extraction and quarrying into granite

(c) Quarrying of marble into granite only

(d) Lime stone extraction only

(e) Extraction of lime stone and milling into industrial material

(f) Milling of limestone only

(g) Feldspar extraction only

(h) Extraction of feldspar and milling into industrial raw

material

(i) Milling of feldspar only

(j) Combination of any of the above, specify ……………………

…………………………………………………………………………

6) For how long have you been engaged in mining activity (ies)?

a) Less than a year

b) 1 – 5years

c) 5 – 10years

d) Above 10 years

138

7) Why are you engaged in mining instead of other occupation

such as agriculture?

…………………………………………………………………………

C) Knowledge of and Attitude to Impact of Mining on the

Environment.

8) Are you aware/believe that mining activities impacts negatively

on the environment?

Yes No

9) If answer to above is Yes, How did you acquired the knowledge

a) Physical observation

b) Acquired through formal learning process

10) Have you ever benefited from any environmental, health and

safety impact sensitization campaign or training formal or

informal since being involved in mining activity.

Yes No

11) If yes, which organization carried out the programme

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

139

D) The mining processes/operations

12) What method(s) of extraction is/are used to get the mineral?

(a) Surface mining

(b) Underground mining

(c) Others, specify …………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………..

13) What tools/equipments do you use in the extraction process?

a) Simple hand-made tools

b) Use of explosives

c) Combination of the two above

d) Others, specify ………………………………………………..

…………………………………………………………………………

14) What mineral(s) do you engaged in processing?

a) Marble to granite

b) Limestone to industrial raw material

c) Feldspar to industrial raw material

d) Combination of any of the above, specify

…………………………………………………………………………..

140

15) What processing methods do you adopt?

a) Use of hand-made/operated tools

b) Use of mechanized equipments

c) Other method, specify ……………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………….

E) Impacts on the environment

16) Do you think the method(s) of extraction and processing as

employment by you have some effect on the natural

environment? Yes No

17) If yes, what are some of the effects? (Tick all that apply)

a) Degradation of land and vegetation

b) Creation of artificial ponds

c) Creation of erosion and gullies

d) Water pollution

e) Air pollution

f) Noise pollution

g) Cracked buildings

h) Others, specify ………………………………………………………

18) Has there be any complain of adverse impact of your mining

activities by members of the community?

Yes No

141

19) With or without complains from outsides, have you ever made

attempt(s) to reduce or curtail the adverse environmental

effects arising from your mining activities?

Yes No

20) If yes, what are some of the measures being undertaken?

(Tick as apply).

a) Re-aforestation

b) Erosion control measures

c) Sand filling of pits

d) Providing alternative source of drinking water

e) Dust control measures

f) Noise reduction measures

g) Payment of compensation or repair of damages done

h) Reviewing or varying method of operations

i) Monentary compensation to affected person/community

j) Others, specify ……………………………………………………….

21) Are the efforts at reducing the environmental impacts

satisfactory and effective? Yes No

22) Give reason(s)/comment(s) on answer given above.

…………………………………………………………………………………

142

F) Occupational Health and Safety

23) Do the mining activity expose you/your workers to any of the

following? (Tick as apply)

a) Exposure to dust

b) Exposure to chemical

c) Effects of noise

d) Effects of vibration

e) Body injuries

f) Effects of poor ventilation

g) Effects of over-exertion

h) Rock falls

i) Misuse of explosives

24) Are health and safety regulations maintained?

Yes No

25) Is there any first Aid Box and its basic requirements on site?

Yes No

26) Are the workers provided with basic safety equipments?

Yes No

143

27) If yes, please tick as apply

Equipments in use:

a) Helmet

b) Hand gloves

c) Dust masks

d) Safety boots

e) Others, specify ………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………….

28) Has there been any incidence(ies) of occupational accident at

this site? Yes No

29) If yes, how was or were it/they handled?

…………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

30) What are the common diseases that the workers do suffer

from? (Tick as apply)

a) Malaria

b) Diarrhea

c) Skin diseases

d) Cold and catarrh

e) Others, specify ………………………………………………………

31) Would you say the disease(s) as ticked above is/are related to

the mining activities? Yes No

144

G) Regulatory and operational standards

32) Are your mining operations covered by any regulatory

permit(s)? Yes No

33) Has there been any formal/official visit by government officials

to assess your operations Yes No

34) Have you ever attended any sensitization or training program

focusing on the impact of mining activities on the environment

organized either by government agency or a Non-Government

organization (NGO). Yes No

35) Do you pay any form of taxe(s) or levy(ies) to any government

agency(ies). Yes No

36) If answer to above is yes, kindly elaborate ………………………

………………………………………………………………………………

145

INTERVIEW GUIDE

Community Leaders and Officials’ of the Department of Artisanal and Small-

Scale Mining, Federal Ministry of Minerals and Steel Dev., Abuja.

(A) Community Leaders

1) For how long has mining especially Artisanal and Small-Scale

Mining been carried out in your community?

2) Has mining activities brought any economic and social

development to the community?

3) Do the community members appreciate the environmental and

human effects/ impacts of mining operations on the

environment?

4) Has there been any conflict between the community/members

and the miners due to the degradation of the environment

arising from their operations?

5) Has there been any organized efforts by the community to

enforce better environmental practices from miners.

6) Are there any remedial measures/practices to ameliorate the

impact of their operations by the miners and if so, how effective

are such measure?

146

(B) Government Officials

1) The artisanal and small scale miners operate mainly in the

informal sector of the economy, hence operates largely outside

the regulatory orbits. What efforts are being made by

government to integrate and mainstream them into the formal

regulatory and operational framework?

2) The environmental and human impact of artisanal and Small

scale mining in recent times has been of concern to Nigerians,

especially in light of the recent lead poisoning incident in

Zamfara State, what is the government doing to address this

phenomenon?

3) One of the reasons adduced for the adverse environmental and

human effects of the artisanal and Small-scale mining activities

is the issue of the use of rudimentary tools and equipments.

What is government doing in this regard with a view to

developing low-cost modern tools and equipments?

4) There is the view of some stakeholders that the requirements

for the granting of small-scale mining lease as provided for in

the Nigerian Minerals and Mining Act, 2007, and Mineral Title

and Application and Administrative Guidelines as issued by the

Mining Cadastre Office (MCO), Abuja, are such that may be

difficult for most of these miners to meet and hence,

discourages them from seeking permits and formalization of

their operations. What is government doing to address this

issue?