An Analysis of Psychological Wellbeing Indicators of GNH

Through a Buddhist Perspective

by Tashi Wangmo

Bachelors of Commerce University of North Bengal 2003

A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

MPhil Policy Study (PPE)

in the Graduate Academic Unit of School of Graduate Studies

Supervisor John Valk PhD Renaissance College UNB

Emery Hyslop-Margison PhD Faculty of Education UNB

Ellen Rose PhD Faculty of Education UNB

Examining Board Linda Eyre PhD Faculty of Education UNB Chair

Ian Methven PhD Director of the Property Studies UNB

Jennifer Pazienza PhD Faculty of Education UNB

This thesis is accepted by the

Dean of Graduate Studies

THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW BRUNSWICK

September 2010

copyTashi Wangmo 2010

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ABSTRACT

Measuring wellbeing is an important task in determining whether peoples lives

are improving or becoming worse over time Gross National Happiness (GNH) is the

central development philosophy of Bhutan This philosophy aims at maximizing human

wellbeing and minimizing human suffering by balancing economic needs with spiritual

and emotional needs of the people The Centre for Bhutan Studies in 2008 developed the

Gross National Happiness Index as a tool to measure the overall wellbeing of the

Bhutanese people and to track the performances of government policies The index

comprises of 72 indicators grouped under nine domains psychological wellbeing

cultural resilience education health time use and balance good governance community

vitality ecological diversity and living standard

The purpose of this study is to determine the influence of Buddhist principles of

happiness on the indicators of psychological wellbeing domain and the coherence of

indicators with the concept of GNH Although conducting an in-depth analysis of each of

the indicators under the nine domains would be most beneficial due to the vastness of the

indicators this study focuses only on the indicators of psychological wellbeing Since

Buddhism has long played an important role in the political economic and social lives of

Bhutanese the Buddhist principles of happiness provides the framework to analyze the

indicators Each indicator is determined to what extent they reflect Buddhist principles

Findings from this study reveal that the core teachings of Buddhism find a place in each

of the indicators The study thus concludes that the indicators of psychological wellbeing

are influenced by Buddhism and consistent with the concept of GNH

ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

There are many people to thank for the successful completion of this study I

would first like to thank my supervisor Dr John Valk for his continuous support

guidance and encouragement I would also like to thank my co-supervisors Dr Emery

Hyslop-Margison and Dr Ellen Rose for their guidance and time which helped me

complete my study on time I would also like to thank the University of New Brunswick

especially the Graduate School Unit for partially funding my study My sincere thanks

also go to the Royal Government of Bhutan for granting me study leave

I would also like to thank Ms Tshokey Zangmo Researcher at the Centre for

Bhutan Studies for providing me with information on GNH Index and for clearing my

doubts I am also thankful to Ven Lama Mepham a Buddhist meditation teacher at the

University of Arkansas for guiding me and sharing his knowledge on Buddhist principles

Lastly I am very thankful to my family and friends for their continued love and support

iii

Table of Contents

ABSTRACT ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii

Table of Contents iv

List of Tables vi

List of Figures vii

List of Abbreviations viii

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1 11 The Bhutanese Economy and Culture 3

12 Political History and Transition to Democracy 5

13 Gross National Happiness the Development Philosophy of Bhutan 7

14 Explanation of Gross National Happiness Index 8

15 Research Questions and Objective of the Study 13

16 Methodology 14

17 Limitations and Significance of the study 17

18 Summary 18

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 20 21 Buddhism and Gross National Happiness 21

22 Evolution of the Concept 29

23 GNH Discourses and Debates 33

24 Quantifying Gross National Happiness 37

25 Summary 39

CHAPTER THREE THE BUDDHIST PRINCIPLES OF HAPPINESS 41 31 Buddhist View of Happiness 42

32 Key Mahayana Buddhist Principles 45

321 The four noble truths 45

322 The Law of Karma Principle of Interdependence and Compassion 47 iv

33 The Buddhist Happiness Framework 50

331 Generosity 55

332 Ethics 55

333 Patience and Tolerance 57

334 Perseverance 58

335 Meditative Concentration 59

336 Wisdom 60

34 Summary 61

CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING INDICATORS 63

41 Psychological Wellbeing Measures 64

42 Emotional Balance 66

43 Spiritual Practices 80

43 General Mental Health (GMH) 87

44 Summary 89

CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMMENDATIONS 92

References 99

Appendix 1 110

Appendix 2 Ill Curriculum Vitae

v

List of Tables

Table 1 Relating the Indicators with Buddhism

VI

List of Figures

Figure 1 Map of Bhutan (Source CIA Fact Book) 4

Figure 2 Suffering and its causes 53

Figure 3 Overcoming Suffering 54

vii

List of Abbreviations

CBS Centre for Bhutan Studies

CIA Central Intelligence Agency

DPT Druk Phuensum Tshogpa

FYP Five Year Plan

GDP - Gross Domestic Product

GHQ General Health Questionnaire

GNH Gross National Happiness

GNHC Gross National Happiness Commission

GPI Genuine Progress Index

HDI Human Development Index

MoA Ministry of Agriculture

MoHE Ministry of Health and Education

NEC National Environment Commission

NSB National Statistic Bureau

RGoB Royal Government of Bhutan

TCoB Tourism Council of Bhutan

UNDP United Nation Development Programme

viii

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

Measuring the wellbeing of people is important in determining whether peoples

lives are improving or worsening over time Many countries in the world today focus on

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as a basis to measure the economic wellbeing of the

people Although GDP mainly measures market production it has been treated as if it

measures economic wellbeing The focus on economic growth measures fails to capture

fully the overall wellbeing of the people (Kusago 2006 Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009)

Due to the failure of GDP to measure the non-economic aspect of human wellbeing

alternative measurements such as Genuine Progress Index (GPI) and Human

Development Index (HDI) have been introduced GPI and HDI include many important

factors that contribute to healthy living but they are still calculated based on monetary

values (Hargen 2002 Kusago 2006) and do not capture the Bhutanese concept of Gross

National Happiness

Gross National Happiness (GNH) is the central development philosophy of

Bhutan (Planning Commission 1999) This unique philosophy aims at maximizing

human wellbeing and minimizing human suffering by balancing economic needs with the

spiritual and emotional needs of people Bhutans fourth king Jigme Singye Wangchuck

coined the term Gross National Happiness in the late 1980s when he stated that Gross

National Happiness is more important than Gross Domestic Product (as cited by Ura

2008 para 1) His vision was to create a GNH society which means the creation of an

enlightened society in which happiness and wellbeing of all people and sentient beings is

the ultimate purpose of governance (as cited by Ura 2008 para2) Since it was difficult

1

for the government to list every factor that contributes to the happiness of its people four

major areas were identified as the pillars of GNH cultural promotion equitable

economic development good governance and environmental conservation (Planning

Commission 1999) These four pillars constitute the broad strategic framework through

which national development processes are actualized for the maximization of GNH

Since the adoption of the concept of GNH the government has consistently

sought to address development beyond income or economic growth The country lacked

however a specific and relevant development index that takes into account the core

principles and dimensions of GNH In November 2008 coinciding with the coronation

of the fifth King of Bhutan Jigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchuck the Government of

Bhutan adopted the GNH index The purpose of the GNH index is to reflect GNH

values set benchmarks and track policies and performances of the country (Ura 2008

pl) Seventy-two measurable indicators grouped under nine domains have been

identified as the GNH index The Government of Bhutan states that the country is now

ready with a set of mathematical formulae to measure human wellbeing and government

performances towards achieving GNH (as cited by Dorji 2009) The purpose of this

study is to analyze the GNH index to determine the extent to which it reflects Buddhist

principles and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH

This chapter is divided into eight sections The first section presents a brief

background of Bhutan its people economy and culture The second section presents

Bhutans political journey from monarchy to democracy The concept of Gross National

Happiness is discussed in the third section The fourth section explains the nine domains

of the GNH index and how the GNH index is administered in the country The fifth

2

section presents the research questions and objective of the study The sixth section

presents the methodology of the study The seventh section lays down the significance

and limitation of the study The summary of this chapter and the outline of the study are

presented in the eighth section

11 The Bhutanese Economy and Culture

Bhutan is a tiny landlocked kingdom with a population of 691141 (Central

Intelligent Agency [CIA] Factbook 2009) and having a total area of 38394 square

kilometres (National Statistical Bureau 2007) The country is sandwiched between two

leading economies India and China (Figure 1) Until the 1960s Bhutan was the most

isolated nation in the world Today about 69 of the population in Bhutan are

smallholder agrarian farmers and they practice mainly mixed (crop and livestock)

farming systems (Gross National Happiness Commission 2010) Of the population

945 represent people from the age group of 0-64 years while only 55 of the

population are 65 years and above (CIA Factbook 2009) Bhutans GDP per capita was

estimated at $2218 in 2009 (International Monetary Fund 2010) The country is almost

entirely mountainous with altitudes ranging from 240 meters to 7541 meters above sea

level About 725 of the country consists of forest land (National Statistical Bureau

2007) and the policy of the government is to maintain at least 60 forest cover (Ministry

of Agriculture 2002) Bhutan has been declared one of the ten global biodiversity

Hotspots (National Environment Commission 1999)

The Bhutanese culture and development policies are greatly influenced by

Buddhism The philosophy of GNH has its roots in Buddhism Under this unique

3

philosophy Bhutan has been able to balance modernization with its ancient culture and

traditions From the very beginning of the enthronement in 1972 the fourth king Jigme

Singye Wangchuck was very clear that Gross National Happiness is more important than

Gross Domestic Product According to him happiness is the ultimate common goal of

every human being and everything else is a means for fulfilling this wish He believed

that happiness is an indicator of good development and good society (Thinley 2005)

This led the country to adopt GNH as its development priority

25 SO Km

50 25

G r e a

S Gasa Ozong

Toogsa THIMPHU Paro

Tashigang

Samdrup Jongkhar Phuntsholing

r~

BANGLADESH

Figure 1 Map of Bhutan (Source CIA Fact Book)

4

12 Political History and Transition to Democracy

Bhutanese polity is said to have begun in 1616 with the arrival of Zhabdrung

Ngawang Namgyal from Tibet Through the spread of Buddhism Zhabdrung was able to

unify the country Buddhism provided the ideological basis for unifying Bhutan

(Mancall 2004) Zhabdrung was both a religious and political figure in Bhutan He was

the head of theocratic state that he himself created (Ministry of Health amp Education

[MoHE] 1994) He started the dual system of governance known as the Choesi system

where political affairs were looked after by the Desi1 and religious affairs by the head

abbot called the Jekhenpo Zhabdrung died in the year 1651 The official announcement

of his death was however made only in the year 1705 There were several reasons for

this chief of which there was no clear successor to Zhabdrung During the period 1651 -

1706 the country was ruled in the name of Zhabdrung who was said to be in religious

retreat by various Desi appointed under the Choesi system established by the Zhabdrung

himself (MoHE 1994) The period between 1705 to 1907 was marked by internal

stability and external invasion Ultimately in the year 1907 Ugyen Wangchuck was

unanimously elected as the first hereditary king of Bhutan (MoHE 1994) Since then

visionary descendants of the Wangchuck dynasty have ruled the country

Bhutans political system however evolved from a monarchy into a constitutional

democracy Democracy did not come to Bhutan overnight the process of democratization

was going on long before but slowly and cautiously King Jigme Singye Wangchuck

continued the policy of controlled development with particular focus on the preservation

A title given to the person who looks after the political matters in the country

5

of the environment and Bhutans unique culture Yet during his reign there was a steady

decentralization of decision-making processes which aimed to enhance peoples

participation in the formulation of development policies and activities and to strengthen

the traditional local institutions This process started largely in 1981 with the

establishment of the District Development Committees (Dzongkhag Yargye

Tshogchungs) and in 1991 with the establishment of the Block Development Committees

(Geog Yargye Tshogchungs) The people democratically elect all members of these

committees The most momentous change came in 1998 when the executive powers

previously held by the King was granted to the Council of Ministers (GNHC 2008)

On 17 December 2005 King Jigme Singye Wangchuck announced to a stunned

nation that the first general elections would be held in 2008 and that he would abdicate

the throne in favor of his eldest son the crown prince Jigme Khesar Namgyal

Wangchuck Unlike other countries where people fight for democracy the opposite

occurred in Bhutan people were given power without having to fight for it The fifth king

was formally crowned on November 6 2008 becoming the worlds youngest reigning

monarch and head of the newest democracy The fifth King like his father proclaimed

that fulfilling the vision of GNH would be one of the main responsibilities of his reign

He said As the king of a Buddhist nation my duty is not only to ensure your happiness

today but to create the fertile ground from which you may gain the fruits of spiritual

pursuit and attain good Karma (Wangchuck 2008 para8) The newly elected

government Druk Phuensum Tshogpa (DPT) is also committed to the principles of GNH

6

13 Gross National Happiness the Development Philosophy of Bhutan

The notion that the emotional and spiritual wellbeing of humans should be

included into the development policies is gaining a lot of international support The

importance of the concept of GNH is articulated in the policy document Bhutan 2020-A

Vision for Peace Prosperity and Happiness (Planning Commission 1999) which states

that its aim is to maximize the happiness of all Bhutanese and to enable them to achieve

their full and innate potential as human beings (p41) Reflecting the importance of the

concept the promotion of enabling conditions for GNH has also been enshrined as an

important principle of state policy under Article 9 of the Constitution (Royal Government

of Bhutan [RGoB] 2008)

GNH is a noble and holistic approach towards development It seeks to

complement inner happiness with outer circumstances It addresses both material and

non-material wellbeing Although material wealth is associated with physical wellbeing

ones mental state or inner wellbeing is not conditioned by material needs alone GNH

supports the notion that happiness pursued and realized within the context of the greater

good of society offers the best possibility for the sustained happiness of the individual

The society as a whole cannot obtain happiness if individuals compete irresponsibly for

it To this end GNH recognizes that happiness can be realized as a collective goal it

cannot be left as an individual goal (Thinley 2005 Ura 2008) Prime Minister Jigme

YThinley (2005) in his speech at the 2nd Conference of GNH at Halifax stated GNH

stresses collective happiness to be addressed directly through public policies in which

happiness is an explicit criterion in projects and programmes (p7) If a governments

policy framework and its goals are adverse to happiness happiness will fail as a

7

collective goal (Ura 2008) In the GNH context a government concerned with the

happiness of its citizens must create an enabling environment for people to achieve

happiness

The concept of GNH is greatly influenced by Buddhism The Bhutanese

worldview including its social cultural and political ethos is rooted in Buddhism The

policymakers in Bhutan hold the view that simply imposing development models from

outside which do not take religion and tradition into account will not only serve to

diminish existing culture but will also meet with limited success (Planning

Commission 1992 p66) The Bhutan-Vision 2020 strongly reaffirms the notion of Gross

National Happiness as the central development concept for the country This vision

emphasizes a need and desire to balance economic development with cultural and

environmental conservation

14 Explanation of Gross National Happiness Index

Bhutan is not a GNH state at this moment it aspires to be one The Bhutanese

government is of the view that wellbeing arises in a society when sustainable and

equitable economic development is balanced with environmental and cultural

preservation and good governance (Rinzin 2006 Thinley 2005) These four pillars have

constantly guided the development policies in Bhutan This strategy has been referred to

as the middle path which is derived from Buddhist principles of avoiding extremism

and taking a balanced view (Planning Commission 1999) In November 2008 the

government adopted the GNH index as a means to measure GNH The government felt

the need for a GNH index for without some kind of measurement system GNH cannot

8

guide practical policies and programs (CBS 2008) Under the GNH index 72 indicators

were identified under the following nine domains psychological wellbeing cultural

resilience education health time use and balance good governance community vitality

ecological diversity and living standard The nine domains of Gross National Happiness

are explained below

1 Psychological wellbeing as an end includes satisfaction with all elements of life

life enjoyment and subjective wellbeing Under this domain there are 11 measurable

indicators (eg frequency of feeling of emotions such as jealousy compassion and

generosity) classified in three areas General psychological distress indicators Emotional

balance indicators and Spirituality practices indicators This study focuses on the

indicators under this domain

2 Time Use domain measures how individuals spend their time There are only two

indicators under this domain the sleeping hours and working hours The time spent

delivering voluntary and social service is also taken into account

3 Community Vitality refers to the quality of life in the community This domain

intends to measure how strong active and inclusive relationships are within communities

that work to foster individual and collective wellbeing It examines the nature of trust

belongingness vitality of caring relationships safety in the home and the community

and giving and volunteering The community vitality indicators are Family vitality

Safety Reciprocity Trust Social support Socialization and Kinship density

4 Cultural Diversity and Resilience This domain measures the diversity and

strength of cultural traditions The indicators study core values and perception of

changes in values and traditions Bhutanese tradition is a very broad term that

9

encompasses customs rituals religious ceremonies traditional dress sports music

dance poetry arts and code of behavior among other things The indicators of cultural

diversity and resilience are Dialect use Traditional sports Community festivity Artisan

skill Value transmission and Basic precept

5 Health Good health is said to have a significant positive effect on happiness The

GNH health domain assesses the health status of the population the determinants of

health and the health system Health status indicators show information on self-rated

health disabilities body mass index and number of healthy days experienced per month

Health indicators also measure the degree of knowledge about diseases and breast feeding

practices The health indicators are Health status Health knowledge and Barrier to

health

6 Education In a GNH society education should contribute to individual and

collective happiness The education domain assesses different types of knowledge and

skills that people have acquired in their lifetime It includes historical cultural civic

ecological and indigenous knowledge and skills which are mostly acquired informally

The education indicators are Education attainment Dzongkha (national) language and

Folk and historical literacy

7 Ecological Diversity and Resilience This indicator looks at peoples perception

of ecology The ecological diversity and resilience indicators are Ecological degradation

Ecological knowledge and Afforestation

8 Living standard The living standard indicators assess the levels of income at the

individual and household levels sense of financial security room ratio food security and

10

house ownership Thus the living standard indicators are Income Housing Food

security and Hardship

9 Good Governance The domain of good governance evaluates how people

perceive various government functions in terms of their efficacy honesty and quality

The indicators include human rights leadership at various levels of government

performance of government in delivering services and controlling inequality and

corruption peoples trust in media judiciary and police The indicators of good

governance are Government performance Freedom and Institutional trust indicator

A pilot survey was also carried out between September 2006 to January 2007 in

nine districts on 350 randomly chosen respondents to test the feasibility and robustness of

GNH pilot questionnaires The GNH index however was developed based on the result

of a final survey carried out in December 2007 to March 2008 (CBS 2008) A total of

950 respondents based on random sampling were interviewed in 12 districts by the CBS

in the final survey The questionnaires covered the key areas affecting the values and

principles of GNH roughly divided into the nine domains mentioned above CBS (2008)

states that the nine domains were selected on normative grounds and are equally

weighted because each dimension is considered relatively equal in terms of equal

intrinsic importance as a component of Gross National Happiness (pl) Within each

domain several indicators that seemed likely to remain informative across time had high

response rates and were relatively uncorrelated (CBS 2008 p 1) were selected For

example in the psychological wellbeing domain the respondents were asked how often

they felt emotions such as anger guilt selfishness pride calmness compassion

forgiveness disappointment jealousy and frustration Respondents were also given the

11

option to list other emotions that they often experienced From the survey results only

eleven indicators were selected under the psychological wellbeing domain In total 72

indicators under the nine domains were selected as the GNH index (See Appendix 1)

The GNH index is to be administered every two years in the country A survey is

currently being carried out by the CBS in all the twenty districts of Bhutan Tshoki

Zangmo a researcher at CBS states that the GNH survey will determine whether the

conditions leading to happiness have improved or not (Doiji 2010) Several structured

semi-structured and open-ended questions under each of the 72 indicators are asked of

the respondents to assess life satisfaction in each of the nine domains Any individual

having sufficient achievements in each of the nine domains is considered happy (CBS

2008) Unlike the GPI and HDI which uses GDP data the GNH index is measured based

on self-report assessment For example the GPI heavily relies on quantitative or

objective data produced by Statistics Canada as opposed to qualitative or subjective

survey data The GPI uses personal consumption expenditures as a starting point Those

elements which are regarded as regrettable are deducted mdash for example cost of crime

accidents and pollutions Values of leisure time unpaid housework parenting and

volunteer work are added back (Colman 2008a) All aggregation is done in terms of

monetary values The GNH index however is entirely depended on the self-report

survey data According to Diener and Lucas (1999) the self-report measurement of

subjective well being displays adequate levels of validity and reliability The GNH index

is calculated in two steps The first step involves setting a sufficiency cut off and

determining whether respondents have attained sufficiency in each of the nine domains

12

The final step involves aggregating the data using the formula GNH = 1 - Average

squared distance from cutoff

15 Research Questions and Objective of the Study

Measuring what really matters to people and framing policies in accordance with

the needs of people would help realize the goal of GNH The GNH index is an attempt by

the government to measure how well their citizens are doing economically socially and

emotionally The Centre for Bhutan Studies (2008) states that the nine domains identified

are regarded as the components of happiness and well-being in Bhutan However the

resulting question is To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do

the indicators reflect Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept

of GNH The objectives of my study are to analyze the indicators to determine to what

extent they reflect Buddhist principles and to determine the coherence of the indicators

with the concept of GNH

Although conducting an in-depth analysis of each of the 72 indicators would be

most beneficial due to the vastness of the indicators this study will focus only on the

indicators that fall under the domain of psychological wellbeing (see Appendix 1) I

choose this domain because many of the GNH indicators (for example education health

living standard time use ecology) are similar to those found in the conventional

economic measures like GDP Genuine Progress Indicators (GPI) Human Development

Index (HDI) and Quality of Life The psychological wellbeing indicator has not yet been

included in any of the national measures (CBS 2008) Since the measure of

13

psychological wellbeing is something new and unexplored as a development indicator it

would be a good place to begin assessing the indicators

16 Methodology

The main objective of this study is to determine the influence of Buddhist

principles and more specifically Buddhist principles of happiness on the indicators of

psychological wellbeing and the coherence of indicators with the concept of GNH This

policy analysis study uses the framework of Buddhist principles of happiness to analyze

the indicators Policy analysis research is associated with determining the nature causes

and effects of governmental decisions or policies designed to cope with specific social

problems Nagel (1980) points out four methods on which policy analysis focuses

determining what causes the policy determining what policies they are responsible for

determining what affects them and determining what policies will achieve or maximize a

given goal This study focuses on determining the influence of Buddhist principles on the

governments policy of measuring GNH and the consistency of the indicators with the

concept of GNH

Buddhism has long played an important role in the political economic and social

lives of Bhutanese It is in this context that Buddhism is used as a basis to assess the most

important development tool of Bhutan Gross National Happiness Index The intent is not

to prove that Buddhism is the best way to achieve GNH but to determine whether GNH

indicators reflect Buddhist principles of happiness This is done for three reasons First

the philosophy of GNH is understood to be engrained in Buddhism This study will

determine in part the extent to which this is the case (see chapter two) Second Bhutan is

14

a Buddhist country where the majority of the population is Buddhist (CIA 2009) As

such this study will determine the extent to which Buddhist principles have influenced

the indicators Third scholars such as Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and

Tashi (2004) have argued that Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH This study

attempts to analyze the psychological wellbeing indicators to determine the Buddhist

influence which then might support the notion put forth by them

Literature related to Gross National Happiness and the influence of Buddhism on

GNH are reviewed The origin of the concept of GNH and various discourses held on

GNH are explored Government documents and reports and secondary data sources such

as newspaper and research on GNH serve as important sources The primary data that are

used for the analysis are the eleven indicators of psychological wellbeing developed by

the CBS Each indicator is examined to see the degree to which it reflects Buddhist

principles of happiness

The indicators consist of positive emotions negative emotions and practices to

overcome negative emotions In a research design it is important to establish a

conceptual framework that acknowledges how the theoretical perspective will shape an

inquiry (Creswell 2007) To this end I will examine the Buddhist literature to find key

principles related to happiness Those principles and ideas that affect happiness will be

discussed In particular the key principles such as the four noble truths law of Karma

principle of interdependence and compassion will be discussed Further a theoretical

basis for happiness will be developed based on the Buddhist teachings of six paramitas

An understanding of these principles will assist the reader in gaining a sense of the scope

15

and direction of this study Overall the Buddhist principles of happiness framework will

serve as a basis for assessing the indicators

Since Bhutan is a Mahayana Buddhist country the key principles of Mahayana

Buddhist teachings will be examined The very popular Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse

Laglen will serve as a primary source This important Buddhist text on the thirty-seven

bodhisattva practices was written by the great Buddhist saint Thogme Zangpo (1245-

1369) The text is a summarization of the original teachings of Lord Buddha from

hundreds of volumes and contains all the key points of the vast and profound teachings

The text is used in all the schools of Bhutan In particular the six paramitas will be used

for the purpose of this study The thirty-seven practices were written to help every

sentient being achieve genuine happiness Therefore this study will examine the

teachings related to the six paramitas to determine the extent to which they are reflected

in the psychological wellbeing indicators Teachings by various Buddhist teachers such

as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will also be used

The Buddhist text Abhidhamma which is known as the higher teachings of the

Buddha and also called the ultimate teachings is also referenced for the analysis of the

indicators The text elucidates the working of mind or psyche thoughts thought-

processes and mental states The mind has been broken down into six primary and fifty-

one secondary consciousnesses representing the working of the psyche from an ethical

standpoint Abhidamma highlights wholesome and unwholesome emotions as well as

how they arise Since this study is on the analysis of the psychological wellbeing

indicators the text is appropriate However only those emotions which correspond to the

indicators are referred to for this study

16

17 Limitations and Significance of the study

There are three limitations recognized in this study First the theme of this study

focuses on the extent to which Buddhist principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH

indicators Happiness is a concept that can be viewed from a number of perspectives

Since the concept of GNH is inspired by Buddhism it is most appropriate that the

indicators be examined to determine the extent to which they reflect Buddhist principles

and then most specifically Mahayana Buddhist principles Further there are numerous

Buddhist teachings on happiness The teachings that are primarily used are those of

Master Thogme Zangpo the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche

Second the GNH index is still very new A survey was carried out to study the

indicators in twelve districts but the index has not yet been applied to the whole country

As such the GNH index is still in its infant stage and not many resources related to the

GNH index are available

The third limitation of this study is that only the indicators under the

psychological wellbeing domain are analyzed Findings from the preliminary survey of

the GNH index are not discussed

Exploring the psychological wellbeing domain is significant for various reasons

First there has been no study conducted on the indicators so far This is the first study

that analyzes the indicators and explores the relationship of the indicators to Buddhism

This study opens up a new perspective for future researchers Scholars interested in

studying the GNH index may use this study as a basis to analyze the other domains of

GNH Only one domain is explored in this study The remaining eight domains could be

an area of future research

17

Second the GNH index is the most important tool for guiding and analyzing the

government policy since the government will be designing policies based on the GNH

index The GNH index and its implementation will have a significant impact on the

design implementation and assessment of policy and the perceptions Bhutanese have of

the direction their society is taking Since what is measured affects what is done it is

important that the right indicators be used if measurements are flawed decisions can be

distorted (Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009) Therefore it is important to determine

whether the indicators cohere with the GNH concept

18 Summary

This chapter provides an overview of the study The chapter began by looking at

Bhutans culture economy and political history including its transition to democracy

The concept of Gross National Happiness and its indicators the objective the

methodology limitation and significance of study were also presented in this chapter

Chapter Two will provide the review of literature on the GNH It explores how

the concept of GNH first originated It then argues that the concept of GNH has been

influenced by key Buddhist principles based on the eightfold path which are linked to

each pillar of GNH Various workshops held on GNH that ultimately led to the

development of the GNH index are also discussed

Chapter Three will provide the framework to analyze the psychological

wellbeing indicators The key Buddhist principles related to happiness are examined

Specifically the four noble truths law of Karma principle of interdependence and

compassion are presented The Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse Lagin the 37 practices

18

of Bodhisattva are used to highlight Buddhist principles of happiness Specifically the

teachings on six paramitas are referenced to elucidate those principles

Chapter Four presents the core of the study The indicators of psychological

wellbeing are analyzed through the framework described in Chapter Three Each

indicator is examined from the perspective of Buddhist principles It highlights the extent

to which each indicator reflects the Buddhist principles of happiness and the consistency

of the indicators with the concept of GNH

Chapter Five concludes the study and offers some recommendations for future

studies

19

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW

There seems to be a unanimous agreement that Gross National Happiness (GNH)

is drawn from Buddhism but recognition of the influence of Buddhism on GNH is rather

implicit This may be due to the fact that Bhutan did not have the full academic

construction of GNH until recently When the concept of GNH was first pronounced in

the late 1980s it was just an abstract philosophy The concept has now gained more

depth and dimension through analysis and discourse While scholars such as Tashi (1999

2004) Priesner (1999) and Zangmo (2009) have linked Buddhism to GNH others have

argued for the importance of Buddhism in achieving the goal of GNH This chapter

reviews the influence of Buddhism on the concept of GNH Specifically the relationship

between the core concept of GNH and its four pillars to Buddhist principles is explored

Since this study uses Buddhism as the key lens in analyzing the extent to which Buddhist

principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH indicators the focus here is to

understand the centrality of Buddhism in the philosophy of GNH

The review is divided into four main sections The first section examines how the

core concept of GNH and the key teachings of Buddhism are related Literature points

out that key Buddhist principles such as interdependence Karma and the noble eightfold

path are linked to general themes that promote GNH The second section looks at how

the concept of GNH evolved Early Bhutanese history dating back to the 17th century

when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of living is explored This section

examines how Bhutan broke its isolationist policies and introduced planned development

giving priority to the preservation of its culture and environment thus giving birth to the

noble philosophy of GNH The third section discusses the various discourses held on 20

GNH that ultimately led to the development of the GNH index The final section of the

review discusses the idea of quantifying and measuring GNH The chapter concludes by

questioning whether the GNH index which is used as a basis to measure peoples

wellbeing in Bhutan captures the real essence of GNH

21 Buddhism and Gross National Happiness

Gross National Happiness is not a promise to make every individual happy This

is a common misconception The concept of GNH simply stresses the responsibility of

the government to create an environment for citizens to seek happiness Since all humans

value happiness the government of Bhutan takes the view that it cannot be left

exclusively to private individual devices and strivings (CBS 2008 pl) In the GNH

context the government should create by means of public policies addressing both

economic and emotional needs of the people an environment conducive for people to

pursue happiness Australian psychologist Suellen Donnelly (2004) defines happiness as

the sum of satisfaction with life domains and this satisfaction she states is judged against

the individuals and the societys values Happiness indeed depends on our social values

In Bhutan peoples social and cultural values are largely influenced by Buddhism GNH

thus places emphasis on happiness and wellbeing of people through promotion of social

and cultural values

Priesner (1999) Tashi (2004) and Zangmo (2009) argue that Buddhism and GNH

are intricately linked Zangmo (2009) points out that the concept of GNH is deeply rooted

in the rich traditions of Mahayana Buddhism Doiji and Pankaj (2004) state that GNH is

essentially a summarization of the basic tenets of Vajrayana Buddhism which embraces

21

harmony and compassion (p377) Vajrayana Buddhism is an offshoot of Mahayana

Buddhism The term Mahayana and Vajrayana is used interchangeably in Bhutan

Mahayana Buddhism emphasizes individual spiritual development rather than material

rewards compassion for others tolerance living in harmony with nature and the

importance of making the right choice Based on these values GNH seeks to achieve and

pave a middle path between material and spiritual aspects of life which are referred to as

peljor gongphel (economic development) and gakid (happiness and peace) (Zangmo

2009) Schumacher (1989) asserts that in a Buddhist society the lifestyle is strongly

influenced by Buddhist principles based on the Noble Eightfold Path The influence of

Buddhism is highly visible in every aspect of Bhutanese life Article 3(1) of the

Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan states Buddhism is the spiritual heritage of

Bhutan which promotes the principles and values of peace non-violence compassion

and tolerance (p 9) Buddhism here is seen as a spiritual practice

According to Buddhism the main purpose of life the heart of being human is

happiness what we all seek knowingly or unknowingly is happiness (Rabjam Rimpoche

as cited by Tourism Council of Bhutan [TCoB] 2008) The chief goal of Buddhism is to

remove sufferings and achieve genuine happiness Tashi (2004) points out that the

cultivation of happiness is central to Buddhism Buddhism states that wealth pleasure

and power are all sought for achieving happiness but these are all material and only the

means to achieve short-term happiness As humans strive for happiness the end goal is

often forgotten and people spend time pursuing the means for their own sake In the

process humans remain deeply unsatisfied because they place all their hopes and fears in

the material outer conditions and neglect inner condition for happiness Happiness in

22

Buddhism depends on our actions and how we view and interpret the world Rabjam

Rimpoche states that although it is difficult to change the world it is always possible to

change the way we look at it (as cited by TCoB 2008) Buddhist teachings stress the

importance of training the mind and developing a set of human qualities such as

altruistic love compassion inner peace and inner strength

Similarly the concept of GNH emphasizes that happiness is the end goal and

economic development is just a means to achieve happiness GNH claims happiness to be

a major focus in assessing the welfare of the people Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley

states that GNH is all about living with basic human values in a sustainable way (Bhutan

Observer 2010) This view is influenced by Buddhist principles Buddhism advocates

living in harmony with nature and respecting all forms of life Although GNH places

equal importance on both material and non-material wellbeing of the people the idea of

GNH essentially is to encourage a rethinking of what is important in peoples lives is it

the ability to produce and consume or is it the happiness of its people derived from its

social and cultural values When Bhutan opened up to the outside world in 1961 it was

overwhelmed to see that the world had achieved tremendous development in every field

(Doiji 2007a) In their pursuit of development however many countries had lost their

forests cultures and much more In the neighboring region of Nepal for example the

governments policy of promoting economic development through mass tourism led to

environmental and cultural degradation Pandey Chettri Kunwar amp Ghimire (1995)

argue that mass tourism in Nepal led to erosion of local customs increase in drug abuse

theft of antiques and cultural property and prostitution Kinley Doiji (2007a) states that

GNH is therefore a response to this realization

23

Tashi (2004) and Lokamitra (2004) argue that GNH cannot be achieved unless

Buddhist philosophy is fully incorporated and practiced by every citizen of Bhutan

Similarly Hewavitharana (2004) proposes a framework for operationalizing GNH from

the perspective of Buddhist ethics and values Lokamitra (2004) asserts that unless a

society is morally and psychologically strong GNH cannot be achieved He states that

this moral and psychological strength can come from Buddhism Tashi Prakke amp Chettri

(1999) argue that the use of Buddhist concepts does not make the discussions culture-

specific They state that Buddhist wisdom differs from actual Buddhist cultures Buddhist

values and ethics can be followed without necessarily being a Buddhist

Tashi Prakke and Chettri (1999) argue that Buddhist spiritual concepts can be

clearly linked to general themes for the promotion of GNH Overall the Buddhist belief

ofinterdependence has inspired the four pillars because environment culture economy

and governance are interwoven in reality (Thinley 2005) Maintaining a balance among

these enhances the quality of life for the individual for society and for the environment

(Rinzin 2006)

1 The First Pillar Environmental Preservation

Although it appears that environment and biodiversity are not strong correlates of

happiness few would deny the value of environment in everyday life and hence our

happiness our health and aesthetic experiences depend on the quality of the physical

environment around us (Thinley 2005) The impact of climate change because of the

uncompromising nature of humans towards the environment is causing a lot of panic in

the world

24

Buddhism emphasizes preserving nature and the sanctity of life (Planning

Commission 1999) Tashi et al (1999) state that Buddhist philosophy provides strong

arguments for the adoption of an environmentally sensitive development strategy The

relationship between human beings and the environment is seen in a fundamentally

different way The Buddhist concept of sunyata holds that no subject or object has an

independent existence rather they dissolve into a web of relationships with all

dimensions of environment The Buddhist principle of interconnectedness- the idea that

nature gives back what we give it- has influenced the Bhutanese with a strong ethic of

conservation which in turn influenced Bhutanese environmental policies (Thinley 2005)

Bhutanese people believe that high mountains deep ravines ancient trees and

rocks are the abode of spirits gods and demons Disturbing them would enrage the non-

human inhabitants and bring ill luck sickness and death to families Appeasing these

spirits will be rewarded with luck peace and prosperity (NEC 1998 Rinzin 2006)

These beliefs about the importance of protecting nature have permeated Bhutanese

consciousness and have become integral to the Bhutanese way of life and value system

The government therefore has adopted strong environmental policies As per the

constitution of Bhutan the country must always maintain 60 forest coverage

2 The Second Pillar- Cultural Preservation and Promotion

The conservation and promotion of tradition and culture has always been an

integral part of Bhutans development policies since the initiation of planned

development in the 1960s (Planning Commission 1999) The Bhutanese started their

policies from a well-defined set of values and culture which are typically Buddhist

Within such Buddhist cultural values there is a strong belief in the implications of the

25

doctrine of Karma (Gurung 1999) The overall Bhutanese culture is based on customary

rules norms indigenous knowledge systems and institutions in addition to a rich

religious heritage based on Buddhism It includes a code of conduct known as driglam

namzha which is designed to carve out a distinct Bhutanese identity In addition to

promoting national dress driglam namzha is built on strict observance of vows (tha-

damtshig) which are quintessential^ Buddhist and emphasize strong kinship loyalty

community-oriented behavior hospitality to guests respect for ones parents elders and

superiors and mutual cooperation between rulers and ruled parents and children and

teachers and students (MoHE 1994 Rinzin2006 Chophel 2008)

In a study conducted by Rinzin (2006) it was observed that the Bhutanese people

consider culture to be very important They fully support the preservation of Bhutanese

culture as a means to maintain national identity sense of security and conservation of a

way of life A unique Bhutanese culture is also a means to generate income through

tourism activities Since the happiness of the people also depends on their social and

cultural values the government of Bhutan is committed to preserving and strengthening

the Bhutanese culture and tradition

3 The Third Pillar - Sustainable and equitable socio-economic development

The concept of GNH does not neglect the importance of economic development

While economic development in many countries takes place at the expense of external

factors such as social coherence cultural diversity and environmental integrity the

concept of GNH limits the exploitation of social cultural ecological and human costs

(Priesner 1999) Economic development is just a means to achieve GNH and is not an

end itself If we look at the world today there are spiritual sufferings in terms of anxiety

26

insecurity stress and pain in every part of the world including Bhutan Economic

development can secure a livelihood and is vitally important to resolve poverty but it is

easier to identify and alleviate misery than to maximize happiness

Given the huge natural resource base that Bhutan enjoys the country could have

opted for mass economic development by making use of these resources However the

government does not overlook the difference between renewable and non-renewable

goods Keeping in view the negative impacts of exploiting natural resources and

exhaustibility of non-renewable goods the government has identified three avenues for

economic development These are hydropower tourism and agriculture (NEC 1998

Planning Commission 1999) All have minimal negative impact on the society and are

sustainable The use of nature in a sustainable way can be related to one of the

requirements for the Buddhas eightfold path called the Right Livelihood (Schumacher

1989) Right Livelihood entails that ones means of livelihood should not be dishonest or

cause suffering to other sentient beings Wrong Livelihood is anything that is based on

trickery or greed (Harvey 2000) This noble path teaches us to avoid extremism and

follow a balanced path Schumacher (1989) argues that Right Livelihood touches on

economic aspects of the Buddhist life and forms the basis of economic principles By

following the path of Right Livelihood the government is being cautious not to engage

in trades or occupations that result in harming its environment culture and society

4 The fourth Pillar - Good Governance

This last pillar stresses the kind of government that Bhutan needs to make it into a

GNH state Good governance means exercising of authority in managing a countrys

political social economic and administrative resources in a manner that is transparent

27

accountable and responsive to peoples needs (Gross National Happiness Commission

[GNHC] 2009 p56) The fourth king His Majesty Jigme Singye Wangchuck asserts

that good governance is an important prerequisite for strengthening the other pillars of

GNH During his reign decentralization and democratization have always been the most

important considerations All changes finally culminated in the evolution of democratic

government in 2008 The King in his wisdom decided that parliamentary democracy

would be the best path to good governance and that happiness comes from having the

freedom to choose Kinley Doiji (2007a) points out that this step by the king is a

Vajrayana Buddhist approach For the Bhutanese this came as an overwhelming surprise

Thus democracy in Bhutan sprang from the womb of GNH Democracy in Bhutan is the

path to good governance that leads to GNH

Chapter Two (clause 22) of the Bhutan Civil Service Rules and Regulations 2006

states that the government needs to maintain and promote the values of Tha-Damtshig

and Ley Jumdrey to serve the people and the country Tha Damtshig is a traditional

Buddhist belief of trust respect and cooperation between the government and its people

Ley Jumdrey is a very popular Buddhist belief referring to the cycle of Karma which

encourages us to follow the eightfold noble path Right View Right Intention Right

Action Right Speech Right Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right

Mindfulness The royal decree issued by the king in 1998 stated that the Bhutanese

judiciary system is based on the Buddhist 10 virtuous actions and 16 pure human laws

(as cited by Nishimizu 2008 p 40) The ten virtuous actions are 1 Avoid killing 2

Avoid Stealing 3 Avoid Sexual misconduct (the first three form the part of Right

Action) 4 Avoid lies 5 Avoid divisive talks 6 Avoid harsh speech 7 Avoid Gossip

28

(these four fall under Right Speech) 8 Avoid covetousness 9 Avoid harmful intent 10

Avoid wrong views (the last three are the part of Right Mindfulness) (Tshongkhapa as

cited by Powers 1995)

Tashi et al (1999) explain that in Buddhism there are three doors body speech

and mind (lii ngag yid) These three gates provide a basic categorization for policy

makers in recognizing that existence embraces more than physical aspects Any

individual or government that strives to enhance happiness must make the right use of the

three doors Right Mindfulness Right Speech and Right Action The three gates are like

the neutral ground which can be used for good neutral or bad action (Tashi et al 1999)

Right intention in the mind must spark right speech and right action because working

with the mind directly is considered too illusive With Right View one needs to

understand the nature of the world and embrace compassion Right View is the path that

refers to wisdom which means seeing emptiness realizing that appearances in the

relative world or the world in which things change lacking permanent existence

Embracing compassion and wisdom results in the accumulation of merit (Sonam) and

wisdom (Yeshe) Every government must embrace compassion and wisdom and work

with Right Mind Right Speech and Right Action The Bhutanese government strives to

nurture and manifest these qualities

22 Evolution of the Concept

The term GNH became popular in the late 1980s but the concept itself is very

old According to Priesner (1999) this concept evolved from the constituent features of

Bhutanese society before 1959 a socio-economic system based on a Buddhist and feudal

29

set of values Buddhism came to Bhutan in the 7th century AD but made little impact on

the lives of the people until the 9th century (Ministry of Health and Education [MoHE]

1994 Dargye 2008) Prior to the 7th century Bhutan was called the land of Monpas the

land of darkness or no religion Records show that people mainly practiced Bonism an

animistic and shamanistic belief system where nature is worshipped (Giri 2004) Bon

rituals are still included in some Buddhist festivals in Bhutan From the 10th century to

the beginning of the 17th century Buddhism started influencing peoples way of life

culture and customs During that period many Tibetan scholars came to teach Buddhism

in Bhutan They built monasteries and temples throughout the country but none of them

could establish a formal Buddhist community in Bhutan (MoHE 1994)

It was Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyel (1594-1651) a Tibetan monk who formally

instituted Buddhism in Bhutan in the 17th century (MoHE 1990 MoHE 1994)

Therefore the 17th century is the most important period in Bhutanese history Bhutanese

development policies stem from this period All the high-ranking officials during

Zhabdrungs era were monks and the governments primary function was to support the

religious establishment which in turn promoted Buddhist morality and ethics among the

lay population (MoHE 1994 Ura 1993 as cited by Priesner 1999) In other words the

government promoted the wellbeing of people through spiritual teachings based on

Buddhism The Bhutanese legal system codified in 1652 and based on principles of

Buddhism is the foundation of the contemporary Bhutanese law (Nishimizu 2008)

Since the concept of GNH emphasizes the importance of living with basic human values

giving equal importance to both economic and spiritual wellbeing this clearly indicates

30

that the seeds of GNH had been planted during Zhabdrungs reign Prime Minister Jigme

Y Thinley (2004) writes

Traditional polity in Bhutan drawing much on the Buddhist culture was certainly guided towards GNH A Buddhist equivalent of a Social Contract declared in Bhutan in 1675 said that happiness of sentient beings and teachings of the Buddha were mutually dependent The 1129 legal code of Bhutan stressed that laws should promote happiness of the sentient beings (p 2)

Until the 1960s Bhutan possessed very little of the infrastructure we see today in the

country (National Environment Commission [NEC] 1998 Planning Commission 1999)

Life was hard and conditions were very harsh There was no electricity telephones or

postal services to connect different parts of country or with the outside world There were

no motor roads and money was unknown The health infrastructure was poor life

expectancy was estimated to be an average of 35 years Western education was

considered unnecessary The vast majority of Bhutanese lived in isolation in the rugged

mountain terrains The Bhutanese were subsistence farmers totally dependent upon the

land and the forests for survival People exchanged goods among themselves and were

self sufficient for most purposes Bhutans traditional socio-economic system was based

on the principle of communal self-reliance which is related to the Buddhist doctrine of

the benevolent nature of small-scale (Priesner 1999 Gurung 1999)

Due to the lack of foreign influences Bhutan developed an extremely stable

social environment and traditional system of knowledge Self-reliance was the first

explicitly emphasized development objective in 1959 (as cited Priesner 1999) The

National Assembly in 1959 stated that its primary task was to maintain the sovereignty

of the kingdom through economic self-reliance (Kuensel Vol 2 No 9 [May 1-15

31

1968] p7 as cited by Priesner 1999) Modern development came to Bhutan in the early

1960s during the reign of the third king Jigme Doiji Wangchuck (1952-1972) (MoHE

1994) However Bhutans decision to embark on modern development was not

voluntary During a visit to Bhutan in September 1958 the Indian Prime Minister

expressed his concern about Bhutans security and emphasized the need for a road to link

Bhutan and India offering at the same time financial and technical assistance To avoid

increased dependence the government refused to accept the assistance Nevertheless

Bhutans attitude changed during 1959 a consequence of events in Tibet In 1959 the

Tibetan revolt was suppressed by the Chinese which resulted in the flow of several

thousand Tibetan refugees into Bhutan At the end of the same year Chinese actions

began to be directed against Bhutan A triangular shaped part of Tibetan territory between

the small Indian state of Sikkim and Bhutan through which the most important trade

route from Bhutan to India ran was sealed off (Galay 1999 Priesner 1999) In the

following National Assembly session the construction of roads became the main issue of

discussion As an underdeveloped country Bhutan lacked financial and labor resources

and India was the only possible source of aid Thus Bhutan took the first step towards

development cautiously Later when Chinese aggression declined measures of cultural

preservation were soon adopted to contain and counter-balance the negative effects of

modernization (Priesner 1999)

Since 1961 Bhutan plans its development every five years The third King

always expressed his priority as making the people prosperous and happy (Kuensel

1968 as cited by Priesner 1999 p7) Prosperity and happiness were highlighted in the

third kings address on the occasion of Bhutans admission to the United Nations in 1971

32

Further the preservation of environment and culture is the most consistently applied

principle from the start of the first Five Year Plan (FYP) and this is a major input for

GNH

The Bhutanese development concept thus evolved from the countrys socioshy

economic historic and political circumstances The concept of GNH is thus the

translation of cultural and social consciousness into development priorities (Priesner

1999) To sum up the influencing factors that caused Bhutan to have such a unique

development concept are the absence of foreign domination the desire to preserve

national identity Chinese invasion causing threat to the national security and deeply

embedded Buddhist beliefs The philosophy of GNH therefore evolved earlier than the

term Gross National Happiness was coined

23 GNH Discourses and Debates

The first official keynote speech on Gross National Happiness was delivered by

the current Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley at the United Nations Development

Programme (UNDP) Regional Millennium Meeting for Asia and the Pacific in 1998 His

keynote speech was later published in the countrys national newspaper Kuensel Many

scholars responded to the publication and this led to the first workshop in 1999 to explore

the conceptual foundations of human happiness During the workshop Prime Minister

Thinley raised three questions for deliberation First can an index be constructed for

GNH as it has been done for Human Development Second what are the main

ingredients of happiness Third what would be the main indicators of happiness if there

were any at all

33

Some participants proposed that GNH could be quantified Others suggested that

it would be a speculative exercise into what is essentially a subjective experience and

would defy any statistical device aimed at its quantification They expressed their

suspicion that the essence of conventional economic theories runs counter to GNH

Rinzin (2006) states that two schools of thought emerged one took a philosophical

approach and the other an empirical analytical approach of defining and measuring GNH

On the philosophical side scholars argued that GNH is a development philosophy and

there is no need to define and measure happiness For Stehlik (1999) the attempt even to

define happiness is unnecessary and even less to measure it The other school of thought

argued that in order for GNH to be applicable it should be measurable The first

workshop failed to come up with concrete results The discussion papers from this

workshop were published in June 1999 under the title Gross National Happiness A Set

of Discussion Papers

After a gap of five years the First International Conference on GNH

Operationalizing Gross National Happiness was held in Thimphu Bhutan from

February 18 to 20 2004 The conference intended to explore ways in which the concept

of happiness as an objective of economic and social development could be

operationalized in terms of both policy and evaluation of change The conference focused

largely on the concepts of happiness or wellbeing Dr Ron Colman and Dr Julia Sagebien

(2004) presented a paper on Nova Scotias Atlantic Genuine Progress Index or GPI

which assigns explicit value to environmental quality natural wealth population health

livelihood security equity free time and educational attainment The conference

discussed the relevance of GPI measures to Bhutan Colman and Sagebien suggested a

34

potential framework for measuring GNH proposing indicators such as education basic

security respect and care for all beings Although the conference did not come to any

definitive conclusions Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley (2007) stated that the conference

was a milestone in the history of international discourse as it opened up the discourse on

happiness Further the ripples from this seminar spread far and helped Bhutan develop

the indicators of GNH in a later period

The Second International Conference on GNH Rethinking Development Local

Pathways to Global Wellbeing was held in Nova Scotia Canada from June 20 to 24

2005 The conference focused on the exploration of practices the sharing of actual

experiences and the development of a framework to operationalize GNH The first and

second international conferences seemed to have convinced Bhutanese policy makers that

in order to make GNH practicable it must first become measurable By the time the third

international conference was held Bhutan was well on the way to constructing the GNH

Index

The Third International Conference held in Bangkok Thailand in 2007 focused

on the indicators of GNH The then Prime Minister of Bhutan Kinzang Doiji spoke on the

importance of good governance and highlighted the wellbeing of people as a priority in

developing government policies Just a week prior to the fourth international conference

Bhutan officially adopted the GNH Index

The theme for the Fourth International Conference (November 26 to 28 2008)

was Practice and Measurement of GNH indicating a step forward into a new phase

which focused more on how to reflect GNH in policies and how to grasp the current

situation and measure progress Discussions revolved around the GNH indicators

35

psychology environment community relations education health living standard

governance culture time use and economy Rosellini (2008) says that some of the

indicators of GNH would be relevant to the UNDP-Oxford initiative in understanding the

missing dimensions of poverty Rosellini (2008) further suggested that GNH should be

used as an alternative approach from an international perspective because none of the

methods that attempted to move beyond purely materialistic interpretations of human

progress have gained broad acceptance among academics and development practitioners

The fifth conference held in Brazil in 2009 (November 20-23) was a revelation

for the Bhutanese While the understanding of GNH had grown tremendously at the

international level the GNH conference held in Brazil made the Bhutanese government

realize that Bhutan is still lagging behind in implementing the philosophy of GNH

(Bhutan Broadcasting Service [BBS] 2009) There is no doubt that the policies are

framed in terms of the four pillars of GNH but the government failed to infuse GNH

values into the education system Further GNH values were not reflected in the day-to-

day working of the government institutions businesses and at the community level

Brazil had left Bhutan behind in terms of implementing GNH ethics Several business

establishments in Brazil practice the principle of GNH One pharmaceutical company is

believed to be implementing its ethics and modalities into the way the company

functions Likewise Brazilian villages at the community level are also practicing the

dimensions of GNH on a day-to-day basis (Kuensel 2009) This definitely was a

revelation for Bhutan

On his return from the GNH conference in Brazil the prime minister expressed

his sense of the urgency and immediacy of bringing GNH principles and values into the

36

education system Following this a workshop was conducted on how to achieve a GNH

infused education system (Kuensel 2009) The education ministry has come up with a

road map and an action plan to begin the process of bringing GNH values and principles

into the school system starting in 2010 The education minister stated that every school in

the country will now develop GNH-inspired curriculum material The latest reports state

that many schools in Bhutan have now infused GNH values into their curriculum

Students in most schools meditate for a few minutes before starting any lesson Many

schools are now working towards becoming green (Bhutan Observer March 2010)

Many students were quoted as saying that Meditation somehow helps to relax and

concentrate more on their studies (Business Bhutan 17 April 2010) This is a very

practical move by the government towards enhancing GNH Bhutan has learned a lot

through seminars and debates held at the national and international level The idea of

measuring and quantifying GNH has however raised many questions

24 Quantifying Gross National Happiness

Initially due to the absence of a specific and relevant development index that

takes into account the core principles and dimensions of GNH the United Nations

Human Development concept and its measurement the Human Development Index

(HDI) was used as an interim tool to assess all-round development in Bhutan (Gross

National Happiness Commission [GNHC] 2008) The HDI fails however to capture the

overall essence of the concept of GNH because only three variables are used in HDI

health (life expectancy) education (adult literacy) and wealth (GDP per capita) Owing

to the number of discourses and questions raised regarding the applicability of the

37

philosophy of GNH Bhutan has now adopted the GNH Index Karma Ura (2008)

president of the Centre for Bhutan Studies writes that as many contemporary indicators

of progress and development do not reflect GNH adequately the Royal Government of

Bhutan directed the Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) to develop GNH index which will

provide appropriate indicators for Bhutanese development (pl)

In his first international speech the Prime Minister of Bhutan Jigme Y Thinley

(1998) stated that the trends of happiness of people are unknown Although people

perceive their wellbeing subjectively their subjective views are not incorporated well

into the design of economic and social policy (Kusago 2006) Similarly Mark (2008)

argues that as a direct consequence of different governments collecting and analyzing

economic data (and social and environmental data to a lesser extent) much is known

about the material conditions of peoples lives but little about their actual lived

experience and their sense of personal and social wellbeing It is to address this lacunae

that the government needs to adopt indicators for measuring the wellbeing of its people

Former Minister Kinzang Dorji (2007b) points out that indicators can be useful in

revealing institutional and human conditions to show both the potential and result of

policy decisions (p 2) He argues that the use of indicators reflecting GNH values will

enable policy makers to locate those principles in determining GNH policy and tracking

GNH processes

Many are skeptical however and wonder whether quantifying such a noble

philosophy is justifiable Reducing real people and real lives to numerical values does not

do justice to the emotional and spiritual depth of the human experience (Doiji 2007b)

There is much doubt as to whether the indicators capture the real essence of human

38

happiness Nonetheless if the government wants to promote the wellbeing or happiness

of its citizens it needs to know the happiness trend of its citizens and find out if its

policies contribute to both subjective and objective wellbeing Even if Gross National

Happiness cannot be quantified as precisely as Gross Domestic Product is currently

quantified Daly amp Farley (2004) state that It is better to be vaguely right than precisely

wrong (p243) The policy makers will at least get an idea of peoples state of wellbeing

Measuring GNH is indeed a milestone in Bhutanese history as it will always

remind Bhutanese of their founding ideals A GNH Index would help citizens know if

they are improving as a nation in protecting and exercising their right to pursue happiness

(Brooks 2008) The adoption of the GNH Index shows the seriousness of the Bhutanese

government in pursuing the goal of GNH Lastly there is hope that Gross National

Happiness will not remain as a mere catchphrase

25 Summary

This chapter presented a review of the literature on GNH and the influence of

Buddhism on the concept of GNH The aim of this review is to get a better understanding

of the centrality of Buddhism in the concept of GNH and to highlight issues that emerged

in the GNH discourses The key principle of GNH which focuses on happiness is

influenced by the core teachings of Buddhism which states that the main purpose of life

the heart of being human is happiness The four pillars of GNH reflect traditional

Bhutanese beliefs and values inspired by Buddhism The law of Karma the principle of

interdependence and the noble eightfold path has certainly influenced the Bhutanese way

39

of living and thus the concept of GNH The Buddhist values of interdependence equality

and compassion are inherent in GNH

History reveals that the basic philosophy of GNH emerged between the 10th and

17th centuries when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of life Buddhism

therefore is the backbone of the concept of GNH Bhutan however is not a Utopian state

because it advocates GNH Like many developing countries Bhutan is grappling with

problems of increased rural urban migration poverty and unemployment thus

challenging the goals of GNH The government is continuing to reflect GNH objectives

in its policy and programmes Through the effective use of the four pillars of GNH

Bhutan never placed excessive emphasis on economic development The country did not

opt for economic activities which promised huge financial gain but caused damage to

health environment and culture Bhutan therefore is said to have one of the best policies

in the world (Priesner 1999) However it is important to know if the policies are

promoting happiness and wellbeing among the people The government has rightly

adopted the GNH Index because only through the use of the indicators will policymakers

know if their policies are in reality promoting happiness The question remains however

as to whether these indicators capture the real essence of GNH and whether they are

influenced by Buddhist principles

40

CHAPTER THREE THE BUDDHIST PRINCIPLES OF HAPPINESS

We all want happiness and do not want suffering Many of us support the

importance of moral values in making our lives happier Buddhist principles emphasize

that human values and principles are necessary to lead a happy life Yet there is a general

assumption that income and happiness are directly related Happiness research findings

defy this generalization and show that increasing incomes are not accompanied by

increasing happiness (Hirata 2006)

The Buddha discovered this 2500 years ago The Buddha did not reject the idea of

possessing wealth but taught that wealth does not guarantee happiness He rejected greed

in accumulating wealth being enslaved to materialism and treating wealth as the

ultimate goal (Wijeyawansa 2009) The Buddhas teachings are based on the key

problem ofsuffering Since Buddhism focuses so much on suffering it is often

criticized as being pessimistic But Buddhism does not deny the presence of happiness in

our lives It teaches the way out of suffering and shows the path towards genuine

happiness Buddhism understands that not everyone can lead an ascetic life and accepts

that for a layperson a certain degree of wealth is essential to live a happy life Living an

ethical and moral life is said to bring genuine happiness in Buddhism The objective of

this chapter is to understand happiness from a Buddhist perspective by laying down some

key Buddhist principles related to happiness

Understanding Buddhist principles and values that underpin the Buddhist

worldview will provide a framework that will be the lens through which the

psychological wellbeing indicators of GNH will be analyzed in the following chapter

The principles that will be discussed here are however not definitive boundaries because

41

Buddhism teaches innumerable ways to achieve ultimate happiness In this chapter the

framework of happiness is based on a specific Buddhist teachings called the six

paramitas Nonetheless the entire Buddhist teachings have the same essence and arise

out of the four noble truths and eightfold noble path

This chapter is divided into three sections The first section begins with a brief

introduction to the Buddhist view of happiness Buddhism in Bhutan belongs to the

Mahayana tradition and therefore this study is limited to the context of Mahayana

Buddhism The second section looks at key foundational doctrines such as the four noble

truths Karmamdashthe law of cause and effect the principle of interdependence and

compassion The third section constructs a framework for happiness based on the

Mahayana Buddhist principle using the six perfections or paramitas Paramita refers to

crossing over from the sea of suffering to the shore of happiness The paramitas are the

six kinds of virtuous practice required for skillfully serving the welfare of oneself and

others and a path to achieve genuine happiness For the purpose of this study Thogme

Zangpos text on Thirty-Seven Practices of Bodhisattava (Gyalse Laglin) and teachings

by Buddhist teachers such as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will

serve as sources for constructing this framework

31 Buddhist View of Happiness

Buddhism was founded in the 5th century and has over 365 million followers

worldwide (Ontario Consultants 2009) The term religion is often associated with the

concept of creator or a god but Buddhism rejects the idea of creator god as well as the

notion of a permanent self or a indestructible soul (Flanagan 2007) Therefore it is

42

commonly said that Buddhism is non-theistic or atheistic Buddhism is a series of

practices and a way of life based on the teachings of the Buddha Buddhists are strongly

influenced by Karma the law of cause and effect with the implication that there is no

creator (interview with the Dalai Lama by Chopra 2010)

The word Buddha means to awaken from the sleep of ignorance and to spread

ones intelligence to everything that can be known (Dalai Lama 2000 p2) The Buddha

was like any other human being before he attained nirvana at the age of thirty-seven The

lessons that the Buddha learned while in search of truth is the foundation of Buddhism

chief among which is the pursuit of happiness

In his book An Open Heart Practicing Compassion in Everyday Lifethe Dalai

Lama (2001) states that the purpose of spiritual practice is to fulfill our desire for

happiness (p30) Buddhism indeed has much to say about happiness Sogyal Rimpoche

a renowned Buddhist teacher states there are two kinds of happiness one based on

material comfort and pleasures the other on inner contentment and peace (Doiji 2010)

The two are the physical and mental components of happiness The mental experience or

the inner force plays a more powerful role For example in a very pleasant environment

if we are mentally depressed the surroundings will not make a difference Similarly if

we have inner peace or mental happiness it will be easier to face any challenge This

indicates our mind and thoughts play a powerful role in experiencing happiness (Dalai

Lama 2001) Khenpo Phuntsho Tashi (2004) asserts that in Mahayana Buddhism

happiness springs from an altruistic or compassionate mind Since human minds are often

agitated by afflictive emotions the results frequently are negative actions which in turn

cause suffering The essence of Buddhism therefore is to tame to transform to conquer

43

the human mind for it is the root of everythingmdash it is the creator of happiness and

suffering The Buddha has said in Dhammapada (as cited by Bancroft 1997 p41)

Such a Wandering mind is weak and unsteady Attracted here there and everywhere How good it is to control it and know the happiness of Freedom (Verse 35)

And yet how unruly still how subtle the delusion of the thoughts To quiet them and master them is the true way of happiness (Verse 36)

There is a significant similarity between the Buddhas teachings and Aristotles

ethic Eudiamonia the Aristotelian term for happiness is very similar to Buddhism

Aristotle states that if we want to be happy we should cultivate and practice virtues

through wisdom He also mentions that happiness is vulnerable to external hazards

sudden disaster can reverse happiness no matter how virtuous ones life has been

(Annas 1999) This is exactly what the Buddha preached 2500 years ago The Buddhas

teachings are based on the impermanent nature of life and the importance of virtuous and

righteous deeds Most of Aristotles ethic is devoted to an account of virtuous activities

that he states constitute happiness Aristotle describes happiness as doing well combined

with virtue or self sufficiency of life or the pleasantest life with safety or prosperity of

possessions and bodies with power to protect then and use them in action (Irwin 1999

p3) Aristotle believes that power and fortune are also parts of happiness because they

are the best providers of safety This idea that happiness requires fortune contradicts the

Buddhas teachings The Buddha preached that fortune power possession are all

materials and subject to change They are therefore not a source of genuine happiness but

a cause of suffering

44

His Holiness the Dalai Lama states that Buddhists aim not merely for temporary

happiness but for long-term results They are concerned with life after life This means

that ultimate happiness in Buddhism is Nirvana the cessation of suffering the end of the

cycle of birth-and-death He further adds that spiritual practice the practice of dharma

can bring both long-term happiness and more inner strength day by day (Dalai Lama amp

Hopkins 2000) Buddhist teaching employs innumerable skillful means through which

happiness can be achieved at the individual and collective levels Being on the

Bodhisattva path the path on which all sentient beings can receive help can bring us

happiness Powers (1995 p91) defines a Bodhisattva as someone who is progressing

towards the state of enlightenment Bodhisattva symbolizes compassion Bodhisattvas are

also called jangchup sempa which means a compassionate heart in Tibetan and

Bhutanese

32 Key Mahayana Buddhist Principles

321 The four noble truths

In his search for the meaning of life the Buddha discovered the four noble truths

which are the very foundation of all Buddhist beliefs The Buddhas four noble truths

explain the truth of suffering and the way to overcome it The first noble truth recognizes

that suffering is the essence of human existence suffering from birth old age sickness

and death as well as the pain from separation grief and despair The second noble truth

explains that desire or craving is the cause of all suffering craving for pleasure for

individual existence and for release from our present situation The third noble truth

states that suffering can cease by overcoming craving or desire The fourth noble truth

45

prescribes the way to overcome desire by following the eightfold noble path (Bancroft

1997)

A closer understanding of the four noble truths leads to the realization that no

person can achieve constant and prolonged happiness because as the first noble truth

states Life is suffering This means that as long as humans exist there will be no end

to suffering Suffering in Buddhism has generally been categorized into three types First

is the suffering of misery which includes physical and mental sufferings Second is the

suffering of change where we achieve happiness only for a brief period because all

phenomena are subject to change Third is compositional suffering the suffering which is

endemic to cyclic existence because humans are under the influence of afflictive

emotions (Dalai Lama as cited in Powers 1984 amp 1995 Negi 1999)

The cause of all suffering is the desire and aversion arising out of ignorance

which is called Klesha Klesha literally means afflictive emotions or delusions and refers

to wide range of mental states (Negi 1999) Bhutanese call it nyong mong meaning

distorted or confused By following the eightfold noble path one can overcome the

afflictive emotions and thus achieve genuine happiness Light Party (1996) asserts that

the main map the Buddha offered for the trip to happiness and contentment is the

Eightfold Path Right Understanding Right Intention Right Action Right Speech Right

Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right Mindfulness Buddhist

teachings are all centered on one or more steps of the eightfold noble path The eight

steps are usually divided into three main practices Morality (Sila) which also means

ethics or virtues Concentration (Samadhv meditation) and Wisdom (Prajnaj (Dalai

Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2000 Gomes 2004) Right Understanding and Right

46

Intention pertain to wisdom (Sanskrit panna) Right Action Right Speech and Right

Livelihood pertain to moral virtues or ethics Right Effort Right Concentration and

Right Mindfulness pertain to meditative cultivation of heart and mind

Moral virtue meditation and wisdom form part of the six perfections which

are the core teachings of Mahayana Buddhism The six perfections are the six qualities to

the Bodhisattvas path the state of genuine happiness This study uses the six perfections

as a framework for happiness which will be explored in depth in the third section

322 The Law of Karma Principle of Interdependence and Compassion

The most common belief among Buddhists is that we can never escape from our

own Karma (Sanskrit Kamma) Karma (the law of cause and effect) states that nothing

comes into being without a cause The law of Karma can be simply related to Newtons

Third Law which states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction The

same holds according to the law of Karma though it is not known whether the reaction

will occur in this life or beyond this life Since Buddhism supports the idea of rebirth

certain key aspects of a persons next rebirth are thought to be karmically determined

These include the family into which one is born ones social status physical appearance

character and personality Karma does not however claim that everything that happens

to a person is karmically determined Karma does not determine precisely what will

happen or how anyone will react to what happen Individuals are always free to resist

previous conditioning and establish new patterns of behavior

The belief in Karma sometimes degenerates into a form of fatalism but fate and

Karma are different Humans have freedom to choose and their present action is not the

47

entire result of their past Karma action It does however influence a persons action

because of the character a person has developed (Harvey 2005)

The belief that one has to bear the Karma of ones act is deeply rooted in the

Buddhist psyche It is a very common belief among Buddhists that depending on ones

Karmic consequences (or accumulated positivenegative merits) one will experience

happinesssufferings of various types (Gaylag 2004) good action leads to pleasant

effects and bad deeds lead to unpleasant results Harvey (2005) asserts that the cycle of

Karma provides a perspective on life which is supportive of compassion and respect for

other beings In Buddhism if you want happiness you need to sow the seed of good

merit

Buddhist philosophy explains innumerable ways to achieve positive Karma

Actions motivated by greed hatred and delusion result in bad Karma while actions

motivated by their opposites - non-attachment loving kindness and right understanding-

- result in positive Karma Good intentions therefore must find expression in right

actions and right actions are basically those that are wholesome and do no harm either

oneself or others Tashi (2004) states that in order to accumulate merits and to be happy

our actions can be summed up under three principle causes 1) Developing the attitude of

not harming others (this is being mindful and awakening oneself from ignorance) 2)

Cultivating the attitude of helping others and 3) Being Content

The principle of dependent origination also known as the principle of

interdependence is one of the important principles of Buddhism This principle is actually

an elaboration of the law of Karma which states that all things are interdependent and

48

everything that happens depends on other things happening (Negi 1999 Flanagan 2007

Doiji 2009) In other words since a whole is dependent on its parts any existent thing is

composed of its parts therefore its very existence depends on its parts Buddhism states

that human beings in particular are the combination of the five groups of existence or

five aggregates The physical body is the material aggregate and the mental aspect is

made up of feeling perception (awareness recognition through senses) mental

formations or thoughts and consciousness (knowing the object through our senses)

(Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2005) Since we are made of these five aggregates

and these aggregates themselves have no permanent existence there exists no permanent

self Buddhist teachings assert that humans do not comprehend this reality and assume

that all things including human beings have permanent selves As we are all

interdependent there are no existing phenomena which is not the effect of this What we

do affects those around us and vice versa People should therefore not think only of

themselves but should also take into consideration those around them To create

happiness it is important that we not only reflect on the interrelationship of all things but

also see ourselves clearly as a part of one system of causal relationships

The Buddhist belief is that genuine happiness can be generated from developing a

compassionate heart a heart focused not only on itself but which also helps and benefits

all beings Compassion is defined as the wish to free all beings from suffering (Dalai

Lama 2001) Gyatso (1984) and the Dalai Lama (2000 amp 2001) assert that the root of all

Buddhist practices is the heart of loving kindness and compassion In Buddhism it is

normally said that a person who lacks compassion does not have a good heart It is

49

through a compassionate attitude that Buddhists are motivated to have concern for all

humans animals and the environment because they are all part of the same world

Although it is not easy to free all beings from suffering Buddhism states that we can

develop virtuous minds and thereby help others to do the same (Dalai Lama 2001) It is

through the force of compassion that a person engages in accumulating the merit and

wisdom that make Buddhahood possible (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) and in that sense

also makes happiness possible The four noble truths the law of Karma the principle of

interdependence and the idea of compassion form the key components of a Buddhist

worldview The next section develops a framework for the Buddhist view of happiness

which extends from these key Buddhist doctrines

33 The Buddhist Happiness Framework

This section constructs a happiness framework based on the Mahayana

Buddhisms teachings on the six perfections paramitas) Thogme Zangpos 12th century

text on the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva especially his verses on the six

practices were referenced ( Hopkins 1989) The six perfections or paramitas are

1 Dana Paramita (generosity) 2 Sila Paramita (ethicsvirtuesmorality) 3 Kshanti

Paramita (patiencetolerance) 4 Virya Paramita (perseverance) 5 Dhayana paramita

(meditative concentration) 6 Prajna Paramita (wisdom) These six teachings are a way

for an inner cultivation which implies a kind of ethics that focuses directly on daily life

through which one accomplishes genuine happiness (Wright 2009) The first five are

methods or practices and the last wisdom is necessary for any of them to function The

first three practices are usually recommended for lay people Joyous effort and

concentration mainly refer to meditation normally practiced in monastic communities

50

However meditation is now becoming increasingly popular and is practiced also by lay

people

The opening verse of Thogme Zangpos (nd) text begins with the following

statement

The perfect Buddhas the sources of benefit and happiness arise from having practiced the excellent doctrine That in turn depends on knowing its practices Therefore I will explain the practices of Bodhisattva (p 1)

The Buddha is a symbol and a source of genuine happiness for the Buddhist The

Buddha achieved the state of eternal bliss through his practice of virtues Thogme

Zangpo states that one needs to understand that the source of all happiness whether

worldly or ultimate happiness comes from the practice of Dharma which means the

practice of virtues Geshey Kelsang Gyatso (1984) states that in general Dharma refers

to the teachings of the Buddha but the actual Dharma is the inner realizations which

directly protect living beings from their sufferings He further explains that there are

three kinds of meaning to be achieved through the practice of Dharma The highest is to

reach full enlightenment Buddhahood in this life The middle is to achieve self-

liberation from cyclic fears and sufferings The lowest is to achieve happiness in this life

by overcoming the inner problems and thus avoiding being reborn in the lower realms in

the next life Thus Buddhists aim at one of these three Lay Buddhists usually aim to

lead a happy virtuous life and to be reborn in the higher realms

Thogme Zangpos teachings stress committing oneself to virtues as much as

possible and not engaging in ill deeds Virtues are actions that bear the fruit of happiness

Ill deeds are those actions that cause suffering and unhappiness to oneself and to other

beings Everyone wants to achieve happiness the Dalai Lama defines happiness as a

51

blissful state devoid of all suffering Since the law of cause and effect binds Buddhism it

is necessary to examine phenomena that cause happiness and suffering According to

Buddhism ignorance desire and hatred are the main cause of suffering Our own

afflictive emotions and actions cause suffering

The famous Buddhist painting of a wheel with 21 parts outlines the meaning of

life in Buddhism The diagram designed by the Buddha himself depicts an inner

psychological cosmology This painting can be found at the doorway of every temple in

Bhutan The center of the wheel shows the picture of a pig rooster and snake These

three animals depict the root cause of suffering represented as ignorance desire and

hatred (anger) respectively They are known as the three poisons in Buddhism (Dalai

Lama 2000) Buddhism states that it is possible to overcome suffering since it depends

on causes which are within oneself When one understands the nature of suffering one

will work towards ending such causes However Mahayana Buddhism stresses that this

understanding must be extended to other sentient beings Others similarly want happiness

and not suffering Mahayana Buddhists therefore emphasizes developing compassion and

engaging in the practices of the six paramitas to overcome suffering

Ignorance is not just the absence of knowledge of the real status of phenomenon

but the inability to understand truth misconception of inherent existence of permanent

self (Dalai Lama 2000) The principle of dependent origination (Section 322) as

explained above shows that we do not exist independently on our own Thogme Zangpos

fourth verse states the following

Long-associated companions will part from each other Wealth and possessions obtained with effort will be left behind Consciousness the guest will cast aside

52

the guest-house of the bodv Letting go of this life is the bodhisattvas practice (pl)

The above verse states that our body is not ours The mind or consciousness leaves the

body at death as a guest leaves the guesthouse However we live as if we are going to

live forever and this ignorance draws us into afflictive desire and hatred Ignorance thus

comes out as greed and hatred Greed and hatred in turn promote ignorance The Dalai

Lama (2000) states without ignorance desire and anger are impossible These disturbing

emotions and attitudes are said to be true causes of suffering as are the karmic impulses

that arise under the power of these disturbing emotions Figure 2 below illustrates how

Buddhists perceive suffering and happiness It shows that the root causes of suffering are

ignorance desire and hatred These emerge through three doorsmdash body speech and

mindmdashas non-virtuous action generating negative Karma which causes suffering to

oneself and to others

Figure 2 Suffering and its causes

53

Gyatso (1984) points out that even though the body is like a guest house we will

receive many fruits if we practice Dharma meaning the practice of virtue which results in

the fruit of good Karma However all sentient beings are subject to the three poisons and

the question is how do we overcome them to practice virtue Buddhist teaching states

that the three poisons can be resisted and virtues cultivated through training in the six

practices When a person wants to reduce weight heshe goes through physical training

and dieting Similarly in Buddhism if one wants happiness one must practice the six

paramitas This will naturally generate virtuous actions leading to happiness This is

represented by Figure 3 below

Figure 3 Overcoming Suffering

54

331 Generosity

Mahayanists maintain that happiness comes from a compassionate and altruistic

mind The practice of compassion is training oneself in the perfection of generosity In

the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva the 25th verse states

If it is necessary to give away even ones body while aspiring to enlightenment what need is there to mention external objects Therefore practicing generosity without hope of reciprocation or positive karmic results is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)

The perfection of generosity is the first principle of happiness Generosity can be

practiced by anyone This practice refers to unconditional love a selfless generosity and

giving which is completely free from attachment and expectation Internally it means

overcoming our emotions (greed and hatred) and being generous with others voluntarily

giving ones material goods time or wisdom to others (Das 1995) Generosity is a cure

for the afflictions of greed miserliness and possessiveness The Anguttara Nikaya

(Anguttara Verse 34 and 35) a collection of Buddhist scriptures points out that there are

five blessings that result from the practice of generosity the person will be liked and

admired by everyone will have a good reputation will have lots of self confidence and

will have a heavenly rebirth Buddhists believe that giving without seeking anything in

return leads to greater spiritual wealth Generosity therefore is a very important virtue

bringing happiness to oneself and others

332 Ethics

The second practice is that of Sila which literally means ethics moralityvirtue

Right speech Right action and Right livelihood which form the part of Eightfold Noble

Path fall under ethical practice This perfection of ethics or Sila Paramita stresses quality

55

of virtuous and ethical behavior morality self-discipline personal integrity and never

having the thought to harm any sentient beings The Dalai Lama (2001) states that for

Buddhists ethics means avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions acts done by the body

speech and mind (p34) It is important that our practice of generosity is supported by

our practice of ethics Buddhists therefore abstain from the ten non-virtuous actions

killing stealing sexual misconduct lying divisive speech harsh speech gossip greed

malice and wrong views The first three (killing stealing sexual misconduct) correspond

to bodily action The fourth fifth sixth and seventh (lying malicious words harsh

language useless talk) correspond to verbal action The last three (covetousness ill will

wrong view) occur through the mind (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) The ten non-virtuous

actions lead to bad Karma and suffering Avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and

cultivating a compassionate heart brings good Karma and happiness We can enjoy

greater freedom happiness and security in our lives because through our virtuous

behavior we are no longer creating suffering for ourselves and others we basically

become virtuous and harmless in our thoughts speech and actions Thus in the 26th

verse Thogme Zangpo writes

If lacking ethical conduct one fails to achieve ones own purpose the wish to accomplish others purpose is laughable Therefore guarding ethics devoid of aspirations for worldly existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)

Thogme Zangpo points out that with unethical behavior one cannot achieve

happiness Unethical behavior is always the cause of suffering and unhappiness For

example a person who speaks ill of another person will disturb their mind and later will

56

be a cause of suffering for himself or herself His 34th verse stresses the importance of

avoiding harsh words

Harsh words disturb others minds and cause the mode of a Bodhisattvas behavior to deteriorate Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to abandon harsh words about the unpleasantness of others (p 3)

By cultivating ethical behavior we do not cause harm to others and we are free of

negativity we cause no harm by our actions our speech is kind and compassionate and

our thoughts are free of anger malice and wrong views Through the practice of ethics

we gain confidence because we are not carrying any underlying sense of guilt or remorse

for our actions we have nothing to hide Being ethical and moral is the cause of all

goodness and happiness This practice of ethical conduct is the very foundation for

progressing in any practice of meditation and for attaining all higher realizations on the

path The Dalai Lama states that the aim of ethical practice is to transform motivation and

mental disposition this is how we become better human beings The more we succeed in

training our hearts and minds the more we will be able to cope with adversity and our

actions will be naturally ethical Thus we will experience happiness

333 Patience and Tolerance

The third practice is that of patience and tolerance It is called the perfection of

patience (Bhutanese Bzod pa) Thogme Zangpos 27th verse states the importance of

patience

For bodhisattvas who desire the pleasures of virtue all those who do harm are like a precious treasure Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to cultivate patience without anger or resentment for anyone (p3)

57

Patience in Buddhism refers to having the strength to face the challenges and

difficulties of life without losing our composure and inner tranquility Bodhisattvas are

challenged to endure tolerate and bear any hardship without retaliation or negative

thoughts Through endurance and tolerance we gain strength to overcome any afflictive

emotions The Dalai Lama states that this enlightened quality comes from having our

heart open and our mind deeply concentrated upon the Dharma He states that endurance

and tolerance do not imply defeat but make the mind stronger When the Buddha was

deep in meditation demon Mara and his daughters tried to tempt and distract him

Through his patience however the Buddha remained calm and undistracted and finally

attained nirvana The ability to endure is therefore integral to Buddhism With the

strength of patience we can overcome anything The mind will be calm and clear and

this enables us to make better decisions Through the practice of patience we maintain

inner peace under all circumstances and thus experience genuine happiness

334 Perseverance

The fourth practice is the perfection of joyous effort or enthusiastic perseverance

It is called Virya Paramita in Sanskrit and is the quality of persistent effort or working

hard towards achieving a goal The 28th verse of Thogme Zangpos teaching states

Even hearers and solitary realizers who accomplish only their own welfare strive as if putting out a fire on their heads Seeing this taking up diligent effort -the source of good qualities - for the sake of all beings is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)

Thogme Zangpo points out that just as one makes an effort to put out the fire on

ones own head one must strive diligently to free oneself and all sentient beings from

58

suffering Our body speech and mind should put in effort to the best of our ability

Without putting in right effort we can be disillusioned and thus fail to achieve any goal

The Dalai Lama states that with joyous effort and enthusiastic perseverance we regard

failure as simply another step towards success danger as an inspiration for courage and

affliction as another opportunity to practice wisdom and compassion Thus to achieve

happiness one must put in right effort to be compassionate to be virtuous and ethical at

all times

335 Meditative Concentration

The fifth practice is that of meditative concentration It is called Dhyana

Paramita Meditative concentration is very important in developing mental qualities and

overcoming the three poisons The content of the very first verse of thirty-seven practices

of Bodhisattva is on meditation

At this time when the difficult-to-gain ship of leisure andfortune has been obtained ceaselessly hearing pondering and meditating day and night in order to liberate oneself and others from the ocean of cyclic existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)

The ship of leisure and fortune refers to the human body In Buddhism there are six

realms god2 demi-god human animals hungry ghost hell beings The humans in

comparison to the other realm is very rare It is therefore fortunate enough to be born as a

human Thogme Zangpo indicates that through hearing the dharma teachings meditating

day and night and developing a heart of loving kindness and compassion sentient beings

2 Gods in Buddhism are beings who are born into higher realms because of their positive Karma accumulated in their past lives Their lifespan eventually ends When their life ends they will be reborn in one of the six realms depending on their Karma

59

can be liberated from suffering Buddhism greatly stresses the taming of the mind

because the mind can be transformed and meditation is the means to transform it Tashi

(2004) explains the usefulness of meditation in destroying the root causes of suffering

and providing an antidote to them Meditation also plays an important role in achieiving

happiness at the individual national and global levels The perfection of meditative

concentration thus aims at taming the mind so that it does what we want it to do We

stabilize our mind and emotions by practicing meditation by being mindful and aware in

everything we do When we train the mind in this way all mental distortions and

misperceptions are eliminated We achieve focus composure and tranquility

Concentrating deeply makes us realize the cause of confusion and suffering and helps us

directly experience inner joy Thus Thogme Zangpos 29th verse states

Having understood that disturbing emotions are destroyed by insight possessed with tranquil abiding to cultivate meditative concentration which perfectly transcends the four formless absorptions is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)

336 Wisdom

The last practice is the perfection of wisdom called Prajna Parmaita in Sanskrit

Wisdom is the key to everything Wisdom will help us find the path to happiness

Without wisdom one will not understand the reality of phenomena and thus be

disillusioned by the three poisons Wisdom is therefore necessary to cultivate other

practices Thogme Zangpos 30th verse points out

If one lacks wisdom it is impossible to attain perfect enlightenment through the other five perfections Thus cultivating skillful means with the wisdom that doesnt discriminate among the three spheres is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)

60

Wisdom does not refer to mere intellectual understanding It is beyond that Ron

Liefer (1997) states that a mere intellectual understanding of reality will not change our

habitual negative patterns of thoughts speech and action because the intellect serves the

ego He further adds we cannot achieve wisdom without seeing through the trickery of

ego Wisdom refers to Right understanding and Right view (two of the eightfold noble

paths) of reality This entails getting rid of those wrong views which manifest the three

poisons Through wisdom one will be able to distinguish between what is ethical and

unethical or virtuous and non-virtuous We see the essential nature of reality with utmost

clarity our perception goes beyond the illusive and deceptive veils of material existence

Wisdom clears the delusion that envelops the mind It overturns ignorance and the

attitudes that lead to non-virtuous actions and ultimately shows us the path to happiness

(Rink 2010) Thus overcoming the three poisons by understanding the true nature of

reality and developing qualities of generosity morality patience and meditating with

joyous effort is said to generate the highest level of happiness in Buddhism

34 Summary

Buddhist teachings show the true cause of suffering as ignorance desire and

hatred enveloping the mind The teachings on the Four Noble Truths open our eyes to

various perspectives and send us the message that happiness is beyond material

wellbeing They make us realize that the real essence of happiness lies within us It is

only through taming the mind that we can experience happiness Whether we want to be

happy or not depends on how we perceive things and how we act John Milton said The

mind is its own place and in itself can make heaven of hell and a hell of heaven (as

61

cited by Williams 2008 p24) Buddhism teaches that if we can overcome the three

poisons and practice generosity patience mediation and morality we can experience

inner joy in this life This can even be extended to the next life with the possibility of

attaining nirvana The idea of reward for virtuous action (Karma) creates a healthy fear

and pushes the Buddhist to be ethical and practice virtues at all time Buddhism thus

accords the highest authority to experience with reason second and scripture third

(Flanagan 2007) Some may wonder however whether a focus exclusively on getting

rid of desire would inhibit worldly progress The path to overcoming attachment and

achieving worldly progress such as accumulating wealth are indeed poles apart

Buddhism does not necessarily say that we have to give up the material life It stresses

more the importance of having a good heart of never harming others of being

compassionate of being morally disciplined and of possessing loving kindness

generosity patience and a joyful desire to practice virtues These positive qualities can

reduce ones suffering and give happiness to oneself and others

62

CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING

INDICATORS

People always experience moods and emotions which have an enormous range of

effects on their wellbeing To know about peoples psychological state something must

be known about their subjective experiences The psychological wellbeing domain of the

GNH index thus assesses peoples subjective experience based on eleven indicators

Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking account of Karma Jealousy Selfishness

Frustration Generosity Calmness Compassion Suicidal Thought and General Mental

Health The government measures psychological wellbeing by assessing the socially

destructive attitudes and symptoms of psychological distress and the prevalence of

practices to avoid negative emotions The main purpose of this study is to determine to

what extent the indicators under the psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of

happiness and their coherence with the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH This

chapter analyzes each of these indicators to determine the extent to which they reflect

Buddhist principles of happiness using the conceptual framework laid down in Chapter

Three and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH

This chapter is divided into five sections The first section briefly highlights the

meaning of psychological wellbeing and the importance of measuring it It also highlights

similarities between the views of some modern psychologists and the Buddhist view on

the understanding of psychological wellbeing The second third and fourth sections

analyze the indicators of psychological wellbeing by grouping them into three broad

categories Emotional Balance Spirituality Practices and General Mental Health The

chapter concludes with an overview of the overall findings

63

41 Psychological Wellbeing Measures

Psychological wellbeing as the term denotes refers to the wellbeing of a persons

mental state It deals with emotions and feelings which are subjective experiences The

measure of the psychological wellbeing of its citizens is extremely important in a country

pursuing GNH because the mental or the psychological state influences the overall

wellbeing of people A GNH state therefore needs to minimize those mental conditions

that can be disruptive As Larsen amp Fredrickson (1999) point out the content of a

persons emotional life strongly influences his or her judgments of the quality of that life

(p40)

From the Buddhist perspective happiness depends on our mind Buddhist

teachings are directly or indirectly based on the workings of the mind Buddhism strongly

holds that it is the emotional and mental state of people that influence their wellbeing or

happiness The term ishepa which means the mind refers to all aspects of subjective

experiences In the Buddhist diction mind shepa) awareness (rigpa) and consciousness

(lo) are synonyms (Abhidhamma 1987 Negi 1999) The mind in Buddhism includes

all perceptual conceptual and emotional states both conscious and unconscious (Negi

1999) The emotional mental states therefore are all mind related subjective experiences

As explained in Chapter Three Buddhism is concerned with taming the mind

this entails understanding the types of mental activity that are truly conducive to

wellbeing and the ones that are harmful In this sense it would be justifiable to say that

Buddhism is all about achieving happiness mentally or psychologically Ekman

Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) agree that psychologists and Buddhists alike

64

believe that emotions strongly influence peoples thoughts words and actions and that

they help people in their pursuit of transient pleasures and satisfactions

The measurement of a persons psychological state is commonly based on the

self-report assessment Within the discipline of psychology there is a strong view that

self-reports on how well life is going can convey important information on underlying

emotional states and in measuring peoples subjective wellbeing Earlier psychologists

who were mainly interested in negative emotional states such as depression and anxiety

are now interested in positive emotions to evaluate peoples overall wellbeing (Ryff amp

Singer 1998) Indeed to get empirical clues of happiness establishing the absence of

negative experiences would not be enough positive feelings must also be present (Hirata

2006) The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index similarly includes

both positive and negative emotions

Structured questionnaires are used to collect data for each indicator A

sufficiency cut off or a threshold is set for each indicator A person is said to have met the

sufficiency cut-off if hisher evaluation in that indicator meets or exceeds the cut-off

point If the respondent meets or exceeds the sufficiency cut off heshe is given the full

score This means a person is psychologically well if heshe makes sufficient

achievement in each of the indicators Any shortfall from sufficiency that any

respondents experience in any indicator is considered to depress Gross National

Happiness The depth of insufficiency will rise if any person drops further away from

sufficiency cut-off This means that the distance from the cut-off or the sufficiency gap is

sensitive only if the achievements are below the sufficiency level This indicates that the

GNH index is sensitive to an unhappy or a poor persons experience Overall this method

65

is similar to poverty measurement where a poverty line is set to distinguish people who

are materially poor from non-poor (Millet 2010) However there is not much

information available on how the sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From

the information available on the CBS website it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut

off is set at a level that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises

questions because there is not any literature or research conducted on how the sufficiency

cut off has actually been set Arbitrarily setting cut-offs without any basis or setting it

based on some assumptions can lead to questionable results

42 Emotional Balance

The Centre for Bhutan Studies has grouped seven indicators under the category of

emotional balance The indicators can be further grouped into two categories negative

emotions and positive emotions The indicators under this index include emotions or

feelings related to wellbeing because these affect a persons evaluation of life Four of the

seven indicators pertain to negative emotions jealousy selfishness frustration and

suicidal thought and three pertain to positive emotion generosity calmness and

compassion Diener amp Lucas (1999) state that although the emotions are momentary

influences and would not reflect a stable state of happiness they do provide information

about the state of a persons life Research shows that a variety of etiological factors

contribute to these emotions (Berenbaum Raghavan Le Vernon amp Gomez 1999)

Buddhist teaching similarly maintains that these emotions do not occur on their own

there are causal factors associated with them

66

Buddhism places the mind at the centre of all experiences The Buddhist tradition

therefore places emotions at the core of individual and universal happiness In the

Abhidhamma Buddhist text the mind is presented in context to its primary and secondary

consciousnesses Primary consciousness refers to the content of mind which illuminates

merely the general nature of the content Secondary consciousness refers to the aspect of

mind that illuminates the particular nature of that content Both the primary and

secondary consciousnesses operate as one entity (Negi 1999) The Abhidhamma lists

fifty-one secondary consciousnesses All the positive and negative emotions fall under

the fifty-one secondary consciousnesses

a Negative Emotion

Chapter Three explained that negative emotions in Buddhism arise out of

ignorance desire and hatred Humans suffer because of their own negative emotions

These are negative because they harm oneself and others As we ignore the reality around

us and cling to the self or I we get angry for things we do not like jealous when others

succeed frustrated when we fail The extreme reaction is suicidal thoughts and action

All of these negative emotions from the Buddhist perspective fall under unethical

action action that occurs through the mind They are called nyong mongs meaning

distorted or confused or klesha translated as afflictive emotions Jealousy selfishness

frustration and suicidal thoughts arise due to covetousness ill will and wrong view The

four negative indicators form part of the ten non-virtuous actions and are afflictive

regardless of their degree or the context in which they arise These emotions are similarly

considered negative under the GNH index

67

1 Jealousy

Jealousy is often defined as a feeling of resentment when others succeed Harris

(2004) points out that jealousy is likely to arise over perceptions that a potential rival

poses a threat to what one perceives to be valuable in oneself and in an important

relationship In Buddhism jealousy is called dhrag-dog The Buddhist Abhidhamma text

classifies jealousy as part of hostility and calls it immoral Jealousy in Buddhism is

defined as a disturbing emotion that focuses on other peoples accomplishments such as

their good qualities possessions or success and is the inability to bear their

accomplishments due to excessive attachment to our own gain or to the respect we

receive (Berzin 2004 p 1) Jealousy in Buddhism is therefore related to attachment

Jealousy and envy have slightly different meanings in Buddhism Envy adds to what

jealousy means in Buddhism In addition to the inability to bear others accomplishments

envy is the wish to have these accomplishments for ourselves Therefore envy has the

element of what Buddhism calls covetousness (Bnab sem) Berzin (2004) points out that

envy as a combination of jealousy and covetousness leads to competitiveness Jealousy

is thus a disturbing emotion that drives us to become highly competitive and to work

fanatically to outdo others or ourselves Failure can cause much pain and success can lead

to further greed Jealousy has elements of resentment and hostility In addition it has

strong elements of insecurity and mistrust (Berzin 2004)

In the Abhidhamma text jealousy is opposite to compassion and appreciative joy

Lama Zopa Rinpoche (1973) states that rejoicing is the best remedy for jealousy and

envy (pl) Buddhist teaching maintains that we must rejoice for others success and

68

happiness and think that they created their own cause for their happiness Similarly in a

GNH society we must rejoice for others success and happiness Jealousy disturbs our

peace of mind and causes much suffering We cannot achieve GNH if we are all jealous

of others Jealousy is therefore opposed to GNH values

Mullen (1995) points out that men and women experience different types of

emotions when they are jealous These include pain distress oppression anxiety

sadness apprehension anger restless distress humiliation shame agitation and

betrayal All of these are negative and against happiness or wellbeing In order to

achieve GNH it is important to rule out the presence of such negative emotions Since

jealousy is directly opposed to the psychological wellbeing of people it is appropriate

that it be an indicator of GNH

In order to collect the data for this indicator the following question is asked of the

respondents (Box 1) The sufficiency cut off is set at never which means that

respondents are given full score when they answer never In a GNH state it is hoped or

expected that a person would never feel jealous Buddhism similarly marks jealousy as

non-virtuous and afflictive regardless of their degree in which they arise The sufficiency

cut-off which is set at never therefore also corresponds to Buddhist principles

How often do you experience jealousy

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 1 Survey question of Jealousy Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

69

2 Selfishness

The second indicator selfishness refers to an unwillingness to share because of

craving something for oneself Selfishness in Buddhism originates from attachment and

greed In Buddhism selfishness is closely related to the Buddhist term Serna (Negi

1999) Serna in the Abhidhamma text is termed as immoral consciousness (p96) and

appears as delusion arising out of a wrong view attachment and greed Negi (1999)

states that it is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity (p93)

Selfishness is also synonymous with the Tibetan Buddhist terms Rangdoed and lNoe

zirtwhich literally mean self-centered desire and material attachment respectively

Buddhist teachings condemn the idea of self or I from which selfishness arises As

explained in Chapter Three Buddhism teaches no-self (anatta) as an essential

principle The doctrine of no-self is to help us let go of our attachment and ego In one

of his interviews with FOR Atv the Dalai Lama (2008) narrates an incident in which a

rich couple asked him for a blessing He replied to them You are wealthy share your

wealth with the needy ones this will be the real blessing for you This indicates that

Buddhists believe in replacing selfishness with generosity to attain inner joy In

particular the paramita of ethics (see Chapter Three) emphasizes restraining self-

centeredness and to rooting it out completely The Dalai Lama (2000) states that the

ethic of restraining self-centeredness is crucial (p 101) A selfish attitude according to

Buddhism obstructs the path towards achieving Bodhisattva and thus genuine happiness

Selfishness gives rise to negative Karma leading one to be reborn in the lower realms

70

Similarly since the concept of GNH supports the idea of interdependence selfishness is

opposed to the GNH values

Under the selfishness indicator of GNH the participants are asked the following

question (See Box 2) For the answer never a full score is given which means that a

person should never feel selfish to get a positive GNH score This indicates that

selfishness is against the GNH essence Consistent with the Buddhist teachings the GNH

index similarly marks selfishness as a negative trait

How often do you experience selfishness

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 2 Survey question of Selfishness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

3 Frustration The American Heritage Stedmans Medical Dictionary defines frustration as a

condition that results when an impulse or an action is thwarted by an external or an

internal force There is no exact term for frustration in Buddhism but it can be related to

the term gopa which is translated as agitation Negi (1999) describes gopa as a

mental factor that disturbs the inner calm and focus of the mind (p44) Gopa forms

part of the twenty secondary delusions in the Abhidhamma In the Bhutanese national

language Ouggam1 holds equivalent meaning to frustration Ouggam literally means

pressurizing the breath Oug is breath and gam means pressure When we pressurize our

self we get frustrated and this comes out as anger causing suffering to others and

ourselves

71

Frustration is without doubt a negative emotion because it disturbs the peace of

mind causing anxiety and stress Like jealousy and selfishness frustration arises out

of attachment and desire In Buddhism any emotion that arises out of ignorance desire

and hatred is afflictive and non-virtuous Similarly in a GNH society that seeks to

maximize the happiness and wellbeing of people frustration is a negative trait and

opposed to the concept of GNH because it obstructs the path towards happiness Since

frustration has a negative impact on wellbeing it is necessary to determine if such

emotions occur frequently among people Therefore it is appropriate to have it as a

negative indicator of psychological wellbeing

The question (Box 3) how often do you experience frustration is asked of

respondents Since frustration hampers wellbeing respondents who never experience

frustration are given a full GNH score Respondents who often or sometimes

experience frustration are given a negative score

How often do you experience frustration

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 3 Survey question of Frustration Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

4 Suicidal Thoughts

Suicidal thoughts usually occur when one is no longer able to bear suffering in

life According to Buddhism suicide is an unwholesome act since it is encouraged by a

mind filled with greed hatred and delusion (Dhammananda nd) Killing is one of the ten

non-virtuous actions in Buddhism so any act of killing is unwholesome and suicide is

72

therefore an unwholesome act The Buddhist teachings on Karma maintain that death by

suicide only leads to another cycle of rebirth in the same condition Buddha Dharma

Education Association (nd) explains that in order for the act of killing to have its

complete and unmitigated power five conditions must be present a living being the

awareness of the existence of a living being the intention to kill the living being the

effort or action of killing the living being and the consequent death of the living being

Suicide will always lack the last element of a complete Karma because the one who

commits the act will already be dead at the time of the completion of the action

Therefore suicide becomes a defective action and is not completed as an act of killing

leading to rebirth in the same condition (Sopa 2005) The Dalai Lama (1981) states that

even if we take our own life we will have to take another body that again will be the

basis of suffering In order to get rid of all the difficulties we experience we need to get

rid of the fundamental cause (greed hatred and delusion) that gives rise to the aggregates

that are the basis of all suffering He adds that killing yourself is not going to solve your

problems Suicide in Buddhism is therefore a non-virtuous act that arises because of

afflictive emotion

According to Buddhism suicide does not end the problem The famous Buddhist

painting of truth depicts that death is only the beginning of another cycle of pain and

suffering Buddhists therefore do not support suicide and instead encourage constructive

living using this life to diligently practice virtuous action thus changing the present and

the future for the better

Research indicates that suicide and attempted suicide are associated with

elevated levels of anger anxiety guilt sadness and shame (Berenbaum Raghavan Le

73

Vernon Gomez 1999 p 279) Depression is found to be the main cause of suicides The

most common factors that push youth to commit suicide according to Bhutanese

psychiatrist Dr Nirola are peer and parental pressures competitive scenarios and failure

to get a job among others (as cited by Dorji 2010) This indicates that suicidal thoughts

occur because of what Buddhism calls the three poisons leading to further afflictive

emotions

Suicidal thoughts similarly are against the essence of GNH and therefore a

negative indicator of psychological wellbeing Under the GNH index a person who has

never thought of committing suicide (See Box 4) is given a foil GNH score while

respondents who have thought of committing suicide are given negative scores Overall

the indicator of suicidal thought finds groundings in Buddhist teachings

Have you ever seriously thought of committing suicide

1 Yes 2 No

Box 4 Survey question of Suicidal Thought Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Jealousy frustration selfishness and suicidal thoughts are negative emotions that

affect individuals and the societys wellbeing Satya Dev Negi (1996) asserts that the

distorted emotional states have achieved such a pervasive status that our era may become

known to history as the Age of Emotional Epidemic (p2) The effects of negative

emotions are clearly visible in society increasing crime substance abuse suicide and

divorce are all symptoms of emotional dysfunction

The entire Buddhist tradition evolved as a study of mental and emotional states

and ways to transform the negative emotions into positive ones Although Buddhism sees

74

ignorance desire and hatred as the main causes of suffering the three poisons come out

in the form of various negative emotions which include jealousy frustration and

selfishness Scientific research has revealed the role emotions play in affecting health the

immune system blood pressure and cardiovascular functions Research also indicates

that individuals with emotional disturbances are prone to induce negative effects upon

those with whom they have ongoing relationships (Berenbaum et al 1999) Besides

evaluation of the frequency of negative emotions it is important for the government to

know the reasons or the conditions that give rise to these negative emotions GNH as

policy must attend to it them

Overall all of the four indicators are directly opposed to the essence of GNH and

therefore it is appropriate to have them as indicators in order to minimize or eliminate

the presence of such negative emotions in a country Further all of these indicators are

rooted in Buddhism

b Positive Emotions

The process for accomplishing happiness in Buddhism involves uprooting the

negative emotions and enhancing the positive ones The three indicatorsmdashgenerosity

calmness and compassionmdashare positive because these emotions bring happiness to

oneself and others The practice of paramitas as explained in Chapter Three encourages

replacing the three poisons by practicing generosity ethics compassion and meditative

concentration Similarly generosity calmness and compassion are considered positive

indicators of psychological wellbeing

75

5 Generosity

Generosity is the act of giving and a means to overcome greed and selfishness In

Buddhism the practice of generosity (Dana Paramita- jinba) as laid down in Chapter

Three is one of the six paramitas and a way to practice compassion Buddhism maintains

that the practice of generosity in addition to the fivefold benefit to the one practicing it

brings happiness to others too Generosity is a moral practice that relates to positive

virtues such as compassion and loving kindness the cultivation of which leads to mental

development and spiritual happiness Through generosity we are able to extend ourselves

and help others The whole idea of generosity supports the concept of interdependence

which is the core principle of GNH and Buddhism The Centre for Bhutan Studies terms

generosity a positive emotion of great importance and a desirable habit Generosity as

an indicator is therefore coherent with the GNH principle as it promotes happiness for

oneself and others The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 5) for the

collection of data

How often do you experience generosity

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 5 Survey question of Generosity Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

The sufficiency cut off has been set as often which means a person should

frequently experience the feeling of generosity to get the full GNH score In a GNH

3 See Chapter Three

76

society people must help each other and promote a healthy environment Helping does

not necessarily mean giving all your possessions to others but it does entail sharing a part

of your wealth and being helpful in many ways An example would be a voluntary

service to society and charity Happiness derived by the act of generosity which does not

get included in the Gross Domestic Product (Hewavitharana 2004) should be included in

the evaluation of GNH Therefore generosity as an indicator of psychological

wellbeing is coherent with and appropriate to the concept of GNH

6 Calmness

Calmness refers to the clarity of mind and it entails patience and tolerance

Calmness is opposed to anger which is one of the three poisons in Buddhism The

Buddhist practice of Kshanita paramita the practice of patience and tolerance stresses

the importance of having a calm and composed mind at all times Patience in Buddhism

as seen in Chapter Three refers to having the strength to face the challenges and

difficulties of life without losing composure and inner tranquility In the Abhidhamma

text equanimity (long nyom) which is synonymous with calmness is listed as the

tenth positive secondary consciousness and a wholesome mental factor (Negi 1999)

Any mind that experiences such emotion becomes automatically positive states Negi

(1999) When we are calm we develop a tendency not to harm others and we are usually

at our best when we are calm Tranquility gives rise to clarity from which understanding

and wisdom grow (Graham 2007) A calm mind is therefore very essential for living a

happy and healthy life On the other hand constant fear and anger affect our own health

and overall wellbeing Horton (2010) states that through mental calmness one can

77

experience inner peace and as a result success too Calmness is therefore a virtue

consistent with GNH ideals

The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 6) for the collection of

data

How often do you experience calmness

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 6 Survey question of Calmness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Respondents who often feel calm are given the full GNH score which means in a GNH

society people should experience calmness frequently Overall this indicator can be

linked to Buddhist teachings and is coherent with GNH values as well

7 Compassion

Compassion is a wish to relieve the suffering of others and is central to Buddhist

practice As mentioned earlier in Chapter Three it is the most essential and important

trait for bodhisattvas within Mahayana Buddhism Mahayanists maintain that only

through developing a compassionate heart can one practice the other essential virtues

For example without being compassionate we will not develop a genuine sense of

generosity The compassion in Buddhism not only arises out of empathy towards the

suffering of others but from understanding and realizing the meaning of emptiness the

law of Karma and interdependence viewing self and others as devoid of inherent

meaning Compassion thus leads to the practice of loving kindness and helps to

78

overcome afflictive emotions such as hatred jealousy and selfishness which are

considered negative under the psychological wellbeing indicators

Compassion a profound human emotion can be a powerful means to creating a

GNH society When one is compassionate the thought of harming others does not arise

and this attitude cultivates a genuine sense to work toward everyones benefit The CBS

(2008) similarly holds compassion as an approach to sympathy for the suffering of

others which is necessary to establish a compassionate society Thinking about the

suffering of others and not just ones own is important for a GNH society Further

scientific studies suggest that individuals including children who may engage in

bullying people and society in general could benefit from practices of compassion (Lutz

Lewis Johnstone Davidson 2008) Therefore compassion as an indicator is very much

coherent with the GNH values

The following question (Box 7) is asked of respondents to find out how

compassionate they are The sufficiency cut off similar to the indicator of generosity

and calmness has been set at often which means a person should frequently

experience compassion to get the full GNH score

How often do you experience compassion

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 7 Survey question of Compassion Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Overall the presence of emotions such as compassion calmness and generosity

have a positive impact on physical wellbeing on decision-making process and on the

79

potential for leading a happy life Further each of the three indicators is clearly related to

the Buddhist practice of paramitas

43 Spiritual Practices

From the Buddhist perspective the indicators under this section consist of

practices to overcome negative or afflictive emotions Practicising them with sincerity

can hold negative emotions at bay

8 Frequency of Meditation

The Buddhists consider meditation a very important method to calm the mind

The eightfold noble path and the paramita of meditative concentration emphasizes the

importance of meditation as a means to destroy the three root causes of suffering (desire

hatred and ignorance) Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) states that the Buddhist meditative

practice does not merely suppress the destructive mental states but trains the mind to see

directly and concretely how the mind functions and using this understanding tames and

masters our own mind freeing it from afflictive states Many Buddhist masters prescribe

meditation as the key to finding happiness and peace of mind Tashi (2004) points out

that the important egalitarian aspects of meditation are its accessibility to everybody with

little or no cost involved Researchers have shown that Buddhists who meditate may be

able to train their minds to feel genuine happiness and control aggressive instincts

(Connor 2003) Another study of Buddhist meditation by scientists at the University of

California has found that meditation might tame the amygdale the part of the brain

involved with fear and anger Studies have also shown that even brief courses of

80

meditation with very short periods of the simplest meditative practices are associated

with better psychological and physical health (Levenson etal 2004) The CBS does not

link meditation to Buddhism but it is implicit that the indicators are inspired by Buddhist

teachings

Aside from the spiritual connotations meditation is a powerful method to calm

our mind (Connor 2003) Research has shown that practicing meditation regularly has

beneficial effects for a range of conditions These include stress anxiety depression

poor sleep and coping with chronic pain It also has other health benefits such as reduced

inflammation improved immunity and lower blood pressure A study conducted by three

universities (University of Wisconsin West Virginia University and University of

Reading) found that calmness and compassion could be developed through the practice of

meditation Lutz Lewis Johnstone and Davidson (2008) state that the long-term goal of

meditation is to weaken egocentric traits so that altruistic behaviors might arise more

frequently and spontaneously Meditation is indeed the best method to make the mind

relaxed and peaceful Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) maintains that the gift of learning to

meditate is the greatest gift you can gift yourself in this life (p58) He adds for it is

only through meditation that you can undertake the journey to discover your true nature

and so find the stability and confidence you will need to live and die well (p58)

The benefits of meditation as pointed out by the Buddhist teachings and supported

by modern research are immense The practice of meditation thus surely will have a

positive impact on the wellbeing of people which directly contributes to the essence of

GNH Having meditation as a GNH indicator signifies the importance the government is

putting on the benefits it provides The following question (Box 8) is asked of

respondents regarding the practice of meditation

Do you practice meditation

1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all

Box 8 Survey question of meditation Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

The sufficiency cut-off for meditation has been set as occasionally which means

one must practice meditation occasionally to get a full GNH score Although meditation

is considered a very important practice in Buddhism meditation among the lay

population is not popular in Bhutan According to the survey conducted by CBS (2008)

904 of respondents do not meditate at all This may arise from the fact that Bhutan

still does not have any meditation centre for lay people This may also be the reason why

the sufficiency cut-off has been set as occasionally instead of daily Very recently

meditation has been introduced in Bhutanese schools It however needs to be introduced

among lay population too Overall the indicator of mediation is coherent with GNH

values Further since Buddhism greatly stresses the importance of meditation the

indicator seems to have been influenced by Buddhism

9 Prayer Recitation

Prayer is a form of religious practice that seeks to connect to some greater power

Most religions involve prayer in one way or another The purpose of Buddhist prayer is to

awaken the inherent inner capacities of strength compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)

The translation for the word prayer in Bhutanese national language is thuen which

82

literally means the recitation of mantras Buddhism emphasizes the recitation of prayershy

like mantras A mantra is a word a syllable a phrase or a short prayer that is spoken

once or repeated over and over again (either aloud or in a persons head) and that is

thought to have a profound spiritual effect on the person (BBC 2006 p 1) Mantra

literally means that which protects the mind from negativity (Sogyal Rimpoche 2002

p71) Mantra Sogyal Rimpoche states is the essence of sound and embodiment of the

truth in the form of sound Each syllable contains spiritual power and vibrates with the

blessing of the speech of the Buddha There are mantras that are thought to subtly alter

ones mind and make a connection with a particular Buddha or enlightened being

Buddhists believe that when certain mantras are said many times they arouse good

vibrations within the person they awaken our inherent inner capacities of strength

compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)

A prayer can be silent meditation or a full chorus of chanting (Hanh 2006) In

Buddhism praying involves two important aspects the first is establishing a relationship

between ourselves and the one to whom we are praying This refers to reflecting on the

great qualities of the Buddha which involves visualization The second is regarding

effective prayer which is the idea of cultivating the energy of love mindfulness and

right concentration in prayer To pray effectively our body and mind must dwell

peacefully in the present moment (Hanh 2006) It is common that Buddhists lay prostrate

while praying This is a position that diminishes the ego opens one up and brings one

close to the earth (Hanh 2006 p 63) Since reciting prayers requires mindfulness and

concentration the paramita of meditative concentration extends to prayers too The

83

Buddhist Faith Fellowship of Connecticut asserts that Buddhist prayer is a form of

meditation and practice of inner reconditioning Similarly Sogyal Rimpoche (2002)

explains that reciting mantras is one of the meditation techniques He calls it uniting the

mind with the sound of mantra When one is nervous disoriented or emotionally fragile

reciting a mantra inspiringly can change the state of the mind completely by transforming

its energy and atmosphere He also mentions that mind rides on the subtle energy of

breath and when you chant a mantra you are charging your breath and energy with the

energy of the mantra so working directly on the mind and subtle body (p71) The

practice of reciting mantra for inner reconditioning is distinctively Buddhist

In addition to reciting mantras a majority of the Bhutanese Buddhists pray to

local deities It is a very popular belief in Bhutan that deities can protect us from evil

forces In a real sense this is not Buddhism because the Buddha never prayed to anyone

Buddhism stresses the recitation of mantras to awaken our inner qualities As mentioned

earlier Bhutan was largely a Bon country prior to the entry of Buddhism Bonism

emphasized worshipping the deities Buddhism in many countries flourished with

polytheistic features For example in Japan Buddhism mixed with Shinto which

worships kamis (nature spirits) created a tradition of praying to the kamis Bhutans

national newspaper Kuensel reported that Bonism mixed with Buddhism is still prevalent

in the country (Wangchuk 2005) The rituals of the Bon often include animal sacrifices

but animal sacrifices are discouraged in the country However many pray and perform

rituals to appease the local deities (yu-lha) For example in the village of Bongo under

Chukha district people worship and pray to two sister deities They also summon other

84

deities and spirits residing in mountains valleys lakes forests streams and cliffs

invoking them to assist and protect people from misfortunes (as cited by Wangchuk

2005) Similarly people in the capital Thimphu pray to a local deity located in the upper

valley Although this is not distinctively Buddhism (Powers 1995) it is an age-old

tradition that has been absorbed by Bhutanese Buddhists long ago This is now

considered an integral part of Bhutanese Buddhist culture

The following question (Box 9) is asked of respondents A person who prays

daily meets the sufficiency cutoff which means heshe is given a full GNH score

Do you sayrecite prayers

1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all

Box 9 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Although reciting prayers in Buddhism is seen as a method ofmeditation both

are given different sufficiency cut offs A person who meditates occasionally is given a

full score while a person who prays occasionally is not given a full score The different

sufficiency cut offs for the two different practices indicates that the prayer recitation

indicator is intended to be different from meditation However prayer recitation in

Buddhism itself is a form of meditation CBS mentions that those indicators which are

highly uncorrelated were selected but from a pure Buddhist perspective the two seem to

be closely related since both fall under the paramita of meditative concentration The

CBS does not mention how prayer recitation is consistent with GNH values

Nevertheless the benefits of prayer recitation and meditation maybe the same because

85

both practices require mindfulness and concentration In this sense prayer recitation too

is coherent with GNH To conclude prayer in the form of mantra accords with Buddhist

principles while prayer to deities is a local Buddhist practice Therefore the indicator of

prayer recitation seems to have been influenced by Buddhism with traces of local beliefs

10 Taking account of Karma

As seen in chapter three Karma is a very important Buddhist principle that guides

the Buddhist psyche The law of Karma provides the basis to practice the paramita of

ethics (sila) Karma as one of the GNH indicators clearly implies that Buddhism has

influenced the indicator The literal meaning of taking account of Karma is being

morally responsible for our own actions When a person takes account of Karma in daily

life heshe is being aware and morally responsible for their actions on which the result

depends When we understand the law of Karma we are discouraged from performing

non-virtuous or unwholesome actions which cause suffering Realizing that Karma

conditions and determines our happiness we will refrain from unwholesome behavior to

avoid the negative effects of these actions Similarly understanding that virtuous actions

bear the fruit of happiness one is encouraged to practice wholesome actions The law of

causality therefore promotes moral and ethical life

The sufficiency cutoff for taking account of Karma (Box 10) has been set as

daily indicating that a person who takes account of Karma daily is given a full GNH

score

86

Do you consider Karma in the course of your daily life

1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all

Box 10 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

For a country pursing GNH it is important to take account of Karma on a daily

basis because Karma promotes healthy and ethical living ideal for a GNH state

According to CBS for Bhutanese an understanding of the dynamics between causes

and effects are critical to each individuals pursuit for happiness as it tends to provide a

clearer understanding and cultivation of GNH values (pl) Understanding that the real

reason for our sufferings is our own Karma (action through body speech and mind)

serves as an antidote to all our afflictive emotions Karma promotes the sense of helping

each other and living in harmony with all forms of life It is therefore important that a

GNH society take account of Karma daily to promote wholesome actions for a happy

society The indicator of taking account of Karma daily is thus a reflection of Buddhist

principles and is consistent with GNH values

43 General Mental Health (GMH)

11 General Mental Health

The general mental health indicator assesses the mental health of people using the

General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) that would provide a possible indication of

depression anxiety low confidence and concentration levels Unlike the other indicators

under the psychological wellbeing domain the General Mental Health indicator consists

87

of fifteen questions (See Appendix 2) Questions related to ones stress level ability to

concentrate anxiety depression feeling of happiness and unhappiness are asked of the

respondents The questions are calculated and interpreted using the Likert scale with

lowest score at 0 and highest possible score at 36 A lower score between the ranges of 0-

15 indicates normal mental wellbeing a median score between 16-20 indicates some

mental distress and a high score of 21-36 indicates severe mental distress (CBS 2008)

The sufficiency cut-off is set as normal mental wellbeing which means people should

not experience any mental distress to get a full GNH score

The CBS (2008) asserts that mental health is an important indicator for the health

status of a population Studies have revealed that mental stress can negatively affect

wellbeing Studies also point out that stress may alter the immune system and increase

susceptibility to disease (CBS 2008)

From the Buddhist perspective psychological distress such as depression lack of

confidence and anxiety are the result of our own afflictive emotions Gyatso (2009)

points out that the overriding cause of mental stress is self-cherishingmdashseeing ones own

physical and mental pleasure as more important than anybody elses People who have

the tendency to use more self-referential terms (I me myself) tend to have more health

problems and earlier deaths (Dalai Lama 2009) According to Buddhism it is our own

ego the focus on the notion of I that cause us to suffer The causes of mental distress

thus lie within us Since cause is within us the cure is also in our own mind Buddhist

teachings maintain that meditating on emptiness4 can get rid of the notion of T Thus

4 A meditation technique

88

mental distress similar to other negative emotions are a result of ignorance desire and

hatred

Ven Thubten Gyatso (2009) a Buddhist teacher points out two reasons why

selfishness can cause mental illness The first is that unhappiness arising from

selfishness is cumulative When we do not obtain what we want we often over-react to a

ridiculous extent and our selfish behavior isolates us from others The accumulation of

small failures in life erodes our self-confidence and we fall into depression The second

reason he points out is that selfishness prevents us from doing the one thing that is

guaranteed to bring happiness - cherishing others being compassionate and generous

Self-obsession and self-centered thoughts blind us and we do nothing to help others In

Buddhism self-centeredness never brings real joy and satisfaction but instead causes

suffering

The mind drives every action that occurs through the body speech and mind

The causal factor therefore lies within us It is our ability to deal with emotions that

influences the mental state Since mental stress obstructs the path towards happiness it

opposes the goal of GNH It is therefore important to assess the stress levels of the

population to identify the risk group Intervention by government and offering remedy

(for example offering counseling) and monitoring changes over time can help people

pursue happiness

44 Summary

The purpose of this study is to determine to what extent the indicators under the

psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with

89

the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH Findings in this chapter reveal the following

The four indicators related to negative emotionsmdashjealousy selfishness frustration

suicidal thoughtmdashdo appear in Buddhism Jealousy (dhrag-dog) is clearly stated as an

afflictive emotion while the Buddhist teachings condemn the idea ofself through

which selfishness arises Although the exact term does not appear in Buddhism

frustration is closely related to the meaning of gopa or agitation which arises as a result

of the three poisons Buddhism holds that lack of wisdom or holding on to wrong views

leads to suicidal thoughts Jealousy selfishness frustration and suicidal thought thus

arise out of the three poisons ignorance desire and hatred All four indicators are what

Buddhism calls Klesha afflictive emotions that disturb the mind of oneself and others

thus obstructing the path towards happiness Similarly general mental health distress is a

result of afflictive emotion Buddhist teachings particularly points out that holding on to

the idea of self leads to mental stress

The indicators related to the three positive emotions (Generosity Compassion

and Calmness) and three spiritual practices (Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking

account of Karma) are clearly related to the Buddhist teachings on six paramitas

Generosity is the first paramita a practice towards achieving genuine happiness

Compassion is the root of all Mahayana Buddhist practices and an essential component of

the practice of six paramitas The indicator of calmness is related to Kshanti paramita

which entails the practice of patience tolerance and endurance Similarly the indicator

of meditation and prayer recitation is related to the Buddhist practice of meditative

concentration which is the fourth practice Dhayana paramita Prayer recitation

however does have elements of Bon practices which have been deeply absorbed by the

90

local Buddhist culture The indicator of taking account of Karma is clearly influenced by

Buddhism Karma promotes the practice of ethics which is sila paramita that stresses

avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and engaging in virtuous action Overall all of the

positive emotions and practices require wisdom which is prajna paramita The core

teachings of Buddhism thus find a place in each of the indicators Thus it would be

appropriate to conclude that the indicators have been influenced by Buddhism

Each of indicators either contributes to or negatively affects GNH In a GNH

society it is important to establish that people not only experience positive emotions but

also rule out the presence of negative emotions that can cause mental distress It is also

important to determine if people take up spiritual practices to keep the negative emotions

at bay Therefore each indicator under psychological wellbeing relates positively or

negatively with the concept of GNH It can thus be concluded that the indicators of

psychological wellbeing are consistent with GNH values

91

CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMMENDATIONS

From the very beginning of its development plan Bhutan chose to ensure the

preservation of its culture tradition and natural resources This came to be called the

philosophy of GNH where peoples spiritual and emotional wellbeing is afforded equal

importance to economic wellbeing GNH recognizes that economic development without

spiritual and emotional wellbeing will not bring happiness to people Several workshops

and discourses held on GNH led to the adoption of the GNH Index a set of indicators to

measure whether Bhutanese society is progressing towards GNH The index comprises

72 indicators grouped under nine domains that go beyond material values and incorporate

all values relevant to a happy life The GNH index is now the most important tool in

guiding the performance of the government towards achieving the goal of GNH The

purpose of this study was to determine to what extent the indicators under the

psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with

the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH The three questions that drove this study are

To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do the indicators reflect

Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept of GNH which does

reflect Buddhist principles The primary data that were used are the eleven indicators and

survey questionnaires developed by the Centre for Bhutan Studies The findings from the laquo

study reveal that each of the indicators under psychological wellbeing reflects Buddhist

principles The ultimate goal in Buddhism is to achieve genuine happiness Inspired by

this belief Bhutan is the only country in the world that officially pursues the state of

happiness The government believes that happiness is in the end what matters the most

92

The government has taken the utmost responsibility to create an enabling condition for

people to pursue happiness The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index

measures peoples psychological state which influences the overall wellbeing of people

Since the purpose of this study is to determine the extent to which indicators

reflected Buddhist principles it was necessary to highlight the key Buddhist principles

related to happiness Chapter Three examined the key Buddhist principles related to

happiness Specifically Thogme Zangpos teachings on the six paramitas were used as a

basis to develop the framework of happiness It was observed that happiness is not only

worldly pleasure derived from physical comfort but also an innate state of mind which

can be cultivated through the practice of compassion generosity ethics meditative

concentration patience and wisdom This can bring happiness to the individual and to

the society Although GNH stresses collective happiness Buddhism states that peace

must first be developed in the individual mind before it can contribute to others and the

happiness of the society Thus in the words of Master Shantideva it is not primarily the

outer conditions of our life that determine our happiness or suffering it is our own mind

that creates the cause for happiness or success

Humans experience many emotions and narrowing them down to eleven

indicators is not an easy task There is a strong relationship between emotions and

wellbeing The intensity of pleasant and unpleasant emotions influences the degree of

psychological wellbeing Studies have also shown that emotions play an integral role in

affecting the overall physical health Emotions also have powerful effects in shaping and

regulating social interactions and influencing how one appears to others Like the mind-

93

transforming practices in Buddhism the key to a nations progress lies in tracing

problems and solutions to the root causes

The indicators under the psychological wellbeing domain measure peoples

emotional state and the frequency of spiritual practices to eliminate negative emotion

Findings in Chapter Four reveal that each of the indicators of psychological wellbeing

correlates to Buddhist principles on happiness The relationship between the indicators of

psychological wellbeing and Buddhist principles are presented in the table below

Indicators Buddhist Principles

1 Jealousy Dhrag Dhog- Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

2 Selfishness Serna - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

3 Frustration Gopa - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

4 Suicidal Thought Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

5 Generosity Dana Paramita (Bjin ba) Generosity

6 Compassion The root of all Buddhist practices

7 Calmness Kshanti Paramita (Bzod pa) Patience tolerance endurance

8 Meditation Dhyana Parmto Meditative Concentration

9 Prayer Recitation Dhyana ParmitaMeditative Concentration

10 Karma Sila Paramita (Tshul khrim) virtue morality ethics

11 General Mental Health Klesha (Afflictive emotions) causes mental distress

Table 1 Relating the Indicators with Buddhism

The four negative emotion indicatorsmdashselfishness frustration jealousy and

suicidal thoughtmdashare found in Buddhism as afflictive emotions (klesha) arising out of the

three poisons Jealousy (dharg dhog) appears in the Abhidhamma text as an immoral and

94

deluded mental factor that feels displeasure in seeing others succeed Similarly

selfishness (sema) is listed as an immoral consciousness in the Abhidhamma Selfishness

is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity Buddhism teaches no-

self (anatta) as an essential principle and therefore strongly condemns the notion of I

through which selfishness arises Frustration in Buddhism is closely related to the term

gopa which is actually translated as agitation Gopa falls under the twenty secondary

immoral delusions in the Abhidhamma text Suicides and suicidal thought in Buddhism

are the result of wrong view Suicide is an unwholesome action and does not end the

problem Suicidal thought occurs because of afflictive emotions (klesha) All these

negative emotions (klesha) cause mental distress

The positive emotion and spiritual practice indicators such as compassion

calmness generosity meditation prayer recitation and taking account of Karma are the

replication of the six paramitas The positive emotions which Buddhists call virtuous

action such as generosity compassion and calmness tend to increase happiness in oneself

and others while negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration affect

psychological health and decrease happiness Since each of the indicators can be clearly

related to Buddhist principles of happiness it can thus be concluded that the

psychological wellbeing indicators are influenced by Buddhism and are consistent with

the concept of GNH One may argue that indicators such as compassion generosity and

calmness are universal values and ethics and may not necessarily be influenced by

Buddhism However in the case of Bhutan the Bhutanese worldview and its political

ethos are largely influenced by Buddhism The philosophy of GNH is also rooted in

Buddhism It is also evident that the government is seeking to measure and cater to long-

95

term rather than short-term happiness From the Buddhist perspective short-term

happiness is delivered chiefly by material goods while long-term happiness is derived

from spiritual cultural and social values

This study reveals that Buddhism stresses gaining control over our mind and

cultivating the right kind of habit which is said to be the root of all forms of joy and

happiness Buddhism in the original sense encourages exercises to tame and calm the

mind This study therefore partly seems to support the claims made by scholars such as

Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and Tashi (2004) who have argued that

Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH

Overall this study indicates that if the government creates good policies and

conditions for people GNH cannot be achieved if its citizens are not psychologically

strong For example if citizens are mentally stressed or filled with jealousy they will not

contribute to collective happiness In that sense happiness is inextricably linked to the

inner conditions of ones own mind

Measuring the psychological state of people will help the policy makers make

better decisions The emotional and psychological needs of people therefore must be

considered by the policy makers in order to achieve GNH A study by Sheldon Ryan

Deci and Kasser (2004) found that people pursuing intrinsic goals (emotional intimacy

community contribution and personal growth) had higher happiness expectancies than

those pursuing extrinsic goals (financial success attractive image and famepopularity)

By emphasizing human values of compassion generosity calmness and selflessness as

necessary indicators of GNH the government of Bhutan is providing the basis for

developing policies that focus on these values The domain of psychological wellbeing

96

thus focuses on the inner emotional development Within the concept of GNH inner non-

material development is equally important as external material development

Recommendations for Future Studies

The biggest challenge for the government is to combat the negative emotions of

the people The findings of this study reveal that Buddhist teachings are all geared

towards taming the mind and cultivating values that promote happiness Further

Buddhism does not emphasize individualism but emphasizes equality and cooperation

aimed at collective happiness It emphasizes individual effort geared towards universal

happiness Buddhist teachings and method to calm the mind can contribute to GNH

Ekman Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) suggest that Buddhist practices offer a

therapy not just for the disturbed but for all who seek to improve the quality of their

lives Although the majority of the population in Bhutan is Buddhist 25 are non-

Buddhist (CIA fact book 2009) Some scholars have argued however that Buddhism

can also be taught as education on human values (Mancall 2004 amp Lokamitra 2004)

Therefore extensive research on how this might be done could provide valuable lessons

insights and guidelines for the purpose of promoting GNH values

As pointed out earlier there is not much information available on how the

sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From the information available on the

CBS website however it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut off is set at a level

that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises questions because

there is not any literature or studies conducted on how the sufficiency cut off has actually

been set Arbitrarily setting a cut off without any basis or setting it based on some

assumptions can lead to questionable results Therefore an in-depth study on the basis

97

for setting the sufficiency cut off seems necessary to avoid misinterpretation by policy

makers

This study analyzed the indicators to determine the extent to which they reflected

Buddhist principles However it was observed that indicators of psychological wellbeing

were measured by questionnaires that only examined the frequency of occurrence of

emotions and the spiritual practices It is important that the government not only

recognize peoples suffering but identify its causes as well For example the questionnaire

notes the frequency of negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration but

does not identify their causes In order for the policy makers to identify effective

solutions the cause must be noted also Further the key terms such as generosity

compassion frustration and prayer recitation were not clearly defined For example the

term generosity could imply the practice rather than the emotional state of generosity

One can practice generosity yet not feel emotionally generous a practice can differ from

an emotional state Similarly the choices of answers such as often sometimes daily have

not been defined These terms can mean different things to different people To avoid

misinterpretation it is necessary that the key terms be clearly defined and nuanced

This study focused only on one of the domains of GNH index Although a similar

study needs to be carried out for the other eight domains there is a need for further

investigation into many of the issues related to the GNH index such as How would the

GNH index affect the government policies Does the index give equal importance to the

emotional spiritual and economical wellbeing of the people Does the index capture the

real essence of human happiness

98

References

A Manual of Abhidhamma (1987) Edited by Narada Maha Thera Malaysia Buddhist Missionary Society Retrieved from httpwwwbuddhanetnetpdf fileabhidhammapdf

Anguttara (nd) Dana Generosity Retrieved from (Anguttara IV 57) httpwwwbuddhamindinfoleftsidelifestv-2danahtm

Annas J (1999) Aristotles Ethics Critical Essay (p 35- 56)Edited by Nancy Sherman United States of America Rowman amp Littlefield Publishers Inc

Bancroft A (ed) (1997) The Dhammapada USA Element Inc

BBC (2006) Buddhist worships Retrieved from httpwwwbbccoukreligionreligionsbuddhisrncustomsworship 1 shtml

Berenbaum H Raghavan C Le H Vernon L amp Gomez J (1999) Disturbances in emotion In Daniel Kahneman Ed Diener and Norbert Schwarz (Eds) Wellbeing The foundation ofhedonic psychology (pp 267-287) New York Russell Sage Foundation

Berzin A (2004) Dealing with Jealousy Retrieved from httpwwwberzinarchivescomwebenarchivessutraylevel3 loiong materialgen eraldealing iealousvhtmln9203d70b0a90c002

Bhutan Observer (2010) A GNH School httpwwwbhutanobserverbt201 Qbhutan-news01a-gnh-schoolhtml

Boonyakiat S (2009) A Christian Theology of Suffering in the Context of Theravada Buddhism in Thailand

Brooks AC (2008) Gross National Happiness Why Happiness Matters for America and How We Can Get More of It USA

Buddha Dharma Education Association (NA) Fundamentals of Buddhism Karma Retrieved from httpwwwbuddhanetnetfundbud9htm

Buddhist Faith Fellowship of Connecticut (nd) Buddhist Prayers Retrieved from httpbuddhistfaithtripodcompureland sanghaid 14html

Business Bhutan (April 172010) A meditating school Retrieved from httpwwwbusinessbhutanbtp= 1366

99

Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) (2008) Explanation of GNH Index Centre for Bhutan Studies Retrieved on June 12 2009 from httpwwwgrossnationalhappinesseomgnhIndexintruductionGNHaspx

Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) (2008) Dimension Psychological Wellbeing Retrieved from httpwwwgrossnationalhappinesseomgnhIndexgnhlndexVariablesaspx

Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) (2008) Psychological Wellbeing Report Retrieved from httpwwwgrossnationalhappinesscomsurvevReportspsvchologicaIpwellbeingr eportdavidpdf

Central Intelligent Agency (CIA) (2009) Bhutan Retrieved from httpswwwciagovlibrarvpublicationsthe-world-factbookgeosbthtml

Chophel S (2008) Cultural diversity and resilience Journal of Bhutan Studies Centre for Bhutan Studies Thimphu Bhutan

Chopra S (2010) An exclusive interview with His Holiness the Dalai Lama Retrieved from httpwwwlifepositivecomspiritworld-religionsbuddhismdalai-interviewasp

Colman R (2008a) Application of the Genuine Progress Index to Nova Scotia Measuring Genuine Progress Indicators Accounts and Policy Retrieved from httpwwwgpiatlanticorgpdfintegratedpolicvapppdf

ColmanR(2008b) Measuring Progress towards Gross National Happiness Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference Held in Bhutan Retrieved on 30th

September 2009 from httpwwwbhutanstudiesorgbtadminpubFilesGNH41 GNH4pdf

ColmanR amp SagebienJ (2004) Measuring Genuine Progress- Indicators for Enlightened Society Proceedings of the First International Seminar on Operationalization of Gross National Happiness (p252- 259) Centre for Bhutan Studies

ConnorS(2003) Can Buddhists transcend mental reservations Retrieved on 14th April 2010 from httpwwwbiopsvchiatrvcomhappinessbuddhisthtml

Creswell J W (2007) Qualitative inquiry and research design Choosing among five approaches (2nd ed) Thousand Oaks CA SAGE

Dalai Lama (1981) Four noble truths A teaching given in Dharamsala Retrieved from httpwww Iamaveshecomindex phpsect=articleampid=380

100

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Canada

ABSTRACT

Measuring wellbeing is an important task in determining whether peoples lives

are improving or becoming worse over time Gross National Happiness (GNH) is the

central development philosophy of Bhutan This philosophy aims at maximizing human

wellbeing and minimizing human suffering by balancing economic needs with spiritual

and emotional needs of the people The Centre for Bhutan Studies in 2008 developed the

Gross National Happiness Index as a tool to measure the overall wellbeing of the

Bhutanese people and to track the performances of government policies The index

comprises of 72 indicators grouped under nine domains psychological wellbeing

cultural resilience education health time use and balance good governance community

vitality ecological diversity and living standard

The purpose of this study is to determine the influence of Buddhist principles of

happiness on the indicators of psychological wellbeing domain and the coherence of

indicators with the concept of GNH Although conducting an in-depth analysis of each of

the indicators under the nine domains would be most beneficial due to the vastness of the

indicators this study focuses only on the indicators of psychological wellbeing Since

Buddhism has long played an important role in the political economic and social lives of

Bhutanese the Buddhist principles of happiness provides the framework to analyze the

indicators Each indicator is determined to what extent they reflect Buddhist principles

Findings from this study reveal that the core teachings of Buddhism find a place in each

of the indicators The study thus concludes that the indicators of psychological wellbeing

are influenced by Buddhism and consistent with the concept of GNH

ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

There are many people to thank for the successful completion of this study I

would first like to thank my supervisor Dr John Valk for his continuous support

guidance and encouragement I would also like to thank my co-supervisors Dr Emery

Hyslop-Margison and Dr Ellen Rose for their guidance and time which helped me

complete my study on time I would also like to thank the University of New Brunswick

especially the Graduate School Unit for partially funding my study My sincere thanks

also go to the Royal Government of Bhutan for granting me study leave

I would also like to thank Ms Tshokey Zangmo Researcher at the Centre for

Bhutan Studies for providing me with information on GNH Index and for clearing my

doubts I am also thankful to Ven Lama Mepham a Buddhist meditation teacher at the

University of Arkansas for guiding me and sharing his knowledge on Buddhist principles

Lastly I am very thankful to my family and friends for their continued love and support

iii

Table of Contents

ABSTRACT ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii

Table of Contents iv

List of Tables vi

List of Figures vii

List of Abbreviations viii

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1 11 The Bhutanese Economy and Culture 3

12 Political History and Transition to Democracy 5

13 Gross National Happiness the Development Philosophy of Bhutan 7

14 Explanation of Gross National Happiness Index 8

15 Research Questions and Objective of the Study 13

16 Methodology 14

17 Limitations and Significance of the study 17

18 Summary 18

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 20 21 Buddhism and Gross National Happiness 21

22 Evolution of the Concept 29

23 GNH Discourses and Debates 33

24 Quantifying Gross National Happiness 37

25 Summary 39

CHAPTER THREE THE BUDDHIST PRINCIPLES OF HAPPINESS 41 31 Buddhist View of Happiness 42

32 Key Mahayana Buddhist Principles 45

321 The four noble truths 45

322 The Law of Karma Principle of Interdependence and Compassion 47 iv

33 The Buddhist Happiness Framework 50

331 Generosity 55

332 Ethics 55

333 Patience and Tolerance 57

334 Perseverance 58

335 Meditative Concentration 59

336 Wisdom 60

34 Summary 61

CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING INDICATORS 63

41 Psychological Wellbeing Measures 64

42 Emotional Balance 66

43 Spiritual Practices 80

43 General Mental Health (GMH) 87

44 Summary 89

CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMMENDATIONS 92

References 99

Appendix 1 110

Appendix 2 Ill Curriculum Vitae

v

List of Tables

Table 1 Relating the Indicators with Buddhism

VI

List of Figures

Figure 1 Map of Bhutan (Source CIA Fact Book) 4

Figure 2 Suffering and its causes 53

Figure 3 Overcoming Suffering 54

vii

List of Abbreviations

CBS Centre for Bhutan Studies

CIA Central Intelligence Agency

DPT Druk Phuensum Tshogpa

FYP Five Year Plan

GDP - Gross Domestic Product

GHQ General Health Questionnaire

GNH Gross National Happiness

GNHC Gross National Happiness Commission

GPI Genuine Progress Index

HDI Human Development Index

MoA Ministry of Agriculture

MoHE Ministry of Health and Education

NEC National Environment Commission

NSB National Statistic Bureau

RGoB Royal Government of Bhutan

TCoB Tourism Council of Bhutan

UNDP United Nation Development Programme

viii

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

Measuring the wellbeing of people is important in determining whether peoples

lives are improving or worsening over time Many countries in the world today focus on

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as a basis to measure the economic wellbeing of the

people Although GDP mainly measures market production it has been treated as if it

measures economic wellbeing The focus on economic growth measures fails to capture

fully the overall wellbeing of the people (Kusago 2006 Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009)

Due to the failure of GDP to measure the non-economic aspect of human wellbeing

alternative measurements such as Genuine Progress Index (GPI) and Human

Development Index (HDI) have been introduced GPI and HDI include many important

factors that contribute to healthy living but they are still calculated based on monetary

values (Hargen 2002 Kusago 2006) and do not capture the Bhutanese concept of Gross

National Happiness

Gross National Happiness (GNH) is the central development philosophy of

Bhutan (Planning Commission 1999) This unique philosophy aims at maximizing

human wellbeing and minimizing human suffering by balancing economic needs with the

spiritual and emotional needs of people Bhutans fourth king Jigme Singye Wangchuck

coined the term Gross National Happiness in the late 1980s when he stated that Gross

National Happiness is more important than Gross Domestic Product (as cited by Ura

2008 para 1) His vision was to create a GNH society which means the creation of an

enlightened society in which happiness and wellbeing of all people and sentient beings is

the ultimate purpose of governance (as cited by Ura 2008 para2) Since it was difficult

1

for the government to list every factor that contributes to the happiness of its people four

major areas were identified as the pillars of GNH cultural promotion equitable

economic development good governance and environmental conservation (Planning

Commission 1999) These four pillars constitute the broad strategic framework through

which national development processes are actualized for the maximization of GNH

Since the adoption of the concept of GNH the government has consistently

sought to address development beyond income or economic growth The country lacked

however a specific and relevant development index that takes into account the core

principles and dimensions of GNH In November 2008 coinciding with the coronation

of the fifth King of Bhutan Jigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchuck the Government of

Bhutan adopted the GNH index The purpose of the GNH index is to reflect GNH

values set benchmarks and track policies and performances of the country (Ura 2008

pl) Seventy-two measurable indicators grouped under nine domains have been

identified as the GNH index The Government of Bhutan states that the country is now

ready with a set of mathematical formulae to measure human wellbeing and government

performances towards achieving GNH (as cited by Dorji 2009) The purpose of this

study is to analyze the GNH index to determine the extent to which it reflects Buddhist

principles and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH

This chapter is divided into eight sections The first section presents a brief

background of Bhutan its people economy and culture The second section presents

Bhutans political journey from monarchy to democracy The concept of Gross National

Happiness is discussed in the third section The fourth section explains the nine domains

of the GNH index and how the GNH index is administered in the country The fifth

2

section presents the research questions and objective of the study The sixth section

presents the methodology of the study The seventh section lays down the significance

and limitation of the study The summary of this chapter and the outline of the study are

presented in the eighth section

11 The Bhutanese Economy and Culture

Bhutan is a tiny landlocked kingdom with a population of 691141 (Central

Intelligent Agency [CIA] Factbook 2009) and having a total area of 38394 square

kilometres (National Statistical Bureau 2007) The country is sandwiched between two

leading economies India and China (Figure 1) Until the 1960s Bhutan was the most

isolated nation in the world Today about 69 of the population in Bhutan are

smallholder agrarian farmers and they practice mainly mixed (crop and livestock)

farming systems (Gross National Happiness Commission 2010) Of the population

945 represent people from the age group of 0-64 years while only 55 of the

population are 65 years and above (CIA Factbook 2009) Bhutans GDP per capita was

estimated at $2218 in 2009 (International Monetary Fund 2010) The country is almost

entirely mountainous with altitudes ranging from 240 meters to 7541 meters above sea

level About 725 of the country consists of forest land (National Statistical Bureau

2007) and the policy of the government is to maintain at least 60 forest cover (Ministry

of Agriculture 2002) Bhutan has been declared one of the ten global biodiversity

Hotspots (National Environment Commission 1999)

The Bhutanese culture and development policies are greatly influenced by

Buddhism The philosophy of GNH has its roots in Buddhism Under this unique

3

philosophy Bhutan has been able to balance modernization with its ancient culture and

traditions From the very beginning of the enthronement in 1972 the fourth king Jigme

Singye Wangchuck was very clear that Gross National Happiness is more important than

Gross Domestic Product According to him happiness is the ultimate common goal of

every human being and everything else is a means for fulfilling this wish He believed

that happiness is an indicator of good development and good society (Thinley 2005)

This led the country to adopt GNH as its development priority

25 SO Km

50 25

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S Gasa Ozong

Toogsa THIMPHU Paro

Tashigang

Samdrup Jongkhar Phuntsholing

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BANGLADESH

Figure 1 Map of Bhutan (Source CIA Fact Book)

4

12 Political History and Transition to Democracy

Bhutanese polity is said to have begun in 1616 with the arrival of Zhabdrung

Ngawang Namgyal from Tibet Through the spread of Buddhism Zhabdrung was able to

unify the country Buddhism provided the ideological basis for unifying Bhutan

(Mancall 2004) Zhabdrung was both a religious and political figure in Bhutan He was

the head of theocratic state that he himself created (Ministry of Health amp Education

[MoHE] 1994) He started the dual system of governance known as the Choesi system

where political affairs were looked after by the Desi1 and religious affairs by the head

abbot called the Jekhenpo Zhabdrung died in the year 1651 The official announcement

of his death was however made only in the year 1705 There were several reasons for

this chief of which there was no clear successor to Zhabdrung During the period 1651 -

1706 the country was ruled in the name of Zhabdrung who was said to be in religious

retreat by various Desi appointed under the Choesi system established by the Zhabdrung

himself (MoHE 1994) The period between 1705 to 1907 was marked by internal

stability and external invasion Ultimately in the year 1907 Ugyen Wangchuck was

unanimously elected as the first hereditary king of Bhutan (MoHE 1994) Since then

visionary descendants of the Wangchuck dynasty have ruled the country

Bhutans political system however evolved from a monarchy into a constitutional

democracy Democracy did not come to Bhutan overnight the process of democratization

was going on long before but slowly and cautiously King Jigme Singye Wangchuck

continued the policy of controlled development with particular focus on the preservation

A title given to the person who looks after the political matters in the country

5

of the environment and Bhutans unique culture Yet during his reign there was a steady

decentralization of decision-making processes which aimed to enhance peoples

participation in the formulation of development policies and activities and to strengthen

the traditional local institutions This process started largely in 1981 with the

establishment of the District Development Committees (Dzongkhag Yargye

Tshogchungs) and in 1991 with the establishment of the Block Development Committees

(Geog Yargye Tshogchungs) The people democratically elect all members of these

committees The most momentous change came in 1998 when the executive powers

previously held by the King was granted to the Council of Ministers (GNHC 2008)

On 17 December 2005 King Jigme Singye Wangchuck announced to a stunned

nation that the first general elections would be held in 2008 and that he would abdicate

the throne in favor of his eldest son the crown prince Jigme Khesar Namgyal

Wangchuck Unlike other countries where people fight for democracy the opposite

occurred in Bhutan people were given power without having to fight for it The fifth king

was formally crowned on November 6 2008 becoming the worlds youngest reigning

monarch and head of the newest democracy The fifth King like his father proclaimed

that fulfilling the vision of GNH would be one of the main responsibilities of his reign

He said As the king of a Buddhist nation my duty is not only to ensure your happiness

today but to create the fertile ground from which you may gain the fruits of spiritual

pursuit and attain good Karma (Wangchuck 2008 para8) The newly elected

government Druk Phuensum Tshogpa (DPT) is also committed to the principles of GNH

6

13 Gross National Happiness the Development Philosophy of Bhutan

The notion that the emotional and spiritual wellbeing of humans should be

included into the development policies is gaining a lot of international support The

importance of the concept of GNH is articulated in the policy document Bhutan 2020-A

Vision for Peace Prosperity and Happiness (Planning Commission 1999) which states

that its aim is to maximize the happiness of all Bhutanese and to enable them to achieve

their full and innate potential as human beings (p41) Reflecting the importance of the

concept the promotion of enabling conditions for GNH has also been enshrined as an

important principle of state policy under Article 9 of the Constitution (Royal Government

of Bhutan [RGoB] 2008)

GNH is a noble and holistic approach towards development It seeks to

complement inner happiness with outer circumstances It addresses both material and

non-material wellbeing Although material wealth is associated with physical wellbeing

ones mental state or inner wellbeing is not conditioned by material needs alone GNH

supports the notion that happiness pursued and realized within the context of the greater

good of society offers the best possibility for the sustained happiness of the individual

The society as a whole cannot obtain happiness if individuals compete irresponsibly for

it To this end GNH recognizes that happiness can be realized as a collective goal it

cannot be left as an individual goal (Thinley 2005 Ura 2008) Prime Minister Jigme

YThinley (2005) in his speech at the 2nd Conference of GNH at Halifax stated GNH

stresses collective happiness to be addressed directly through public policies in which

happiness is an explicit criterion in projects and programmes (p7) If a governments

policy framework and its goals are adverse to happiness happiness will fail as a

7

collective goal (Ura 2008) In the GNH context a government concerned with the

happiness of its citizens must create an enabling environment for people to achieve

happiness

The concept of GNH is greatly influenced by Buddhism The Bhutanese

worldview including its social cultural and political ethos is rooted in Buddhism The

policymakers in Bhutan hold the view that simply imposing development models from

outside which do not take religion and tradition into account will not only serve to

diminish existing culture but will also meet with limited success (Planning

Commission 1992 p66) The Bhutan-Vision 2020 strongly reaffirms the notion of Gross

National Happiness as the central development concept for the country This vision

emphasizes a need and desire to balance economic development with cultural and

environmental conservation

14 Explanation of Gross National Happiness Index

Bhutan is not a GNH state at this moment it aspires to be one The Bhutanese

government is of the view that wellbeing arises in a society when sustainable and

equitable economic development is balanced with environmental and cultural

preservation and good governance (Rinzin 2006 Thinley 2005) These four pillars have

constantly guided the development policies in Bhutan This strategy has been referred to

as the middle path which is derived from Buddhist principles of avoiding extremism

and taking a balanced view (Planning Commission 1999) In November 2008 the

government adopted the GNH index as a means to measure GNH The government felt

the need for a GNH index for without some kind of measurement system GNH cannot

8

guide practical policies and programs (CBS 2008) Under the GNH index 72 indicators

were identified under the following nine domains psychological wellbeing cultural

resilience education health time use and balance good governance community vitality

ecological diversity and living standard The nine domains of Gross National Happiness

are explained below

1 Psychological wellbeing as an end includes satisfaction with all elements of life

life enjoyment and subjective wellbeing Under this domain there are 11 measurable

indicators (eg frequency of feeling of emotions such as jealousy compassion and

generosity) classified in three areas General psychological distress indicators Emotional

balance indicators and Spirituality practices indicators This study focuses on the

indicators under this domain

2 Time Use domain measures how individuals spend their time There are only two

indicators under this domain the sleeping hours and working hours The time spent

delivering voluntary and social service is also taken into account

3 Community Vitality refers to the quality of life in the community This domain

intends to measure how strong active and inclusive relationships are within communities

that work to foster individual and collective wellbeing It examines the nature of trust

belongingness vitality of caring relationships safety in the home and the community

and giving and volunteering The community vitality indicators are Family vitality

Safety Reciprocity Trust Social support Socialization and Kinship density

4 Cultural Diversity and Resilience This domain measures the diversity and

strength of cultural traditions The indicators study core values and perception of

changes in values and traditions Bhutanese tradition is a very broad term that

9

encompasses customs rituals religious ceremonies traditional dress sports music

dance poetry arts and code of behavior among other things The indicators of cultural

diversity and resilience are Dialect use Traditional sports Community festivity Artisan

skill Value transmission and Basic precept

5 Health Good health is said to have a significant positive effect on happiness The

GNH health domain assesses the health status of the population the determinants of

health and the health system Health status indicators show information on self-rated

health disabilities body mass index and number of healthy days experienced per month

Health indicators also measure the degree of knowledge about diseases and breast feeding

practices The health indicators are Health status Health knowledge and Barrier to

health

6 Education In a GNH society education should contribute to individual and

collective happiness The education domain assesses different types of knowledge and

skills that people have acquired in their lifetime It includes historical cultural civic

ecological and indigenous knowledge and skills which are mostly acquired informally

The education indicators are Education attainment Dzongkha (national) language and

Folk and historical literacy

7 Ecological Diversity and Resilience This indicator looks at peoples perception

of ecology The ecological diversity and resilience indicators are Ecological degradation

Ecological knowledge and Afforestation

8 Living standard The living standard indicators assess the levels of income at the

individual and household levels sense of financial security room ratio food security and

10

house ownership Thus the living standard indicators are Income Housing Food

security and Hardship

9 Good Governance The domain of good governance evaluates how people

perceive various government functions in terms of their efficacy honesty and quality

The indicators include human rights leadership at various levels of government

performance of government in delivering services and controlling inequality and

corruption peoples trust in media judiciary and police The indicators of good

governance are Government performance Freedom and Institutional trust indicator

A pilot survey was also carried out between September 2006 to January 2007 in

nine districts on 350 randomly chosen respondents to test the feasibility and robustness of

GNH pilot questionnaires The GNH index however was developed based on the result

of a final survey carried out in December 2007 to March 2008 (CBS 2008) A total of

950 respondents based on random sampling were interviewed in 12 districts by the CBS

in the final survey The questionnaires covered the key areas affecting the values and

principles of GNH roughly divided into the nine domains mentioned above CBS (2008)

states that the nine domains were selected on normative grounds and are equally

weighted because each dimension is considered relatively equal in terms of equal

intrinsic importance as a component of Gross National Happiness (pl) Within each

domain several indicators that seemed likely to remain informative across time had high

response rates and were relatively uncorrelated (CBS 2008 p 1) were selected For

example in the psychological wellbeing domain the respondents were asked how often

they felt emotions such as anger guilt selfishness pride calmness compassion

forgiveness disappointment jealousy and frustration Respondents were also given the

11

option to list other emotions that they often experienced From the survey results only

eleven indicators were selected under the psychological wellbeing domain In total 72

indicators under the nine domains were selected as the GNH index (See Appendix 1)

The GNH index is to be administered every two years in the country A survey is

currently being carried out by the CBS in all the twenty districts of Bhutan Tshoki

Zangmo a researcher at CBS states that the GNH survey will determine whether the

conditions leading to happiness have improved or not (Doiji 2010) Several structured

semi-structured and open-ended questions under each of the 72 indicators are asked of

the respondents to assess life satisfaction in each of the nine domains Any individual

having sufficient achievements in each of the nine domains is considered happy (CBS

2008) Unlike the GPI and HDI which uses GDP data the GNH index is measured based

on self-report assessment For example the GPI heavily relies on quantitative or

objective data produced by Statistics Canada as opposed to qualitative or subjective

survey data The GPI uses personal consumption expenditures as a starting point Those

elements which are regarded as regrettable are deducted mdash for example cost of crime

accidents and pollutions Values of leisure time unpaid housework parenting and

volunteer work are added back (Colman 2008a) All aggregation is done in terms of

monetary values The GNH index however is entirely depended on the self-report

survey data According to Diener and Lucas (1999) the self-report measurement of

subjective well being displays adequate levels of validity and reliability The GNH index

is calculated in two steps The first step involves setting a sufficiency cut off and

determining whether respondents have attained sufficiency in each of the nine domains

12

The final step involves aggregating the data using the formula GNH = 1 - Average

squared distance from cutoff

15 Research Questions and Objective of the Study

Measuring what really matters to people and framing policies in accordance with

the needs of people would help realize the goal of GNH The GNH index is an attempt by

the government to measure how well their citizens are doing economically socially and

emotionally The Centre for Bhutan Studies (2008) states that the nine domains identified

are regarded as the components of happiness and well-being in Bhutan However the

resulting question is To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do

the indicators reflect Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept

of GNH The objectives of my study are to analyze the indicators to determine to what

extent they reflect Buddhist principles and to determine the coherence of the indicators

with the concept of GNH

Although conducting an in-depth analysis of each of the 72 indicators would be

most beneficial due to the vastness of the indicators this study will focus only on the

indicators that fall under the domain of psychological wellbeing (see Appendix 1) I

choose this domain because many of the GNH indicators (for example education health

living standard time use ecology) are similar to those found in the conventional

economic measures like GDP Genuine Progress Indicators (GPI) Human Development

Index (HDI) and Quality of Life The psychological wellbeing indicator has not yet been

included in any of the national measures (CBS 2008) Since the measure of

13

psychological wellbeing is something new and unexplored as a development indicator it

would be a good place to begin assessing the indicators

16 Methodology

The main objective of this study is to determine the influence of Buddhist

principles and more specifically Buddhist principles of happiness on the indicators of

psychological wellbeing and the coherence of indicators with the concept of GNH This

policy analysis study uses the framework of Buddhist principles of happiness to analyze

the indicators Policy analysis research is associated with determining the nature causes

and effects of governmental decisions or policies designed to cope with specific social

problems Nagel (1980) points out four methods on which policy analysis focuses

determining what causes the policy determining what policies they are responsible for

determining what affects them and determining what policies will achieve or maximize a

given goal This study focuses on determining the influence of Buddhist principles on the

governments policy of measuring GNH and the consistency of the indicators with the

concept of GNH

Buddhism has long played an important role in the political economic and social

lives of Bhutanese It is in this context that Buddhism is used as a basis to assess the most

important development tool of Bhutan Gross National Happiness Index The intent is not

to prove that Buddhism is the best way to achieve GNH but to determine whether GNH

indicators reflect Buddhist principles of happiness This is done for three reasons First

the philosophy of GNH is understood to be engrained in Buddhism This study will

determine in part the extent to which this is the case (see chapter two) Second Bhutan is

14

a Buddhist country where the majority of the population is Buddhist (CIA 2009) As

such this study will determine the extent to which Buddhist principles have influenced

the indicators Third scholars such as Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and

Tashi (2004) have argued that Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH This study

attempts to analyze the psychological wellbeing indicators to determine the Buddhist

influence which then might support the notion put forth by them

Literature related to Gross National Happiness and the influence of Buddhism on

GNH are reviewed The origin of the concept of GNH and various discourses held on

GNH are explored Government documents and reports and secondary data sources such

as newspaper and research on GNH serve as important sources The primary data that are

used for the analysis are the eleven indicators of psychological wellbeing developed by

the CBS Each indicator is examined to see the degree to which it reflects Buddhist

principles of happiness

The indicators consist of positive emotions negative emotions and practices to

overcome negative emotions In a research design it is important to establish a

conceptual framework that acknowledges how the theoretical perspective will shape an

inquiry (Creswell 2007) To this end I will examine the Buddhist literature to find key

principles related to happiness Those principles and ideas that affect happiness will be

discussed In particular the key principles such as the four noble truths law of Karma

principle of interdependence and compassion will be discussed Further a theoretical

basis for happiness will be developed based on the Buddhist teachings of six paramitas

An understanding of these principles will assist the reader in gaining a sense of the scope

15

and direction of this study Overall the Buddhist principles of happiness framework will

serve as a basis for assessing the indicators

Since Bhutan is a Mahayana Buddhist country the key principles of Mahayana

Buddhist teachings will be examined The very popular Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse

Laglen will serve as a primary source This important Buddhist text on the thirty-seven

bodhisattva practices was written by the great Buddhist saint Thogme Zangpo (1245-

1369) The text is a summarization of the original teachings of Lord Buddha from

hundreds of volumes and contains all the key points of the vast and profound teachings

The text is used in all the schools of Bhutan In particular the six paramitas will be used

for the purpose of this study The thirty-seven practices were written to help every

sentient being achieve genuine happiness Therefore this study will examine the

teachings related to the six paramitas to determine the extent to which they are reflected

in the psychological wellbeing indicators Teachings by various Buddhist teachers such

as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will also be used

The Buddhist text Abhidhamma which is known as the higher teachings of the

Buddha and also called the ultimate teachings is also referenced for the analysis of the

indicators The text elucidates the working of mind or psyche thoughts thought-

processes and mental states The mind has been broken down into six primary and fifty-

one secondary consciousnesses representing the working of the psyche from an ethical

standpoint Abhidamma highlights wholesome and unwholesome emotions as well as

how they arise Since this study is on the analysis of the psychological wellbeing

indicators the text is appropriate However only those emotions which correspond to the

indicators are referred to for this study

16

17 Limitations and Significance of the study

There are three limitations recognized in this study First the theme of this study

focuses on the extent to which Buddhist principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH

indicators Happiness is a concept that can be viewed from a number of perspectives

Since the concept of GNH is inspired by Buddhism it is most appropriate that the

indicators be examined to determine the extent to which they reflect Buddhist principles

and then most specifically Mahayana Buddhist principles Further there are numerous

Buddhist teachings on happiness The teachings that are primarily used are those of

Master Thogme Zangpo the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche

Second the GNH index is still very new A survey was carried out to study the

indicators in twelve districts but the index has not yet been applied to the whole country

As such the GNH index is still in its infant stage and not many resources related to the

GNH index are available

The third limitation of this study is that only the indicators under the

psychological wellbeing domain are analyzed Findings from the preliminary survey of

the GNH index are not discussed

Exploring the psychological wellbeing domain is significant for various reasons

First there has been no study conducted on the indicators so far This is the first study

that analyzes the indicators and explores the relationship of the indicators to Buddhism

This study opens up a new perspective for future researchers Scholars interested in

studying the GNH index may use this study as a basis to analyze the other domains of

GNH Only one domain is explored in this study The remaining eight domains could be

an area of future research

17

Second the GNH index is the most important tool for guiding and analyzing the

government policy since the government will be designing policies based on the GNH

index The GNH index and its implementation will have a significant impact on the

design implementation and assessment of policy and the perceptions Bhutanese have of

the direction their society is taking Since what is measured affects what is done it is

important that the right indicators be used if measurements are flawed decisions can be

distorted (Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009) Therefore it is important to determine

whether the indicators cohere with the GNH concept

18 Summary

This chapter provides an overview of the study The chapter began by looking at

Bhutans culture economy and political history including its transition to democracy

The concept of Gross National Happiness and its indicators the objective the

methodology limitation and significance of study were also presented in this chapter

Chapter Two will provide the review of literature on the GNH It explores how

the concept of GNH first originated It then argues that the concept of GNH has been

influenced by key Buddhist principles based on the eightfold path which are linked to

each pillar of GNH Various workshops held on GNH that ultimately led to the

development of the GNH index are also discussed

Chapter Three will provide the framework to analyze the psychological

wellbeing indicators The key Buddhist principles related to happiness are examined

Specifically the four noble truths law of Karma principle of interdependence and

compassion are presented The Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse Lagin the 37 practices

18

of Bodhisattva are used to highlight Buddhist principles of happiness Specifically the

teachings on six paramitas are referenced to elucidate those principles

Chapter Four presents the core of the study The indicators of psychological

wellbeing are analyzed through the framework described in Chapter Three Each

indicator is examined from the perspective of Buddhist principles It highlights the extent

to which each indicator reflects the Buddhist principles of happiness and the consistency

of the indicators with the concept of GNH

Chapter Five concludes the study and offers some recommendations for future

studies

19

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW

There seems to be a unanimous agreement that Gross National Happiness (GNH)

is drawn from Buddhism but recognition of the influence of Buddhism on GNH is rather

implicit This may be due to the fact that Bhutan did not have the full academic

construction of GNH until recently When the concept of GNH was first pronounced in

the late 1980s it was just an abstract philosophy The concept has now gained more

depth and dimension through analysis and discourse While scholars such as Tashi (1999

2004) Priesner (1999) and Zangmo (2009) have linked Buddhism to GNH others have

argued for the importance of Buddhism in achieving the goal of GNH This chapter

reviews the influence of Buddhism on the concept of GNH Specifically the relationship

between the core concept of GNH and its four pillars to Buddhist principles is explored

Since this study uses Buddhism as the key lens in analyzing the extent to which Buddhist

principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH indicators the focus here is to

understand the centrality of Buddhism in the philosophy of GNH

The review is divided into four main sections The first section examines how the

core concept of GNH and the key teachings of Buddhism are related Literature points

out that key Buddhist principles such as interdependence Karma and the noble eightfold

path are linked to general themes that promote GNH The second section looks at how

the concept of GNH evolved Early Bhutanese history dating back to the 17th century

when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of living is explored This section

examines how Bhutan broke its isolationist policies and introduced planned development

giving priority to the preservation of its culture and environment thus giving birth to the

noble philosophy of GNH The third section discusses the various discourses held on 20

GNH that ultimately led to the development of the GNH index The final section of the

review discusses the idea of quantifying and measuring GNH The chapter concludes by

questioning whether the GNH index which is used as a basis to measure peoples

wellbeing in Bhutan captures the real essence of GNH

21 Buddhism and Gross National Happiness

Gross National Happiness is not a promise to make every individual happy This

is a common misconception The concept of GNH simply stresses the responsibility of

the government to create an environment for citizens to seek happiness Since all humans

value happiness the government of Bhutan takes the view that it cannot be left

exclusively to private individual devices and strivings (CBS 2008 pl) In the GNH

context the government should create by means of public policies addressing both

economic and emotional needs of the people an environment conducive for people to

pursue happiness Australian psychologist Suellen Donnelly (2004) defines happiness as

the sum of satisfaction with life domains and this satisfaction she states is judged against

the individuals and the societys values Happiness indeed depends on our social values

In Bhutan peoples social and cultural values are largely influenced by Buddhism GNH

thus places emphasis on happiness and wellbeing of people through promotion of social

and cultural values

Priesner (1999) Tashi (2004) and Zangmo (2009) argue that Buddhism and GNH

are intricately linked Zangmo (2009) points out that the concept of GNH is deeply rooted

in the rich traditions of Mahayana Buddhism Doiji and Pankaj (2004) state that GNH is

essentially a summarization of the basic tenets of Vajrayana Buddhism which embraces

21

harmony and compassion (p377) Vajrayana Buddhism is an offshoot of Mahayana

Buddhism The term Mahayana and Vajrayana is used interchangeably in Bhutan

Mahayana Buddhism emphasizes individual spiritual development rather than material

rewards compassion for others tolerance living in harmony with nature and the

importance of making the right choice Based on these values GNH seeks to achieve and

pave a middle path between material and spiritual aspects of life which are referred to as

peljor gongphel (economic development) and gakid (happiness and peace) (Zangmo

2009) Schumacher (1989) asserts that in a Buddhist society the lifestyle is strongly

influenced by Buddhist principles based on the Noble Eightfold Path The influence of

Buddhism is highly visible in every aspect of Bhutanese life Article 3(1) of the

Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan states Buddhism is the spiritual heritage of

Bhutan which promotes the principles and values of peace non-violence compassion

and tolerance (p 9) Buddhism here is seen as a spiritual practice

According to Buddhism the main purpose of life the heart of being human is

happiness what we all seek knowingly or unknowingly is happiness (Rabjam Rimpoche

as cited by Tourism Council of Bhutan [TCoB] 2008) The chief goal of Buddhism is to

remove sufferings and achieve genuine happiness Tashi (2004) points out that the

cultivation of happiness is central to Buddhism Buddhism states that wealth pleasure

and power are all sought for achieving happiness but these are all material and only the

means to achieve short-term happiness As humans strive for happiness the end goal is

often forgotten and people spend time pursuing the means for their own sake In the

process humans remain deeply unsatisfied because they place all their hopes and fears in

the material outer conditions and neglect inner condition for happiness Happiness in

22

Buddhism depends on our actions and how we view and interpret the world Rabjam

Rimpoche states that although it is difficult to change the world it is always possible to

change the way we look at it (as cited by TCoB 2008) Buddhist teachings stress the

importance of training the mind and developing a set of human qualities such as

altruistic love compassion inner peace and inner strength

Similarly the concept of GNH emphasizes that happiness is the end goal and

economic development is just a means to achieve happiness GNH claims happiness to be

a major focus in assessing the welfare of the people Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley

states that GNH is all about living with basic human values in a sustainable way (Bhutan

Observer 2010) This view is influenced by Buddhist principles Buddhism advocates

living in harmony with nature and respecting all forms of life Although GNH places

equal importance on both material and non-material wellbeing of the people the idea of

GNH essentially is to encourage a rethinking of what is important in peoples lives is it

the ability to produce and consume or is it the happiness of its people derived from its

social and cultural values When Bhutan opened up to the outside world in 1961 it was

overwhelmed to see that the world had achieved tremendous development in every field

(Doiji 2007a) In their pursuit of development however many countries had lost their

forests cultures and much more In the neighboring region of Nepal for example the

governments policy of promoting economic development through mass tourism led to

environmental and cultural degradation Pandey Chettri Kunwar amp Ghimire (1995)

argue that mass tourism in Nepal led to erosion of local customs increase in drug abuse

theft of antiques and cultural property and prostitution Kinley Doiji (2007a) states that

GNH is therefore a response to this realization

23

Tashi (2004) and Lokamitra (2004) argue that GNH cannot be achieved unless

Buddhist philosophy is fully incorporated and practiced by every citizen of Bhutan

Similarly Hewavitharana (2004) proposes a framework for operationalizing GNH from

the perspective of Buddhist ethics and values Lokamitra (2004) asserts that unless a

society is morally and psychologically strong GNH cannot be achieved He states that

this moral and psychological strength can come from Buddhism Tashi Prakke amp Chettri

(1999) argue that the use of Buddhist concepts does not make the discussions culture-

specific They state that Buddhist wisdom differs from actual Buddhist cultures Buddhist

values and ethics can be followed without necessarily being a Buddhist

Tashi Prakke and Chettri (1999) argue that Buddhist spiritual concepts can be

clearly linked to general themes for the promotion of GNH Overall the Buddhist belief

ofinterdependence has inspired the four pillars because environment culture economy

and governance are interwoven in reality (Thinley 2005) Maintaining a balance among

these enhances the quality of life for the individual for society and for the environment

(Rinzin 2006)

1 The First Pillar Environmental Preservation

Although it appears that environment and biodiversity are not strong correlates of

happiness few would deny the value of environment in everyday life and hence our

happiness our health and aesthetic experiences depend on the quality of the physical

environment around us (Thinley 2005) The impact of climate change because of the

uncompromising nature of humans towards the environment is causing a lot of panic in

the world

24

Buddhism emphasizes preserving nature and the sanctity of life (Planning

Commission 1999) Tashi et al (1999) state that Buddhist philosophy provides strong

arguments for the adoption of an environmentally sensitive development strategy The

relationship between human beings and the environment is seen in a fundamentally

different way The Buddhist concept of sunyata holds that no subject or object has an

independent existence rather they dissolve into a web of relationships with all

dimensions of environment The Buddhist principle of interconnectedness- the idea that

nature gives back what we give it- has influenced the Bhutanese with a strong ethic of

conservation which in turn influenced Bhutanese environmental policies (Thinley 2005)

Bhutanese people believe that high mountains deep ravines ancient trees and

rocks are the abode of spirits gods and demons Disturbing them would enrage the non-

human inhabitants and bring ill luck sickness and death to families Appeasing these

spirits will be rewarded with luck peace and prosperity (NEC 1998 Rinzin 2006)

These beliefs about the importance of protecting nature have permeated Bhutanese

consciousness and have become integral to the Bhutanese way of life and value system

The government therefore has adopted strong environmental policies As per the

constitution of Bhutan the country must always maintain 60 forest coverage

2 The Second Pillar- Cultural Preservation and Promotion

The conservation and promotion of tradition and culture has always been an

integral part of Bhutans development policies since the initiation of planned

development in the 1960s (Planning Commission 1999) The Bhutanese started their

policies from a well-defined set of values and culture which are typically Buddhist

Within such Buddhist cultural values there is a strong belief in the implications of the

25

doctrine of Karma (Gurung 1999) The overall Bhutanese culture is based on customary

rules norms indigenous knowledge systems and institutions in addition to a rich

religious heritage based on Buddhism It includes a code of conduct known as driglam

namzha which is designed to carve out a distinct Bhutanese identity In addition to

promoting national dress driglam namzha is built on strict observance of vows (tha-

damtshig) which are quintessential^ Buddhist and emphasize strong kinship loyalty

community-oriented behavior hospitality to guests respect for ones parents elders and

superiors and mutual cooperation between rulers and ruled parents and children and

teachers and students (MoHE 1994 Rinzin2006 Chophel 2008)

In a study conducted by Rinzin (2006) it was observed that the Bhutanese people

consider culture to be very important They fully support the preservation of Bhutanese

culture as a means to maintain national identity sense of security and conservation of a

way of life A unique Bhutanese culture is also a means to generate income through

tourism activities Since the happiness of the people also depends on their social and

cultural values the government of Bhutan is committed to preserving and strengthening

the Bhutanese culture and tradition

3 The Third Pillar - Sustainable and equitable socio-economic development

The concept of GNH does not neglect the importance of economic development

While economic development in many countries takes place at the expense of external

factors such as social coherence cultural diversity and environmental integrity the

concept of GNH limits the exploitation of social cultural ecological and human costs

(Priesner 1999) Economic development is just a means to achieve GNH and is not an

end itself If we look at the world today there are spiritual sufferings in terms of anxiety

26

insecurity stress and pain in every part of the world including Bhutan Economic

development can secure a livelihood and is vitally important to resolve poverty but it is

easier to identify and alleviate misery than to maximize happiness

Given the huge natural resource base that Bhutan enjoys the country could have

opted for mass economic development by making use of these resources However the

government does not overlook the difference between renewable and non-renewable

goods Keeping in view the negative impacts of exploiting natural resources and

exhaustibility of non-renewable goods the government has identified three avenues for

economic development These are hydropower tourism and agriculture (NEC 1998

Planning Commission 1999) All have minimal negative impact on the society and are

sustainable The use of nature in a sustainable way can be related to one of the

requirements for the Buddhas eightfold path called the Right Livelihood (Schumacher

1989) Right Livelihood entails that ones means of livelihood should not be dishonest or

cause suffering to other sentient beings Wrong Livelihood is anything that is based on

trickery or greed (Harvey 2000) This noble path teaches us to avoid extremism and

follow a balanced path Schumacher (1989) argues that Right Livelihood touches on

economic aspects of the Buddhist life and forms the basis of economic principles By

following the path of Right Livelihood the government is being cautious not to engage

in trades or occupations that result in harming its environment culture and society

4 The fourth Pillar - Good Governance

This last pillar stresses the kind of government that Bhutan needs to make it into a

GNH state Good governance means exercising of authority in managing a countrys

political social economic and administrative resources in a manner that is transparent

27

accountable and responsive to peoples needs (Gross National Happiness Commission

[GNHC] 2009 p56) The fourth king His Majesty Jigme Singye Wangchuck asserts

that good governance is an important prerequisite for strengthening the other pillars of

GNH During his reign decentralization and democratization have always been the most

important considerations All changes finally culminated in the evolution of democratic

government in 2008 The King in his wisdom decided that parliamentary democracy

would be the best path to good governance and that happiness comes from having the

freedom to choose Kinley Doiji (2007a) points out that this step by the king is a

Vajrayana Buddhist approach For the Bhutanese this came as an overwhelming surprise

Thus democracy in Bhutan sprang from the womb of GNH Democracy in Bhutan is the

path to good governance that leads to GNH

Chapter Two (clause 22) of the Bhutan Civil Service Rules and Regulations 2006

states that the government needs to maintain and promote the values of Tha-Damtshig

and Ley Jumdrey to serve the people and the country Tha Damtshig is a traditional

Buddhist belief of trust respect and cooperation between the government and its people

Ley Jumdrey is a very popular Buddhist belief referring to the cycle of Karma which

encourages us to follow the eightfold noble path Right View Right Intention Right

Action Right Speech Right Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right

Mindfulness The royal decree issued by the king in 1998 stated that the Bhutanese

judiciary system is based on the Buddhist 10 virtuous actions and 16 pure human laws

(as cited by Nishimizu 2008 p 40) The ten virtuous actions are 1 Avoid killing 2

Avoid Stealing 3 Avoid Sexual misconduct (the first three form the part of Right

Action) 4 Avoid lies 5 Avoid divisive talks 6 Avoid harsh speech 7 Avoid Gossip

28

(these four fall under Right Speech) 8 Avoid covetousness 9 Avoid harmful intent 10

Avoid wrong views (the last three are the part of Right Mindfulness) (Tshongkhapa as

cited by Powers 1995)

Tashi et al (1999) explain that in Buddhism there are three doors body speech

and mind (lii ngag yid) These three gates provide a basic categorization for policy

makers in recognizing that existence embraces more than physical aspects Any

individual or government that strives to enhance happiness must make the right use of the

three doors Right Mindfulness Right Speech and Right Action The three gates are like

the neutral ground which can be used for good neutral or bad action (Tashi et al 1999)

Right intention in the mind must spark right speech and right action because working

with the mind directly is considered too illusive With Right View one needs to

understand the nature of the world and embrace compassion Right View is the path that

refers to wisdom which means seeing emptiness realizing that appearances in the

relative world or the world in which things change lacking permanent existence

Embracing compassion and wisdom results in the accumulation of merit (Sonam) and

wisdom (Yeshe) Every government must embrace compassion and wisdom and work

with Right Mind Right Speech and Right Action The Bhutanese government strives to

nurture and manifest these qualities

22 Evolution of the Concept

The term GNH became popular in the late 1980s but the concept itself is very

old According to Priesner (1999) this concept evolved from the constituent features of

Bhutanese society before 1959 a socio-economic system based on a Buddhist and feudal

29

set of values Buddhism came to Bhutan in the 7th century AD but made little impact on

the lives of the people until the 9th century (Ministry of Health and Education [MoHE]

1994 Dargye 2008) Prior to the 7th century Bhutan was called the land of Monpas the

land of darkness or no religion Records show that people mainly practiced Bonism an

animistic and shamanistic belief system where nature is worshipped (Giri 2004) Bon

rituals are still included in some Buddhist festivals in Bhutan From the 10th century to

the beginning of the 17th century Buddhism started influencing peoples way of life

culture and customs During that period many Tibetan scholars came to teach Buddhism

in Bhutan They built monasteries and temples throughout the country but none of them

could establish a formal Buddhist community in Bhutan (MoHE 1994)

It was Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyel (1594-1651) a Tibetan monk who formally

instituted Buddhism in Bhutan in the 17th century (MoHE 1990 MoHE 1994)

Therefore the 17th century is the most important period in Bhutanese history Bhutanese

development policies stem from this period All the high-ranking officials during

Zhabdrungs era were monks and the governments primary function was to support the

religious establishment which in turn promoted Buddhist morality and ethics among the

lay population (MoHE 1994 Ura 1993 as cited by Priesner 1999) In other words the

government promoted the wellbeing of people through spiritual teachings based on

Buddhism The Bhutanese legal system codified in 1652 and based on principles of

Buddhism is the foundation of the contemporary Bhutanese law (Nishimizu 2008)

Since the concept of GNH emphasizes the importance of living with basic human values

giving equal importance to both economic and spiritual wellbeing this clearly indicates

30

that the seeds of GNH had been planted during Zhabdrungs reign Prime Minister Jigme

Y Thinley (2004) writes

Traditional polity in Bhutan drawing much on the Buddhist culture was certainly guided towards GNH A Buddhist equivalent of a Social Contract declared in Bhutan in 1675 said that happiness of sentient beings and teachings of the Buddha were mutually dependent The 1129 legal code of Bhutan stressed that laws should promote happiness of the sentient beings (p 2)

Until the 1960s Bhutan possessed very little of the infrastructure we see today in the

country (National Environment Commission [NEC] 1998 Planning Commission 1999)

Life was hard and conditions were very harsh There was no electricity telephones or

postal services to connect different parts of country or with the outside world There were

no motor roads and money was unknown The health infrastructure was poor life

expectancy was estimated to be an average of 35 years Western education was

considered unnecessary The vast majority of Bhutanese lived in isolation in the rugged

mountain terrains The Bhutanese were subsistence farmers totally dependent upon the

land and the forests for survival People exchanged goods among themselves and were

self sufficient for most purposes Bhutans traditional socio-economic system was based

on the principle of communal self-reliance which is related to the Buddhist doctrine of

the benevolent nature of small-scale (Priesner 1999 Gurung 1999)

Due to the lack of foreign influences Bhutan developed an extremely stable

social environment and traditional system of knowledge Self-reliance was the first

explicitly emphasized development objective in 1959 (as cited Priesner 1999) The

National Assembly in 1959 stated that its primary task was to maintain the sovereignty

of the kingdom through economic self-reliance (Kuensel Vol 2 No 9 [May 1-15

31

1968] p7 as cited by Priesner 1999) Modern development came to Bhutan in the early

1960s during the reign of the third king Jigme Doiji Wangchuck (1952-1972) (MoHE

1994) However Bhutans decision to embark on modern development was not

voluntary During a visit to Bhutan in September 1958 the Indian Prime Minister

expressed his concern about Bhutans security and emphasized the need for a road to link

Bhutan and India offering at the same time financial and technical assistance To avoid

increased dependence the government refused to accept the assistance Nevertheless

Bhutans attitude changed during 1959 a consequence of events in Tibet In 1959 the

Tibetan revolt was suppressed by the Chinese which resulted in the flow of several

thousand Tibetan refugees into Bhutan At the end of the same year Chinese actions

began to be directed against Bhutan A triangular shaped part of Tibetan territory between

the small Indian state of Sikkim and Bhutan through which the most important trade

route from Bhutan to India ran was sealed off (Galay 1999 Priesner 1999) In the

following National Assembly session the construction of roads became the main issue of

discussion As an underdeveloped country Bhutan lacked financial and labor resources

and India was the only possible source of aid Thus Bhutan took the first step towards

development cautiously Later when Chinese aggression declined measures of cultural

preservation were soon adopted to contain and counter-balance the negative effects of

modernization (Priesner 1999)

Since 1961 Bhutan plans its development every five years The third King

always expressed his priority as making the people prosperous and happy (Kuensel

1968 as cited by Priesner 1999 p7) Prosperity and happiness were highlighted in the

third kings address on the occasion of Bhutans admission to the United Nations in 1971

32

Further the preservation of environment and culture is the most consistently applied

principle from the start of the first Five Year Plan (FYP) and this is a major input for

GNH

The Bhutanese development concept thus evolved from the countrys socioshy

economic historic and political circumstances The concept of GNH is thus the

translation of cultural and social consciousness into development priorities (Priesner

1999) To sum up the influencing factors that caused Bhutan to have such a unique

development concept are the absence of foreign domination the desire to preserve

national identity Chinese invasion causing threat to the national security and deeply

embedded Buddhist beliefs The philosophy of GNH therefore evolved earlier than the

term Gross National Happiness was coined

23 GNH Discourses and Debates

The first official keynote speech on Gross National Happiness was delivered by

the current Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley at the United Nations Development

Programme (UNDP) Regional Millennium Meeting for Asia and the Pacific in 1998 His

keynote speech was later published in the countrys national newspaper Kuensel Many

scholars responded to the publication and this led to the first workshop in 1999 to explore

the conceptual foundations of human happiness During the workshop Prime Minister

Thinley raised three questions for deliberation First can an index be constructed for

GNH as it has been done for Human Development Second what are the main

ingredients of happiness Third what would be the main indicators of happiness if there

were any at all

33

Some participants proposed that GNH could be quantified Others suggested that

it would be a speculative exercise into what is essentially a subjective experience and

would defy any statistical device aimed at its quantification They expressed their

suspicion that the essence of conventional economic theories runs counter to GNH

Rinzin (2006) states that two schools of thought emerged one took a philosophical

approach and the other an empirical analytical approach of defining and measuring GNH

On the philosophical side scholars argued that GNH is a development philosophy and

there is no need to define and measure happiness For Stehlik (1999) the attempt even to

define happiness is unnecessary and even less to measure it The other school of thought

argued that in order for GNH to be applicable it should be measurable The first

workshop failed to come up with concrete results The discussion papers from this

workshop were published in June 1999 under the title Gross National Happiness A Set

of Discussion Papers

After a gap of five years the First International Conference on GNH

Operationalizing Gross National Happiness was held in Thimphu Bhutan from

February 18 to 20 2004 The conference intended to explore ways in which the concept

of happiness as an objective of economic and social development could be

operationalized in terms of both policy and evaluation of change The conference focused

largely on the concepts of happiness or wellbeing Dr Ron Colman and Dr Julia Sagebien

(2004) presented a paper on Nova Scotias Atlantic Genuine Progress Index or GPI

which assigns explicit value to environmental quality natural wealth population health

livelihood security equity free time and educational attainment The conference

discussed the relevance of GPI measures to Bhutan Colman and Sagebien suggested a

34

potential framework for measuring GNH proposing indicators such as education basic

security respect and care for all beings Although the conference did not come to any

definitive conclusions Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley (2007) stated that the conference

was a milestone in the history of international discourse as it opened up the discourse on

happiness Further the ripples from this seminar spread far and helped Bhutan develop

the indicators of GNH in a later period

The Second International Conference on GNH Rethinking Development Local

Pathways to Global Wellbeing was held in Nova Scotia Canada from June 20 to 24

2005 The conference focused on the exploration of practices the sharing of actual

experiences and the development of a framework to operationalize GNH The first and

second international conferences seemed to have convinced Bhutanese policy makers that

in order to make GNH practicable it must first become measurable By the time the third

international conference was held Bhutan was well on the way to constructing the GNH

Index

The Third International Conference held in Bangkok Thailand in 2007 focused

on the indicators of GNH The then Prime Minister of Bhutan Kinzang Doiji spoke on the

importance of good governance and highlighted the wellbeing of people as a priority in

developing government policies Just a week prior to the fourth international conference

Bhutan officially adopted the GNH Index

The theme for the Fourth International Conference (November 26 to 28 2008)

was Practice and Measurement of GNH indicating a step forward into a new phase

which focused more on how to reflect GNH in policies and how to grasp the current

situation and measure progress Discussions revolved around the GNH indicators

35

psychology environment community relations education health living standard

governance culture time use and economy Rosellini (2008) says that some of the

indicators of GNH would be relevant to the UNDP-Oxford initiative in understanding the

missing dimensions of poverty Rosellini (2008) further suggested that GNH should be

used as an alternative approach from an international perspective because none of the

methods that attempted to move beyond purely materialistic interpretations of human

progress have gained broad acceptance among academics and development practitioners

The fifth conference held in Brazil in 2009 (November 20-23) was a revelation

for the Bhutanese While the understanding of GNH had grown tremendously at the

international level the GNH conference held in Brazil made the Bhutanese government

realize that Bhutan is still lagging behind in implementing the philosophy of GNH

(Bhutan Broadcasting Service [BBS] 2009) There is no doubt that the policies are

framed in terms of the four pillars of GNH but the government failed to infuse GNH

values into the education system Further GNH values were not reflected in the day-to-

day working of the government institutions businesses and at the community level

Brazil had left Bhutan behind in terms of implementing GNH ethics Several business

establishments in Brazil practice the principle of GNH One pharmaceutical company is

believed to be implementing its ethics and modalities into the way the company

functions Likewise Brazilian villages at the community level are also practicing the

dimensions of GNH on a day-to-day basis (Kuensel 2009) This definitely was a

revelation for Bhutan

On his return from the GNH conference in Brazil the prime minister expressed

his sense of the urgency and immediacy of bringing GNH principles and values into the

36

education system Following this a workshop was conducted on how to achieve a GNH

infused education system (Kuensel 2009) The education ministry has come up with a

road map and an action plan to begin the process of bringing GNH values and principles

into the school system starting in 2010 The education minister stated that every school in

the country will now develop GNH-inspired curriculum material The latest reports state

that many schools in Bhutan have now infused GNH values into their curriculum

Students in most schools meditate for a few minutes before starting any lesson Many

schools are now working towards becoming green (Bhutan Observer March 2010)

Many students were quoted as saying that Meditation somehow helps to relax and

concentrate more on their studies (Business Bhutan 17 April 2010) This is a very

practical move by the government towards enhancing GNH Bhutan has learned a lot

through seminars and debates held at the national and international level The idea of

measuring and quantifying GNH has however raised many questions

24 Quantifying Gross National Happiness

Initially due to the absence of a specific and relevant development index that

takes into account the core principles and dimensions of GNH the United Nations

Human Development concept and its measurement the Human Development Index

(HDI) was used as an interim tool to assess all-round development in Bhutan (Gross

National Happiness Commission [GNHC] 2008) The HDI fails however to capture the

overall essence of the concept of GNH because only three variables are used in HDI

health (life expectancy) education (adult literacy) and wealth (GDP per capita) Owing

to the number of discourses and questions raised regarding the applicability of the

37

philosophy of GNH Bhutan has now adopted the GNH Index Karma Ura (2008)

president of the Centre for Bhutan Studies writes that as many contemporary indicators

of progress and development do not reflect GNH adequately the Royal Government of

Bhutan directed the Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) to develop GNH index which will

provide appropriate indicators for Bhutanese development (pl)

In his first international speech the Prime Minister of Bhutan Jigme Y Thinley

(1998) stated that the trends of happiness of people are unknown Although people

perceive their wellbeing subjectively their subjective views are not incorporated well

into the design of economic and social policy (Kusago 2006) Similarly Mark (2008)

argues that as a direct consequence of different governments collecting and analyzing

economic data (and social and environmental data to a lesser extent) much is known

about the material conditions of peoples lives but little about their actual lived

experience and their sense of personal and social wellbeing It is to address this lacunae

that the government needs to adopt indicators for measuring the wellbeing of its people

Former Minister Kinzang Dorji (2007b) points out that indicators can be useful in

revealing institutional and human conditions to show both the potential and result of

policy decisions (p 2) He argues that the use of indicators reflecting GNH values will

enable policy makers to locate those principles in determining GNH policy and tracking

GNH processes

Many are skeptical however and wonder whether quantifying such a noble

philosophy is justifiable Reducing real people and real lives to numerical values does not

do justice to the emotional and spiritual depth of the human experience (Doiji 2007b)

There is much doubt as to whether the indicators capture the real essence of human

38

happiness Nonetheless if the government wants to promote the wellbeing or happiness

of its citizens it needs to know the happiness trend of its citizens and find out if its

policies contribute to both subjective and objective wellbeing Even if Gross National

Happiness cannot be quantified as precisely as Gross Domestic Product is currently

quantified Daly amp Farley (2004) state that It is better to be vaguely right than precisely

wrong (p243) The policy makers will at least get an idea of peoples state of wellbeing

Measuring GNH is indeed a milestone in Bhutanese history as it will always

remind Bhutanese of their founding ideals A GNH Index would help citizens know if

they are improving as a nation in protecting and exercising their right to pursue happiness

(Brooks 2008) The adoption of the GNH Index shows the seriousness of the Bhutanese

government in pursuing the goal of GNH Lastly there is hope that Gross National

Happiness will not remain as a mere catchphrase

25 Summary

This chapter presented a review of the literature on GNH and the influence of

Buddhism on the concept of GNH The aim of this review is to get a better understanding

of the centrality of Buddhism in the concept of GNH and to highlight issues that emerged

in the GNH discourses The key principle of GNH which focuses on happiness is

influenced by the core teachings of Buddhism which states that the main purpose of life

the heart of being human is happiness The four pillars of GNH reflect traditional

Bhutanese beliefs and values inspired by Buddhism The law of Karma the principle of

interdependence and the noble eightfold path has certainly influenced the Bhutanese way

39

of living and thus the concept of GNH The Buddhist values of interdependence equality

and compassion are inherent in GNH

History reveals that the basic philosophy of GNH emerged between the 10th and

17th centuries when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of life Buddhism

therefore is the backbone of the concept of GNH Bhutan however is not a Utopian state

because it advocates GNH Like many developing countries Bhutan is grappling with

problems of increased rural urban migration poverty and unemployment thus

challenging the goals of GNH The government is continuing to reflect GNH objectives

in its policy and programmes Through the effective use of the four pillars of GNH

Bhutan never placed excessive emphasis on economic development The country did not

opt for economic activities which promised huge financial gain but caused damage to

health environment and culture Bhutan therefore is said to have one of the best policies

in the world (Priesner 1999) However it is important to know if the policies are

promoting happiness and wellbeing among the people The government has rightly

adopted the GNH Index because only through the use of the indicators will policymakers

know if their policies are in reality promoting happiness The question remains however

as to whether these indicators capture the real essence of GNH and whether they are

influenced by Buddhist principles

40

CHAPTER THREE THE BUDDHIST PRINCIPLES OF HAPPINESS

We all want happiness and do not want suffering Many of us support the

importance of moral values in making our lives happier Buddhist principles emphasize

that human values and principles are necessary to lead a happy life Yet there is a general

assumption that income and happiness are directly related Happiness research findings

defy this generalization and show that increasing incomes are not accompanied by

increasing happiness (Hirata 2006)

The Buddha discovered this 2500 years ago The Buddha did not reject the idea of

possessing wealth but taught that wealth does not guarantee happiness He rejected greed

in accumulating wealth being enslaved to materialism and treating wealth as the

ultimate goal (Wijeyawansa 2009) The Buddhas teachings are based on the key

problem ofsuffering Since Buddhism focuses so much on suffering it is often

criticized as being pessimistic But Buddhism does not deny the presence of happiness in

our lives It teaches the way out of suffering and shows the path towards genuine

happiness Buddhism understands that not everyone can lead an ascetic life and accepts

that for a layperson a certain degree of wealth is essential to live a happy life Living an

ethical and moral life is said to bring genuine happiness in Buddhism The objective of

this chapter is to understand happiness from a Buddhist perspective by laying down some

key Buddhist principles related to happiness

Understanding Buddhist principles and values that underpin the Buddhist

worldview will provide a framework that will be the lens through which the

psychological wellbeing indicators of GNH will be analyzed in the following chapter

The principles that will be discussed here are however not definitive boundaries because

41

Buddhism teaches innumerable ways to achieve ultimate happiness In this chapter the

framework of happiness is based on a specific Buddhist teachings called the six

paramitas Nonetheless the entire Buddhist teachings have the same essence and arise

out of the four noble truths and eightfold noble path

This chapter is divided into three sections The first section begins with a brief

introduction to the Buddhist view of happiness Buddhism in Bhutan belongs to the

Mahayana tradition and therefore this study is limited to the context of Mahayana

Buddhism The second section looks at key foundational doctrines such as the four noble

truths Karmamdashthe law of cause and effect the principle of interdependence and

compassion The third section constructs a framework for happiness based on the

Mahayana Buddhist principle using the six perfections or paramitas Paramita refers to

crossing over from the sea of suffering to the shore of happiness The paramitas are the

six kinds of virtuous practice required for skillfully serving the welfare of oneself and

others and a path to achieve genuine happiness For the purpose of this study Thogme

Zangpos text on Thirty-Seven Practices of Bodhisattava (Gyalse Laglin) and teachings

by Buddhist teachers such as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will

serve as sources for constructing this framework

31 Buddhist View of Happiness

Buddhism was founded in the 5th century and has over 365 million followers

worldwide (Ontario Consultants 2009) The term religion is often associated with the

concept of creator or a god but Buddhism rejects the idea of creator god as well as the

notion of a permanent self or a indestructible soul (Flanagan 2007) Therefore it is

42

commonly said that Buddhism is non-theistic or atheistic Buddhism is a series of

practices and a way of life based on the teachings of the Buddha Buddhists are strongly

influenced by Karma the law of cause and effect with the implication that there is no

creator (interview with the Dalai Lama by Chopra 2010)

The word Buddha means to awaken from the sleep of ignorance and to spread

ones intelligence to everything that can be known (Dalai Lama 2000 p2) The Buddha

was like any other human being before he attained nirvana at the age of thirty-seven The

lessons that the Buddha learned while in search of truth is the foundation of Buddhism

chief among which is the pursuit of happiness

In his book An Open Heart Practicing Compassion in Everyday Lifethe Dalai

Lama (2001) states that the purpose of spiritual practice is to fulfill our desire for

happiness (p30) Buddhism indeed has much to say about happiness Sogyal Rimpoche

a renowned Buddhist teacher states there are two kinds of happiness one based on

material comfort and pleasures the other on inner contentment and peace (Doiji 2010)

The two are the physical and mental components of happiness The mental experience or

the inner force plays a more powerful role For example in a very pleasant environment

if we are mentally depressed the surroundings will not make a difference Similarly if

we have inner peace or mental happiness it will be easier to face any challenge This

indicates our mind and thoughts play a powerful role in experiencing happiness (Dalai

Lama 2001) Khenpo Phuntsho Tashi (2004) asserts that in Mahayana Buddhism

happiness springs from an altruistic or compassionate mind Since human minds are often

agitated by afflictive emotions the results frequently are negative actions which in turn

cause suffering The essence of Buddhism therefore is to tame to transform to conquer

43

the human mind for it is the root of everythingmdash it is the creator of happiness and

suffering The Buddha has said in Dhammapada (as cited by Bancroft 1997 p41)

Such a Wandering mind is weak and unsteady Attracted here there and everywhere How good it is to control it and know the happiness of Freedom (Verse 35)

And yet how unruly still how subtle the delusion of the thoughts To quiet them and master them is the true way of happiness (Verse 36)

There is a significant similarity between the Buddhas teachings and Aristotles

ethic Eudiamonia the Aristotelian term for happiness is very similar to Buddhism

Aristotle states that if we want to be happy we should cultivate and practice virtues

through wisdom He also mentions that happiness is vulnerable to external hazards

sudden disaster can reverse happiness no matter how virtuous ones life has been

(Annas 1999) This is exactly what the Buddha preached 2500 years ago The Buddhas

teachings are based on the impermanent nature of life and the importance of virtuous and

righteous deeds Most of Aristotles ethic is devoted to an account of virtuous activities

that he states constitute happiness Aristotle describes happiness as doing well combined

with virtue or self sufficiency of life or the pleasantest life with safety or prosperity of

possessions and bodies with power to protect then and use them in action (Irwin 1999

p3) Aristotle believes that power and fortune are also parts of happiness because they

are the best providers of safety This idea that happiness requires fortune contradicts the

Buddhas teachings The Buddha preached that fortune power possession are all

materials and subject to change They are therefore not a source of genuine happiness but

a cause of suffering

44

His Holiness the Dalai Lama states that Buddhists aim not merely for temporary

happiness but for long-term results They are concerned with life after life This means

that ultimate happiness in Buddhism is Nirvana the cessation of suffering the end of the

cycle of birth-and-death He further adds that spiritual practice the practice of dharma

can bring both long-term happiness and more inner strength day by day (Dalai Lama amp

Hopkins 2000) Buddhist teaching employs innumerable skillful means through which

happiness can be achieved at the individual and collective levels Being on the

Bodhisattva path the path on which all sentient beings can receive help can bring us

happiness Powers (1995 p91) defines a Bodhisattva as someone who is progressing

towards the state of enlightenment Bodhisattva symbolizes compassion Bodhisattvas are

also called jangchup sempa which means a compassionate heart in Tibetan and

Bhutanese

32 Key Mahayana Buddhist Principles

321 The four noble truths

In his search for the meaning of life the Buddha discovered the four noble truths

which are the very foundation of all Buddhist beliefs The Buddhas four noble truths

explain the truth of suffering and the way to overcome it The first noble truth recognizes

that suffering is the essence of human existence suffering from birth old age sickness

and death as well as the pain from separation grief and despair The second noble truth

explains that desire or craving is the cause of all suffering craving for pleasure for

individual existence and for release from our present situation The third noble truth

states that suffering can cease by overcoming craving or desire The fourth noble truth

45

prescribes the way to overcome desire by following the eightfold noble path (Bancroft

1997)

A closer understanding of the four noble truths leads to the realization that no

person can achieve constant and prolonged happiness because as the first noble truth

states Life is suffering This means that as long as humans exist there will be no end

to suffering Suffering in Buddhism has generally been categorized into three types First

is the suffering of misery which includes physical and mental sufferings Second is the

suffering of change where we achieve happiness only for a brief period because all

phenomena are subject to change Third is compositional suffering the suffering which is

endemic to cyclic existence because humans are under the influence of afflictive

emotions (Dalai Lama as cited in Powers 1984 amp 1995 Negi 1999)

The cause of all suffering is the desire and aversion arising out of ignorance

which is called Klesha Klesha literally means afflictive emotions or delusions and refers

to wide range of mental states (Negi 1999) Bhutanese call it nyong mong meaning

distorted or confused By following the eightfold noble path one can overcome the

afflictive emotions and thus achieve genuine happiness Light Party (1996) asserts that

the main map the Buddha offered for the trip to happiness and contentment is the

Eightfold Path Right Understanding Right Intention Right Action Right Speech Right

Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right Mindfulness Buddhist

teachings are all centered on one or more steps of the eightfold noble path The eight

steps are usually divided into three main practices Morality (Sila) which also means

ethics or virtues Concentration (Samadhv meditation) and Wisdom (Prajnaj (Dalai

Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2000 Gomes 2004) Right Understanding and Right

46

Intention pertain to wisdom (Sanskrit panna) Right Action Right Speech and Right

Livelihood pertain to moral virtues or ethics Right Effort Right Concentration and

Right Mindfulness pertain to meditative cultivation of heart and mind

Moral virtue meditation and wisdom form part of the six perfections which

are the core teachings of Mahayana Buddhism The six perfections are the six qualities to

the Bodhisattvas path the state of genuine happiness This study uses the six perfections

as a framework for happiness which will be explored in depth in the third section

322 The Law of Karma Principle of Interdependence and Compassion

The most common belief among Buddhists is that we can never escape from our

own Karma (Sanskrit Kamma) Karma (the law of cause and effect) states that nothing

comes into being without a cause The law of Karma can be simply related to Newtons

Third Law which states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction The

same holds according to the law of Karma though it is not known whether the reaction

will occur in this life or beyond this life Since Buddhism supports the idea of rebirth

certain key aspects of a persons next rebirth are thought to be karmically determined

These include the family into which one is born ones social status physical appearance

character and personality Karma does not however claim that everything that happens

to a person is karmically determined Karma does not determine precisely what will

happen or how anyone will react to what happen Individuals are always free to resist

previous conditioning and establish new patterns of behavior

The belief in Karma sometimes degenerates into a form of fatalism but fate and

Karma are different Humans have freedom to choose and their present action is not the

47

entire result of their past Karma action It does however influence a persons action

because of the character a person has developed (Harvey 2005)

The belief that one has to bear the Karma of ones act is deeply rooted in the

Buddhist psyche It is a very common belief among Buddhists that depending on ones

Karmic consequences (or accumulated positivenegative merits) one will experience

happinesssufferings of various types (Gaylag 2004) good action leads to pleasant

effects and bad deeds lead to unpleasant results Harvey (2005) asserts that the cycle of

Karma provides a perspective on life which is supportive of compassion and respect for

other beings In Buddhism if you want happiness you need to sow the seed of good

merit

Buddhist philosophy explains innumerable ways to achieve positive Karma

Actions motivated by greed hatred and delusion result in bad Karma while actions

motivated by their opposites - non-attachment loving kindness and right understanding-

- result in positive Karma Good intentions therefore must find expression in right

actions and right actions are basically those that are wholesome and do no harm either

oneself or others Tashi (2004) states that in order to accumulate merits and to be happy

our actions can be summed up under three principle causes 1) Developing the attitude of

not harming others (this is being mindful and awakening oneself from ignorance) 2)

Cultivating the attitude of helping others and 3) Being Content

The principle of dependent origination also known as the principle of

interdependence is one of the important principles of Buddhism This principle is actually

an elaboration of the law of Karma which states that all things are interdependent and

48

everything that happens depends on other things happening (Negi 1999 Flanagan 2007

Doiji 2009) In other words since a whole is dependent on its parts any existent thing is

composed of its parts therefore its very existence depends on its parts Buddhism states

that human beings in particular are the combination of the five groups of existence or

five aggregates The physical body is the material aggregate and the mental aspect is

made up of feeling perception (awareness recognition through senses) mental

formations or thoughts and consciousness (knowing the object through our senses)

(Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2005) Since we are made of these five aggregates

and these aggregates themselves have no permanent existence there exists no permanent

self Buddhist teachings assert that humans do not comprehend this reality and assume

that all things including human beings have permanent selves As we are all

interdependent there are no existing phenomena which is not the effect of this What we

do affects those around us and vice versa People should therefore not think only of

themselves but should also take into consideration those around them To create

happiness it is important that we not only reflect on the interrelationship of all things but

also see ourselves clearly as a part of one system of causal relationships

The Buddhist belief is that genuine happiness can be generated from developing a

compassionate heart a heart focused not only on itself but which also helps and benefits

all beings Compassion is defined as the wish to free all beings from suffering (Dalai

Lama 2001) Gyatso (1984) and the Dalai Lama (2000 amp 2001) assert that the root of all

Buddhist practices is the heart of loving kindness and compassion In Buddhism it is

normally said that a person who lacks compassion does not have a good heart It is

49

through a compassionate attitude that Buddhists are motivated to have concern for all

humans animals and the environment because they are all part of the same world

Although it is not easy to free all beings from suffering Buddhism states that we can

develop virtuous minds and thereby help others to do the same (Dalai Lama 2001) It is

through the force of compassion that a person engages in accumulating the merit and

wisdom that make Buddhahood possible (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) and in that sense

also makes happiness possible The four noble truths the law of Karma the principle of

interdependence and the idea of compassion form the key components of a Buddhist

worldview The next section develops a framework for the Buddhist view of happiness

which extends from these key Buddhist doctrines

33 The Buddhist Happiness Framework

This section constructs a happiness framework based on the Mahayana

Buddhisms teachings on the six perfections paramitas) Thogme Zangpos 12th century

text on the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva especially his verses on the six

practices were referenced ( Hopkins 1989) The six perfections or paramitas are

1 Dana Paramita (generosity) 2 Sila Paramita (ethicsvirtuesmorality) 3 Kshanti

Paramita (patiencetolerance) 4 Virya Paramita (perseverance) 5 Dhayana paramita

(meditative concentration) 6 Prajna Paramita (wisdom) These six teachings are a way

for an inner cultivation which implies a kind of ethics that focuses directly on daily life

through which one accomplishes genuine happiness (Wright 2009) The first five are

methods or practices and the last wisdom is necessary for any of them to function The

first three practices are usually recommended for lay people Joyous effort and

concentration mainly refer to meditation normally practiced in monastic communities

50

However meditation is now becoming increasingly popular and is practiced also by lay

people

The opening verse of Thogme Zangpos (nd) text begins with the following

statement

The perfect Buddhas the sources of benefit and happiness arise from having practiced the excellent doctrine That in turn depends on knowing its practices Therefore I will explain the practices of Bodhisattva (p 1)

The Buddha is a symbol and a source of genuine happiness for the Buddhist The

Buddha achieved the state of eternal bliss through his practice of virtues Thogme

Zangpo states that one needs to understand that the source of all happiness whether

worldly or ultimate happiness comes from the practice of Dharma which means the

practice of virtues Geshey Kelsang Gyatso (1984) states that in general Dharma refers

to the teachings of the Buddha but the actual Dharma is the inner realizations which

directly protect living beings from their sufferings He further explains that there are

three kinds of meaning to be achieved through the practice of Dharma The highest is to

reach full enlightenment Buddhahood in this life The middle is to achieve self-

liberation from cyclic fears and sufferings The lowest is to achieve happiness in this life

by overcoming the inner problems and thus avoiding being reborn in the lower realms in

the next life Thus Buddhists aim at one of these three Lay Buddhists usually aim to

lead a happy virtuous life and to be reborn in the higher realms

Thogme Zangpos teachings stress committing oneself to virtues as much as

possible and not engaging in ill deeds Virtues are actions that bear the fruit of happiness

Ill deeds are those actions that cause suffering and unhappiness to oneself and to other

beings Everyone wants to achieve happiness the Dalai Lama defines happiness as a

51

blissful state devoid of all suffering Since the law of cause and effect binds Buddhism it

is necessary to examine phenomena that cause happiness and suffering According to

Buddhism ignorance desire and hatred are the main cause of suffering Our own

afflictive emotions and actions cause suffering

The famous Buddhist painting of a wheel with 21 parts outlines the meaning of

life in Buddhism The diagram designed by the Buddha himself depicts an inner

psychological cosmology This painting can be found at the doorway of every temple in

Bhutan The center of the wheel shows the picture of a pig rooster and snake These

three animals depict the root cause of suffering represented as ignorance desire and

hatred (anger) respectively They are known as the three poisons in Buddhism (Dalai

Lama 2000) Buddhism states that it is possible to overcome suffering since it depends

on causes which are within oneself When one understands the nature of suffering one

will work towards ending such causes However Mahayana Buddhism stresses that this

understanding must be extended to other sentient beings Others similarly want happiness

and not suffering Mahayana Buddhists therefore emphasizes developing compassion and

engaging in the practices of the six paramitas to overcome suffering

Ignorance is not just the absence of knowledge of the real status of phenomenon

but the inability to understand truth misconception of inherent existence of permanent

self (Dalai Lama 2000) The principle of dependent origination (Section 322) as

explained above shows that we do not exist independently on our own Thogme Zangpos

fourth verse states the following

Long-associated companions will part from each other Wealth and possessions obtained with effort will be left behind Consciousness the guest will cast aside

52

the guest-house of the bodv Letting go of this life is the bodhisattvas practice (pl)

The above verse states that our body is not ours The mind or consciousness leaves the

body at death as a guest leaves the guesthouse However we live as if we are going to

live forever and this ignorance draws us into afflictive desire and hatred Ignorance thus

comes out as greed and hatred Greed and hatred in turn promote ignorance The Dalai

Lama (2000) states without ignorance desire and anger are impossible These disturbing

emotions and attitudes are said to be true causes of suffering as are the karmic impulses

that arise under the power of these disturbing emotions Figure 2 below illustrates how

Buddhists perceive suffering and happiness It shows that the root causes of suffering are

ignorance desire and hatred These emerge through three doorsmdash body speech and

mindmdashas non-virtuous action generating negative Karma which causes suffering to

oneself and to others

Figure 2 Suffering and its causes

53

Gyatso (1984) points out that even though the body is like a guest house we will

receive many fruits if we practice Dharma meaning the practice of virtue which results in

the fruit of good Karma However all sentient beings are subject to the three poisons and

the question is how do we overcome them to practice virtue Buddhist teaching states

that the three poisons can be resisted and virtues cultivated through training in the six

practices When a person wants to reduce weight heshe goes through physical training

and dieting Similarly in Buddhism if one wants happiness one must practice the six

paramitas This will naturally generate virtuous actions leading to happiness This is

represented by Figure 3 below

Figure 3 Overcoming Suffering

54

331 Generosity

Mahayanists maintain that happiness comes from a compassionate and altruistic

mind The practice of compassion is training oneself in the perfection of generosity In

the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva the 25th verse states

If it is necessary to give away even ones body while aspiring to enlightenment what need is there to mention external objects Therefore practicing generosity without hope of reciprocation or positive karmic results is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)

The perfection of generosity is the first principle of happiness Generosity can be

practiced by anyone This practice refers to unconditional love a selfless generosity and

giving which is completely free from attachment and expectation Internally it means

overcoming our emotions (greed and hatred) and being generous with others voluntarily

giving ones material goods time or wisdom to others (Das 1995) Generosity is a cure

for the afflictions of greed miserliness and possessiveness The Anguttara Nikaya

(Anguttara Verse 34 and 35) a collection of Buddhist scriptures points out that there are

five blessings that result from the practice of generosity the person will be liked and

admired by everyone will have a good reputation will have lots of self confidence and

will have a heavenly rebirth Buddhists believe that giving without seeking anything in

return leads to greater spiritual wealth Generosity therefore is a very important virtue

bringing happiness to oneself and others

332 Ethics

The second practice is that of Sila which literally means ethics moralityvirtue

Right speech Right action and Right livelihood which form the part of Eightfold Noble

Path fall under ethical practice This perfection of ethics or Sila Paramita stresses quality

55

of virtuous and ethical behavior morality self-discipline personal integrity and never

having the thought to harm any sentient beings The Dalai Lama (2001) states that for

Buddhists ethics means avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions acts done by the body

speech and mind (p34) It is important that our practice of generosity is supported by

our practice of ethics Buddhists therefore abstain from the ten non-virtuous actions

killing stealing sexual misconduct lying divisive speech harsh speech gossip greed

malice and wrong views The first three (killing stealing sexual misconduct) correspond

to bodily action The fourth fifth sixth and seventh (lying malicious words harsh

language useless talk) correspond to verbal action The last three (covetousness ill will

wrong view) occur through the mind (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) The ten non-virtuous

actions lead to bad Karma and suffering Avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and

cultivating a compassionate heart brings good Karma and happiness We can enjoy

greater freedom happiness and security in our lives because through our virtuous

behavior we are no longer creating suffering for ourselves and others we basically

become virtuous and harmless in our thoughts speech and actions Thus in the 26th

verse Thogme Zangpo writes

If lacking ethical conduct one fails to achieve ones own purpose the wish to accomplish others purpose is laughable Therefore guarding ethics devoid of aspirations for worldly existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)

Thogme Zangpo points out that with unethical behavior one cannot achieve

happiness Unethical behavior is always the cause of suffering and unhappiness For

example a person who speaks ill of another person will disturb their mind and later will

56

be a cause of suffering for himself or herself His 34th verse stresses the importance of

avoiding harsh words

Harsh words disturb others minds and cause the mode of a Bodhisattvas behavior to deteriorate Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to abandon harsh words about the unpleasantness of others (p 3)

By cultivating ethical behavior we do not cause harm to others and we are free of

negativity we cause no harm by our actions our speech is kind and compassionate and

our thoughts are free of anger malice and wrong views Through the practice of ethics

we gain confidence because we are not carrying any underlying sense of guilt or remorse

for our actions we have nothing to hide Being ethical and moral is the cause of all

goodness and happiness This practice of ethical conduct is the very foundation for

progressing in any practice of meditation and for attaining all higher realizations on the

path The Dalai Lama states that the aim of ethical practice is to transform motivation and

mental disposition this is how we become better human beings The more we succeed in

training our hearts and minds the more we will be able to cope with adversity and our

actions will be naturally ethical Thus we will experience happiness

333 Patience and Tolerance

The third practice is that of patience and tolerance It is called the perfection of

patience (Bhutanese Bzod pa) Thogme Zangpos 27th verse states the importance of

patience

For bodhisattvas who desire the pleasures of virtue all those who do harm are like a precious treasure Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to cultivate patience without anger or resentment for anyone (p3)

57

Patience in Buddhism refers to having the strength to face the challenges and

difficulties of life without losing our composure and inner tranquility Bodhisattvas are

challenged to endure tolerate and bear any hardship without retaliation or negative

thoughts Through endurance and tolerance we gain strength to overcome any afflictive

emotions The Dalai Lama states that this enlightened quality comes from having our

heart open and our mind deeply concentrated upon the Dharma He states that endurance

and tolerance do not imply defeat but make the mind stronger When the Buddha was

deep in meditation demon Mara and his daughters tried to tempt and distract him

Through his patience however the Buddha remained calm and undistracted and finally

attained nirvana The ability to endure is therefore integral to Buddhism With the

strength of patience we can overcome anything The mind will be calm and clear and

this enables us to make better decisions Through the practice of patience we maintain

inner peace under all circumstances and thus experience genuine happiness

334 Perseverance

The fourth practice is the perfection of joyous effort or enthusiastic perseverance

It is called Virya Paramita in Sanskrit and is the quality of persistent effort or working

hard towards achieving a goal The 28th verse of Thogme Zangpos teaching states

Even hearers and solitary realizers who accomplish only their own welfare strive as if putting out a fire on their heads Seeing this taking up diligent effort -the source of good qualities - for the sake of all beings is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)

Thogme Zangpo points out that just as one makes an effort to put out the fire on

ones own head one must strive diligently to free oneself and all sentient beings from

58

suffering Our body speech and mind should put in effort to the best of our ability

Without putting in right effort we can be disillusioned and thus fail to achieve any goal

The Dalai Lama states that with joyous effort and enthusiastic perseverance we regard

failure as simply another step towards success danger as an inspiration for courage and

affliction as another opportunity to practice wisdom and compassion Thus to achieve

happiness one must put in right effort to be compassionate to be virtuous and ethical at

all times

335 Meditative Concentration

The fifth practice is that of meditative concentration It is called Dhyana

Paramita Meditative concentration is very important in developing mental qualities and

overcoming the three poisons The content of the very first verse of thirty-seven practices

of Bodhisattva is on meditation

At this time when the difficult-to-gain ship of leisure andfortune has been obtained ceaselessly hearing pondering and meditating day and night in order to liberate oneself and others from the ocean of cyclic existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)

The ship of leisure and fortune refers to the human body In Buddhism there are six

realms god2 demi-god human animals hungry ghost hell beings The humans in

comparison to the other realm is very rare It is therefore fortunate enough to be born as a

human Thogme Zangpo indicates that through hearing the dharma teachings meditating

day and night and developing a heart of loving kindness and compassion sentient beings

2 Gods in Buddhism are beings who are born into higher realms because of their positive Karma accumulated in their past lives Their lifespan eventually ends When their life ends they will be reborn in one of the six realms depending on their Karma

59

can be liberated from suffering Buddhism greatly stresses the taming of the mind

because the mind can be transformed and meditation is the means to transform it Tashi

(2004) explains the usefulness of meditation in destroying the root causes of suffering

and providing an antidote to them Meditation also plays an important role in achieiving

happiness at the individual national and global levels The perfection of meditative

concentration thus aims at taming the mind so that it does what we want it to do We

stabilize our mind and emotions by practicing meditation by being mindful and aware in

everything we do When we train the mind in this way all mental distortions and

misperceptions are eliminated We achieve focus composure and tranquility

Concentrating deeply makes us realize the cause of confusion and suffering and helps us

directly experience inner joy Thus Thogme Zangpos 29th verse states

Having understood that disturbing emotions are destroyed by insight possessed with tranquil abiding to cultivate meditative concentration which perfectly transcends the four formless absorptions is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)

336 Wisdom

The last practice is the perfection of wisdom called Prajna Parmaita in Sanskrit

Wisdom is the key to everything Wisdom will help us find the path to happiness

Without wisdom one will not understand the reality of phenomena and thus be

disillusioned by the three poisons Wisdom is therefore necessary to cultivate other

practices Thogme Zangpos 30th verse points out

If one lacks wisdom it is impossible to attain perfect enlightenment through the other five perfections Thus cultivating skillful means with the wisdom that doesnt discriminate among the three spheres is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)

60

Wisdom does not refer to mere intellectual understanding It is beyond that Ron

Liefer (1997) states that a mere intellectual understanding of reality will not change our

habitual negative patterns of thoughts speech and action because the intellect serves the

ego He further adds we cannot achieve wisdom without seeing through the trickery of

ego Wisdom refers to Right understanding and Right view (two of the eightfold noble

paths) of reality This entails getting rid of those wrong views which manifest the three

poisons Through wisdom one will be able to distinguish between what is ethical and

unethical or virtuous and non-virtuous We see the essential nature of reality with utmost

clarity our perception goes beyond the illusive and deceptive veils of material existence

Wisdom clears the delusion that envelops the mind It overturns ignorance and the

attitudes that lead to non-virtuous actions and ultimately shows us the path to happiness

(Rink 2010) Thus overcoming the three poisons by understanding the true nature of

reality and developing qualities of generosity morality patience and meditating with

joyous effort is said to generate the highest level of happiness in Buddhism

34 Summary

Buddhist teachings show the true cause of suffering as ignorance desire and

hatred enveloping the mind The teachings on the Four Noble Truths open our eyes to

various perspectives and send us the message that happiness is beyond material

wellbeing They make us realize that the real essence of happiness lies within us It is

only through taming the mind that we can experience happiness Whether we want to be

happy or not depends on how we perceive things and how we act John Milton said The

mind is its own place and in itself can make heaven of hell and a hell of heaven (as

61

cited by Williams 2008 p24) Buddhism teaches that if we can overcome the three

poisons and practice generosity patience mediation and morality we can experience

inner joy in this life This can even be extended to the next life with the possibility of

attaining nirvana The idea of reward for virtuous action (Karma) creates a healthy fear

and pushes the Buddhist to be ethical and practice virtues at all time Buddhism thus

accords the highest authority to experience with reason second and scripture third

(Flanagan 2007) Some may wonder however whether a focus exclusively on getting

rid of desire would inhibit worldly progress The path to overcoming attachment and

achieving worldly progress such as accumulating wealth are indeed poles apart

Buddhism does not necessarily say that we have to give up the material life It stresses

more the importance of having a good heart of never harming others of being

compassionate of being morally disciplined and of possessing loving kindness

generosity patience and a joyful desire to practice virtues These positive qualities can

reduce ones suffering and give happiness to oneself and others

62

CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING

INDICATORS

People always experience moods and emotions which have an enormous range of

effects on their wellbeing To know about peoples psychological state something must

be known about their subjective experiences The psychological wellbeing domain of the

GNH index thus assesses peoples subjective experience based on eleven indicators

Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking account of Karma Jealousy Selfishness

Frustration Generosity Calmness Compassion Suicidal Thought and General Mental

Health The government measures psychological wellbeing by assessing the socially

destructive attitudes and symptoms of psychological distress and the prevalence of

practices to avoid negative emotions The main purpose of this study is to determine to

what extent the indicators under the psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of

happiness and their coherence with the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH This

chapter analyzes each of these indicators to determine the extent to which they reflect

Buddhist principles of happiness using the conceptual framework laid down in Chapter

Three and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH

This chapter is divided into five sections The first section briefly highlights the

meaning of psychological wellbeing and the importance of measuring it It also highlights

similarities between the views of some modern psychologists and the Buddhist view on

the understanding of psychological wellbeing The second third and fourth sections

analyze the indicators of psychological wellbeing by grouping them into three broad

categories Emotional Balance Spirituality Practices and General Mental Health The

chapter concludes with an overview of the overall findings

63

41 Psychological Wellbeing Measures

Psychological wellbeing as the term denotes refers to the wellbeing of a persons

mental state It deals with emotions and feelings which are subjective experiences The

measure of the psychological wellbeing of its citizens is extremely important in a country

pursuing GNH because the mental or the psychological state influences the overall

wellbeing of people A GNH state therefore needs to minimize those mental conditions

that can be disruptive As Larsen amp Fredrickson (1999) point out the content of a

persons emotional life strongly influences his or her judgments of the quality of that life

(p40)

From the Buddhist perspective happiness depends on our mind Buddhist

teachings are directly or indirectly based on the workings of the mind Buddhism strongly

holds that it is the emotional and mental state of people that influence their wellbeing or

happiness The term ishepa which means the mind refers to all aspects of subjective

experiences In the Buddhist diction mind shepa) awareness (rigpa) and consciousness

(lo) are synonyms (Abhidhamma 1987 Negi 1999) The mind in Buddhism includes

all perceptual conceptual and emotional states both conscious and unconscious (Negi

1999) The emotional mental states therefore are all mind related subjective experiences

As explained in Chapter Three Buddhism is concerned with taming the mind

this entails understanding the types of mental activity that are truly conducive to

wellbeing and the ones that are harmful In this sense it would be justifiable to say that

Buddhism is all about achieving happiness mentally or psychologically Ekman

Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) agree that psychologists and Buddhists alike

64

believe that emotions strongly influence peoples thoughts words and actions and that

they help people in their pursuit of transient pleasures and satisfactions

The measurement of a persons psychological state is commonly based on the

self-report assessment Within the discipline of psychology there is a strong view that

self-reports on how well life is going can convey important information on underlying

emotional states and in measuring peoples subjective wellbeing Earlier psychologists

who were mainly interested in negative emotional states such as depression and anxiety

are now interested in positive emotions to evaluate peoples overall wellbeing (Ryff amp

Singer 1998) Indeed to get empirical clues of happiness establishing the absence of

negative experiences would not be enough positive feelings must also be present (Hirata

2006) The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index similarly includes

both positive and negative emotions

Structured questionnaires are used to collect data for each indicator A

sufficiency cut off or a threshold is set for each indicator A person is said to have met the

sufficiency cut-off if hisher evaluation in that indicator meets or exceeds the cut-off

point If the respondent meets or exceeds the sufficiency cut off heshe is given the full

score This means a person is psychologically well if heshe makes sufficient

achievement in each of the indicators Any shortfall from sufficiency that any

respondents experience in any indicator is considered to depress Gross National

Happiness The depth of insufficiency will rise if any person drops further away from

sufficiency cut-off This means that the distance from the cut-off or the sufficiency gap is

sensitive only if the achievements are below the sufficiency level This indicates that the

GNH index is sensitive to an unhappy or a poor persons experience Overall this method

65

is similar to poverty measurement where a poverty line is set to distinguish people who

are materially poor from non-poor (Millet 2010) However there is not much

information available on how the sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From

the information available on the CBS website it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut

off is set at a level that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises

questions because there is not any literature or research conducted on how the sufficiency

cut off has actually been set Arbitrarily setting cut-offs without any basis or setting it

based on some assumptions can lead to questionable results

42 Emotional Balance

The Centre for Bhutan Studies has grouped seven indicators under the category of

emotional balance The indicators can be further grouped into two categories negative

emotions and positive emotions The indicators under this index include emotions or

feelings related to wellbeing because these affect a persons evaluation of life Four of the

seven indicators pertain to negative emotions jealousy selfishness frustration and

suicidal thought and three pertain to positive emotion generosity calmness and

compassion Diener amp Lucas (1999) state that although the emotions are momentary

influences and would not reflect a stable state of happiness they do provide information

about the state of a persons life Research shows that a variety of etiological factors

contribute to these emotions (Berenbaum Raghavan Le Vernon amp Gomez 1999)

Buddhist teaching similarly maintains that these emotions do not occur on their own

there are causal factors associated with them

66

Buddhism places the mind at the centre of all experiences The Buddhist tradition

therefore places emotions at the core of individual and universal happiness In the

Abhidhamma Buddhist text the mind is presented in context to its primary and secondary

consciousnesses Primary consciousness refers to the content of mind which illuminates

merely the general nature of the content Secondary consciousness refers to the aspect of

mind that illuminates the particular nature of that content Both the primary and

secondary consciousnesses operate as one entity (Negi 1999) The Abhidhamma lists

fifty-one secondary consciousnesses All the positive and negative emotions fall under

the fifty-one secondary consciousnesses

a Negative Emotion

Chapter Three explained that negative emotions in Buddhism arise out of

ignorance desire and hatred Humans suffer because of their own negative emotions

These are negative because they harm oneself and others As we ignore the reality around

us and cling to the self or I we get angry for things we do not like jealous when others

succeed frustrated when we fail The extreme reaction is suicidal thoughts and action

All of these negative emotions from the Buddhist perspective fall under unethical

action action that occurs through the mind They are called nyong mongs meaning

distorted or confused or klesha translated as afflictive emotions Jealousy selfishness

frustration and suicidal thoughts arise due to covetousness ill will and wrong view The

four negative indicators form part of the ten non-virtuous actions and are afflictive

regardless of their degree or the context in which they arise These emotions are similarly

considered negative under the GNH index

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1 Jealousy

Jealousy is often defined as a feeling of resentment when others succeed Harris

(2004) points out that jealousy is likely to arise over perceptions that a potential rival

poses a threat to what one perceives to be valuable in oneself and in an important

relationship In Buddhism jealousy is called dhrag-dog The Buddhist Abhidhamma text

classifies jealousy as part of hostility and calls it immoral Jealousy in Buddhism is

defined as a disturbing emotion that focuses on other peoples accomplishments such as

their good qualities possessions or success and is the inability to bear their

accomplishments due to excessive attachment to our own gain or to the respect we

receive (Berzin 2004 p 1) Jealousy in Buddhism is therefore related to attachment

Jealousy and envy have slightly different meanings in Buddhism Envy adds to what

jealousy means in Buddhism In addition to the inability to bear others accomplishments

envy is the wish to have these accomplishments for ourselves Therefore envy has the

element of what Buddhism calls covetousness (Bnab sem) Berzin (2004) points out that

envy as a combination of jealousy and covetousness leads to competitiveness Jealousy

is thus a disturbing emotion that drives us to become highly competitive and to work

fanatically to outdo others or ourselves Failure can cause much pain and success can lead

to further greed Jealousy has elements of resentment and hostility In addition it has

strong elements of insecurity and mistrust (Berzin 2004)

In the Abhidhamma text jealousy is opposite to compassion and appreciative joy

Lama Zopa Rinpoche (1973) states that rejoicing is the best remedy for jealousy and

envy (pl) Buddhist teaching maintains that we must rejoice for others success and

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happiness and think that they created their own cause for their happiness Similarly in a

GNH society we must rejoice for others success and happiness Jealousy disturbs our

peace of mind and causes much suffering We cannot achieve GNH if we are all jealous

of others Jealousy is therefore opposed to GNH values

Mullen (1995) points out that men and women experience different types of

emotions when they are jealous These include pain distress oppression anxiety

sadness apprehension anger restless distress humiliation shame agitation and

betrayal All of these are negative and against happiness or wellbeing In order to

achieve GNH it is important to rule out the presence of such negative emotions Since

jealousy is directly opposed to the psychological wellbeing of people it is appropriate

that it be an indicator of GNH

In order to collect the data for this indicator the following question is asked of the

respondents (Box 1) The sufficiency cut off is set at never which means that

respondents are given full score when they answer never In a GNH state it is hoped or

expected that a person would never feel jealous Buddhism similarly marks jealousy as

non-virtuous and afflictive regardless of their degree in which they arise The sufficiency

cut-off which is set at never therefore also corresponds to Buddhist principles

How often do you experience jealousy

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 1 Survey question of Jealousy Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

69

2 Selfishness

The second indicator selfishness refers to an unwillingness to share because of

craving something for oneself Selfishness in Buddhism originates from attachment and

greed In Buddhism selfishness is closely related to the Buddhist term Serna (Negi

1999) Serna in the Abhidhamma text is termed as immoral consciousness (p96) and

appears as delusion arising out of a wrong view attachment and greed Negi (1999)

states that it is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity (p93)

Selfishness is also synonymous with the Tibetan Buddhist terms Rangdoed and lNoe

zirtwhich literally mean self-centered desire and material attachment respectively

Buddhist teachings condemn the idea of self or I from which selfishness arises As

explained in Chapter Three Buddhism teaches no-self (anatta) as an essential

principle The doctrine of no-self is to help us let go of our attachment and ego In one

of his interviews with FOR Atv the Dalai Lama (2008) narrates an incident in which a

rich couple asked him for a blessing He replied to them You are wealthy share your

wealth with the needy ones this will be the real blessing for you This indicates that

Buddhists believe in replacing selfishness with generosity to attain inner joy In

particular the paramita of ethics (see Chapter Three) emphasizes restraining self-

centeredness and to rooting it out completely The Dalai Lama (2000) states that the

ethic of restraining self-centeredness is crucial (p 101) A selfish attitude according to

Buddhism obstructs the path towards achieving Bodhisattva and thus genuine happiness

Selfishness gives rise to negative Karma leading one to be reborn in the lower realms

70

Similarly since the concept of GNH supports the idea of interdependence selfishness is

opposed to the GNH values

Under the selfishness indicator of GNH the participants are asked the following

question (See Box 2) For the answer never a full score is given which means that a

person should never feel selfish to get a positive GNH score This indicates that

selfishness is against the GNH essence Consistent with the Buddhist teachings the GNH

index similarly marks selfishness as a negative trait

How often do you experience selfishness

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 2 Survey question of Selfishness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

3 Frustration The American Heritage Stedmans Medical Dictionary defines frustration as a

condition that results when an impulse or an action is thwarted by an external or an

internal force There is no exact term for frustration in Buddhism but it can be related to

the term gopa which is translated as agitation Negi (1999) describes gopa as a

mental factor that disturbs the inner calm and focus of the mind (p44) Gopa forms

part of the twenty secondary delusions in the Abhidhamma In the Bhutanese national

language Ouggam1 holds equivalent meaning to frustration Ouggam literally means

pressurizing the breath Oug is breath and gam means pressure When we pressurize our

self we get frustrated and this comes out as anger causing suffering to others and

ourselves

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Frustration is without doubt a negative emotion because it disturbs the peace of

mind causing anxiety and stress Like jealousy and selfishness frustration arises out

of attachment and desire In Buddhism any emotion that arises out of ignorance desire

and hatred is afflictive and non-virtuous Similarly in a GNH society that seeks to

maximize the happiness and wellbeing of people frustration is a negative trait and

opposed to the concept of GNH because it obstructs the path towards happiness Since

frustration has a negative impact on wellbeing it is necessary to determine if such

emotions occur frequently among people Therefore it is appropriate to have it as a

negative indicator of psychological wellbeing

The question (Box 3) how often do you experience frustration is asked of

respondents Since frustration hampers wellbeing respondents who never experience

frustration are given a full GNH score Respondents who often or sometimes

experience frustration are given a negative score

How often do you experience frustration

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 3 Survey question of Frustration Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

4 Suicidal Thoughts

Suicidal thoughts usually occur when one is no longer able to bear suffering in

life According to Buddhism suicide is an unwholesome act since it is encouraged by a

mind filled with greed hatred and delusion (Dhammananda nd) Killing is one of the ten

non-virtuous actions in Buddhism so any act of killing is unwholesome and suicide is

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therefore an unwholesome act The Buddhist teachings on Karma maintain that death by

suicide only leads to another cycle of rebirth in the same condition Buddha Dharma

Education Association (nd) explains that in order for the act of killing to have its

complete and unmitigated power five conditions must be present a living being the

awareness of the existence of a living being the intention to kill the living being the

effort or action of killing the living being and the consequent death of the living being

Suicide will always lack the last element of a complete Karma because the one who

commits the act will already be dead at the time of the completion of the action

Therefore suicide becomes a defective action and is not completed as an act of killing

leading to rebirth in the same condition (Sopa 2005) The Dalai Lama (1981) states that

even if we take our own life we will have to take another body that again will be the

basis of suffering In order to get rid of all the difficulties we experience we need to get

rid of the fundamental cause (greed hatred and delusion) that gives rise to the aggregates

that are the basis of all suffering He adds that killing yourself is not going to solve your

problems Suicide in Buddhism is therefore a non-virtuous act that arises because of

afflictive emotion

According to Buddhism suicide does not end the problem The famous Buddhist

painting of truth depicts that death is only the beginning of another cycle of pain and

suffering Buddhists therefore do not support suicide and instead encourage constructive

living using this life to diligently practice virtuous action thus changing the present and

the future for the better

Research indicates that suicide and attempted suicide are associated with

elevated levels of anger anxiety guilt sadness and shame (Berenbaum Raghavan Le

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Vernon Gomez 1999 p 279) Depression is found to be the main cause of suicides The

most common factors that push youth to commit suicide according to Bhutanese

psychiatrist Dr Nirola are peer and parental pressures competitive scenarios and failure

to get a job among others (as cited by Dorji 2010) This indicates that suicidal thoughts

occur because of what Buddhism calls the three poisons leading to further afflictive

emotions

Suicidal thoughts similarly are against the essence of GNH and therefore a

negative indicator of psychological wellbeing Under the GNH index a person who has

never thought of committing suicide (See Box 4) is given a foil GNH score while

respondents who have thought of committing suicide are given negative scores Overall

the indicator of suicidal thought finds groundings in Buddhist teachings

Have you ever seriously thought of committing suicide

1 Yes 2 No

Box 4 Survey question of Suicidal Thought Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Jealousy frustration selfishness and suicidal thoughts are negative emotions that

affect individuals and the societys wellbeing Satya Dev Negi (1996) asserts that the

distorted emotional states have achieved such a pervasive status that our era may become

known to history as the Age of Emotional Epidemic (p2) The effects of negative

emotions are clearly visible in society increasing crime substance abuse suicide and

divorce are all symptoms of emotional dysfunction

The entire Buddhist tradition evolved as a study of mental and emotional states

and ways to transform the negative emotions into positive ones Although Buddhism sees

74

ignorance desire and hatred as the main causes of suffering the three poisons come out

in the form of various negative emotions which include jealousy frustration and

selfishness Scientific research has revealed the role emotions play in affecting health the

immune system blood pressure and cardiovascular functions Research also indicates

that individuals with emotional disturbances are prone to induce negative effects upon

those with whom they have ongoing relationships (Berenbaum et al 1999) Besides

evaluation of the frequency of negative emotions it is important for the government to

know the reasons or the conditions that give rise to these negative emotions GNH as

policy must attend to it them

Overall all of the four indicators are directly opposed to the essence of GNH and

therefore it is appropriate to have them as indicators in order to minimize or eliminate

the presence of such negative emotions in a country Further all of these indicators are

rooted in Buddhism

b Positive Emotions

The process for accomplishing happiness in Buddhism involves uprooting the

negative emotions and enhancing the positive ones The three indicatorsmdashgenerosity

calmness and compassionmdashare positive because these emotions bring happiness to

oneself and others The practice of paramitas as explained in Chapter Three encourages

replacing the three poisons by practicing generosity ethics compassion and meditative

concentration Similarly generosity calmness and compassion are considered positive

indicators of psychological wellbeing

75

5 Generosity

Generosity is the act of giving and a means to overcome greed and selfishness In

Buddhism the practice of generosity (Dana Paramita- jinba) as laid down in Chapter

Three is one of the six paramitas and a way to practice compassion Buddhism maintains

that the practice of generosity in addition to the fivefold benefit to the one practicing it

brings happiness to others too Generosity is a moral practice that relates to positive

virtues such as compassion and loving kindness the cultivation of which leads to mental

development and spiritual happiness Through generosity we are able to extend ourselves

and help others The whole idea of generosity supports the concept of interdependence

which is the core principle of GNH and Buddhism The Centre for Bhutan Studies terms

generosity a positive emotion of great importance and a desirable habit Generosity as

an indicator is therefore coherent with the GNH principle as it promotes happiness for

oneself and others The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 5) for the

collection of data

How often do you experience generosity

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 5 Survey question of Generosity Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

The sufficiency cut off has been set as often which means a person should

frequently experience the feeling of generosity to get the full GNH score In a GNH

3 See Chapter Three

76

society people must help each other and promote a healthy environment Helping does

not necessarily mean giving all your possessions to others but it does entail sharing a part

of your wealth and being helpful in many ways An example would be a voluntary

service to society and charity Happiness derived by the act of generosity which does not

get included in the Gross Domestic Product (Hewavitharana 2004) should be included in

the evaluation of GNH Therefore generosity as an indicator of psychological

wellbeing is coherent with and appropriate to the concept of GNH

6 Calmness

Calmness refers to the clarity of mind and it entails patience and tolerance

Calmness is opposed to anger which is one of the three poisons in Buddhism The

Buddhist practice of Kshanita paramita the practice of patience and tolerance stresses

the importance of having a calm and composed mind at all times Patience in Buddhism

as seen in Chapter Three refers to having the strength to face the challenges and

difficulties of life without losing composure and inner tranquility In the Abhidhamma

text equanimity (long nyom) which is synonymous with calmness is listed as the

tenth positive secondary consciousness and a wholesome mental factor (Negi 1999)

Any mind that experiences such emotion becomes automatically positive states Negi

(1999) When we are calm we develop a tendency not to harm others and we are usually

at our best when we are calm Tranquility gives rise to clarity from which understanding

and wisdom grow (Graham 2007) A calm mind is therefore very essential for living a

happy and healthy life On the other hand constant fear and anger affect our own health

and overall wellbeing Horton (2010) states that through mental calmness one can

77

experience inner peace and as a result success too Calmness is therefore a virtue

consistent with GNH ideals

The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 6) for the collection of

data

How often do you experience calmness

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 6 Survey question of Calmness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Respondents who often feel calm are given the full GNH score which means in a GNH

society people should experience calmness frequently Overall this indicator can be

linked to Buddhist teachings and is coherent with GNH values as well

7 Compassion

Compassion is a wish to relieve the suffering of others and is central to Buddhist

practice As mentioned earlier in Chapter Three it is the most essential and important

trait for bodhisattvas within Mahayana Buddhism Mahayanists maintain that only

through developing a compassionate heart can one practice the other essential virtues

For example without being compassionate we will not develop a genuine sense of

generosity The compassion in Buddhism not only arises out of empathy towards the

suffering of others but from understanding and realizing the meaning of emptiness the

law of Karma and interdependence viewing self and others as devoid of inherent

meaning Compassion thus leads to the practice of loving kindness and helps to

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overcome afflictive emotions such as hatred jealousy and selfishness which are

considered negative under the psychological wellbeing indicators

Compassion a profound human emotion can be a powerful means to creating a

GNH society When one is compassionate the thought of harming others does not arise

and this attitude cultivates a genuine sense to work toward everyones benefit The CBS

(2008) similarly holds compassion as an approach to sympathy for the suffering of

others which is necessary to establish a compassionate society Thinking about the

suffering of others and not just ones own is important for a GNH society Further

scientific studies suggest that individuals including children who may engage in

bullying people and society in general could benefit from practices of compassion (Lutz

Lewis Johnstone Davidson 2008) Therefore compassion as an indicator is very much

coherent with the GNH values

The following question (Box 7) is asked of respondents to find out how

compassionate they are The sufficiency cut off similar to the indicator of generosity

and calmness has been set at often which means a person should frequently

experience compassion to get the full GNH score

How often do you experience compassion

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 7 Survey question of Compassion Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Overall the presence of emotions such as compassion calmness and generosity

have a positive impact on physical wellbeing on decision-making process and on the

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potential for leading a happy life Further each of the three indicators is clearly related to

the Buddhist practice of paramitas

43 Spiritual Practices

From the Buddhist perspective the indicators under this section consist of

practices to overcome negative or afflictive emotions Practicising them with sincerity

can hold negative emotions at bay

8 Frequency of Meditation

The Buddhists consider meditation a very important method to calm the mind

The eightfold noble path and the paramita of meditative concentration emphasizes the

importance of meditation as a means to destroy the three root causes of suffering (desire

hatred and ignorance) Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) states that the Buddhist meditative

practice does not merely suppress the destructive mental states but trains the mind to see

directly and concretely how the mind functions and using this understanding tames and

masters our own mind freeing it from afflictive states Many Buddhist masters prescribe

meditation as the key to finding happiness and peace of mind Tashi (2004) points out

that the important egalitarian aspects of meditation are its accessibility to everybody with

little or no cost involved Researchers have shown that Buddhists who meditate may be

able to train their minds to feel genuine happiness and control aggressive instincts

(Connor 2003) Another study of Buddhist meditation by scientists at the University of

California has found that meditation might tame the amygdale the part of the brain

involved with fear and anger Studies have also shown that even brief courses of

80

meditation with very short periods of the simplest meditative practices are associated

with better psychological and physical health (Levenson etal 2004) The CBS does not

link meditation to Buddhism but it is implicit that the indicators are inspired by Buddhist

teachings

Aside from the spiritual connotations meditation is a powerful method to calm

our mind (Connor 2003) Research has shown that practicing meditation regularly has

beneficial effects for a range of conditions These include stress anxiety depression

poor sleep and coping with chronic pain It also has other health benefits such as reduced

inflammation improved immunity and lower blood pressure A study conducted by three

universities (University of Wisconsin West Virginia University and University of

Reading) found that calmness and compassion could be developed through the practice of

meditation Lutz Lewis Johnstone and Davidson (2008) state that the long-term goal of

meditation is to weaken egocentric traits so that altruistic behaviors might arise more

frequently and spontaneously Meditation is indeed the best method to make the mind

relaxed and peaceful Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) maintains that the gift of learning to

meditate is the greatest gift you can gift yourself in this life (p58) He adds for it is

only through meditation that you can undertake the journey to discover your true nature

and so find the stability and confidence you will need to live and die well (p58)

The benefits of meditation as pointed out by the Buddhist teachings and supported

by modern research are immense The practice of meditation thus surely will have a

positive impact on the wellbeing of people which directly contributes to the essence of

GNH Having meditation as a GNH indicator signifies the importance the government is

putting on the benefits it provides The following question (Box 8) is asked of

respondents regarding the practice of meditation

Do you practice meditation

1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all

Box 8 Survey question of meditation Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

The sufficiency cut-off for meditation has been set as occasionally which means

one must practice meditation occasionally to get a full GNH score Although meditation

is considered a very important practice in Buddhism meditation among the lay

population is not popular in Bhutan According to the survey conducted by CBS (2008)

904 of respondents do not meditate at all This may arise from the fact that Bhutan

still does not have any meditation centre for lay people This may also be the reason why

the sufficiency cut-off has been set as occasionally instead of daily Very recently

meditation has been introduced in Bhutanese schools It however needs to be introduced

among lay population too Overall the indicator of mediation is coherent with GNH

values Further since Buddhism greatly stresses the importance of meditation the

indicator seems to have been influenced by Buddhism

9 Prayer Recitation

Prayer is a form of religious practice that seeks to connect to some greater power

Most religions involve prayer in one way or another The purpose of Buddhist prayer is to

awaken the inherent inner capacities of strength compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)

The translation for the word prayer in Bhutanese national language is thuen which

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literally means the recitation of mantras Buddhism emphasizes the recitation of prayershy

like mantras A mantra is a word a syllable a phrase or a short prayer that is spoken

once or repeated over and over again (either aloud or in a persons head) and that is

thought to have a profound spiritual effect on the person (BBC 2006 p 1) Mantra

literally means that which protects the mind from negativity (Sogyal Rimpoche 2002

p71) Mantra Sogyal Rimpoche states is the essence of sound and embodiment of the

truth in the form of sound Each syllable contains spiritual power and vibrates with the

blessing of the speech of the Buddha There are mantras that are thought to subtly alter

ones mind and make a connection with a particular Buddha or enlightened being

Buddhists believe that when certain mantras are said many times they arouse good

vibrations within the person they awaken our inherent inner capacities of strength

compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)

A prayer can be silent meditation or a full chorus of chanting (Hanh 2006) In

Buddhism praying involves two important aspects the first is establishing a relationship

between ourselves and the one to whom we are praying This refers to reflecting on the

great qualities of the Buddha which involves visualization The second is regarding

effective prayer which is the idea of cultivating the energy of love mindfulness and

right concentration in prayer To pray effectively our body and mind must dwell

peacefully in the present moment (Hanh 2006) It is common that Buddhists lay prostrate

while praying This is a position that diminishes the ego opens one up and brings one

close to the earth (Hanh 2006 p 63) Since reciting prayers requires mindfulness and

concentration the paramita of meditative concentration extends to prayers too The

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Buddhist Faith Fellowship of Connecticut asserts that Buddhist prayer is a form of

meditation and practice of inner reconditioning Similarly Sogyal Rimpoche (2002)

explains that reciting mantras is one of the meditation techniques He calls it uniting the

mind with the sound of mantra When one is nervous disoriented or emotionally fragile

reciting a mantra inspiringly can change the state of the mind completely by transforming

its energy and atmosphere He also mentions that mind rides on the subtle energy of

breath and when you chant a mantra you are charging your breath and energy with the

energy of the mantra so working directly on the mind and subtle body (p71) The

practice of reciting mantra for inner reconditioning is distinctively Buddhist

In addition to reciting mantras a majority of the Bhutanese Buddhists pray to

local deities It is a very popular belief in Bhutan that deities can protect us from evil

forces In a real sense this is not Buddhism because the Buddha never prayed to anyone

Buddhism stresses the recitation of mantras to awaken our inner qualities As mentioned

earlier Bhutan was largely a Bon country prior to the entry of Buddhism Bonism

emphasized worshipping the deities Buddhism in many countries flourished with

polytheistic features For example in Japan Buddhism mixed with Shinto which

worships kamis (nature spirits) created a tradition of praying to the kamis Bhutans

national newspaper Kuensel reported that Bonism mixed with Buddhism is still prevalent

in the country (Wangchuk 2005) The rituals of the Bon often include animal sacrifices

but animal sacrifices are discouraged in the country However many pray and perform

rituals to appease the local deities (yu-lha) For example in the village of Bongo under

Chukha district people worship and pray to two sister deities They also summon other

84

deities and spirits residing in mountains valleys lakes forests streams and cliffs

invoking them to assist and protect people from misfortunes (as cited by Wangchuk

2005) Similarly people in the capital Thimphu pray to a local deity located in the upper

valley Although this is not distinctively Buddhism (Powers 1995) it is an age-old

tradition that has been absorbed by Bhutanese Buddhists long ago This is now

considered an integral part of Bhutanese Buddhist culture

The following question (Box 9) is asked of respondents A person who prays

daily meets the sufficiency cutoff which means heshe is given a full GNH score

Do you sayrecite prayers

1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all

Box 9 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Although reciting prayers in Buddhism is seen as a method ofmeditation both

are given different sufficiency cut offs A person who meditates occasionally is given a

full score while a person who prays occasionally is not given a full score The different

sufficiency cut offs for the two different practices indicates that the prayer recitation

indicator is intended to be different from meditation However prayer recitation in

Buddhism itself is a form of meditation CBS mentions that those indicators which are

highly uncorrelated were selected but from a pure Buddhist perspective the two seem to

be closely related since both fall under the paramita of meditative concentration The

CBS does not mention how prayer recitation is consistent with GNH values

Nevertheless the benefits of prayer recitation and meditation maybe the same because

85

both practices require mindfulness and concentration In this sense prayer recitation too

is coherent with GNH To conclude prayer in the form of mantra accords with Buddhist

principles while prayer to deities is a local Buddhist practice Therefore the indicator of

prayer recitation seems to have been influenced by Buddhism with traces of local beliefs

10 Taking account of Karma

As seen in chapter three Karma is a very important Buddhist principle that guides

the Buddhist psyche The law of Karma provides the basis to practice the paramita of

ethics (sila) Karma as one of the GNH indicators clearly implies that Buddhism has

influenced the indicator The literal meaning of taking account of Karma is being

morally responsible for our own actions When a person takes account of Karma in daily

life heshe is being aware and morally responsible for their actions on which the result

depends When we understand the law of Karma we are discouraged from performing

non-virtuous or unwholesome actions which cause suffering Realizing that Karma

conditions and determines our happiness we will refrain from unwholesome behavior to

avoid the negative effects of these actions Similarly understanding that virtuous actions

bear the fruit of happiness one is encouraged to practice wholesome actions The law of

causality therefore promotes moral and ethical life

The sufficiency cutoff for taking account of Karma (Box 10) has been set as

daily indicating that a person who takes account of Karma daily is given a full GNH

score

86

Do you consider Karma in the course of your daily life

1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all

Box 10 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

For a country pursing GNH it is important to take account of Karma on a daily

basis because Karma promotes healthy and ethical living ideal for a GNH state

According to CBS for Bhutanese an understanding of the dynamics between causes

and effects are critical to each individuals pursuit for happiness as it tends to provide a

clearer understanding and cultivation of GNH values (pl) Understanding that the real

reason for our sufferings is our own Karma (action through body speech and mind)

serves as an antidote to all our afflictive emotions Karma promotes the sense of helping

each other and living in harmony with all forms of life It is therefore important that a

GNH society take account of Karma daily to promote wholesome actions for a happy

society The indicator of taking account of Karma daily is thus a reflection of Buddhist

principles and is consistent with GNH values

43 General Mental Health (GMH)

11 General Mental Health

The general mental health indicator assesses the mental health of people using the

General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) that would provide a possible indication of

depression anxiety low confidence and concentration levels Unlike the other indicators

under the psychological wellbeing domain the General Mental Health indicator consists

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of fifteen questions (See Appendix 2) Questions related to ones stress level ability to

concentrate anxiety depression feeling of happiness and unhappiness are asked of the

respondents The questions are calculated and interpreted using the Likert scale with

lowest score at 0 and highest possible score at 36 A lower score between the ranges of 0-

15 indicates normal mental wellbeing a median score between 16-20 indicates some

mental distress and a high score of 21-36 indicates severe mental distress (CBS 2008)

The sufficiency cut-off is set as normal mental wellbeing which means people should

not experience any mental distress to get a full GNH score

The CBS (2008) asserts that mental health is an important indicator for the health

status of a population Studies have revealed that mental stress can negatively affect

wellbeing Studies also point out that stress may alter the immune system and increase

susceptibility to disease (CBS 2008)

From the Buddhist perspective psychological distress such as depression lack of

confidence and anxiety are the result of our own afflictive emotions Gyatso (2009)

points out that the overriding cause of mental stress is self-cherishingmdashseeing ones own

physical and mental pleasure as more important than anybody elses People who have

the tendency to use more self-referential terms (I me myself) tend to have more health

problems and earlier deaths (Dalai Lama 2009) According to Buddhism it is our own

ego the focus on the notion of I that cause us to suffer The causes of mental distress

thus lie within us Since cause is within us the cure is also in our own mind Buddhist

teachings maintain that meditating on emptiness4 can get rid of the notion of T Thus

4 A meditation technique

88

mental distress similar to other negative emotions are a result of ignorance desire and

hatred

Ven Thubten Gyatso (2009) a Buddhist teacher points out two reasons why

selfishness can cause mental illness The first is that unhappiness arising from

selfishness is cumulative When we do not obtain what we want we often over-react to a

ridiculous extent and our selfish behavior isolates us from others The accumulation of

small failures in life erodes our self-confidence and we fall into depression The second

reason he points out is that selfishness prevents us from doing the one thing that is

guaranteed to bring happiness - cherishing others being compassionate and generous

Self-obsession and self-centered thoughts blind us and we do nothing to help others In

Buddhism self-centeredness never brings real joy and satisfaction but instead causes

suffering

The mind drives every action that occurs through the body speech and mind

The causal factor therefore lies within us It is our ability to deal with emotions that

influences the mental state Since mental stress obstructs the path towards happiness it

opposes the goal of GNH It is therefore important to assess the stress levels of the

population to identify the risk group Intervention by government and offering remedy

(for example offering counseling) and monitoring changes over time can help people

pursue happiness

44 Summary

The purpose of this study is to determine to what extent the indicators under the

psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with

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the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH Findings in this chapter reveal the following

The four indicators related to negative emotionsmdashjealousy selfishness frustration

suicidal thoughtmdashdo appear in Buddhism Jealousy (dhrag-dog) is clearly stated as an

afflictive emotion while the Buddhist teachings condemn the idea ofself through

which selfishness arises Although the exact term does not appear in Buddhism

frustration is closely related to the meaning of gopa or agitation which arises as a result

of the three poisons Buddhism holds that lack of wisdom or holding on to wrong views

leads to suicidal thoughts Jealousy selfishness frustration and suicidal thought thus

arise out of the three poisons ignorance desire and hatred All four indicators are what

Buddhism calls Klesha afflictive emotions that disturb the mind of oneself and others

thus obstructing the path towards happiness Similarly general mental health distress is a

result of afflictive emotion Buddhist teachings particularly points out that holding on to

the idea of self leads to mental stress

The indicators related to the three positive emotions (Generosity Compassion

and Calmness) and three spiritual practices (Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking

account of Karma) are clearly related to the Buddhist teachings on six paramitas

Generosity is the first paramita a practice towards achieving genuine happiness

Compassion is the root of all Mahayana Buddhist practices and an essential component of

the practice of six paramitas The indicator of calmness is related to Kshanti paramita

which entails the practice of patience tolerance and endurance Similarly the indicator

of meditation and prayer recitation is related to the Buddhist practice of meditative

concentration which is the fourth practice Dhayana paramita Prayer recitation

however does have elements of Bon practices which have been deeply absorbed by the

90

local Buddhist culture The indicator of taking account of Karma is clearly influenced by

Buddhism Karma promotes the practice of ethics which is sila paramita that stresses

avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and engaging in virtuous action Overall all of the

positive emotions and practices require wisdom which is prajna paramita The core

teachings of Buddhism thus find a place in each of the indicators Thus it would be

appropriate to conclude that the indicators have been influenced by Buddhism

Each of indicators either contributes to or negatively affects GNH In a GNH

society it is important to establish that people not only experience positive emotions but

also rule out the presence of negative emotions that can cause mental distress It is also

important to determine if people take up spiritual practices to keep the negative emotions

at bay Therefore each indicator under psychological wellbeing relates positively or

negatively with the concept of GNH It can thus be concluded that the indicators of

psychological wellbeing are consistent with GNH values

91

CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMMENDATIONS

From the very beginning of its development plan Bhutan chose to ensure the

preservation of its culture tradition and natural resources This came to be called the

philosophy of GNH where peoples spiritual and emotional wellbeing is afforded equal

importance to economic wellbeing GNH recognizes that economic development without

spiritual and emotional wellbeing will not bring happiness to people Several workshops

and discourses held on GNH led to the adoption of the GNH Index a set of indicators to

measure whether Bhutanese society is progressing towards GNH The index comprises

72 indicators grouped under nine domains that go beyond material values and incorporate

all values relevant to a happy life The GNH index is now the most important tool in

guiding the performance of the government towards achieving the goal of GNH The

purpose of this study was to determine to what extent the indicators under the

psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with

the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH The three questions that drove this study are

To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do the indicators reflect

Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept of GNH which does

reflect Buddhist principles The primary data that were used are the eleven indicators and

survey questionnaires developed by the Centre for Bhutan Studies The findings from the laquo

study reveal that each of the indicators under psychological wellbeing reflects Buddhist

principles The ultimate goal in Buddhism is to achieve genuine happiness Inspired by

this belief Bhutan is the only country in the world that officially pursues the state of

happiness The government believes that happiness is in the end what matters the most

92

The government has taken the utmost responsibility to create an enabling condition for

people to pursue happiness The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index

measures peoples psychological state which influences the overall wellbeing of people

Since the purpose of this study is to determine the extent to which indicators

reflected Buddhist principles it was necessary to highlight the key Buddhist principles

related to happiness Chapter Three examined the key Buddhist principles related to

happiness Specifically Thogme Zangpos teachings on the six paramitas were used as a

basis to develop the framework of happiness It was observed that happiness is not only

worldly pleasure derived from physical comfort but also an innate state of mind which

can be cultivated through the practice of compassion generosity ethics meditative

concentration patience and wisdom This can bring happiness to the individual and to

the society Although GNH stresses collective happiness Buddhism states that peace

must first be developed in the individual mind before it can contribute to others and the

happiness of the society Thus in the words of Master Shantideva it is not primarily the

outer conditions of our life that determine our happiness or suffering it is our own mind

that creates the cause for happiness or success

Humans experience many emotions and narrowing them down to eleven

indicators is not an easy task There is a strong relationship between emotions and

wellbeing The intensity of pleasant and unpleasant emotions influences the degree of

psychological wellbeing Studies have also shown that emotions play an integral role in

affecting the overall physical health Emotions also have powerful effects in shaping and

regulating social interactions and influencing how one appears to others Like the mind-

93

transforming practices in Buddhism the key to a nations progress lies in tracing

problems and solutions to the root causes

The indicators under the psychological wellbeing domain measure peoples

emotional state and the frequency of spiritual practices to eliminate negative emotion

Findings in Chapter Four reveal that each of the indicators of psychological wellbeing

correlates to Buddhist principles on happiness The relationship between the indicators of

psychological wellbeing and Buddhist principles are presented in the table below

Indicators Buddhist Principles

1 Jealousy Dhrag Dhog- Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

2 Selfishness Serna - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

3 Frustration Gopa - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

4 Suicidal Thought Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

5 Generosity Dana Paramita (Bjin ba) Generosity

6 Compassion The root of all Buddhist practices

7 Calmness Kshanti Paramita (Bzod pa) Patience tolerance endurance

8 Meditation Dhyana Parmto Meditative Concentration

9 Prayer Recitation Dhyana ParmitaMeditative Concentration

10 Karma Sila Paramita (Tshul khrim) virtue morality ethics

11 General Mental Health Klesha (Afflictive emotions) causes mental distress

Table 1 Relating the Indicators with Buddhism

The four negative emotion indicatorsmdashselfishness frustration jealousy and

suicidal thoughtmdashare found in Buddhism as afflictive emotions (klesha) arising out of the

three poisons Jealousy (dharg dhog) appears in the Abhidhamma text as an immoral and

94

deluded mental factor that feels displeasure in seeing others succeed Similarly

selfishness (sema) is listed as an immoral consciousness in the Abhidhamma Selfishness

is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity Buddhism teaches no-

self (anatta) as an essential principle and therefore strongly condemns the notion of I

through which selfishness arises Frustration in Buddhism is closely related to the term

gopa which is actually translated as agitation Gopa falls under the twenty secondary

immoral delusions in the Abhidhamma text Suicides and suicidal thought in Buddhism

are the result of wrong view Suicide is an unwholesome action and does not end the

problem Suicidal thought occurs because of afflictive emotions (klesha) All these

negative emotions (klesha) cause mental distress

The positive emotion and spiritual practice indicators such as compassion

calmness generosity meditation prayer recitation and taking account of Karma are the

replication of the six paramitas The positive emotions which Buddhists call virtuous

action such as generosity compassion and calmness tend to increase happiness in oneself

and others while negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration affect

psychological health and decrease happiness Since each of the indicators can be clearly

related to Buddhist principles of happiness it can thus be concluded that the

psychological wellbeing indicators are influenced by Buddhism and are consistent with

the concept of GNH One may argue that indicators such as compassion generosity and

calmness are universal values and ethics and may not necessarily be influenced by

Buddhism However in the case of Bhutan the Bhutanese worldview and its political

ethos are largely influenced by Buddhism The philosophy of GNH is also rooted in

Buddhism It is also evident that the government is seeking to measure and cater to long-

95

term rather than short-term happiness From the Buddhist perspective short-term

happiness is delivered chiefly by material goods while long-term happiness is derived

from spiritual cultural and social values

This study reveals that Buddhism stresses gaining control over our mind and

cultivating the right kind of habit which is said to be the root of all forms of joy and

happiness Buddhism in the original sense encourages exercises to tame and calm the

mind This study therefore partly seems to support the claims made by scholars such as

Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and Tashi (2004) who have argued that

Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH

Overall this study indicates that if the government creates good policies and

conditions for people GNH cannot be achieved if its citizens are not psychologically

strong For example if citizens are mentally stressed or filled with jealousy they will not

contribute to collective happiness In that sense happiness is inextricably linked to the

inner conditions of ones own mind

Measuring the psychological state of people will help the policy makers make

better decisions The emotional and psychological needs of people therefore must be

considered by the policy makers in order to achieve GNH A study by Sheldon Ryan

Deci and Kasser (2004) found that people pursuing intrinsic goals (emotional intimacy

community contribution and personal growth) had higher happiness expectancies than

those pursuing extrinsic goals (financial success attractive image and famepopularity)

By emphasizing human values of compassion generosity calmness and selflessness as

necessary indicators of GNH the government of Bhutan is providing the basis for

developing policies that focus on these values The domain of psychological wellbeing

96

thus focuses on the inner emotional development Within the concept of GNH inner non-

material development is equally important as external material development

Recommendations for Future Studies

The biggest challenge for the government is to combat the negative emotions of

the people The findings of this study reveal that Buddhist teachings are all geared

towards taming the mind and cultivating values that promote happiness Further

Buddhism does not emphasize individualism but emphasizes equality and cooperation

aimed at collective happiness It emphasizes individual effort geared towards universal

happiness Buddhist teachings and method to calm the mind can contribute to GNH

Ekman Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) suggest that Buddhist practices offer a

therapy not just for the disturbed but for all who seek to improve the quality of their

lives Although the majority of the population in Bhutan is Buddhist 25 are non-

Buddhist (CIA fact book 2009) Some scholars have argued however that Buddhism

can also be taught as education on human values (Mancall 2004 amp Lokamitra 2004)

Therefore extensive research on how this might be done could provide valuable lessons

insights and guidelines for the purpose of promoting GNH values

As pointed out earlier there is not much information available on how the

sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From the information available on the

CBS website however it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut off is set at a level

that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises questions because

there is not any literature or studies conducted on how the sufficiency cut off has actually

been set Arbitrarily setting a cut off without any basis or setting it based on some

assumptions can lead to questionable results Therefore an in-depth study on the basis

97

for setting the sufficiency cut off seems necessary to avoid misinterpretation by policy

makers

This study analyzed the indicators to determine the extent to which they reflected

Buddhist principles However it was observed that indicators of psychological wellbeing

were measured by questionnaires that only examined the frequency of occurrence of

emotions and the spiritual practices It is important that the government not only

recognize peoples suffering but identify its causes as well For example the questionnaire

notes the frequency of negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration but

does not identify their causes In order for the policy makers to identify effective

solutions the cause must be noted also Further the key terms such as generosity

compassion frustration and prayer recitation were not clearly defined For example the

term generosity could imply the practice rather than the emotional state of generosity

One can practice generosity yet not feel emotionally generous a practice can differ from

an emotional state Similarly the choices of answers such as often sometimes daily have

not been defined These terms can mean different things to different people To avoid

misinterpretation it is necessary that the key terms be clearly defined and nuanced

This study focused only on one of the domains of GNH index Although a similar

study needs to be carried out for the other eight domains there is a need for further

investigation into many of the issues related to the GNH index such as How would the

GNH index affect the government policies Does the index give equal importance to the

emotional spiritual and economical wellbeing of the people Does the index capture the

real essence of human happiness

98

References

A Manual of Abhidhamma (1987) Edited by Narada Maha Thera Malaysia Buddhist Missionary Society Retrieved from httpwwwbuddhanetnetpdf fileabhidhammapdf

Anguttara (nd) Dana Generosity Retrieved from (Anguttara IV 57) httpwwwbuddhamindinfoleftsidelifestv-2danahtm

Annas J (1999) Aristotles Ethics Critical Essay (p 35- 56)Edited by Nancy Sherman United States of America Rowman amp Littlefield Publishers Inc

Bancroft A (ed) (1997) The Dhammapada USA Element Inc

BBC (2006) Buddhist worships Retrieved from httpwwwbbccoukreligionreligionsbuddhisrncustomsworship 1 shtml

Berenbaum H Raghavan C Le H Vernon L amp Gomez J (1999) Disturbances in emotion In Daniel Kahneman Ed Diener and Norbert Schwarz (Eds) Wellbeing The foundation ofhedonic psychology (pp 267-287) New York Russell Sage Foundation

Berzin A (2004) Dealing with Jealousy Retrieved from httpwwwberzinarchivescomwebenarchivessutraylevel3 loiong materialgen eraldealing iealousvhtmln9203d70b0a90c002

Bhutan Observer (2010) A GNH School httpwwwbhutanobserverbt201 Qbhutan-news01a-gnh-schoolhtml

Boonyakiat S (2009) A Christian Theology of Suffering in the Context of Theravada Buddhism in Thailand

Brooks AC (2008) Gross National Happiness Why Happiness Matters for America and How We Can Get More of It USA

Buddha Dharma Education Association (NA) Fundamentals of Buddhism Karma Retrieved from httpwwwbuddhanetnetfundbud9htm

Buddhist Faith Fellowship of Connecticut (nd) Buddhist Prayers Retrieved from httpbuddhistfaithtripodcompureland sanghaid 14html

Business Bhutan (April 172010) A meditating school Retrieved from httpwwwbusinessbhutanbtp= 1366

99

Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) (2008) Explanation of GNH Index Centre for Bhutan Studies Retrieved on June 12 2009 from httpwwwgrossnationalhappinesseomgnhIndexintruductionGNHaspx

Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) (2008) Dimension Psychological Wellbeing Retrieved from httpwwwgrossnationalhappinesseomgnhIndexgnhlndexVariablesaspx

Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) (2008) Psychological Wellbeing Report Retrieved from httpwwwgrossnationalhappinesscomsurvevReportspsvchologicaIpwellbeingr eportdavidpdf

Central Intelligent Agency (CIA) (2009) Bhutan Retrieved from httpswwwciagovlibrarvpublicationsthe-world-factbookgeosbthtml

Chophel S (2008) Cultural diversity and resilience Journal of Bhutan Studies Centre for Bhutan Studies Thimphu Bhutan

Chopra S (2010) An exclusive interview with His Holiness the Dalai Lama Retrieved from httpwwwlifepositivecomspiritworld-religionsbuddhismdalai-interviewasp

Colman R (2008a) Application of the Genuine Progress Index to Nova Scotia Measuring Genuine Progress Indicators Accounts and Policy Retrieved from httpwwwgpiatlanticorgpdfintegratedpolicvapppdf

ColmanR(2008b) Measuring Progress towards Gross National Happiness Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference Held in Bhutan Retrieved on 30th

September 2009 from httpwwwbhutanstudiesorgbtadminpubFilesGNH41 GNH4pdf

ColmanR amp SagebienJ (2004) Measuring Genuine Progress- Indicators for Enlightened Society Proceedings of the First International Seminar on Operationalization of Gross National Happiness (p252- 259) Centre for Bhutan Studies

ConnorS(2003) Can Buddhists transcend mental reservations Retrieved on 14th April 2010 from httpwwwbiopsvchiatrvcomhappinessbuddhisthtml

Creswell J W (2007) Qualitative inquiry and research design Choosing among five approaches (2nd ed) Thousand Oaks CA SAGE

Dalai Lama (1981) Four noble truths A teaching given in Dharamsala Retrieved from httpwww Iamaveshecomindex phpsect=articleampid=380

100

ABSTRACT

Measuring wellbeing is an important task in determining whether peoples lives

are improving or becoming worse over time Gross National Happiness (GNH) is the

central development philosophy of Bhutan This philosophy aims at maximizing human

wellbeing and minimizing human suffering by balancing economic needs with spiritual

and emotional needs of the people The Centre for Bhutan Studies in 2008 developed the

Gross National Happiness Index as a tool to measure the overall wellbeing of the

Bhutanese people and to track the performances of government policies The index

comprises of 72 indicators grouped under nine domains psychological wellbeing

cultural resilience education health time use and balance good governance community

vitality ecological diversity and living standard

The purpose of this study is to determine the influence of Buddhist principles of

happiness on the indicators of psychological wellbeing domain and the coherence of

indicators with the concept of GNH Although conducting an in-depth analysis of each of

the indicators under the nine domains would be most beneficial due to the vastness of the

indicators this study focuses only on the indicators of psychological wellbeing Since

Buddhism has long played an important role in the political economic and social lives of

Bhutanese the Buddhist principles of happiness provides the framework to analyze the

indicators Each indicator is determined to what extent they reflect Buddhist principles

Findings from this study reveal that the core teachings of Buddhism find a place in each

of the indicators The study thus concludes that the indicators of psychological wellbeing

are influenced by Buddhism and consistent with the concept of GNH

ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

There are many people to thank for the successful completion of this study I

would first like to thank my supervisor Dr John Valk for his continuous support

guidance and encouragement I would also like to thank my co-supervisors Dr Emery

Hyslop-Margison and Dr Ellen Rose for their guidance and time which helped me

complete my study on time I would also like to thank the University of New Brunswick

especially the Graduate School Unit for partially funding my study My sincere thanks

also go to the Royal Government of Bhutan for granting me study leave

I would also like to thank Ms Tshokey Zangmo Researcher at the Centre for

Bhutan Studies for providing me with information on GNH Index and for clearing my

doubts I am also thankful to Ven Lama Mepham a Buddhist meditation teacher at the

University of Arkansas for guiding me and sharing his knowledge on Buddhist principles

Lastly I am very thankful to my family and friends for their continued love and support

iii

Table of Contents

ABSTRACT ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii

Table of Contents iv

List of Tables vi

List of Figures vii

List of Abbreviations viii

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1 11 The Bhutanese Economy and Culture 3

12 Political History and Transition to Democracy 5

13 Gross National Happiness the Development Philosophy of Bhutan 7

14 Explanation of Gross National Happiness Index 8

15 Research Questions and Objective of the Study 13

16 Methodology 14

17 Limitations and Significance of the study 17

18 Summary 18

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 20 21 Buddhism and Gross National Happiness 21

22 Evolution of the Concept 29

23 GNH Discourses and Debates 33

24 Quantifying Gross National Happiness 37

25 Summary 39

CHAPTER THREE THE BUDDHIST PRINCIPLES OF HAPPINESS 41 31 Buddhist View of Happiness 42

32 Key Mahayana Buddhist Principles 45

321 The four noble truths 45

322 The Law of Karma Principle of Interdependence and Compassion 47 iv

33 The Buddhist Happiness Framework 50

331 Generosity 55

332 Ethics 55

333 Patience and Tolerance 57

334 Perseverance 58

335 Meditative Concentration 59

336 Wisdom 60

34 Summary 61

CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING INDICATORS 63

41 Psychological Wellbeing Measures 64

42 Emotional Balance 66

43 Spiritual Practices 80

43 General Mental Health (GMH) 87

44 Summary 89

CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMMENDATIONS 92

References 99

Appendix 1 110

Appendix 2 Ill Curriculum Vitae

v

List of Tables

Table 1 Relating the Indicators with Buddhism

VI

List of Figures

Figure 1 Map of Bhutan (Source CIA Fact Book) 4

Figure 2 Suffering and its causes 53

Figure 3 Overcoming Suffering 54

vii

List of Abbreviations

CBS Centre for Bhutan Studies

CIA Central Intelligence Agency

DPT Druk Phuensum Tshogpa

FYP Five Year Plan

GDP - Gross Domestic Product

GHQ General Health Questionnaire

GNH Gross National Happiness

GNHC Gross National Happiness Commission

GPI Genuine Progress Index

HDI Human Development Index

MoA Ministry of Agriculture

MoHE Ministry of Health and Education

NEC National Environment Commission

NSB National Statistic Bureau

RGoB Royal Government of Bhutan

TCoB Tourism Council of Bhutan

UNDP United Nation Development Programme

viii

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

Measuring the wellbeing of people is important in determining whether peoples

lives are improving or worsening over time Many countries in the world today focus on

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as a basis to measure the economic wellbeing of the

people Although GDP mainly measures market production it has been treated as if it

measures economic wellbeing The focus on economic growth measures fails to capture

fully the overall wellbeing of the people (Kusago 2006 Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009)

Due to the failure of GDP to measure the non-economic aspect of human wellbeing

alternative measurements such as Genuine Progress Index (GPI) and Human

Development Index (HDI) have been introduced GPI and HDI include many important

factors that contribute to healthy living but they are still calculated based on monetary

values (Hargen 2002 Kusago 2006) and do not capture the Bhutanese concept of Gross

National Happiness

Gross National Happiness (GNH) is the central development philosophy of

Bhutan (Planning Commission 1999) This unique philosophy aims at maximizing

human wellbeing and minimizing human suffering by balancing economic needs with the

spiritual and emotional needs of people Bhutans fourth king Jigme Singye Wangchuck

coined the term Gross National Happiness in the late 1980s when he stated that Gross

National Happiness is more important than Gross Domestic Product (as cited by Ura

2008 para 1) His vision was to create a GNH society which means the creation of an

enlightened society in which happiness and wellbeing of all people and sentient beings is

the ultimate purpose of governance (as cited by Ura 2008 para2) Since it was difficult

1

for the government to list every factor that contributes to the happiness of its people four

major areas were identified as the pillars of GNH cultural promotion equitable

economic development good governance and environmental conservation (Planning

Commission 1999) These four pillars constitute the broad strategic framework through

which national development processes are actualized for the maximization of GNH

Since the adoption of the concept of GNH the government has consistently

sought to address development beyond income or economic growth The country lacked

however a specific and relevant development index that takes into account the core

principles and dimensions of GNH In November 2008 coinciding with the coronation

of the fifth King of Bhutan Jigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchuck the Government of

Bhutan adopted the GNH index The purpose of the GNH index is to reflect GNH

values set benchmarks and track policies and performances of the country (Ura 2008

pl) Seventy-two measurable indicators grouped under nine domains have been

identified as the GNH index The Government of Bhutan states that the country is now

ready with a set of mathematical formulae to measure human wellbeing and government

performances towards achieving GNH (as cited by Dorji 2009) The purpose of this

study is to analyze the GNH index to determine the extent to which it reflects Buddhist

principles and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH

This chapter is divided into eight sections The first section presents a brief

background of Bhutan its people economy and culture The second section presents

Bhutans political journey from monarchy to democracy The concept of Gross National

Happiness is discussed in the third section The fourth section explains the nine domains

of the GNH index and how the GNH index is administered in the country The fifth

2

section presents the research questions and objective of the study The sixth section

presents the methodology of the study The seventh section lays down the significance

and limitation of the study The summary of this chapter and the outline of the study are

presented in the eighth section

11 The Bhutanese Economy and Culture

Bhutan is a tiny landlocked kingdom with a population of 691141 (Central

Intelligent Agency [CIA] Factbook 2009) and having a total area of 38394 square

kilometres (National Statistical Bureau 2007) The country is sandwiched between two

leading economies India and China (Figure 1) Until the 1960s Bhutan was the most

isolated nation in the world Today about 69 of the population in Bhutan are

smallholder agrarian farmers and they practice mainly mixed (crop and livestock)

farming systems (Gross National Happiness Commission 2010) Of the population

945 represent people from the age group of 0-64 years while only 55 of the

population are 65 years and above (CIA Factbook 2009) Bhutans GDP per capita was

estimated at $2218 in 2009 (International Monetary Fund 2010) The country is almost

entirely mountainous with altitudes ranging from 240 meters to 7541 meters above sea

level About 725 of the country consists of forest land (National Statistical Bureau

2007) and the policy of the government is to maintain at least 60 forest cover (Ministry

of Agriculture 2002) Bhutan has been declared one of the ten global biodiversity

Hotspots (National Environment Commission 1999)

The Bhutanese culture and development policies are greatly influenced by

Buddhism The philosophy of GNH has its roots in Buddhism Under this unique

3

philosophy Bhutan has been able to balance modernization with its ancient culture and

traditions From the very beginning of the enthronement in 1972 the fourth king Jigme

Singye Wangchuck was very clear that Gross National Happiness is more important than

Gross Domestic Product According to him happiness is the ultimate common goal of

every human being and everything else is a means for fulfilling this wish He believed

that happiness is an indicator of good development and good society (Thinley 2005)

This led the country to adopt GNH as its development priority

25 SO Km

50 25

G r e a

S Gasa Ozong

Toogsa THIMPHU Paro

Tashigang

Samdrup Jongkhar Phuntsholing

r~

BANGLADESH

Figure 1 Map of Bhutan (Source CIA Fact Book)

4

12 Political History and Transition to Democracy

Bhutanese polity is said to have begun in 1616 with the arrival of Zhabdrung

Ngawang Namgyal from Tibet Through the spread of Buddhism Zhabdrung was able to

unify the country Buddhism provided the ideological basis for unifying Bhutan

(Mancall 2004) Zhabdrung was both a religious and political figure in Bhutan He was

the head of theocratic state that he himself created (Ministry of Health amp Education

[MoHE] 1994) He started the dual system of governance known as the Choesi system

where political affairs were looked after by the Desi1 and religious affairs by the head

abbot called the Jekhenpo Zhabdrung died in the year 1651 The official announcement

of his death was however made only in the year 1705 There were several reasons for

this chief of which there was no clear successor to Zhabdrung During the period 1651 -

1706 the country was ruled in the name of Zhabdrung who was said to be in religious

retreat by various Desi appointed under the Choesi system established by the Zhabdrung

himself (MoHE 1994) The period between 1705 to 1907 was marked by internal

stability and external invasion Ultimately in the year 1907 Ugyen Wangchuck was

unanimously elected as the first hereditary king of Bhutan (MoHE 1994) Since then

visionary descendants of the Wangchuck dynasty have ruled the country

Bhutans political system however evolved from a monarchy into a constitutional

democracy Democracy did not come to Bhutan overnight the process of democratization

was going on long before but slowly and cautiously King Jigme Singye Wangchuck

continued the policy of controlled development with particular focus on the preservation

A title given to the person who looks after the political matters in the country

5

of the environment and Bhutans unique culture Yet during his reign there was a steady

decentralization of decision-making processes which aimed to enhance peoples

participation in the formulation of development policies and activities and to strengthen

the traditional local institutions This process started largely in 1981 with the

establishment of the District Development Committees (Dzongkhag Yargye

Tshogchungs) and in 1991 with the establishment of the Block Development Committees

(Geog Yargye Tshogchungs) The people democratically elect all members of these

committees The most momentous change came in 1998 when the executive powers

previously held by the King was granted to the Council of Ministers (GNHC 2008)

On 17 December 2005 King Jigme Singye Wangchuck announced to a stunned

nation that the first general elections would be held in 2008 and that he would abdicate

the throne in favor of his eldest son the crown prince Jigme Khesar Namgyal

Wangchuck Unlike other countries where people fight for democracy the opposite

occurred in Bhutan people were given power without having to fight for it The fifth king

was formally crowned on November 6 2008 becoming the worlds youngest reigning

monarch and head of the newest democracy The fifth King like his father proclaimed

that fulfilling the vision of GNH would be one of the main responsibilities of his reign

He said As the king of a Buddhist nation my duty is not only to ensure your happiness

today but to create the fertile ground from which you may gain the fruits of spiritual

pursuit and attain good Karma (Wangchuck 2008 para8) The newly elected

government Druk Phuensum Tshogpa (DPT) is also committed to the principles of GNH

6

13 Gross National Happiness the Development Philosophy of Bhutan

The notion that the emotional and spiritual wellbeing of humans should be

included into the development policies is gaining a lot of international support The

importance of the concept of GNH is articulated in the policy document Bhutan 2020-A

Vision for Peace Prosperity and Happiness (Planning Commission 1999) which states

that its aim is to maximize the happiness of all Bhutanese and to enable them to achieve

their full and innate potential as human beings (p41) Reflecting the importance of the

concept the promotion of enabling conditions for GNH has also been enshrined as an

important principle of state policy under Article 9 of the Constitution (Royal Government

of Bhutan [RGoB] 2008)

GNH is a noble and holistic approach towards development It seeks to

complement inner happiness with outer circumstances It addresses both material and

non-material wellbeing Although material wealth is associated with physical wellbeing

ones mental state or inner wellbeing is not conditioned by material needs alone GNH

supports the notion that happiness pursued and realized within the context of the greater

good of society offers the best possibility for the sustained happiness of the individual

The society as a whole cannot obtain happiness if individuals compete irresponsibly for

it To this end GNH recognizes that happiness can be realized as a collective goal it

cannot be left as an individual goal (Thinley 2005 Ura 2008) Prime Minister Jigme

YThinley (2005) in his speech at the 2nd Conference of GNH at Halifax stated GNH

stresses collective happiness to be addressed directly through public policies in which

happiness is an explicit criterion in projects and programmes (p7) If a governments

policy framework and its goals are adverse to happiness happiness will fail as a

7

collective goal (Ura 2008) In the GNH context a government concerned with the

happiness of its citizens must create an enabling environment for people to achieve

happiness

The concept of GNH is greatly influenced by Buddhism The Bhutanese

worldview including its social cultural and political ethos is rooted in Buddhism The

policymakers in Bhutan hold the view that simply imposing development models from

outside which do not take religion and tradition into account will not only serve to

diminish existing culture but will also meet with limited success (Planning

Commission 1992 p66) The Bhutan-Vision 2020 strongly reaffirms the notion of Gross

National Happiness as the central development concept for the country This vision

emphasizes a need and desire to balance economic development with cultural and

environmental conservation

14 Explanation of Gross National Happiness Index

Bhutan is not a GNH state at this moment it aspires to be one The Bhutanese

government is of the view that wellbeing arises in a society when sustainable and

equitable economic development is balanced with environmental and cultural

preservation and good governance (Rinzin 2006 Thinley 2005) These four pillars have

constantly guided the development policies in Bhutan This strategy has been referred to

as the middle path which is derived from Buddhist principles of avoiding extremism

and taking a balanced view (Planning Commission 1999) In November 2008 the

government adopted the GNH index as a means to measure GNH The government felt

the need for a GNH index for without some kind of measurement system GNH cannot

8

guide practical policies and programs (CBS 2008) Under the GNH index 72 indicators

were identified under the following nine domains psychological wellbeing cultural

resilience education health time use and balance good governance community vitality

ecological diversity and living standard The nine domains of Gross National Happiness

are explained below

1 Psychological wellbeing as an end includes satisfaction with all elements of life

life enjoyment and subjective wellbeing Under this domain there are 11 measurable

indicators (eg frequency of feeling of emotions such as jealousy compassion and

generosity) classified in three areas General psychological distress indicators Emotional

balance indicators and Spirituality practices indicators This study focuses on the

indicators under this domain

2 Time Use domain measures how individuals spend their time There are only two

indicators under this domain the sleeping hours and working hours The time spent

delivering voluntary and social service is also taken into account

3 Community Vitality refers to the quality of life in the community This domain

intends to measure how strong active and inclusive relationships are within communities

that work to foster individual and collective wellbeing It examines the nature of trust

belongingness vitality of caring relationships safety in the home and the community

and giving and volunteering The community vitality indicators are Family vitality

Safety Reciprocity Trust Social support Socialization and Kinship density

4 Cultural Diversity and Resilience This domain measures the diversity and

strength of cultural traditions The indicators study core values and perception of

changes in values and traditions Bhutanese tradition is a very broad term that

9

encompasses customs rituals religious ceremonies traditional dress sports music

dance poetry arts and code of behavior among other things The indicators of cultural

diversity and resilience are Dialect use Traditional sports Community festivity Artisan

skill Value transmission and Basic precept

5 Health Good health is said to have a significant positive effect on happiness The

GNH health domain assesses the health status of the population the determinants of

health and the health system Health status indicators show information on self-rated

health disabilities body mass index and number of healthy days experienced per month

Health indicators also measure the degree of knowledge about diseases and breast feeding

practices The health indicators are Health status Health knowledge and Barrier to

health

6 Education In a GNH society education should contribute to individual and

collective happiness The education domain assesses different types of knowledge and

skills that people have acquired in their lifetime It includes historical cultural civic

ecological and indigenous knowledge and skills which are mostly acquired informally

The education indicators are Education attainment Dzongkha (national) language and

Folk and historical literacy

7 Ecological Diversity and Resilience This indicator looks at peoples perception

of ecology The ecological diversity and resilience indicators are Ecological degradation

Ecological knowledge and Afforestation

8 Living standard The living standard indicators assess the levels of income at the

individual and household levels sense of financial security room ratio food security and

10

house ownership Thus the living standard indicators are Income Housing Food

security and Hardship

9 Good Governance The domain of good governance evaluates how people

perceive various government functions in terms of their efficacy honesty and quality

The indicators include human rights leadership at various levels of government

performance of government in delivering services and controlling inequality and

corruption peoples trust in media judiciary and police The indicators of good

governance are Government performance Freedom and Institutional trust indicator

A pilot survey was also carried out between September 2006 to January 2007 in

nine districts on 350 randomly chosen respondents to test the feasibility and robustness of

GNH pilot questionnaires The GNH index however was developed based on the result

of a final survey carried out in December 2007 to March 2008 (CBS 2008) A total of

950 respondents based on random sampling were interviewed in 12 districts by the CBS

in the final survey The questionnaires covered the key areas affecting the values and

principles of GNH roughly divided into the nine domains mentioned above CBS (2008)

states that the nine domains were selected on normative grounds and are equally

weighted because each dimension is considered relatively equal in terms of equal

intrinsic importance as a component of Gross National Happiness (pl) Within each

domain several indicators that seemed likely to remain informative across time had high

response rates and were relatively uncorrelated (CBS 2008 p 1) were selected For

example in the psychological wellbeing domain the respondents were asked how often

they felt emotions such as anger guilt selfishness pride calmness compassion

forgiveness disappointment jealousy and frustration Respondents were also given the

11

option to list other emotions that they often experienced From the survey results only

eleven indicators were selected under the psychological wellbeing domain In total 72

indicators under the nine domains were selected as the GNH index (See Appendix 1)

The GNH index is to be administered every two years in the country A survey is

currently being carried out by the CBS in all the twenty districts of Bhutan Tshoki

Zangmo a researcher at CBS states that the GNH survey will determine whether the

conditions leading to happiness have improved or not (Doiji 2010) Several structured

semi-structured and open-ended questions under each of the 72 indicators are asked of

the respondents to assess life satisfaction in each of the nine domains Any individual

having sufficient achievements in each of the nine domains is considered happy (CBS

2008) Unlike the GPI and HDI which uses GDP data the GNH index is measured based

on self-report assessment For example the GPI heavily relies on quantitative or

objective data produced by Statistics Canada as opposed to qualitative or subjective

survey data The GPI uses personal consumption expenditures as a starting point Those

elements which are regarded as regrettable are deducted mdash for example cost of crime

accidents and pollutions Values of leisure time unpaid housework parenting and

volunteer work are added back (Colman 2008a) All aggregation is done in terms of

monetary values The GNH index however is entirely depended on the self-report

survey data According to Diener and Lucas (1999) the self-report measurement of

subjective well being displays adequate levels of validity and reliability The GNH index

is calculated in two steps The first step involves setting a sufficiency cut off and

determining whether respondents have attained sufficiency in each of the nine domains

12

The final step involves aggregating the data using the formula GNH = 1 - Average

squared distance from cutoff

15 Research Questions and Objective of the Study

Measuring what really matters to people and framing policies in accordance with

the needs of people would help realize the goal of GNH The GNH index is an attempt by

the government to measure how well their citizens are doing economically socially and

emotionally The Centre for Bhutan Studies (2008) states that the nine domains identified

are regarded as the components of happiness and well-being in Bhutan However the

resulting question is To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do

the indicators reflect Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept

of GNH The objectives of my study are to analyze the indicators to determine to what

extent they reflect Buddhist principles and to determine the coherence of the indicators

with the concept of GNH

Although conducting an in-depth analysis of each of the 72 indicators would be

most beneficial due to the vastness of the indicators this study will focus only on the

indicators that fall under the domain of psychological wellbeing (see Appendix 1) I

choose this domain because many of the GNH indicators (for example education health

living standard time use ecology) are similar to those found in the conventional

economic measures like GDP Genuine Progress Indicators (GPI) Human Development

Index (HDI) and Quality of Life The psychological wellbeing indicator has not yet been

included in any of the national measures (CBS 2008) Since the measure of

13

psychological wellbeing is something new and unexplored as a development indicator it

would be a good place to begin assessing the indicators

16 Methodology

The main objective of this study is to determine the influence of Buddhist

principles and more specifically Buddhist principles of happiness on the indicators of

psychological wellbeing and the coherence of indicators with the concept of GNH This

policy analysis study uses the framework of Buddhist principles of happiness to analyze

the indicators Policy analysis research is associated with determining the nature causes

and effects of governmental decisions or policies designed to cope with specific social

problems Nagel (1980) points out four methods on which policy analysis focuses

determining what causes the policy determining what policies they are responsible for

determining what affects them and determining what policies will achieve or maximize a

given goal This study focuses on determining the influence of Buddhist principles on the

governments policy of measuring GNH and the consistency of the indicators with the

concept of GNH

Buddhism has long played an important role in the political economic and social

lives of Bhutanese It is in this context that Buddhism is used as a basis to assess the most

important development tool of Bhutan Gross National Happiness Index The intent is not

to prove that Buddhism is the best way to achieve GNH but to determine whether GNH

indicators reflect Buddhist principles of happiness This is done for three reasons First

the philosophy of GNH is understood to be engrained in Buddhism This study will

determine in part the extent to which this is the case (see chapter two) Second Bhutan is

14

a Buddhist country where the majority of the population is Buddhist (CIA 2009) As

such this study will determine the extent to which Buddhist principles have influenced

the indicators Third scholars such as Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and

Tashi (2004) have argued that Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH This study

attempts to analyze the psychological wellbeing indicators to determine the Buddhist

influence which then might support the notion put forth by them

Literature related to Gross National Happiness and the influence of Buddhism on

GNH are reviewed The origin of the concept of GNH and various discourses held on

GNH are explored Government documents and reports and secondary data sources such

as newspaper and research on GNH serve as important sources The primary data that are

used for the analysis are the eleven indicators of psychological wellbeing developed by

the CBS Each indicator is examined to see the degree to which it reflects Buddhist

principles of happiness

The indicators consist of positive emotions negative emotions and practices to

overcome negative emotions In a research design it is important to establish a

conceptual framework that acknowledges how the theoretical perspective will shape an

inquiry (Creswell 2007) To this end I will examine the Buddhist literature to find key

principles related to happiness Those principles and ideas that affect happiness will be

discussed In particular the key principles such as the four noble truths law of Karma

principle of interdependence and compassion will be discussed Further a theoretical

basis for happiness will be developed based on the Buddhist teachings of six paramitas

An understanding of these principles will assist the reader in gaining a sense of the scope

15

and direction of this study Overall the Buddhist principles of happiness framework will

serve as a basis for assessing the indicators

Since Bhutan is a Mahayana Buddhist country the key principles of Mahayana

Buddhist teachings will be examined The very popular Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse

Laglen will serve as a primary source This important Buddhist text on the thirty-seven

bodhisattva practices was written by the great Buddhist saint Thogme Zangpo (1245-

1369) The text is a summarization of the original teachings of Lord Buddha from

hundreds of volumes and contains all the key points of the vast and profound teachings

The text is used in all the schools of Bhutan In particular the six paramitas will be used

for the purpose of this study The thirty-seven practices were written to help every

sentient being achieve genuine happiness Therefore this study will examine the

teachings related to the six paramitas to determine the extent to which they are reflected

in the psychological wellbeing indicators Teachings by various Buddhist teachers such

as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will also be used

The Buddhist text Abhidhamma which is known as the higher teachings of the

Buddha and also called the ultimate teachings is also referenced for the analysis of the

indicators The text elucidates the working of mind or psyche thoughts thought-

processes and mental states The mind has been broken down into six primary and fifty-

one secondary consciousnesses representing the working of the psyche from an ethical

standpoint Abhidamma highlights wholesome and unwholesome emotions as well as

how they arise Since this study is on the analysis of the psychological wellbeing

indicators the text is appropriate However only those emotions which correspond to the

indicators are referred to for this study

16

17 Limitations and Significance of the study

There are three limitations recognized in this study First the theme of this study

focuses on the extent to which Buddhist principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH

indicators Happiness is a concept that can be viewed from a number of perspectives

Since the concept of GNH is inspired by Buddhism it is most appropriate that the

indicators be examined to determine the extent to which they reflect Buddhist principles

and then most specifically Mahayana Buddhist principles Further there are numerous

Buddhist teachings on happiness The teachings that are primarily used are those of

Master Thogme Zangpo the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche

Second the GNH index is still very new A survey was carried out to study the

indicators in twelve districts but the index has not yet been applied to the whole country

As such the GNH index is still in its infant stage and not many resources related to the

GNH index are available

The third limitation of this study is that only the indicators under the

psychological wellbeing domain are analyzed Findings from the preliminary survey of

the GNH index are not discussed

Exploring the psychological wellbeing domain is significant for various reasons

First there has been no study conducted on the indicators so far This is the first study

that analyzes the indicators and explores the relationship of the indicators to Buddhism

This study opens up a new perspective for future researchers Scholars interested in

studying the GNH index may use this study as a basis to analyze the other domains of

GNH Only one domain is explored in this study The remaining eight domains could be

an area of future research

17

Second the GNH index is the most important tool for guiding and analyzing the

government policy since the government will be designing policies based on the GNH

index The GNH index and its implementation will have a significant impact on the

design implementation and assessment of policy and the perceptions Bhutanese have of

the direction their society is taking Since what is measured affects what is done it is

important that the right indicators be used if measurements are flawed decisions can be

distorted (Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009) Therefore it is important to determine

whether the indicators cohere with the GNH concept

18 Summary

This chapter provides an overview of the study The chapter began by looking at

Bhutans culture economy and political history including its transition to democracy

The concept of Gross National Happiness and its indicators the objective the

methodology limitation and significance of study were also presented in this chapter

Chapter Two will provide the review of literature on the GNH It explores how

the concept of GNH first originated It then argues that the concept of GNH has been

influenced by key Buddhist principles based on the eightfold path which are linked to

each pillar of GNH Various workshops held on GNH that ultimately led to the

development of the GNH index are also discussed

Chapter Three will provide the framework to analyze the psychological

wellbeing indicators The key Buddhist principles related to happiness are examined

Specifically the four noble truths law of Karma principle of interdependence and

compassion are presented The Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse Lagin the 37 practices

18

of Bodhisattva are used to highlight Buddhist principles of happiness Specifically the

teachings on six paramitas are referenced to elucidate those principles

Chapter Four presents the core of the study The indicators of psychological

wellbeing are analyzed through the framework described in Chapter Three Each

indicator is examined from the perspective of Buddhist principles It highlights the extent

to which each indicator reflects the Buddhist principles of happiness and the consistency

of the indicators with the concept of GNH

Chapter Five concludes the study and offers some recommendations for future

studies

19

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW

There seems to be a unanimous agreement that Gross National Happiness (GNH)

is drawn from Buddhism but recognition of the influence of Buddhism on GNH is rather

implicit This may be due to the fact that Bhutan did not have the full academic

construction of GNH until recently When the concept of GNH was first pronounced in

the late 1980s it was just an abstract philosophy The concept has now gained more

depth and dimension through analysis and discourse While scholars such as Tashi (1999

2004) Priesner (1999) and Zangmo (2009) have linked Buddhism to GNH others have

argued for the importance of Buddhism in achieving the goal of GNH This chapter

reviews the influence of Buddhism on the concept of GNH Specifically the relationship

between the core concept of GNH and its four pillars to Buddhist principles is explored

Since this study uses Buddhism as the key lens in analyzing the extent to which Buddhist

principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH indicators the focus here is to

understand the centrality of Buddhism in the philosophy of GNH

The review is divided into four main sections The first section examines how the

core concept of GNH and the key teachings of Buddhism are related Literature points

out that key Buddhist principles such as interdependence Karma and the noble eightfold

path are linked to general themes that promote GNH The second section looks at how

the concept of GNH evolved Early Bhutanese history dating back to the 17th century

when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of living is explored This section

examines how Bhutan broke its isolationist policies and introduced planned development

giving priority to the preservation of its culture and environment thus giving birth to the

noble philosophy of GNH The third section discusses the various discourses held on 20

GNH that ultimately led to the development of the GNH index The final section of the

review discusses the idea of quantifying and measuring GNH The chapter concludes by

questioning whether the GNH index which is used as a basis to measure peoples

wellbeing in Bhutan captures the real essence of GNH

21 Buddhism and Gross National Happiness

Gross National Happiness is not a promise to make every individual happy This

is a common misconception The concept of GNH simply stresses the responsibility of

the government to create an environment for citizens to seek happiness Since all humans

value happiness the government of Bhutan takes the view that it cannot be left

exclusively to private individual devices and strivings (CBS 2008 pl) In the GNH

context the government should create by means of public policies addressing both

economic and emotional needs of the people an environment conducive for people to

pursue happiness Australian psychologist Suellen Donnelly (2004) defines happiness as

the sum of satisfaction with life domains and this satisfaction she states is judged against

the individuals and the societys values Happiness indeed depends on our social values

In Bhutan peoples social and cultural values are largely influenced by Buddhism GNH

thus places emphasis on happiness and wellbeing of people through promotion of social

and cultural values

Priesner (1999) Tashi (2004) and Zangmo (2009) argue that Buddhism and GNH

are intricately linked Zangmo (2009) points out that the concept of GNH is deeply rooted

in the rich traditions of Mahayana Buddhism Doiji and Pankaj (2004) state that GNH is

essentially a summarization of the basic tenets of Vajrayana Buddhism which embraces

21

harmony and compassion (p377) Vajrayana Buddhism is an offshoot of Mahayana

Buddhism The term Mahayana and Vajrayana is used interchangeably in Bhutan

Mahayana Buddhism emphasizes individual spiritual development rather than material

rewards compassion for others tolerance living in harmony with nature and the

importance of making the right choice Based on these values GNH seeks to achieve and

pave a middle path between material and spiritual aspects of life which are referred to as

peljor gongphel (economic development) and gakid (happiness and peace) (Zangmo

2009) Schumacher (1989) asserts that in a Buddhist society the lifestyle is strongly

influenced by Buddhist principles based on the Noble Eightfold Path The influence of

Buddhism is highly visible in every aspect of Bhutanese life Article 3(1) of the

Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan states Buddhism is the spiritual heritage of

Bhutan which promotes the principles and values of peace non-violence compassion

and tolerance (p 9) Buddhism here is seen as a spiritual practice

According to Buddhism the main purpose of life the heart of being human is

happiness what we all seek knowingly or unknowingly is happiness (Rabjam Rimpoche

as cited by Tourism Council of Bhutan [TCoB] 2008) The chief goal of Buddhism is to

remove sufferings and achieve genuine happiness Tashi (2004) points out that the

cultivation of happiness is central to Buddhism Buddhism states that wealth pleasure

and power are all sought for achieving happiness but these are all material and only the

means to achieve short-term happiness As humans strive for happiness the end goal is

often forgotten and people spend time pursuing the means for their own sake In the

process humans remain deeply unsatisfied because they place all their hopes and fears in

the material outer conditions and neglect inner condition for happiness Happiness in

22

Buddhism depends on our actions and how we view and interpret the world Rabjam

Rimpoche states that although it is difficult to change the world it is always possible to

change the way we look at it (as cited by TCoB 2008) Buddhist teachings stress the

importance of training the mind and developing a set of human qualities such as

altruistic love compassion inner peace and inner strength

Similarly the concept of GNH emphasizes that happiness is the end goal and

economic development is just a means to achieve happiness GNH claims happiness to be

a major focus in assessing the welfare of the people Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley

states that GNH is all about living with basic human values in a sustainable way (Bhutan

Observer 2010) This view is influenced by Buddhist principles Buddhism advocates

living in harmony with nature and respecting all forms of life Although GNH places

equal importance on both material and non-material wellbeing of the people the idea of

GNH essentially is to encourage a rethinking of what is important in peoples lives is it

the ability to produce and consume or is it the happiness of its people derived from its

social and cultural values When Bhutan opened up to the outside world in 1961 it was

overwhelmed to see that the world had achieved tremendous development in every field

(Doiji 2007a) In their pursuit of development however many countries had lost their

forests cultures and much more In the neighboring region of Nepal for example the

governments policy of promoting economic development through mass tourism led to

environmental and cultural degradation Pandey Chettri Kunwar amp Ghimire (1995)

argue that mass tourism in Nepal led to erosion of local customs increase in drug abuse

theft of antiques and cultural property and prostitution Kinley Doiji (2007a) states that

GNH is therefore a response to this realization

23

Tashi (2004) and Lokamitra (2004) argue that GNH cannot be achieved unless

Buddhist philosophy is fully incorporated and practiced by every citizen of Bhutan

Similarly Hewavitharana (2004) proposes a framework for operationalizing GNH from

the perspective of Buddhist ethics and values Lokamitra (2004) asserts that unless a

society is morally and psychologically strong GNH cannot be achieved He states that

this moral and psychological strength can come from Buddhism Tashi Prakke amp Chettri

(1999) argue that the use of Buddhist concepts does not make the discussions culture-

specific They state that Buddhist wisdom differs from actual Buddhist cultures Buddhist

values and ethics can be followed without necessarily being a Buddhist

Tashi Prakke and Chettri (1999) argue that Buddhist spiritual concepts can be

clearly linked to general themes for the promotion of GNH Overall the Buddhist belief

ofinterdependence has inspired the four pillars because environment culture economy

and governance are interwoven in reality (Thinley 2005) Maintaining a balance among

these enhances the quality of life for the individual for society and for the environment

(Rinzin 2006)

1 The First Pillar Environmental Preservation

Although it appears that environment and biodiversity are not strong correlates of

happiness few would deny the value of environment in everyday life and hence our

happiness our health and aesthetic experiences depend on the quality of the physical

environment around us (Thinley 2005) The impact of climate change because of the

uncompromising nature of humans towards the environment is causing a lot of panic in

the world

24

Buddhism emphasizes preserving nature and the sanctity of life (Planning

Commission 1999) Tashi et al (1999) state that Buddhist philosophy provides strong

arguments for the adoption of an environmentally sensitive development strategy The

relationship between human beings and the environment is seen in a fundamentally

different way The Buddhist concept of sunyata holds that no subject or object has an

independent existence rather they dissolve into a web of relationships with all

dimensions of environment The Buddhist principle of interconnectedness- the idea that

nature gives back what we give it- has influenced the Bhutanese with a strong ethic of

conservation which in turn influenced Bhutanese environmental policies (Thinley 2005)

Bhutanese people believe that high mountains deep ravines ancient trees and

rocks are the abode of spirits gods and demons Disturbing them would enrage the non-

human inhabitants and bring ill luck sickness and death to families Appeasing these

spirits will be rewarded with luck peace and prosperity (NEC 1998 Rinzin 2006)

These beliefs about the importance of protecting nature have permeated Bhutanese

consciousness and have become integral to the Bhutanese way of life and value system

The government therefore has adopted strong environmental policies As per the

constitution of Bhutan the country must always maintain 60 forest coverage

2 The Second Pillar- Cultural Preservation and Promotion

The conservation and promotion of tradition and culture has always been an

integral part of Bhutans development policies since the initiation of planned

development in the 1960s (Planning Commission 1999) The Bhutanese started their

policies from a well-defined set of values and culture which are typically Buddhist

Within such Buddhist cultural values there is a strong belief in the implications of the

25

doctrine of Karma (Gurung 1999) The overall Bhutanese culture is based on customary

rules norms indigenous knowledge systems and institutions in addition to a rich

religious heritage based on Buddhism It includes a code of conduct known as driglam

namzha which is designed to carve out a distinct Bhutanese identity In addition to

promoting national dress driglam namzha is built on strict observance of vows (tha-

damtshig) which are quintessential^ Buddhist and emphasize strong kinship loyalty

community-oriented behavior hospitality to guests respect for ones parents elders and

superiors and mutual cooperation between rulers and ruled parents and children and

teachers and students (MoHE 1994 Rinzin2006 Chophel 2008)

In a study conducted by Rinzin (2006) it was observed that the Bhutanese people

consider culture to be very important They fully support the preservation of Bhutanese

culture as a means to maintain national identity sense of security and conservation of a

way of life A unique Bhutanese culture is also a means to generate income through

tourism activities Since the happiness of the people also depends on their social and

cultural values the government of Bhutan is committed to preserving and strengthening

the Bhutanese culture and tradition

3 The Third Pillar - Sustainable and equitable socio-economic development

The concept of GNH does not neglect the importance of economic development

While economic development in many countries takes place at the expense of external

factors such as social coherence cultural diversity and environmental integrity the

concept of GNH limits the exploitation of social cultural ecological and human costs

(Priesner 1999) Economic development is just a means to achieve GNH and is not an

end itself If we look at the world today there are spiritual sufferings in terms of anxiety

26

insecurity stress and pain in every part of the world including Bhutan Economic

development can secure a livelihood and is vitally important to resolve poverty but it is

easier to identify and alleviate misery than to maximize happiness

Given the huge natural resource base that Bhutan enjoys the country could have

opted for mass economic development by making use of these resources However the

government does not overlook the difference between renewable and non-renewable

goods Keeping in view the negative impacts of exploiting natural resources and

exhaustibility of non-renewable goods the government has identified three avenues for

economic development These are hydropower tourism and agriculture (NEC 1998

Planning Commission 1999) All have minimal negative impact on the society and are

sustainable The use of nature in a sustainable way can be related to one of the

requirements for the Buddhas eightfold path called the Right Livelihood (Schumacher

1989) Right Livelihood entails that ones means of livelihood should not be dishonest or

cause suffering to other sentient beings Wrong Livelihood is anything that is based on

trickery or greed (Harvey 2000) This noble path teaches us to avoid extremism and

follow a balanced path Schumacher (1989) argues that Right Livelihood touches on

economic aspects of the Buddhist life and forms the basis of economic principles By

following the path of Right Livelihood the government is being cautious not to engage

in trades or occupations that result in harming its environment culture and society

4 The fourth Pillar - Good Governance

This last pillar stresses the kind of government that Bhutan needs to make it into a

GNH state Good governance means exercising of authority in managing a countrys

political social economic and administrative resources in a manner that is transparent

27

accountable and responsive to peoples needs (Gross National Happiness Commission

[GNHC] 2009 p56) The fourth king His Majesty Jigme Singye Wangchuck asserts

that good governance is an important prerequisite for strengthening the other pillars of

GNH During his reign decentralization and democratization have always been the most

important considerations All changes finally culminated in the evolution of democratic

government in 2008 The King in his wisdom decided that parliamentary democracy

would be the best path to good governance and that happiness comes from having the

freedom to choose Kinley Doiji (2007a) points out that this step by the king is a

Vajrayana Buddhist approach For the Bhutanese this came as an overwhelming surprise

Thus democracy in Bhutan sprang from the womb of GNH Democracy in Bhutan is the

path to good governance that leads to GNH

Chapter Two (clause 22) of the Bhutan Civil Service Rules and Regulations 2006

states that the government needs to maintain and promote the values of Tha-Damtshig

and Ley Jumdrey to serve the people and the country Tha Damtshig is a traditional

Buddhist belief of trust respect and cooperation between the government and its people

Ley Jumdrey is a very popular Buddhist belief referring to the cycle of Karma which

encourages us to follow the eightfold noble path Right View Right Intention Right

Action Right Speech Right Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right

Mindfulness The royal decree issued by the king in 1998 stated that the Bhutanese

judiciary system is based on the Buddhist 10 virtuous actions and 16 pure human laws

(as cited by Nishimizu 2008 p 40) The ten virtuous actions are 1 Avoid killing 2

Avoid Stealing 3 Avoid Sexual misconduct (the first three form the part of Right

Action) 4 Avoid lies 5 Avoid divisive talks 6 Avoid harsh speech 7 Avoid Gossip

28

(these four fall under Right Speech) 8 Avoid covetousness 9 Avoid harmful intent 10

Avoid wrong views (the last three are the part of Right Mindfulness) (Tshongkhapa as

cited by Powers 1995)

Tashi et al (1999) explain that in Buddhism there are three doors body speech

and mind (lii ngag yid) These three gates provide a basic categorization for policy

makers in recognizing that existence embraces more than physical aspects Any

individual or government that strives to enhance happiness must make the right use of the

three doors Right Mindfulness Right Speech and Right Action The three gates are like

the neutral ground which can be used for good neutral or bad action (Tashi et al 1999)

Right intention in the mind must spark right speech and right action because working

with the mind directly is considered too illusive With Right View one needs to

understand the nature of the world and embrace compassion Right View is the path that

refers to wisdom which means seeing emptiness realizing that appearances in the

relative world or the world in which things change lacking permanent existence

Embracing compassion and wisdom results in the accumulation of merit (Sonam) and

wisdom (Yeshe) Every government must embrace compassion and wisdom and work

with Right Mind Right Speech and Right Action The Bhutanese government strives to

nurture and manifest these qualities

22 Evolution of the Concept

The term GNH became popular in the late 1980s but the concept itself is very

old According to Priesner (1999) this concept evolved from the constituent features of

Bhutanese society before 1959 a socio-economic system based on a Buddhist and feudal

29

set of values Buddhism came to Bhutan in the 7th century AD but made little impact on

the lives of the people until the 9th century (Ministry of Health and Education [MoHE]

1994 Dargye 2008) Prior to the 7th century Bhutan was called the land of Monpas the

land of darkness or no religion Records show that people mainly practiced Bonism an

animistic and shamanistic belief system where nature is worshipped (Giri 2004) Bon

rituals are still included in some Buddhist festivals in Bhutan From the 10th century to

the beginning of the 17th century Buddhism started influencing peoples way of life

culture and customs During that period many Tibetan scholars came to teach Buddhism

in Bhutan They built monasteries and temples throughout the country but none of them

could establish a formal Buddhist community in Bhutan (MoHE 1994)

It was Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyel (1594-1651) a Tibetan monk who formally

instituted Buddhism in Bhutan in the 17th century (MoHE 1990 MoHE 1994)

Therefore the 17th century is the most important period in Bhutanese history Bhutanese

development policies stem from this period All the high-ranking officials during

Zhabdrungs era were monks and the governments primary function was to support the

religious establishment which in turn promoted Buddhist morality and ethics among the

lay population (MoHE 1994 Ura 1993 as cited by Priesner 1999) In other words the

government promoted the wellbeing of people through spiritual teachings based on

Buddhism The Bhutanese legal system codified in 1652 and based on principles of

Buddhism is the foundation of the contemporary Bhutanese law (Nishimizu 2008)

Since the concept of GNH emphasizes the importance of living with basic human values

giving equal importance to both economic and spiritual wellbeing this clearly indicates

30

that the seeds of GNH had been planted during Zhabdrungs reign Prime Minister Jigme

Y Thinley (2004) writes

Traditional polity in Bhutan drawing much on the Buddhist culture was certainly guided towards GNH A Buddhist equivalent of a Social Contract declared in Bhutan in 1675 said that happiness of sentient beings and teachings of the Buddha were mutually dependent The 1129 legal code of Bhutan stressed that laws should promote happiness of the sentient beings (p 2)

Until the 1960s Bhutan possessed very little of the infrastructure we see today in the

country (National Environment Commission [NEC] 1998 Planning Commission 1999)

Life was hard and conditions were very harsh There was no electricity telephones or

postal services to connect different parts of country or with the outside world There were

no motor roads and money was unknown The health infrastructure was poor life

expectancy was estimated to be an average of 35 years Western education was

considered unnecessary The vast majority of Bhutanese lived in isolation in the rugged

mountain terrains The Bhutanese were subsistence farmers totally dependent upon the

land and the forests for survival People exchanged goods among themselves and were

self sufficient for most purposes Bhutans traditional socio-economic system was based

on the principle of communal self-reliance which is related to the Buddhist doctrine of

the benevolent nature of small-scale (Priesner 1999 Gurung 1999)

Due to the lack of foreign influences Bhutan developed an extremely stable

social environment and traditional system of knowledge Self-reliance was the first

explicitly emphasized development objective in 1959 (as cited Priesner 1999) The

National Assembly in 1959 stated that its primary task was to maintain the sovereignty

of the kingdom through economic self-reliance (Kuensel Vol 2 No 9 [May 1-15

31

1968] p7 as cited by Priesner 1999) Modern development came to Bhutan in the early

1960s during the reign of the third king Jigme Doiji Wangchuck (1952-1972) (MoHE

1994) However Bhutans decision to embark on modern development was not

voluntary During a visit to Bhutan in September 1958 the Indian Prime Minister

expressed his concern about Bhutans security and emphasized the need for a road to link

Bhutan and India offering at the same time financial and technical assistance To avoid

increased dependence the government refused to accept the assistance Nevertheless

Bhutans attitude changed during 1959 a consequence of events in Tibet In 1959 the

Tibetan revolt was suppressed by the Chinese which resulted in the flow of several

thousand Tibetan refugees into Bhutan At the end of the same year Chinese actions

began to be directed against Bhutan A triangular shaped part of Tibetan territory between

the small Indian state of Sikkim and Bhutan through which the most important trade

route from Bhutan to India ran was sealed off (Galay 1999 Priesner 1999) In the

following National Assembly session the construction of roads became the main issue of

discussion As an underdeveloped country Bhutan lacked financial and labor resources

and India was the only possible source of aid Thus Bhutan took the first step towards

development cautiously Later when Chinese aggression declined measures of cultural

preservation were soon adopted to contain and counter-balance the negative effects of

modernization (Priesner 1999)

Since 1961 Bhutan plans its development every five years The third King

always expressed his priority as making the people prosperous and happy (Kuensel

1968 as cited by Priesner 1999 p7) Prosperity and happiness were highlighted in the

third kings address on the occasion of Bhutans admission to the United Nations in 1971

32

Further the preservation of environment and culture is the most consistently applied

principle from the start of the first Five Year Plan (FYP) and this is a major input for

GNH

The Bhutanese development concept thus evolved from the countrys socioshy

economic historic and political circumstances The concept of GNH is thus the

translation of cultural and social consciousness into development priorities (Priesner

1999) To sum up the influencing factors that caused Bhutan to have such a unique

development concept are the absence of foreign domination the desire to preserve

national identity Chinese invasion causing threat to the national security and deeply

embedded Buddhist beliefs The philosophy of GNH therefore evolved earlier than the

term Gross National Happiness was coined

23 GNH Discourses and Debates

The first official keynote speech on Gross National Happiness was delivered by

the current Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley at the United Nations Development

Programme (UNDP) Regional Millennium Meeting for Asia and the Pacific in 1998 His

keynote speech was later published in the countrys national newspaper Kuensel Many

scholars responded to the publication and this led to the first workshop in 1999 to explore

the conceptual foundations of human happiness During the workshop Prime Minister

Thinley raised three questions for deliberation First can an index be constructed for

GNH as it has been done for Human Development Second what are the main

ingredients of happiness Third what would be the main indicators of happiness if there

were any at all

33

Some participants proposed that GNH could be quantified Others suggested that

it would be a speculative exercise into what is essentially a subjective experience and

would defy any statistical device aimed at its quantification They expressed their

suspicion that the essence of conventional economic theories runs counter to GNH

Rinzin (2006) states that two schools of thought emerged one took a philosophical

approach and the other an empirical analytical approach of defining and measuring GNH

On the philosophical side scholars argued that GNH is a development philosophy and

there is no need to define and measure happiness For Stehlik (1999) the attempt even to

define happiness is unnecessary and even less to measure it The other school of thought

argued that in order for GNH to be applicable it should be measurable The first

workshop failed to come up with concrete results The discussion papers from this

workshop were published in June 1999 under the title Gross National Happiness A Set

of Discussion Papers

After a gap of five years the First International Conference on GNH

Operationalizing Gross National Happiness was held in Thimphu Bhutan from

February 18 to 20 2004 The conference intended to explore ways in which the concept

of happiness as an objective of economic and social development could be

operationalized in terms of both policy and evaluation of change The conference focused

largely on the concepts of happiness or wellbeing Dr Ron Colman and Dr Julia Sagebien

(2004) presented a paper on Nova Scotias Atlantic Genuine Progress Index or GPI

which assigns explicit value to environmental quality natural wealth population health

livelihood security equity free time and educational attainment The conference

discussed the relevance of GPI measures to Bhutan Colman and Sagebien suggested a

34

potential framework for measuring GNH proposing indicators such as education basic

security respect and care for all beings Although the conference did not come to any

definitive conclusions Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley (2007) stated that the conference

was a milestone in the history of international discourse as it opened up the discourse on

happiness Further the ripples from this seminar spread far and helped Bhutan develop

the indicators of GNH in a later period

The Second International Conference on GNH Rethinking Development Local

Pathways to Global Wellbeing was held in Nova Scotia Canada from June 20 to 24

2005 The conference focused on the exploration of practices the sharing of actual

experiences and the development of a framework to operationalize GNH The first and

second international conferences seemed to have convinced Bhutanese policy makers that

in order to make GNH practicable it must first become measurable By the time the third

international conference was held Bhutan was well on the way to constructing the GNH

Index

The Third International Conference held in Bangkok Thailand in 2007 focused

on the indicators of GNH The then Prime Minister of Bhutan Kinzang Doiji spoke on the

importance of good governance and highlighted the wellbeing of people as a priority in

developing government policies Just a week prior to the fourth international conference

Bhutan officially adopted the GNH Index

The theme for the Fourth International Conference (November 26 to 28 2008)

was Practice and Measurement of GNH indicating a step forward into a new phase

which focused more on how to reflect GNH in policies and how to grasp the current

situation and measure progress Discussions revolved around the GNH indicators

35

psychology environment community relations education health living standard

governance culture time use and economy Rosellini (2008) says that some of the

indicators of GNH would be relevant to the UNDP-Oxford initiative in understanding the

missing dimensions of poverty Rosellini (2008) further suggested that GNH should be

used as an alternative approach from an international perspective because none of the

methods that attempted to move beyond purely materialistic interpretations of human

progress have gained broad acceptance among academics and development practitioners

The fifth conference held in Brazil in 2009 (November 20-23) was a revelation

for the Bhutanese While the understanding of GNH had grown tremendously at the

international level the GNH conference held in Brazil made the Bhutanese government

realize that Bhutan is still lagging behind in implementing the philosophy of GNH

(Bhutan Broadcasting Service [BBS] 2009) There is no doubt that the policies are

framed in terms of the four pillars of GNH but the government failed to infuse GNH

values into the education system Further GNH values were not reflected in the day-to-

day working of the government institutions businesses and at the community level

Brazil had left Bhutan behind in terms of implementing GNH ethics Several business

establishments in Brazil practice the principle of GNH One pharmaceutical company is

believed to be implementing its ethics and modalities into the way the company

functions Likewise Brazilian villages at the community level are also practicing the

dimensions of GNH on a day-to-day basis (Kuensel 2009) This definitely was a

revelation for Bhutan

On his return from the GNH conference in Brazil the prime minister expressed

his sense of the urgency and immediacy of bringing GNH principles and values into the

36

education system Following this a workshop was conducted on how to achieve a GNH

infused education system (Kuensel 2009) The education ministry has come up with a

road map and an action plan to begin the process of bringing GNH values and principles

into the school system starting in 2010 The education minister stated that every school in

the country will now develop GNH-inspired curriculum material The latest reports state

that many schools in Bhutan have now infused GNH values into their curriculum

Students in most schools meditate for a few minutes before starting any lesson Many

schools are now working towards becoming green (Bhutan Observer March 2010)

Many students were quoted as saying that Meditation somehow helps to relax and

concentrate more on their studies (Business Bhutan 17 April 2010) This is a very

practical move by the government towards enhancing GNH Bhutan has learned a lot

through seminars and debates held at the national and international level The idea of

measuring and quantifying GNH has however raised many questions

24 Quantifying Gross National Happiness

Initially due to the absence of a specific and relevant development index that

takes into account the core principles and dimensions of GNH the United Nations

Human Development concept and its measurement the Human Development Index

(HDI) was used as an interim tool to assess all-round development in Bhutan (Gross

National Happiness Commission [GNHC] 2008) The HDI fails however to capture the

overall essence of the concept of GNH because only three variables are used in HDI

health (life expectancy) education (adult literacy) and wealth (GDP per capita) Owing

to the number of discourses and questions raised regarding the applicability of the

37

philosophy of GNH Bhutan has now adopted the GNH Index Karma Ura (2008)

president of the Centre for Bhutan Studies writes that as many contemporary indicators

of progress and development do not reflect GNH adequately the Royal Government of

Bhutan directed the Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) to develop GNH index which will

provide appropriate indicators for Bhutanese development (pl)

In his first international speech the Prime Minister of Bhutan Jigme Y Thinley

(1998) stated that the trends of happiness of people are unknown Although people

perceive their wellbeing subjectively their subjective views are not incorporated well

into the design of economic and social policy (Kusago 2006) Similarly Mark (2008)

argues that as a direct consequence of different governments collecting and analyzing

economic data (and social and environmental data to a lesser extent) much is known

about the material conditions of peoples lives but little about their actual lived

experience and their sense of personal and social wellbeing It is to address this lacunae

that the government needs to adopt indicators for measuring the wellbeing of its people

Former Minister Kinzang Dorji (2007b) points out that indicators can be useful in

revealing institutional and human conditions to show both the potential and result of

policy decisions (p 2) He argues that the use of indicators reflecting GNH values will

enable policy makers to locate those principles in determining GNH policy and tracking

GNH processes

Many are skeptical however and wonder whether quantifying such a noble

philosophy is justifiable Reducing real people and real lives to numerical values does not

do justice to the emotional and spiritual depth of the human experience (Doiji 2007b)

There is much doubt as to whether the indicators capture the real essence of human

38

happiness Nonetheless if the government wants to promote the wellbeing or happiness

of its citizens it needs to know the happiness trend of its citizens and find out if its

policies contribute to both subjective and objective wellbeing Even if Gross National

Happiness cannot be quantified as precisely as Gross Domestic Product is currently

quantified Daly amp Farley (2004) state that It is better to be vaguely right than precisely

wrong (p243) The policy makers will at least get an idea of peoples state of wellbeing

Measuring GNH is indeed a milestone in Bhutanese history as it will always

remind Bhutanese of their founding ideals A GNH Index would help citizens know if

they are improving as a nation in protecting and exercising their right to pursue happiness

(Brooks 2008) The adoption of the GNH Index shows the seriousness of the Bhutanese

government in pursuing the goal of GNH Lastly there is hope that Gross National

Happiness will not remain as a mere catchphrase

25 Summary

This chapter presented a review of the literature on GNH and the influence of

Buddhism on the concept of GNH The aim of this review is to get a better understanding

of the centrality of Buddhism in the concept of GNH and to highlight issues that emerged

in the GNH discourses The key principle of GNH which focuses on happiness is

influenced by the core teachings of Buddhism which states that the main purpose of life

the heart of being human is happiness The four pillars of GNH reflect traditional

Bhutanese beliefs and values inspired by Buddhism The law of Karma the principle of

interdependence and the noble eightfold path has certainly influenced the Bhutanese way

39

of living and thus the concept of GNH The Buddhist values of interdependence equality

and compassion are inherent in GNH

History reveals that the basic philosophy of GNH emerged between the 10th and

17th centuries when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of life Buddhism

therefore is the backbone of the concept of GNH Bhutan however is not a Utopian state

because it advocates GNH Like many developing countries Bhutan is grappling with

problems of increased rural urban migration poverty and unemployment thus

challenging the goals of GNH The government is continuing to reflect GNH objectives

in its policy and programmes Through the effective use of the four pillars of GNH

Bhutan never placed excessive emphasis on economic development The country did not

opt for economic activities which promised huge financial gain but caused damage to

health environment and culture Bhutan therefore is said to have one of the best policies

in the world (Priesner 1999) However it is important to know if the policies are

promoting happiness and wellbeing among the people The government has rightly

adopted the GNH Index because only through the use of the indicators will policymakers

know if their policies are in reality promoting happiness The question remains however

as to whether these indicators capture the real essence of GNH and whether they are

influenced by Buddhist principles

40

CHAPTER THREE THE BUDDHIST PRINCIPLES OF HAPPINESS

We all want happiness and do not want suffering Many of us support the

importance of moral values in making our lives happier Buddhist principles emphasize

that human values and principles are necessary to lead a happy life Yet there is a general

assumption that income and happiness are directly related Happiness research findings

defy this generalization and show that increasing incomes are not accompanied by

increasing happiness (Hirata 2006)

The Buddha discovered this 2500 years ago The Buddha did not reject the idea of

possessing wealth but taught that wealth does not guarantee happiness He rejected greed

in accumulating wealth being enslaved to materialism and treating wealth as the

ultimate goal (Wijeyawansa 2009) The Buddhas teachings are based on the key

problem ofsuffering Since Buddhism focuses so much on suffering it is often

criticized as being pessimistic But Buddhism does not deny the presence of happiness in

our lives It teaches the way out of suffering and shows the path towards genuine

happiness Buddhism understands that not everyone can lead an ascetic life and accepts

that for a layperson a certain degree of wealth is essential to live a happy life Living an

ethical and moral life is said to bring genuine happiness in Buddhism The objective of

this chapter is to understand happiness from a Buddhist perspective by laying down some

key Buddhist principles related to happiness

Understanding Buddhist principles and values that underpin the Buddhist

worldview will provide a framework that will be the lens through which the

psychological wellbeing indicators of GNH will be analyzed in the following chapter

The principles that will be discussed here are however not definitive boundaries because

41

Buddhism teaches innumerable ways to achieve ultimate happiness In this chapter the

framework of happiness is based on a specific Buddhist teachings called the six

paramitas Nonetheless the entire Buddhist teachings have the same essence and arise

out of the four noble truths and eightfold noble path

This chapter is divided into three sections The first section begins with a brief

introduction to the Buddhist view of happiness Buddhism in Bhutan belongs to the

Mahayana tradition and therefore this study is limited to the context of Mahayana

Buddhism The second section looks at key foundational doctrines such as the four noble

truths Karmamdashthe law of cause and effect the principle of interdependence and

compassion The third section constructs a framework for happiness based on the

Mahayana Buddhist principle using the six perfections or paramitas Paramita refers to

crossing over from the sea of suffering to the shore of happiness The paramitas are the

six kinds of virtuous practice required for skillfully serving the welfare of oneself and

others and a path to achieve genuine happiness For the purpose of this study Thogme

Zangpos text on Thirty-Seven Practices of Bodhisattava (Gyalse Laglin) and teachings

by Buddhist teachers such as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will

serve as sources for constructing this framework

31 Buddhist View of Happiness

Buddhism was founded in the 5th century and has over 365 million followers

worldwide (Ontario Consultants 2009) The term religion is often associated with the

concept of creator or a god but Buddhism rejects the idea of creator god as well as the

notion of a permanent self or a indestructible soul (Flanagan 2007) Therefore it is

42

commonly said that Buddhism is non-theistic or atheistic Buddhism is a series of

practices and a way of life based on the teachings of the Buddha Buddhists are strongly

influenced by Karma the law of cause and effect with the implication that there is no

creator (interview with the Dalai Lama by Chopra 2010)

The word Buddha means to awaken from the sleep of ignorance and to spread

ones intelligence to everything that can be known (Dalai Lama 2000 p2) The Buddha

was like any other human being before he attained nirvana at the age of thirty-seven The

lessons that the Buddha learned while in search of truth is the foundation of Buddhism

chief among which is the pursuit of happiness

In his book An Open Heart Practicing Compassion in Everyday Lifethe Dalai

Lama (2001) states that the purpose of spiritual practice is to fulfill our desire for

happiness (p30) Buddhism indeed has much to say about happiness Sogyal Rimpoche

a renowned Buddhist teacher states there are two kinds of happiness one based on

material comfort and pleasures the other on inner contentment and peace (Doiji 2010)

The two are the physical and mental components of happiness The mental experience or

the inner force plays a more powerful role For example in a very pleasant environment

if we are mentally depressed the surroundings will not make a difference Similarly if

we have inner peace or mental happiness it will be easier to face any challenge This

indicates our mind and thoughts play a powerful role in experiencing happiness (Dalai

Lama 2001) Khenpo Phuntsho Tashi (2004) asserts that in Mahayana Buddhism

happiness springs from an altruistic or compassionate mind Since human minds are often

agitated by afflictive emotions the results frequently are negative actions which in turn

cause suffering The essence of Buddhism therefore is to tame to transform to conquer

43

the human mind for it is the root of everythingmdash it is the creator of happiness and

suffering The Buddha has said in Dhammapada (as cited by Bancroft 1997 p41)

Such a Wandering mind is weak and unsteady Attracted here there and everywhere How good it is to control it and know the happiness of Freedom (Verse 35)

And yet how unruly still how subtle the delusion of the thoughts To quiet them and master them is the true way of happiness (Verse 36)

There is a significant similarity between the Buddhas teachings and Aristotles

ethic Eudiamonia the Aristotelian term for happiness is very similar to Buddhism

Aristotle states that if we want to be happy we should cultivate and practice virtues

through wisdom He also mentions that happiness is vulnerable to external hazards

sudden disaster can reverse happiness no matter how virtuous ones life has been

(Annas 1999) This is exactly what the Buddha preached 2500 years ago The Buddhas

teachings are based on the impermanent nature of life and the importance of virtuous and

righteous deeds Most of Aristotles ethic is devoted to an account of virtuous activities

that he states constitute happiness Aristotle describes happiness as doing well combined

with virtue or self sufficiency of life or the pleasantest life with safety or prosperity of

possessions and bodies with power to protect then and use them in action (Irwin 1999

p3) Aristotle believes that power and fortune are also parts of happiness because they

are the best providers of safety This idea that happiness requires fortune contradicts the

Buddhas teachings The Buddha preached that fortune power possession are all

materials and subject to change They are therefore not a source of genuine happiness but

a cause of suffering

44

His Holiness the Dalai Lama states that Buddhists aim not merely for temporary

happiness but for long-term results They are concerned with life after life This means

that ultimate happiness in Buddhism is Nirvana the cessation of suffering the end of the

cycle of birth-and-death He further adds that spiritual practice the practice of dharma

can bring both long-term happiness and more inner strength day by day (Dalai Lama amp

Hopkins 2000) Buddhist teaching employs innumerable skillful means through which

happiness can be achieved at the individual and collective levels Being on the

Bodhisattva path the path on which all sentient beings can receive help can bring us

happiness Powers (1995 p91) defines a Bodhisattva as someone who is progressing

towards the state of enlightenment Bodhisattva symbolizes compassion Bodhisattvas are

also called jangchup sempa which means a compassionate heart in Tibetan and

Bhutanese

32 Key Mahayana Buddhist Principles

321 The four noble truths

In his search for the meaning of life the Buddha discovered the four noble truths

which are the very foundation of all Buddhist beliefs The Buddhas four noble truths

explain the truth of suffering and the way to overcome it The first noble truth recognizes

that suffering is the essence of human existence suffering from birth old age sickness

and death as well as the pain from separation grief and despair The second noble truth

explains that desire or craving is the cause of all suffering craving for pleasure for

individual existence and for release from our present situation The third noble truth

states that suffering can cease by overcoming craving or desire The fourth noble truth

45

prescribes the way to overcome desire by following the eightfold noble path (Bancroft

1997)

A closer understanding of the four noble truths leads to the realization that no

person can achieve constant and prolonged happiness because as the first noble truth

states Life is suffering This means that as long as humans exist there will be no end

to suffering Suffering in Buddhism has generally been categorized into three types First

is the suffering of misery which includes physical and mental sufferings Second is the

suffering of change where we achieve happiness only for a brief period because all

phenomena are subject to change Third is compositional suffering the suffering which is

endemic to cyclic existence because humans are under the influence of afflictive

emotions (Dalai Lama as cited in Powers 1984 amp 1995 Negi 1999)

The cause of all suffering is the desire and aversion arising out of ignorance

which is called Klesha Klesha literally means afflictive emotions or delusions and refers

to wide range of mental states (Negi 1999) Bhutanese call it nyong mong meaning

distorted or confused By following the eightfold noble path one can overcome the

afflictive emotions and thus achieve genuine happiness Light Party (1996) asserts that

the main map the Buddha offered for the trip to happiness and contentment is the

Eightfold Path Right Understanding Right Intention Right Action Right Speech Right

Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right Mindfulness Buddhist

teachings are all centered on one or more steps of the eightfold noble path The eight

steps are usually divided into three main practices Morality (Sila) which also means

ethics or virtues Concentration (Samadhv meditation) and Wisdom (Prajnaj (Dalai

Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2000 Gomes 2004) Right Understanding and Right

46

Intention pertain to wisdom (Sanskrit panna) Right Action Right Speech and Right

Livelihood pertain to moral virtues or ethics Right Effort Right Concentration and

Right Mindfulness pertain to meditative cultivation of heart and mind

Moral virtue meditation and wisdom form part of the six perfections which

are the core teachings of Mahayana Buddhism The six perfections are the six qualities to

the Bodhisattvas path the state of genuine happiness This study uses the six perfections

as a framework for happiness which will be explored in depth in the third section

322 The Law of Karma Principle of Interdependence and Compassion

The most common belief among Buddhists is that we can never escape from our

own Karma (Sanskrit Kamma) Karma (the law of cause and effect) states that nothing

comes into being without a cause The law of Karma can be simply related to Newtons

Third Law which states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction The

same holds according to the law of Karma though it is not known whether the reaction

will occur in this life or beyond this life Since Buddhism supports the idea of rebirth

certain key aspects of a persons next rebirth are thought to be karmically determined

These include the family into which one is born ones social status physical appearance

character and personality Karma does not however claim that everything that happens

to a person is karmically determined Karma does not determine precisely what will

happen or how anyone will react to what happen Individuals are always free to resist

previous conditioning and establish new patterns of behavior

The belief in Karma sometimes degenerates into a form of fatalism but fate and

Karma are different Humans have freedom to choose and their present action is not the

47

entire result of their past Karma action It does however influence a persons action

because of the character a person has developed (Harvey 2005)

The belief that one has to bear the Karma of ones act is deeply rooted in the

Buddhist psyche It is a very common belief among Buddhists that depending on ones

Karmic consequences (or accumulated positivenegative merits) one will experience

happinesssufferings of various types (Gaylag 2004) good action leads to pleasant

effects and bad deeds lead to unpleasant results Harvey (2005) asserts that the cycle of

Karma provides a perspective on life which is supportive of compassion and respect for

other beings In Buddhism if you want happiness you need to sow the seed of good

merit

Buddhist philosophy explains innumerable ways to achieve positive Karma

Actions motivated by greed hatred and delusion result in bad Karma while actions

motivated by their opposites - non-attachment loving kindness and right understanding-

- result in positive Karma Good intentions therefore must find expression in right

actions and right actions are basically those that are wholesome and do no harm either

oneself or others Tashi (2004) states that in order to accumulate merits and to be happy

our actions can be summed up under three principle causes 1) Developing the attitude of

not harming others (this is being mindful and awakening oneself from ignorance) 2)

Cultivating the attitude of helping others and 3) Being Content

The principle of dependent origination also known as the principle of

interdependence is one of the important principles of Buddhism This principle is actually

an elaboration of the law of Karma which states that all things are interdependent and

48

everything that happens depends on other things happening (Negi 1999 Flanagan 2007

Doiji 2009) In other words since a whole is dependent on its parts any existent thing is

composed of its parts therefore its very existence depends on its parts Buddhism states

that human beings in particular are the combination of the five groups of existence or

five aggregates The physical body is the material aggregate and the mental aspect is

made up of feeling perception (awareness recognition through senses) mental

formations or thoughts and consciousness (knowing the object through our senses)

(Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2005) Since we are made of these five aggregates

and these aggregates themselves have no permanent existence there exists no permanent

self Buddhist teachings assert that humans do not comprehend this reality and assume

that all things including human beings have permanent selves As we are all

interdependent there are no existing phenomena which is not the effect of this What we

do affects those around us and vice versa People should therefore not think only of

themselves but should also take into consideration those around them To create

happiness it is important that we not only reflect on the interrelationship of all things but

also see ourselves clearly as a part of one system of causal relationships

The Buddhist belief is that genuine happiness can be generated from developing a

compassionate heart a heart focused not only on itself but which also helps and benefits

all beings Compassion is defined as the wish to free all beings from suffering (Dalai

Lama 2001) Gyatso (1984) and the Dalai Lama (2000 amp 2001) assert that the root of all

Buddhist practices is the heart of loving kindness and compassion In Buddhism it is

normally said that a person who lacks compassion does not have a good heart It is

49

through a compassionate attitude that Buddhists are motivated to have concern for all

humans animals and the environment because they are all part of the same world

Although it is not easy to free all beings from suffering Buddhism states that we can

develop virtuous minds and thereby help others to do the same (Dalai Lama 2001) It is

through the force of compassion that a person engages in accumulating the merit and

wisdom that make Buddhahood possible (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) and in that sense

also makes happiness possible The four noble truths the law of Karma the principle of

interdependence and the idea of compassion form the key components of a Buddhist

worldview The next section develops a framework for the Buddhist view of happiness

which extends from these key Buddhist doctrines

33 The Buddhist Happiness Framework

This section constructs a happiness framework based on the Mahayana

Buddhisms teachings on the six perfections paramitas) Thogme Zangpos 12th century

text on the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva especially his verses on the six

practices were referenced ( Hopkins 1989) The six perfections or paramitas are

1 Dana Paramita (generosity) 2 Sila Paramita (ethicsvirtuesmorality) 3 Kshanti

Paramita (patiencetolerance) 4 Virya Paramita (perseverance) 5 Dhayana paramita

(meditative concentration) 6 Prajna Paramita (wisdom) These six teachings are a way

for an inner cultivation which implies a kind of ethics that focuses directly on daily life

through which one accomplishes genuine happiness (Wright 2009) The first five are

methods or practices and the last wisdom is necessary for any of them to function The

first three practices are usually recommended for lay people Joyous effort and

concentration mainly refer to meditation normally practiced in monastic communities

50

However meditation is now becoming increasingly popular and is practiced also by lay

people

The opening verse of Thogme Zangpos (nd) text begins with the following

statement

The perfect Buddhas the sources of benefit and happiness arise from having practiced the excellent doctrine That in turn depends on knowing its practices Therefore I will explain the practices of Bodhisattva (p 1)

The Buddha is a symbol and a source of genuine happiness for the Buddhist The

Buddha achieved the state of eternal bliss through his practice of virtues Thogme

Zangpo states that one needs to understand that the source of all happiness whether

worldly or ultimate happiness comes from the practice of Dharma which means the

practice of virtues Geshey Kelsang Gyatso (1984) states that in general Dharma refers

to the teachings of the Buddha but the actual Dharma is the inner realizations which

directly protect living beings from their sufferings He further explains that there are

three kinds of meaning to be achieved through the practice of Dharma The highest is to

reach full enlightenment Buddhahood in this life The middle is to achieve self-

liberation from cyclic fears and sufferings The lowest is to achieve happiness in this life

by overcoming the inner problems and thus avoiding being reborn in the lower realms in

the next life Thus Buddhists aim at one of these three Lay Buddhists usually aim to

lead a happy virtuous life and to be reborn in the higher realms

Thogme Zangpos teachings stress committing oneself to virtues as much as

possible and not engaging in ill deeds Virtues are actions that bear the fruit of happiness

Ill deeds are those actions that cause suffering and unhappiness to oneself and to other

beings Everyone wants to achieve happiness the Dalai Lama defines happiness as a

51

blissful state devoid of all suffering Since the law of cause and effect binds Buddhism it

is necessary to examine phenomena that cause happiness and suffering According to

Buddhism ignorance desire and hatred are the main cause of suffering Our own

afflictive emotions and actions cause suffering

The famous Buddhist painting of a wheel with 21 parts outlines the meaning of

life in Buddhism The diagram designed by the Buddha himself depicts an inner

psychological cosmology This painting can be found at the doorway of every temple in

Bhutan The center of the wheel shows the picture of a pig rooster and snake These

three animals depict the root cause of suffering represented as ignorance desire and

hatred (anger) respectively They are known as the three poisons in Buddhism (Dalai

Lama 2000) Buddhism states that it is possible to overcome suffering since it depends

on causes which are within oneself When one understands the nature of suffering one

will work towards ending such causes However Mahayana Buddhism stresses that this

understanding must be extended to other sentient beings Others similarly want happiness

and not suffering Mahayana Buddhists therefore emphasizes developing compassion and

engaging in the practices of the six paramitas to overcome suffering

Ignorance is not just the absence of knowledge of the real status of phenomenon

but the inability to understand truth misconception of inherent existence of permanent

self (Dalai Lama 2000) The principle of dependent origination (Section 322) as

explained above shows that we do not exist independently on our own Thogme Zangpos

fourth verse states the following

Long-associated companions will part from each other Wealth and possessions obtained with effort will be left behind Consciousness the guest will cast aside

52

the guest-house of the bodv Letting go of this life is the bodhisattvas practice (pl)

The above verse states that our body is not ours The mind or consciousness leaves the

body at death as a guest leaves the guesthouse However we live as if we are going to

live forever and this ignorance draws us into afflictive desire and hatred Ignorance thus

comes out as greed and hatred Greed and hatred in turn promote ignorance The Dalai

Lama (2000) states without ignorance desire and anger are impossible These disturbing

emotions and attitudes are said to be true causes of suffering as are the karmic impulses

that arise under the power of these disturbing emotions Figure 2 below illustrates how

Buddhists perceive suffering and happiness It shows that the root causes of suffering are

ignorance desire and hatred These emerge through three doorsmdash body speech and

mindmdashas non-virtuous action generating negative Karma which causes suffering to

oneself and to others

Figure 2 Suffering and its causes

53

Gyatso (1984) points out that even though the body is like a guest house we will

receive many fruits if we practice Dharma meaning the practice of virtue which results in

the fruit of good Karma However all sentient beings are subject to the three poisons and

the question is how do we overcome them to practice virtue Buddhist teaching states

that the three poisons can be resisted and virtues cultivated through training in the six

practices When a person wants to reduce weight heshe goes through physical training

and dieting Similarly in Buddhism if one wants happiness one must practice the six

paramitas This will naturally generate virtuous actions leading to happiness This is

represented by Figure 3 below

Figure 3 Overcoming Suffering

54

331 Generosity

Mahayanists maintain that happiness comes from a compassionate and altruistic

mind The practice of compassion is training oneself in the perfection of generosity In

the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva the 25th verse states

If it is necessary to give away even ones body while aspiring to enlightenment what need is there to mention external objects Therefore practicing generosity without hope of reciprocation or positive karmic results is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)

The perfection of generosity is the first principle of happiness Generosity can be

practiced by anyone This practice refers to unconditional love a selfless generosity and

giving which is completely free from attachment and expectation Internally it means

overcoming our emotions (greed and hatred) and being generous with others voluntarily

giving ones material goods time or wisdom to others (Das 1995) Generosity is a cure

for the afflictions of greed miserliness and possessiveness The Anguttara Nikaya

(Anguttara Verse 34 and 35) a collection of Buddhist scriptures points out that there are

five blessings that result from the practice of generosity the person will be liked and

admired by everyone will have a good reputation will have lots of self confidence and

will have a heavenly rebirth Buddhists believe that giving without seeking anything in

return leads to greater spiritual wealth Generosity therefore is a very important virtue

bringing happiness to oneself and others

332 Ethics

The second practice is that of Sila which literally means ethics moralityvirtue

Right speech Right action and Right livelihood which form the part of Eightfold Noble

Path fall under ethical practice This perfection of ethics or Sila Paramita stresses quality

55

of virtuous and ethical behavior morality self-discipline personal integrity and never

having the thought to harm any sentient beings The Dalai Lama (2001) states that for

Buddhists ethics means avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions acts done by the body

speech and mind (p34) It is important that our practice of generosity is supported by

our practice of ethics Buddhists therefore abstain from the ten non-virtuous actions

killing stealing sexual misconduct lying divisive speech harsh speech gossip greed

malice and wrong views The first three (killing stealing sexual misconduct) correspond

to bodily action The fourth fifth sixth and seventh (lying malicious words harsh

language useless talk) correspond to verbal action The last three (covetousness ill will

wrong view) occur through the mind (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) The ten non-virtuous

actions lead to bad Karma and suffering Avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and

cultivating a compassionate heart brings good Karma and happiness We can enjoy

greater freedom happiness and security in our lives because through our virtuous

behavior we are no longer creating suffering for ourselves and others we basically

become virtuous and harmless in our thoughts speech and actions Thus in the 26th

verse Thogme Zangpo writes

If lacking ethical conduct one fails to achieve ones own purpose the wish to accomplish others purpose is laughable Therefore guarding ethics devoid of aspirations for worldly existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)

Thogme Zangpo points out that with unethical behavior one cannot achieve

happiness Unethical behavior is always the cause of suffering and unhappiness For

example a person who speaks ill of another person will disturb their mind and later will

56

be a cause of suffering for himself or herself His 34th verse stresses the importance of

avoiding harsh words

Harsh words disturb others minds and cause the mode of a Bodhisattvas behavior to deteriorate Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to abandon harsh words about the unpleasantness of others (p 3)

By cultivating ethical behavior we do not cause harm to others and we are free of

negativity we cause no harm by our actions our speech is kind and compassionate and

our thoughts are free of anger malice and wrong views Through the practice of ethics

we gain confidence because we are not carrying any underlying sense of guilt or remorse

for our actions we have nothing to hide Being ethical and moral is the cause of all

goodness and happiness This practice of ethical conduct is the very foundation for

progressing in any practice of meditation and for attaining all higher realizations on the

path The Dalai Lama states that the aim of ethical practice is to transform motivation and

mental disposition this is how we become better human beings The more we succeed in

training our hearts and minds the more we will be able to cope with adversity and our

actions will be naturally ethical Thus we will experience happiness

333 Patience and Tolerance

The third practice is that of patience and tolerance It is called the perfection of

patience (Bhutanese Bzod pa) Thogme Zangpos 27th verse states the importance of

patience

For bodhisattvas who desire the pleasures of virtue all those who do harm are like a precious treasure Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to cultivate patience without anger or resentment for anyone (p3)

57

Patience in Buddhism refers to having the strength to face the challenges and

difficulties of life without losing our composure and inner tranquility Bodhisattvas are

challenged to endure tolerate and bear any hardship without retaliation or negative

thoughts Through endurance and tolerance we gain strength to overcome any afflictive

emotions The Dalai Lama states that this enlightened quality comes from having our

heart open and our mind deeply concentrated upon the Dharma He states that endurance

and tolerance do not imply defeat but make the mind stronger When the Buddha was

deep in meditation demon Mara and his daughters tried to tempt and distract him

Through his patience however the Buddha remained calm and undistracted and finally

attained nirvana The ability to endure is therefore integral to Buddhism With the

strength of patience we can overcome anything The mind will be calm and clear and

this enables us to make better decisions Through the practice of patience we maintain

inner peace under all circumstances and thus experience genuine happiness

334 Perseverance

The fourth practice is the perfection of joyous effort or enthusiastic perseverance

It is called Virya Paramita in Sanskrit and is the quality of persistent effort or working

hard towards achieving a goal The 28th verse of Thogme Zangpos teaching states

Even hearers and solitary realizers who accomplish only their own welfare strive as if putting out a fire on their heads Seeing this taking up diligent effort -the source of good qualities - for the sake of all beings is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)

Thogme Zangpo points out that just as one makes an effort to put out the fire on

ones own head one must strive diligently to free oneself and all sentient beings from

58

suffering Our body speech and mind should put in effort to the best of our ability

Without putting in right effort we can be disillusioned and thus fail to achieve any goal

The Dalai Lama states that with joyous effort and enthusiastic perseverance we regard

failure as simply another step towards success danger as an inspiration for courage and

affliction as another opportunity to practice wisdom and compassion Thus to achieve

happiness one must put in right effort to be compassionate to be virtuous and ethical at

all times

335 Meditative Concentration

The fifth practice is that of meditative concentration It is called Dhyana

Paramita Meditative concentration is very important in developing mental qualities and

overcoming the three poisons The content of the very first verse of thirty-seven practices

of Bodhisattva is on meditation

At this time when the difficult-to-gain ship of leisure andfortune has been obtained ceaselessly hearing pondering and meditating day and night in order to liberate oneself and others from the ocean of cyclic existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)

The ship of leisure and fortune refers to the human body In Buddhism there are six

realms god2 demi-god human animals hungry ghost hell beings The humans in

comparison to the other realm is very rare It is therefore fortunate enough to be born as a

human Thogme Zangpo indicates that through hearing the dharma teachings meditating

day and night and developing a heart of loving kindness and compassion sentient beings

2 Gods in Buddhism are beings who are born into higher realms because of their positive Karma accumulated in their past lives Their lifespan eventually ends When their life ends they will be reborn in one of the six realms depending on their Karma

59

can be liberated from suffering Buddhism greatly stresses the taming of the mind

because the mind can be transformed and meditation is the means to transform it Tashi

(2004) explains the usefulness of meditation in destroying the root causes of suffering

and providing an antidote to them Meditation also plays an important role in achieiving

happiness at the individual national and global levels The perfection of meditative

concentration thus aims at taming the mind so that it does what we want it to do We

stabilize our mind and emotions by practicing meditation by being mindful and aware in

everything we do When we train the mind in this way all mental distortions and

misperceptions are eliminated We achieve focus composure and tranquility

Concentrating deeply makes us realize the cause of confusion and suffering and helps us

directly experience inner joy Thus Thogme Zangpos 29th verse states

Having understood that disturbing emotions are destroyed by insight possessed with tranquil abiding to cultivate meditative concentration which perfectly transcends the four formless absorptions is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)

336 Wisdom

The last practice is the perfection of wisdom called Prajna Parmaita in Sanskrit

Wisdom is the key to everything Wisdom will help us find the path to happiness

Without wisdom one will not understand the reality of phenomena and thus be

disillusioned by the three poisons Wisdom is therefore necessary to cultivate other

practices Thogme Zangpos 30th verse points out

If one lacks wisdom it is impossible to attain perfect enlightenment through the other five perfections Thus cultivating skillful means with the wisdom that doesnt discriminate among the three spheres is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)

60

Wisdom does not refer to mere intellectual understanding It is beyond that Ron

Liefer (1997) states that a mere intellectual understanding of reality will not change our

habitual negative patterns of thoughts speech and action because the intellect serves the

ego He further adds we cannot achieve wisdom without seeing through the trickery of

ego Wisdom refers to Right understanding and Right view (two of the eightfold noble

paths) of reality This entails getting rid of those wrong views which manifest the three

poisons Through wisdom one will be able to distinguish between what is ethical and

unethical or virtuous and non-virtuous We see the essential nature of reality with utmost

clarity our perception goes beyond the illusive and deceptive veils of material existence

Wisdom clears the delusion that envelops the mind It overturns ignorance and the

attitudes that lead to non-virtuous actions and ultimately shows us the path to happiness

(Rink 2010) Thus overcoming the three poisons by understanding the true nature of

reality and developing qualities of generosity morality patience and meditating with

joyous effort is said to generate the highest level of happiness in Buddhism

34 Summary

Buddhist teachings show the true cause of suffering as ignorance desire and

hatred enveloping the mind The teachings on the Four Noble Truths open our eyes to

various perspectives and send us the message that happiness is beyond material

wellbeing They make us realize that the real essence of happiness lies within us It is

only through taming the mind that we can experience happiness Whether we want to be

happy or not depends on how we perceive things and how we act John Milton said The

mind is its own place and in itself can make heaven of hell and a hell of heaven (as

61

cited by Williams 2008 p24) Buddhism teaches that if we can overcome the three

poisons and practice generosity patience mediation and morality we can experience

inner joy in this life This can even be extended to the next life with the possibility of

attaining nirvana The idea of reward for virtuous action (Karma) creates a healthy fear

and pushes the Buddhist to be ethical and practice virtues at all time Buddhism thus

accords the highest authority to experience with reason second and scripture third

(Flanagan 2007) Some may wonder however whether a focus exclusively on getting

rid of desire would inhibit worldly progress The path to overcoming attachment and

achieving worldly progress such as accumulating wealth are indeed poles apart

Buddhism does not necessarily say that we have to give up the material life It stresses

more the importance of having a good heart of never harming others of being

compassionate of being morally disciplined and of possessing loving kindness

generosity patience and a joyful desire to practice virtues These positive qualities can

reduce ones suffering and give happiness to oneself and others

62

CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING

INDICATORS

People always experience moods and emotions which have an enormous range of

effects on their wellbeing To know about peoples psychological state something must

be known about their subjective experiences The psychological wellbeing domain of the

GNH index thus assesses peoples subjective experience based on eleven indicators

Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking account of Karma Jealousy Selfishness

Frustration Generosity Calmness Compassion Suicidal Thought and General Mental

Health The government measures psychological wellbeing by assessing the socially

destructive attitudes and symptoms of psychological distress and the prevalence of

practices to avoid negative emotions The main purpose of this study is to determine to

what extent the indicators under the psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of

happiness and their coherence with the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH This

chapter analyzes each of these indicators to determine the extent to which they reflect

Buddhist principles of happiness using the conceptual framework laid down in Chapter

Three and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH

This chapter is divided into five sections The first section briefly highlights the

meaning of psychological wellbeing and the importance of measuring it It also highlights

similarities between the views of some modern psychologists and the Buddhist view on

the understanding of psychological wellbeing The second third and fourth sections

analyze the indicators of psychological wellbeing by grouping them into three broad

categories Emotional Balance Spirituality Practices and General Mental Health The

chapter concludes with an overview of the overall findings

63

41 Psychological Wellbeing Measures

Psychological wellbeing as the term denotes refers to the wellbeing of a persons

mental state It deals with emotions and feelings which are subjective experiences The

measure of the psychological wellbeing of its citizens is extremely important in a country

pursuing GNH because the mental or the psychological state influences the overall

wellbeing of people A GNH state therefore needs to minimize those mental conditions

that can be disruptive As Larsen amp Fredrickson (1999) point out the content of a

persons emotional life strongly influences his or her judgments of the quality of that life

(p40)

From the Buddhist perspective happiness depends on our mind Buddhist

teachings are directly or indirectly based on the workings of the mind Buddhism strongly

holds that it is the emotional and mental state of people that influence their wellbeing or

happiness The term ishepa which means the mind refers to all aspects of subjective

experiences In the Buddhist diction mind shepa) awareness (rigpa) and consciousness

(lo) are synonyms (Abhidhamma 1987 Negi 1999) The mind in Buddhism includes

all perceptual conceptual and emotional states both conscious and unconscious (Negi

1999) The emotional mental states therefore are all mind related subjective experiences

As explained in Chapter Three Buddhism is concerned with taming the mind

this entails understanding the types of mental activity that are truly conducive to

wellbeing and the ones that are harmful In this sense it would be justifiable to say that

Buddhism is all about achieving happiness mentally or psychologically Ekman

Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) agree that psychologists and Buddhists alike

64

believe that emotions strongly influence peoples thoughts words and actions and that

they help people in their pursuit of transient pleasures and satisfactions

The measurement of a persons psychological state is commonly based on the

self-report assessment Within the discipline of psychology there is a strong view that

self-reports on how well life is going can convey important information on underlying

emotional states and in measuring peoples subjective wellbeing Earlier psychologists

who were mainly interested in negative emotional states such as depression and anxiety

are now interested in positive emotions to evaluate peoples overall wellbeing (Ryff amp

Singer 1998) Indeed to get empirical clues of happiness establishing the absence of

negative experiences would not be enough positive feelings must also be present (Hirata

2006) The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index similarly includes

both positive and negative emotions

Structured questionnaires are used to collect data for each indicator A

sufficiency cut off or a threshold is set for each indicator A person is said to have met the

sufficiency cut-off if hisher evaluation in that indicator meets or exceeds the cut-off

point If the respondent meets or exceeds the sufficiency cut off heshe is given the full

score This means a person is psychologically well if heshe makes sufficient

achievement in each of the indicators Any shortfall from sufficiency that any

respondents experience in any indicator is considered to depress Gross National

Happiness The depth of insufficiency will rise if any person drops further away from

sufficiency cut-off This means that the distance from the cut-off or the sufficiency gap is

sensitive only if the achievements are below the sufficiency level This indicates that the

GNH index is sensitive to an unhappy or a poor persons experience Overall this method

65

is similar to poverty measurement where a poverty line is set to distinguish people who

are materially poor from non-poor (Millet 2010) However there is not much

information available on how the sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From

the information available on the CBS website it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut

off is set at a level that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises

questions because there is not any literature or research conducted on how the sufficiency

cut off has actually been set Arbitrarily setting cut-offs without any basis or setting it

based on some assumptions can lead to questionable results

42 Emotional Balance

The Centre for Bhutan Studies has grouped seven indicators under the category of

emotional balance The indicators can be further grouped into two categories negative

emotions and positive emotions The indicators under this index include emotions or

feelings related to wellbeing because these affect a persons evaluation of life Four of the

seven indicators pertain to negative emotions jealousy selfishness frustration and

suicidal thought and three pertain to positive emotion generosity calmness and

compassion Diener amp Lucas (1999) state that although the emotions are momentary

influences and would not reflect a stable state of happiness they do provide information

about the state of a persons life Research shows that a variety of etiological factors

contribute to these emotions (Berenbaum Raghavan Le Vernon amp Gomez 1999)

Buddhist teaching similarly maintains that these emotions do not occur on their own

there are causal factors associated with them

66

Buddhism places the mind at the centre of all experiences The Buddhist tradition

therefore places emotions at the core of individual and universal happiness In the

Abhidhamma Buddhist text the mind is presented in context to its primary and secondary

consciousnesses Primary consciousness refers to the content of mind which illuminates

merely the general nature of the content Secondary consciousness refers to the aspect of

mind that illuminates the particular nature of that content Both the primary and

secondary consciousnesses operate as one entity (Negi 1999) The Abhidhamma lists

fifty-one secondary consciousnesses All the positive and negative emotions fall under

the fifty-one secondary consciousnesses

a Negative Emotion

Chapter Three explained that negative emotions in Buddhism arise out of

ignorance desire and hatred Humans suffer because of their own negative emotions

These are negative because they harm oneself and others As we ignore the reality around

us and cling to the self or I we get angry for things we do not like jealous when others

succeed frustrated when we fail The extreme reaction is suicidal thoughts and action

All of these negative emotions from the Buddhist perspective fall under unethical

action action that occurs through the mind They are called nyong mongs meaning

distorted or confused or klesha translated as afflictive emotions Jealousy selfishness

frustration and suicidal thoughts arise due to covetousness ill will and wrong view The

four negative indicators form part of the ten non-virtuous actions and are afflictive

regardless of their degree or the context in which they arise These emotions are similarly

considered negative under the GNH index

67

1 Jealousy

Jealousy is often defined as a feeling of resentment when others succeed Harris

(2004) points out that jealousy is likely to arise over perceptions that a potential rival

poses a threat to what one perceives to be valuable in oneself and in an important

relationship In Buddhism jealousy is called dhrag-dog The Buddhist Abhidhamma text

classifies jealousy as part of hostility and calls it immoral Jealousy in Buddhism is

defined as a disturbing emotion that focuses on other peoples accomplishments such as

their good qualities possessions or success and is the inability to bear their

accomplishments due to excessive attachment to our own gain or to the respect we

receive (Berzin 2004 p 1) Jealousy in Buddhism is therefore related to attachment

Jealousy and envy have slightly different meanings in Buddhism Envy adds to what

jealousy means in Buddhism In addition to the inability to bear others accomplishments

envy is the wish to have these accomplishments for ourselves Therefore envy has the

element of what Buddhism calls covetousness (Bnab sem) Berzin (2004) points out that

envy as a combination of jealousy and covetousness leads to competitiveness Jealousy

is thus a disturbing emotion that drives us to become highly competitive and to work

fanatically to outdo others or ourselves Failure can cause much pain and success can lead

to further greed Jealousy has elements of resentment and hostility In addition it has

strong elements of insecurity and mistrust (Berzin 2004)

In the Abhidhamma text jealousy is opposite to compassion and appreciative joy

Lama Zopa Rinpoche (1973) states that rejoicing is the best remedy for jealousy and

envy (pl) Buddhist teaching maintains that we must rejoice for others success and

68

happiness and think that they created their own cause for their happiness Similarly in a

GNH society we must rejoice for others success and happiness Jealousy disturbs our

peace of mind and causes much suffering We cannot achieve GNH if we are all jealous

of others Jealousy is therefore opposed to GNH values

Mullen (1995) points out that men and women experience different types of

emotions when they are jealous These include pain distress oppression anxiety

sadness apprehension anger restless distress humiliation shame agitation and

betrayal All of these are negative and against happiness or wellbeing In order to

achieve GNH it is important to rule out the presence of such negative emotions Since

jealousy is directly opposed to the psychological wellbeing of people it is appropriate

that it be an indicator of GNH

In order to collect the data for this indicator the following question is asked of the

respondents (Box 1) The sufficiency cut off is set at never which means that

respondents are given full score when they answer never In a GNH state it is hoped or

expected that a person would never feel jealous Buddhism similarly marks jealousy as

non-virtuous and afflictive regardless of their degree in which they arise The sufficiency

cut-off which is set at never therefore also corresponds to Buddhist principles

How often do you experience jealousy

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 1 Survey question of Jealousy Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

69

2 Selfishness

The second indicator selfishness refers to an unwillingness to share because of

craving something for oneself Selfishness in Buddhism originates from attachment and

greed In Buddhism selfishness is closely related to the Buddhist term Serna (Negi

1999) Serna in the Abhidhamma text is termed as immoral consciousness (p96) and

appears as delusion arising out of a wrong view attachment and greed Negi (1999)

states that it is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity (p93)

Selfishness is also synonymous with the Tibetan Buddhist terms Rangdoed and lNoe

zirtwhich literally mean self-centered desire and material attachment respectively

Buddhist teachings condemn the idea of self or I from which selfishness arises As

explained in Chapter Three Buddhism teaches no-self (anatta) as an essential

principle The doctrine of no-self is to help us let go of our attachment and ego In one

of his interviews with FOR Atv the Dalai Lama (2008) narrates an incident in which a

rich couple asked him for a blessing He replied to them You are wealthy share your

wealth with the needy ones this will be the real blessing for you This indicates that

Buddhists believe in replacing selfishness with generosity to attain inner joy In

particular the paramita of ethics (see Chapter Three) emphasizes restraining self-

centeredness and to rooting it out completely The Dalai Lama (2000) states that the

ethic of restraining self-centeredness is crucial (p 101) A selfish attitude according to

Buddhism obstructs the path towards achieving Bodhisattva and thus genuine happiness

Selfishness gives rise to negative Karma leading one to be reborn in the lower realms

70

Similarly since the concept of GNH supports the idea of interdependence selfishness is

opposed to the GNH values

Under the selfishness indicator of GNH the participants are asked the following

question (See Box 2) For the answer never a full score is given which means that a

person should never feel selfish to get a positive GNH score This indicates that

selfishness is against the GNH essence Consistent with the Buddhist teachings the GNH

index similarly marks selfishness as a negative trait

How often do you experience selfishness

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 2 Survey question of Selfishness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

3 Frustration The American Heritage Stedmans Medical Dictionary defines frustration as a

condition that results when an impulse or an action is thwarted by an external or an

internal force There is no exact term for frustration in Buddhism but it can be related to

the term gopa which is translated as agitation Negi (1999) describes gopa as a

mental factor that disturbs the inner calm and focus of the mind (p44) Gopa forms

part of the twenty secondary delusions in the Abhidhamma In the Bhutanese national

language Ouggam1 holds equivalent meaning to frustration Ouggam literally means

pressurizing the breath Oug is breath and gam means pressure When we pressurize our

self we get frustrated and this comes out as anger causing suffering to others and

ourselves

71

Frustration is without doubt a negative emotion because it disturbs the peace of

mind causing anxiety and stress Like jealousy and selfishness frustration arises out

of attachment and desire In Buddhism any emotion that arises out of ignorance desire

and hatred is afflictive and non-virtuous Similarly in a GNH society that seeks to

maximize the happiness and wellbeing of people frustration is a negative trait and

opposed to the concept of GNH because it obstructs the path towards happiness Since

frustration has a negative impact on wellbeing it is necessary to determine if such

emotions occur frequently among people Therefore it is appropriate to have it as a

negative indicator of psychological wellbeing

The question (Box 3) how often do you experience frustration is asked of

respondents Since frustration hampers wellbeing respondents who never experience

frustration are given a full GNH score Respondents who often or sometimes

experience frustration are given a negative score

How often do you experience frustration

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 3 Survey question of Frustration Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

4 Suicidal Thoughts

Suicidal thoughts usually occur when one is no longer able to bear suffering in

life According to Buddhism suicide is an unwholesome act since it is encouraged by a

mind filled with greed hatred and delusion (Dhammananda nd) Killing is one of the ten

non-virtuous actions in Buddhism so any act of killing is unwholesome and suicide is

72

therefore an unwholesome act The Buddhist teachings on Karma maintain that death by

suicide only leads to another cycle of rebirth in the same condition Buddha Dharma

Education Association (nd) explains that in order for the act of killing to have its

complete and unmitigated power five conditions must be present a living being the

awareness of the existence of a living being the intention to kill the living being the

effort or action of killing the living being and the consequent death of the living being

Suicide will always lack the last element of a complete Karma because the one who

commits the act will already be dead at the time of the completion of the action

Therefore suicide becomes a defective action and is not completed as an act of killing

leading to rebirth in the same condition (Sopa 2005) The Dalai Lama (1981) states that

even if we take our own life we will have to take another body that again will be the

basis of suffering In order to get rid of all the difficulties we experience we need to get

rid of the fundamental cause (greed hatred and delusion) that gives rise to the aggregates

that are the basis of all suffering He adds that killing yourself is not going to solve your

problems Suicide in Buddhism is therefore a non-virtuous act that arises because of

afflictive emotion

According to Buddhism suicide does not end the problem The famous Buddhist

painting of truth depicts that death is only the beginning of another cycle of pain and

suffering Buddhists therefore do not support suicide and instead encourage constructive

living using this life to diligently practice virtuous action thus changing the present and

the future for the better

Research indicates that suicide and attempted suicide are associated with

elevated levels of anger anxiety guilt sadness and shame (Berenbaum Raghavan Le

73

Vernon Gomez 1999 p 279) Depression is found to be the main cause of suicides The

most common factors that push youth to commit suicide according to Bhutanese

psychiatrist Dr Nirola are peer and parental pressures competitive scenarios and failure

to get a job among others (as cited by Dorji 2010) This indicates that suicidal thoughts

occur because of what Buddhism calls the three poisons leading to further afflictive

emotions

Suicidal thoughts similarly are against the essence of GNH and therefore a

negative indicator of psychological wellbeing Under the GNH index a person who has

never thought of committing suicide (See Box 4) is given a foil GNH score while

respondents who have thought of committing suicide are given negative scores Overall

the indicator of suicidal thought finds groundings in Buddhist teachings

Have you ever seriously thought of committing suicide

1 Yes 2 No

Box 4 Survey question of Suicidal Thought Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Jealousy frustration selfishness and suicidal thoughts are negative emotions that

affect individuals and the societys wellbeing Satya Dev Negi (1996) asserts that the

distorted emotional states have achieved such a pervasive status that our era may become

known to history as the Age of Emotional Epidemic (p2) The effects of negative

emotions are clearly visible in society increasing crime substance abuse suicide and

divorce are all symptoms of emotional dysfunction

The entire Buddhist tradition evolved as a study of mental and emotional states

and ways to transform the negative emotions into positive ones Although Buddhism sees

74

ignorance desire and hatred as the main causes of suffering the three poisons come out

in the form of various negative emotions which include jealousy frustration and

selfishness Scientific research has revealed the role emotions play in affecting health the

immune system blood pressure and cardiovascular functions Research also indicates

that individuals with emotional disturbances are prone to induce negative effects upon

those with whom they have ongoing relationships (Berenbaum et al 1999) Besides

evaluation of the frequency of negative emotions it is important for the government to

know the reasons or the conditions that give rise to these negative emotions GNH as

policy must attend to it them

Overall all of the four indicators are directly opposed to the essence of GNH and

therefore it is appropriate to have them as indicators in order to minimize or eliminate

the presence of such negative emotions in a country Further all of these indicators are

rooted in Buddhism

b Positive Emotions

The process for accomplishing happiness in Buddhism involves uprooting the

negative emotions and enhancing the positive ones The three indicatorsmdashgenerosity

calmness and compassionmdashare positive because these emotions bring happiness to

oneself and others The practice of paramitas as explained in Chapter Three encourages

replacing the three poisons by practicing generosity ethics compassion and meditative

concentration Similarly generosity calmness and compassion are considered positive

indicators of psychological wellbeing

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5 Generosity

Generosity is the act of giving and a means to overcome greed and selfishness In

Buddhism the practice of generosity (Dana Paramita- jinba) as laid down in Chapter

Three is one of the six paramitas and a way to practice compassion Buddhism maintains

that the practice of generosity in addition to the fivefold benefit to the one practicing it

brings happiness to others too Generosity is a moral practice that relates to positive

virtues such as compassion and loving kindness the cultivation of which leads to mental

development and spiritual happiness Through generosity we are able to extend ourselves

and help others The whole idea of generosity supports the concept of interdependence

which is the core principle of GNH and Buddhism The Centre for Bhutan Studies terms

generosity a positive emotion of great importance and a desirable habit Generosity as

an indicator is therefore coherent with the GNH principle as it promotes happiness for

oneself and others The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 5) for the

collection of data

How often do you experience generosity

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 5 Survey question of Generosity Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

The sufficiency cut off has been set as often which means a person should

frequently experience the feeling of generosity to get the full GNH score In a GNH

3 See Chapter Three

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society people must help each other and promote a healthy environment Helping does

not necessarily mean giving all your possessions to others but it does entail sharing a part

of your wealth and being helpful in many ways An example would be a voluntary

service to society and charity Happiness derived by the act of generosity which does not

get included in the Gross Domestic Product (Hewavitharana 2004) should be included in

the evaluation of GNH Therefore generosity as an indicator of psychological

wellbeing is coherent with and appropriate to the concept of GNH

6 Calmness

Calmness refers to the clarity of mind and it entails patience and tolerance

Calmness is opposed to anger which is one of the three poisons in Buddhism The

Buddhist practice of Kshanita paramita the practice of patience and tolerance stresses

the importance of having a calm and composed mind at all times Patience in Buddhism

as seen in Chapter Three refers to having the strength to face the challenges and

difficulties of life without losing composure and inner tranquility In the Abhidhamma

text equanimity (long nyom) which is synonymous with calmness is listed as the

tenth positive secondary consciousness and a wholesome mental factor (Negi 1999)

Any mind that experiences such emotion becomes automatically positive states Negi

(1999) When we are calm we develop a tendency not to harm others and we are usually

at our best when we are calm Tranquility gives rise to clarity from which understanding

and wisdom grow (Graham 2007) A calm mind is therefore very essential for living a

happy and healthy life On the other hand constant fear and anger affect our own health

and overall wellbeing Horton (2010) states that through mental calmness one can

77

experience inner peace and as a result success too Calmness is therefore a virtue

consistent with GNH ideals

The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 6) for the collection of

data

How often do you experience calmness

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 6 Survey question of Calmness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Respondents who often feel calm are given the full GNH score which means in a GNH

society people should experience calmness frequently Overall this indicator can be

linked to Buddhist teachings and is coherent with GNH values as well

7 Compassion

Compassion is a wish to relieve the suffering of others and is central to Buddhist

practice As mentioned earlier in Chapter Three it is the most essential and important

trait for bodhisattvas within Mahayana Buddhism Mahayanists maintain that only

through developing a compassionate heart can one practice the other essential virtues

For example without being compassionate we will not develop a genuine sense of

generosity The compassion in Buddhism not only arises out of empathy towards the

suffering of others but from understanding and realizing the meaning of emptiness the

law of Karma and interdependence viewing self and others as devoid of inherent

meaning Compassion thus leads to the practice of loving kindness and helps to

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overcome afflictive emotions such as hatred jealousy and selfishness which are

considered negative under the psychological wellbeing indicators

Compassion a profound human emotion can be a powerful means to creating a

GNH society When one is compassionate the thought of harming others does not arise

and this attitude cultivates a genuine sense to work toward everyones benefit The CBS

(2008) similarly holds compassion as an approach to sympathy for the suffering of

others which is necessary to establish a compassionate society Thinking about the

suffering of others and not just ones own is important for a GNH society Further

scientific studies suggest that individuals including children who may engage in

bullying people and society in general could benefit from practices of compassion (Lutz

Lewis Johnstone Davidson 2008) Therefore compassion as an indicator is very much

coherent with the GNH values

The following question (Box 7) is asked of respondents to find out how

compassionate they are The sufficiency cut off similar to the indicator of generosity

and calmness has been set at often which means a person should frequently

experience compassion to get the full GNH score

How often do you experience compassion

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 7 Survey question of Compassion Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Overall the presence of emotions such as compassion calmness and generosity

have a positive impact on physical wellbeing on decision-making process and on the

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potential for leading a happy life Further each of the three indicators is clearly related to

the Buddhist practice of paramitas

43 Spiritual Practices

From the Buddhist perspective the indicators under this section consist of

practices to overcome negative or afflictive emotions Practicising them with sincerity

can hold negative emotions at bay

8 Frequency of Meditation

The Buddhists consider meditation a very important method to calm the mind

The eightfold noble path and the paramita of meditative concentration emphasizes the

importance of meditation as a means to destroy the three root causes of suffering (desire

hatred and ignorance) Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) states that the Buddhist meditative

practice does not merely suppress the destructive mental states but trains the mind to see

directly and concretely how the mind functions and using this understanding tames and

masters our own mind freeing it from afflictive states Many Buddhist masters prescribe

meditation as the key to finding happiness and peace of mind Tashi (2004) points out

that the important egalitarian aspects of meditation are its accessibility to everybody with

little or no cost involved Researchers have shown that Buddhists who meditate may be

able to train their minds to feel genuine happiness and control aggressive instincts

(Connor 2003) Another study of Buddhist meditation by scientists at the University of

California has found that meditation might tame the amygdale the part of the brain

involved with fear and anger Studies have also shown that even brief courses of

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meditation with very short periods of the simplest meditative practices are associated

with better psychological and physical health (Levenson etal 2004) The CBS does not

link meditation to Buddhism but it is implicit that the indicators are inspired by Buddhist

teachings

Aside from the spiritual connotations meditation is a powerful method to calm

our mind (Connor 2003) Research has shown that practicing meditation regularly has

beneficial effects for a range of conditions These include stress anxiety depression

poor sleep and coping with chronic pain It also has other health benefits such as reduced

inflammation improved immunity and lower blood pressure A study conducted by three

universities (University of Wisconsin West Virginia University and University of

Reading) found that calmness and compassion could be developed through the practice of

meditation Lutz Lewis Johnstone and Davidson (2008) state that the long-term goal of

meditation is to weaken egocentric traits so that altruistic behaviors might arise more

frequently and spontaneously Meditation is indeed the best method to make the mind

relaxed and peaceful Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) maintains that the gift of learning to

meditate is the greatest gift you can gift yourself in this life (p58) He adds for it is

only through meditation that you can undertake the journey to discover your true nature

and so find the stability and confidence you will need to live and die well (p58)

The benefits of meditation as pointed out by the Buddhist teachings and supported

by modern research are immense The practice of meditation thus surely will have a

positive impact on the wellbeing of people which directly contributes to the essence of

GNH Having meditation as a GNH indicator signifies the importance the government is

putting on the benefits it provides The following question (Box 8) is asked of

respondents regarding the practice of meditation

Do you practice meditation

1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all

Box 8 Survey question of meditation Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

The sufficiency cut-off for meditation has been set as occasionally which means

one must practice meditation occasionally to get a full GNH score Although meditation

is considered a very important practice in Buddhism meditation among the lay

population is not popular in Bhutan According to the survey conducted by CBS (2008)

904 of respondents do not meditate at all This may arise from the fact that Bhutan

still does not have any meditation centre for lay people This may also be the reason why

the sufficiency cut-off has been set as occasionally instead of daily Very recently

meditation has been introduced in Bhutanese schools It however needs to be introduced

among lay population too Overall the indicator of mediation is coherent with GNH

values Further since Buddhism greatly stresses the importance of meditation the

indicator seems to have been influenced by Buddhism

9 Prayer Recitation

Prayer is a form of religious practice that seeks to connect to some greater power

Most religions involve prayer in one way or another The purpose of Buddhist prayer is to

awaken the inherent inner capacities of strength compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)

The translation for the word prayer in Bhutanese national language is thuen which

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literally means the recitation of mantras Buddhism emphasizes the recitation of prayershy

like mantras A mantra is a word a syllable a phrase or a short prayer that is spoken

once or repeated over and over again (either aloud or in a persons head) and that is

thought to have a profound spiritual effect on the person (BBC 2006 p 1) Mantra

literally means that which protects the mind from negativity (Sogyal Rimpoche 2002

p71) Mantra Sogyal Rimpoche states is the essence of sound and embodiment of the

truth in the form of sound Each syllable contains spiritual power and vibrates with the

blessing of the speech of the Buddha There are mantras that are thought to subtly alter

ones mind and make a connection with a particular Buddha or enlightened being

Buddhists believe that when certain mantras are said many times they arouse good

vibrations within the person they awaken our inherent inner capacities of strength

compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)

A prayer can be silent meditation or a full chorus of chanting (Hanh 2006) In

Buddhism praying involves two important aspects the first is establishing a relationship

between ourselves and the one to whom we are praying This refers to reflecting on the

great qualities of the Buddha which involves visualization The second is regarding

effective prayer which is the idea of cultivating the energy of love mindfulness and

right concentration in prayer To pray effectively our body and mind must dwell

peacefully in the present moment (Hanh 2006) It is common that Buddhists lay prostrate

while praying This is a position that diminishes the ego opens one up and brings one

close to the earth (Hanh 2006 p 63) Since reciting prayers requires mindfulness and

concentration the paramita of meditative concentration extends to prayers too The

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Buddhist Faith Fellowship of Connecticut asserts that Buddhist prayer is a form of

meditation and practice of inner reconditioning Similarly Sogyal Rimpoche (2002)

explains that reciting mantras is one of the meditation techniques He calls it uniting the

mind with the sound of mantra When one is nervous disoriented or emotionally fragile

reciting a mantra inspiringly can change the state of the mind completely by transforming

its energy and atmosphere He also mentions that mind rides on the subtle energy of

breath and when you chant a mantra you are charging your breath and energy with the

energy of the mantra so working directly on the mind and subtle body (p71) The

practice of reciting mantra for inner reconditioning is distinctively Buddhist

In addition to reciting mantras a majority of the Bhutanese Buddhists pray to

local deities It is a very popular belief in Bhutan that deities can protect us from evil

forces In a real sense this is not Buddhism because the Buddha never prayed to anyone

Buddhism stresses the recitation of mantras to awaken our inner qualities As mentioned

earlier Bhutan was largely a Bon country prior to the entry of Buddhism Bonism

emphasized worshipping the deities Buddhism in many countries flourished with

polytheistic features For example in Japan Buddhism mixed with Shinto which

worships kamis (nature spirits) created a tradition of praying to the kamis Bhutans

national newspaper Kuensel reported that Bonism mixed with Buddhism is still prevalent

in the country (Wangchuk 2005) The rituals of the Bon often include animal sacrifices

but animal sacrifices are discouraged in the country However many pray and perform

rituals to appease the local deities (yu-lha) For example in the village of Bongo under

Chukha district people worship and pray to two sister deities They also summon other

84

deities and spirits residing in mountains valleys lakes forests streams and cliffs

invoking them to assist and protect people from misfortunes (as cited by Wangchuk

2005) Similarly people in the capital Thimphu pray to a local deity located in the upper

valley Although this is not distinctively Buddhism (Powers 1995) it is an age-old

tradition that has been absorbed by Bhutanese Buddhists long ago This is now

considered an integral part of Bhutanese Buddhist culture

The following question (Box 9) is asked of respondents A person who prays

daily meets the sufficiency cutoff which means heshe is given a full GNH score

Do you sayrecite prayers

1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all

Box 9 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Although reciting prayers in Buddhism is seen as a method ofmeditation both

are given different sufficiency cut offs A person who meditates occasionally is given a

full score while a person who prays occasionally is not given a full score The different

sufficiency cut offs for the two different practices indicates that the prayer recitation

indicator is intended to be different from meditation However prayer recitation in

Buddhism itself is a form of meditation CBS mentions that those indicators which are

highly uncorrelated were selected but from a pure Buddhist perspective the two seem to

be closely related since both fall under the paramita of meditative concentration The

CBS does not mention how prayer recitation is consistent with GNH values

Nevertheless the benefits of prayer recitation and meditation maybe the same because

85

both practices require mindfulness and concentration In this sense prayer recitation too

is coherent with GNH To conclude prayer in the form of mantra accords with Buddhist

principles while prayer to deities is a local Buddhist practice Therefore the indicator of

prayer recitation seems to have been influenced by Buddhism with traces of local beliefs

10 Taking account of Karma

As seen in chapter three Karma is a very important Buddhist principle that guides

the Buddhist psyche The law of Karma provides the basis to practice the paramita of

ethics (sila) Karma as one of the GNH indicators clearly implies that Buddhism has

influenced the indicator The literal meaning of taking account of Karma is being

morally responsible for our own actions When a person takes account of Karma in daily

life heshe is being aware and morally responsible for their actions on which the result

depends When we understand the law of Karma we are discouraged from performing

non-virtuous or unwholesome actions which cause suffering Realizing that Karma

conditions and determines our happiness we will refrain from unwholesome behavior to

avoid the negative effects of these actions Similarly understanding that virtuous actions

bear the fruit of happiness one is encouraged to practice wholesome actions The law of

causality therefore promotes moral and ethical life

The sufficiency cutoff for taking account of Karma (Box 10) has been set as

daily indicating that a person who takes account of Karma daily is given a full GNH

score

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Do you consider Karma in the course of your daily life

1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all

Box 10 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

For a country pursing GNH it is important to take account of Karma on a daily

basis because Karma promotes healthy and ethical living ideal for a GNH state

According to CBS for Bhutanese an understanding of the dynamics between causes

and effects are critical to each individuals pursuit for happiness as it tends to provide a

clearer understanding and cultivation of GNH values (pl) Understanding that the real

reason for our sufferings is our own Karma (action through body speech and mind)

serves as an antidote to all our afflictive emotions Karma promotes the sense of helping

each other and living in harmony with all forms of life It is therefore important that a

GNH society take account of Karma daily to promote wholesome actions for a happy

society The indicator of taking account of Karma daily is thus a reflection of Buddhist

principles and is consistent with GNH values

43 General Mental Health (GMH)

11 General Mental Health

The general mental health indicator assesses the mental health of people using the

General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) that would provide a possible indication of

depression anxiety low confidence and concentration levels Unlike the other indicators

under the psychological wellbeing domain the General Mental Health indicator consists

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of fifteen questions (See Appendix 2) Questions related to ones stress level ability to

concentrate anxiety depression feeling of happiness and unhappiness are asked of the

respondents The questions are calculated and interpreted using the Likert scale with

lowest score at 0 and highest possible score at 36 A lower score between the ranges of 0-

15 indicates normal mental wellbeing a median score between 16-20 indicates some

mental distress and a high score of 21-36 indicates severe mental distress (CBS 2008)

The sufficiency cut-off is set as normal mental wellbeing which means people should

not experience any mental distress to get a full GNH score

The CBS (2008) asserts that mental health is an important indicator for the health

status of a population Studies have revealed that mental stress can negatively affect

wellbeing Studies also point out that stress may alter the immune system and increase

susceptibility to disease (CBS 2008)

From the Buddhist perspective psychological distress such as depression lack of

confidence and anxiety are the result of our own afflictive emotions Gyatso (2009)

points out that the overriding cause of mental stress is self-cherishingmdashseeing ones own

physical and mental pleasure as more important than anybody elses People who have

the tendency to use more self-referential terms (I me myself) tend to have more health

problems and earlier deaths (Dalai Lama 2009) According to Buddhism it is our own

ego the focus on the notion of I that cause us to suffer The causes of mental distress

thus lie within us Since cause is within us the cure is also in our own mind Buddhist

teachings maintain that meditating on emptiness4 can get rid of the notion of T Thus

4 A meditation technique

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mental distress similar to other negative emotions are a result of ignorance desire and

hatred

Ven Thubten Gyatso (2009) a Buddhist teacher points out two reasons why

selfishness can cause mental illness The first is that unhappiness arising from

selfishness is cumulative When we do not obtain what we want we often over-react to a

ridiculous extent and our selfish behavior isolates us from others The accumulation of

small failures in life erodes our self-confidence and we fall into depression The second

reason he points out is that selfishness prevents us from doing the one thing that is

guaranteed to bring happiness - cherishing others being compassionate and generous

Self-obsession and self-centered thoughts blind us and we do nothing to help others In

Buddhism self-centeredness never brings real joy and satisfaction but instead causes

suffering

The mind drives every action that occurs through the body speech and mind

The causal factor therefore lies within us It is our ability to deal with emotions that

influences the mental state Since mental stress obstructs the path towards happiness it

opposes the goal of GNH It is therefore important to assess the stress levels of the

population to identify the risk group Intervention by government and offering remedy

(for example offering counseling) and monitoring changes over time can help people

pursue happiness

44 Summary

The purpose of this study is to determine to what extent the indicators under the

psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with

89

the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH Findings in this chapter reveal the following

The four indicators related to negative emotionsmdashjealousy selfishness frustration

suicidal thoughtmdashdo appear in Buddhism Jealousy (dhrag-dog) is clearly stated as an

afflictive emotion while the Buddhist teachings condemn the idea ofself through

which selfishness arises Although the exact term does not appear in Buddhism

frustration is closely related to the meaning of gopa or agitation which arises as a result

of the three poisons Buddhism holds that lack of wisdom or holding on to wrong views

leads to suicidal thoughts Jealousy selfishness frustration and suicidal thought thus

arise out of the three poisons ignorance desire and hatred All four indicators are what

Buddhism calls Klesha afflictive emotions that disturb the mind of oneself and others

thus obstructing the path towards happiness Similarly general mental health distress is a

result of afflictive emotion Buddhist teachings particularly points out that holding on to

the idea of self leads to mental stress

The indicators related to the three positive emotions (Generosity Compassion

and Calmness) and three spiritual practices (Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking

account of Karma) are clearly related to the Buddhist teachings on six paramitas

Generosity is the first paramita a practice towards achieving genuine happiness

Compassion is the root of all Mahayana Buddhist practices and an essential component of

the practice of six paramitas The indicator of calmness is related to Kshanti paramita

which entails the practice of patience tolerance and endurance Similarly the indicator

of meditation and prayer recitation is related to the Buddhist practice of meditative

concentration which is the fourth practice Dhayana paramita Prayer recitation

however does have elements of Bon practices which have been deeply absorbed by the

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local Buddhist culture The indicator of taking account of Karma is clearly influenced by

Buddhism Karma promotes the practice of ethics which is sila paramita that stresses

avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and engaging in virtuous action Overall all of the

positive emotions and practices require wisdom which is prajna paramita The core

teachings of Buddhism thus find a place in each of the indicators Thus it would be

appropriate to conclude that the indicators have been influenced by Buddhism

Each of indicators either contributes to or negatively affects GNH In a GNH

society it is important to establish that people not only experience positive emotions but

also rule out the presence of negative emotions that can cause mental distress It is also

important to determine if people take up spiritual practices to keep the negative emotions

at bay Therefore each indicator under psychological wellbeing relates positively or

negatively with the concept of GNH It can thus be concluded that the indicators of

psychological wellbeing are consistent with GNH values

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CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMMENDATIONS

From the very beginning of its development plan Bhutan chose to ensure the

preservation of its culture tradition and natural resources This came to be called the

philosophy of GNH where peoples spiritual and emotional wellbeing is afforded equal

importance to economic wellbeing GNH recognizes that economic development without

spiritual and emotional wellbeing will not bring happiness to people Several workshops

and discourses held on GNH led to the adoption of the GNH Index a set of indicators to

measure whether Bhutanese society is progressing towards GNH The index comprises

72 indicators grouped under nine domains that go beyond material values and incorporate

all values relevant to a happy life The GNH index is now the most important tool in

guiding the performance of the government towards achieving the goal of GNH The

purpose of this study was to determine to what extent the indicators under the

psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with

the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH The three questions that drove this study are

To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do the indicators reflect

Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept of GNH which does

reflect Buddhist principles The primary data that were used are the eleven indicators and

survey questionnaires developed by the Centre for Bhutan Studies The findings from the laquo

study reveal that each of the indicators under psychological wellbeing reflects Buddhist

principles The ultimate goal in Buddhism is to achieve genuine happiness Inspired by

this belief Bhutan is the only country in the world that officially pursues the state of

happiness The government believes that happiness is in the end what matters the most

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The government has taken the utmost responsibility to create an enabling condition for

people to pursue happiness The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index

measures peoples psychological state which influences the overall wellbeing of people

Since the purpose of this study is to determine the extent to which indicators

reflected Buddhist principles it was necessary to highlight the key Buddhist principles

related to happiness Chapter Three examined the key Buddhist principles related to

happiness Specifically Thogme Zangpos teachings on the six paramitas were used as a

basis to develop the framework of happiness It was observed that happiness is not only

worldly pleasure derived from physical comfort but also an innate state of mind which

can be cultivated through the practice of compassion generosity ethics meditative

concentration patience and wisdom This can bring happiness to the individual and to

the society Although GNH stresses collective happiness Buddhism states that peace

must first be developed in the individual mind before it can contribute to others and the

happiness of the society Thus in the words of Master Shantideva it is not primarily the

outer conditions of our life that determine our happiness or suffering it is our own mind

that creates the cause for happiness or success

Humans experience many emotions and narrowing them down to eleven

indicators is not an easy task There is a strong relationship between emotions and

wellbeing The intensity of pleasant and unpleasant emotions influences the degree of

psychological wellbeing Studies have also shown that emotions play an integral role in

affecting the overall physical health Emotions also have powerful effects in shaping and

regulating social interactions and influencing how one appears to others Like the mind-

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transforming practices in Buddhism the key to a nations progress lies in tracing

problems and solutions to the root causes

The indicators under the psychological wellbeing domain measure peoples

emotional state and the frequency of spiritual practices to eliminate negative emotion

Findings in Chapter Four reveal that each of the indicators of psychological wellbeing

correlates to Buddhist principles on happiness The relationship between the indicators of

psychological wellbeing and Buddhist principles are presented in the table below

Indicators Buddhist Principles

1 Jealousy Dhrag Dhog- Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

2 Selfishness Serna - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

3 Frustration Gopa - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

4 Suicidal Thought Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

5 Generosity Dana Paramita (Bjin ba) Generosity

6 Compassion The root of all Buddhist practices

7 Calmness Kshanti Paramita (Bzod pa) Patience tolerance endurance

8 Meditation Dhyana Parmto Meditative Concentration

9 Prayer Recitation Dhyana ParmitaMeditative Concentration

10 Karma Sila Paramita (Tshul khrim) virtue morality ethics

11 General Mental Health Klesha (Afflictive emotions) causes mental distress

Table 1 Relating the Indicators with Buddhism

The four negative emotion indicatorsmdashselfishness frustration jealousy and

suicidal thoughtmdashare found in Buddhism as afflictive emotions (klesha) arising out of the

three poisons Jealousy (dharg dhog) appears in the Abhidhamma text as an immoral and

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deluded mental factor that feels displeasure in seeing others succeed Similarly

selfishness (sema) is listed as an immoral consciousness in the Abhidhamma Selfishness

is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity Buddhism teaches no-

self (anatta) as an essential principle and therefore strongly condemns the notion of I

through which selfishness arises Frustration in Buddhism is closely related to the term

gopa which is actually translated as agitation Gopa falls under the twenty secondary

immoral delusions in the Abhidhamma text Suicides and suicidal thought in Buddhism

are the result of wrong view Suicide is an unwholesome action and does not end the

problem Suicidal thought occurs because of afflictive emotions (klesha) All these

negative emotions (klesha) cause mental distress

The positive emotion and spiritual practice indicators such as compassion

calmness generosity meditation prayer recitation and taking account of Karma are the

replication of the six paramitas The positive emotions which Buddhists call virtuous

action such as generosity compassion and calmness tend to increase happiness in oneself

and others while negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration affect

psychological health and decrease happiness Since each of the indicators can be clearly

related to Buddhist principles of happiness it can thus be concluded that the

psychological wellbeing indicators are influenced by Buddhism and are consistent with

the concept of GNH One may argue that indicators such as compassion generosity and

calmness are universal values and ethics and may not necessarily be influenced by

Buddhism However in the case of Bhutan the Bhutanese worldview and its political

ethos are largely influenced by Buddhism The philosophy of GNH is also rooted in

Buddhism It is also evident that the government is seeking to measure and cater to long-

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term rather than short-term happiness From the Buddhist perspective short-term

happiness is delivered chiefly by material goods while long-term happiness is derived

from spiritual cultural and social values

This study reveals that Buddhism stresses gaining control over our mind and

cultivating the right kind of habit which is said to be the root of all forms of joy and

happiness Buddhism in the original sense encourages exercises to tame and calm the

mind This study therefore partly seems to support the claims made by scholars such as

Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and Tashi (2004) who have argued that

Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH

Overall this study indicates that if the government creates good policies and

conditions for people GNH cannot be achieved if its citizens are not psychologically

strong For example if citizens are mentally stressed or filled with jealousy they will not

contribute to collective happiness In that sense happiness is inextricably linked to the

inner conditions of ones own mind

Measuring the psychological state of people will help the policy makers make

better decisions The emotional and psychological needs of people therefore must be

considered by the policy makers in order to achieve GNH A study by Sheldon Ryan

Deci and Kasser (2004) found that people pursuing intrinsic goals (emotional intimacy

community contribution and personal growth) had higher happiness expectancies than

those pursuing extrinsic goals (financial success attractive image and famepopularity)

By emphasizing human values of compassion generosity calmness and selflessness as

necessary indicators of GNH the government of Bhutan is providing the basis for

developing policies that focus on these values The domain of psychological wellbeing

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thus focuses on the inner emotional development Within the concept of GNH inner non-

material development is equally important as external material development

Recommendations for Future Studies

The biggest challenge for the government is to combat the negative emotions of

the people The findings of this study reveal that Buddhist teachings are all geared

towards taming the mind and cultivating values that promote happiness Further

Buddhism does not emphasize individualism but emphasizes equality and cooperation

aimed at collective happiness It emphasizes individual effort geared towards universal

happiness Buddhist teachings and method to calm the mind can contribute to GNH

Ekman Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) suggest that Buddhist practices offer a

therapy not just for the disturbed but for all who seek to improve the quality of their

lives Although the majority of the population in Bhutan is Buddhist 25 are non-

Buddhist (CIA fact book 2009) Some scholars have argued however that Buddhism

can also be taught as education on human values (Mancall 2004 amp Lokamitra 2004)

Therefore extensive research on how this might be done could provide valuable lessons

insights and guidelines for the purpose of promoting GNH values

As pointed out earlier there is not much information available on how the

sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From the information available on the

CBS website however it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut off is set at a level

that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises questions because

there is not any literature or studies conducted on how the sufficiency cut off has actually

been set Arbitrarily setting a cut off without any basis or setting it based on some

assumptions can lead to questionable results Therefore an in-depth study on the basis

97

for setting the sufficiency cut off seems necessary to avoid misinterpretation by policy

makers

This study analyzed the indicators to determine the extent to which they reflected

Buddhist principles However it was observed that indicators of psychological wellbeing

were measured by questionnaires that only examined the frequency of occurrence of

emotions and the spiritual practices It is important that the government not only

recognize peoples suffering but identify its causes as well For example the questionnaire

notes the frequency of negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration but

does not identify their causes In order for the policy makers to identify effective

solutions the cause must be noted also Further the key terms such as generosity

compassion frustration and prayer recitation were not clearly defined For example the

term generosity could imply the practice rather than the emotional state of generosity

One can practice generosity yet not feel emotionally generous a practice can differ from

an emotional state Similarly the choices of answers such as often sometimes daily have

not been defined These terms can mean different things to different people To avoid

misinterpretation it is necessary that the key terms be clearly defined and nuanced

This study focused only on one of the domains of GNH index Although a similar

study needs to be carried out for the other eight domains there is a need for further

investigation into many of the issues related to the GNH index such as How would the

GNH index affect the government policies Does the index give equal importance to the

emotional spiritual and economical wellbeing of the people Does the index capture the

real essence of human happiness

98

References

A Manual of Abhidhamma (1987) Edited by Narada Maha Thera Malaysia Buddhist Missionary Society Retrieved from httpwwwbuddhanetnetpdf fileabhidhammapdf

Anguttara (nd) Dana Generosity Retrieved from (Anguttara IV 57) httpwwwbuddhamindinfoleftsidelifestv-2danahtm

Annas J (1999) Aristotles Ethics Critical Essay (p 35- 56)Edited by Nancy Sherman United States of America Rowman amp Littlefield Publishers Inc

Bancroft A (ed) (1997) The Dhammapada USA Element Inc

BBC (2006) Buddhist worships Retrieved from httpwwwbbccoukreligionreligionsbuddhisrncustomsworship 1 shtml

Berenbaum H Raghavan C Le H Vernon L amp Gomez J (1999) Disturbances in emotion In Daniel Kahneman Ed Diener and Norbert Schwarz (Eds) Wellbeing The foundation ofhedonic psychology (pp 267-287) New York Russell Sage Foundation

Berzin A (2004) Dealing with Jealousy Retrieved from httpwwwberzinarchivescomwebenarchivessutraylevel3 loiong materialgen eraldealing iealousvhtmln9203d70b0a90c002

Bhutan Observer (2010) A GNH School httpwwwbhutanobserverbt201 Qbhutan-news01a-gnh-schoolhtml

Boonyakiat S (2009) A Christian Theology of Suffering in the Context of Theravada Buddhism in Thailand

Brooks AC (2008) Gross National Happiness Why Happiness Matters for America and How We Can Get More of It USA

Buddha Dharma Education Association (NA) Fundamentals of Buddhism Karma Retrieved from httpwwwbuddhanetnetfundbud9htm

Buddhist Faith Fellowship of Connecticut (nd) Buddhist Prayers Retrieved from httpbuddhistfaithtripodcompureland sanghaid 14html

Business Bhutan (April 172010) A meditating school Retrieved from httpwwwbusinessbhutanbtp= 1366

99

Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) (2008) Explanation of GNH Index Centre for Bhutan Studies Retrieved on June 12 2009 from httpwwwgrossnationalhappinesseomgnhIndexintruductionGNHaspx

Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) (2008) Dimension Psychological Wellbeing Retrieved from httpwwwgrossnationalhappinesseomgnhIndexgnhlndexVariablesaspx

Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) (2008) Psychological Wellbeing Report Retrieved from httpwwwgrossnationalhappinesscomsurvevReportspsvchologicaIpwellbeingr eportdavidpdf

Central Intelligent Agency (CIA) (2009) Bhutan Retrieved from httpswwwciagovlibrarvpublicationsthe-world-factbookgeosbthtml

Chophel S (2008) Cultural diversity and resilience Journal of Bhutan Studies Centre for Bhutan Studies Thimphu Bhutan

Chopra S (2010) An exclusive interview with His Holiness the Dalai Lama Retrieved from httpwwwlifepositivecomspiritworld-religionsbuddhismdalai-interviewasp

Colman R (2008a) Application of the Genuine Progress Index to Nova Scotia Measuring Genuine Progress Indicators Accounts and Policy Retrieved from httpwwwgpiatlanticorgpdfintegratedpolicvapppdf

ColmanR(2008b) Measuring Progress towards Gross National Happiness Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference Held in Bhutan Retrieved on 30th

September 2009 from httpwwwbhutanstudiesorgbtadminpubFilesGNH41 GNH4pdf

ColmanR amp SagebienJ (2004) Measuring Genuine Progress- Indicators for Enlightened Society Proceedings of the First International Seminar on Operationalization of Gross National Happiness (p252- 259) Centre for Bhutan Studies

ConnorS(2003) Can Buddhists transcend mental reservations Retrieved on 14th April 2010 from httpwwwbiopsvchiatrvcomhappinessbuddhisthtml

Creswell J W (2007) Qualitative inquiry and research design Choosing among five approaches (2nd ed) Thousand Oaks CA SAGE

Dalai Lama (1981) Four noble truths A teaching given in Dharamsala Retrieved from httpwww Iamaveshecomindex phpsect=articleampid=380

100

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

There are many people to thank for the successful completion of this study I

would first like to thank my supervisor Dr John Valk for his continuous support

guidance and encouragement I would also like to thank my co-supervisors Dr Emery

Hyslop-Margison and Dr Ellen Rose for their guidance and time which helped me

complete my study on time I would also like to thank the University of New Brunswick

especially the Graduate School Unit for partially funding my study My sincere thanks

also go to the Royal Government of Bhutan for granting me study leave

I would also like to thank Ms Tshokey Zangmo Researcher at the Centre for

Bhutan Studies for providing me with information on GNH Index and for clearing my

doubts I am also thankful to Ven Lama Mepham a Buddhist meditation teacher at the

University of Arkansas for guiding me and sharing his knowledge on Buddhist principles

Lastly I am very thankful to my family and friends for their continued love and support

iii

Table of Contents

ABSTRACT ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii

Table of Contents iv

List of Tables vi

List of Figures vii

List of Abbreviations viii

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1 11 The Bhutanese Economy and Culture 3

12 Political History and Transition to Democracy 5

13 Gross National Happiness the Development Philosophy of Bhutan 7

14 Explanation of Gross National Happiness Index 8

15 Research Questions and Objective of the Study 13

16 Methodology 14

17 Limitations and Significance of the study 17

18 Summary 18

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 20 21 Buddhism and Gross National Happiness 21

22 Evolution of the Concept 29

23 GNH Discourses and Debates 33

24 Quantifying Gross National Happiness 37

25 Summary 39

CHAPTER THREE THE BUDDHIST PRINCIPLES OF HAPPINESS 41 31 Buddhist View of Happiness 42

32 Key Mahayana Buddhist Principles 45

321 The four noble truths 45

322 The Law of Karma Principle of Interdependence and Compassion 47 iv

33 The Buddhist Happiness Framework 50

331 Generosity 55

332 Ethics 55

333 Patience and Tolerance 57

334 Perseverance 58

335 Meditative Concentration 59

336 Wisdom 60

34 Summary 61

CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING INDICATORS 63

41 Psychological Wellbeing Measures 64

42 Emotional Balance 66

43 Spiritual Practices 80

43 General Mental Health (GMH) 87

44 Summary 89

CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMMENDATIONS 92

References 99

Appendix 1 110

Appendix 2 Ill Curriculum Vitae

v

List of Tables

Table 1 Relating the Indicators with Buddhism

VI

List of Figures

Figure 1 Map of Bhutan (Source CIA Fact Book) 4

Figure 2 Suffering and its causes 53

Figure 3 Overcoming Suffering 54

vii

List of Abbreviations

CBS Centre for Bhutan Studies

CIA Central Intelligence Agency

DPT Druk Phuensum Tshogpa

FYP Five Year Plan

GDP - Gross Domestic Product

GHQ General Health Questionnaire

GNH Gross National Happiness

GNHC Gross National Happiness Commission

GPI Genuine Progress Index

HDI Human Development Index

MoA Ministry of Agriculture

MoHE Ministry of Health and Education

NEC National Environment Commission

NSB National Statistic Bureau

RGoB Royal Government of Bhutan

TCoB Tourism Council of Bhutan

UNDP United Nation Development Programme

viii

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

Measuring the wellbeing of people is important in determining whether peoples

lives are improving or worsening over time Many countries in the world today focus on

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as a basis to measure the economic wellbeing of the

people Although GDP mainly measures market production it has been treated as if it

measures economic wellbeing The focus on economic growth measures fails to capture

fully the overall wellbeing of the people (Kusago 2006 Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009)

Due to the failure of GDP to measure the non-economic aspect of human wellbeing

alternative measurements such as Genuine Progress Index (GPI) and Human

Development Index (HDI) have been introduced GPI and HDI include many important

factors that contribute to healthy living but they are still calculated based on monetary

values (Hargen 2002 Kusago 2006) and do not capture the Bhutanese concept of Gross

National Happiness

Gross National Happiness (GNH) is the central development philosophy of

Bhutan (Planning Commission 1999) This unique philosophy aims at maximizing

human wellbeing and minimizing human suffering by balancing economic needs with the

spiritual and emotional needs of people Bhutans fourth king Jigme Singye Wangchuck

coined the term Gross National Happiness in the late 1980s when he stated that Gross

National Happiness is more important than Gross Domestic Product (as cited by Ura

2008 para 1) His vision was to create a GNH society which means the creation of an

enlightened society in which happiness and wellbeing of all people and sentient beings is

the ultimate purpose of governance (as cited by Ura 2008 para2) Since it was difficult

1

for the government to list every factor that contributes to the happiness of its people four

major areas were identified as the pillars of GNH cultural promotion equitable

economic development good governance and environmental conservation (Planning

Commission 1999) These four pillars constitute the broad strategic framework through

which national development processes are actualized for the maximization of GNH

Since the adoption of the concept of GNH the government has consistently

sought to address development beyond income or economic growth The country lacked

however a specific and relevant development index that takes into account the core

principles and dimensions of GNH In November 2008 coinciding with the coronation

of the fifth King of Bhutan Jigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchuck the Government of

Bhutan adopted the GNH index The purpose of the GNH index is to reflect GNH

values set benchmarks and track policies and performances of the country (Ura 2008

pl) Seventy-two measurable indicators grouped under nine domains have been

identified as the GNH index The Government of Bhutan states that the country is now

ready with a set of mathematical formulae to measure human wellbeing and government

performances towards achieving GNH (as cited by Dorji 2009) The purpose of this

study is to analyze the GNH index to determine the extent to which it reflects Buddhist

principles and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH

This chapter is divided into eight sections The first section presents a brief

background of Bhutan its people economy and culture The second section presents

Bhutans political journey from monarchy to democracy The concept of Gross National

Happiness is discussed in the third section The fourth section explains the nine domains

of the GNH index and how the GNH index is administered in the country The fifth

2

section presents the research questions and objective of the study The sixth section

presents the methodology of the study The seventh section lays down the significance

and limitation of the study The summary of this chapter and the outline of the study are

presented in the eighth section

11 The Bhutanese Economy and Culture

Bhutan is a tiny landlocked kingdom with a population of 691141 (Central

Intelligent Agency [CIA] Factbook 2009) and having a total area of 38394 square

kilometres (National Statistical Bureau 2007) The country is sandwiched between two

leading economies India and China (Figure 1) Until the 1960s Bhutan was the most

isolated nation in the world Today about 69 of the population in Bhutan are

smallholder agrarian farmers and they practice mainly mixed (crop and livestock)

farming systems (Gross National Happiness Commission 2010) Of the population

945 represent people from the age group of 0-64 years while only 55 of the

population are 65 years and above (CIA Factbook 2009) Bhutans GDP per capita was

estimated at $2218 in 2009 (International Monetary Fund 2010) The country is almost

entirely mountainous with altitudes ranging from 240 meters to 7541 meters above sea

level About 725 of the country consists of forest land (National Statistical Bureau

2007) and the policy of the government is to maintain at least 60 forest cover (Ministry

of Agriculture 2002) Bhutan has been declared one of the ten global biodiversity

Hotspots (National Environment Commission 1999)

The Bhutanese culture and development policies are greatly influenced by

Buddhism The philosophy of GNH has its roots in Buddhism Under this unique

3

philosophy Bhutan has been able to balance modernization with its ancient culture and

traditions From the very beginning of the enthronement in 1972 the fourth king Jigme

Singye Wangchuck was very clear that Gross National Happiness is more important than

Gross Domestic Product According to him happiness is the ultimate common goal of

every human being and everything else is a means for fulfilling this wish He believed

that happiness is an indicator of good development and good society (Thinley 2005)

This led the country to adopt GNH as its development priority

25 SO Km

50 25

G r e a

S Gasa Ozong

Toogsa THIMPHU Paro

Tashigang

Samdrup Jongkhar Phuntsholing

r~

BANGLADESH

Figure 1 Map of Bhutan (Source CIA Fact Book)

4

12 Political History and Transition to Democracy

Bhutanese polity is said to have begun in 1616 with the arrival of Zhabdrung

Ngawang Namgyal from Tibet Through the spread of Buddhism Zhabdrung was able to

unify the country Buddhism provided the ideological basis for unifying Bhutan

(Mancall 2004) Zhabdrung was both a religious and political figure in Bhutan He was

the head of theocratic state that he himself created (Ministry of Health amp Education

[MoHE] 1994) He started the dual system of governance known as the Choesi system

where political affairs were looked after by the Desi1 and religious affairs by the head

abbot called the Jekhenpo Zhabdrung died in the year 1651 The official announcement

of his death was however made only in the year 1705 There were several reasons for

this chief of which there was no clear successor to Zhabdrung During the period 1651 -

1706 the country was ruled in the name of Zhabdrung who was said to be in religious

retreat by various Desi appointed under the Choesi system established by the Zhabdrung

himself (MoHE 1994) The period between 1705 to 1907 was marked by internal

stability and external invasion Ultimately in the year 1907 Ugyen Wangchuck was

unanimously elected as the first hereditary king of Bhutan (MoHE 1994) Since then

visionary descendants of the Wangchuck dynasty have ruled the country

Bhutans political system however evolved from a monarchy into a constitutional

democracy Democracy did not come to Bhutan overnight the process of democratization

was going on long before but slowly and cautiously King Jigme Singye Wangchuck

continued the policy of controlled development with particular focus on the preservation

A title given to the person who looks after the political matters in the country

5

of the environment and Bhutans unique culture Yet during his reign there was a steady

decentralization of decision-making processes which aimed to enhance peoples

participation in the formulation of development policies and activities and to strengthen

the traditional local institutions This process started largely in 1981 with the

establishment of the District Development Committees (Dzongkhag Yargye

Tshogchungs) and in 1991 with the establishment of the Block Development Committees

(Geog Yargye Tshogchungs) The people democratically elect all members of these

committees The most momentous change came in 1998 when the executive powers

previously held by the King was granted to the Council of Ministers (GNHC 2008)

On 17 December 2005 King Jigme Singye Wangchuck announced to a stunned

nation that the first general elections would be held in 2008 and that he would abdicate

the throne in favor of his eldest son the crown prince Jigme Khesar Namgyal

Wangchuck Unlike other countries where people fight for democracy the opposite

occurred in Bhutan people were given power without having to fight for it The fifth king

was formally crowned on November 6 2008 becoming the worlds youngest reigning

monarch and head of the newest democracy The fifth King like his father proclaimed

that fulfilling the vision of GNH would be one of the main responsibilities of his reign

He said As the king of a Buddhist nation my duty is not only to ensure your happiness

today but to create the fertile ground from which you may gain the fruits of spiritual

pursuit and attain good Karma (Wangchuck 2008 para8) The newly elected

government Druk Phuensum Tshogpa (DPT) is also committed to the principles of GNH

6

13 Gross National Happiness the Development Philosophy of Bhutan

The notion that the emotional and spiritual wellbeing of humans should be

included into the development policies is gaining a lot of international support The

importance of the concept of GNH is articulated in the policy document Bhutan 2020-A

Vision for Peace Prosperity and Happiness (Planning Commission 1999) which states

that its aim is to maximize the happiness of all Bhutanese and to enable them to achieve

their full and innate potential as human beings (p41) Reflecting the importance of the

concept the promotion of enabling conditions for GNH has also been enshrined as an

important principle of state policy under Article 9 of the Constitution (Royal Government

of Bhutan [RGoB] 2008)

GNH is a noble and holistic approach towards development It seeks to

complement inner happiness with outer circumstances It addresses both material and

non-material wellbeing Although material wealth is associated with physical wellbeing

ones mental state or inner wellbeing is not conditioned by material needs alone GNH

supports the notion that happiness pursued and realized within the context of the greater

good of society offers the best possibility for the sustained happiness of the individual

The society as a whole cannot obtain happiness if individuals compete irresponsibly for

it To this end GNH recognizes that happiness can be realized as a collective goal it

cannot be left as an individual goal (Thinley 2005 Ura 2008) Prime Minister Jigme

YThinley (2005) in his speech at the 2nd Conference of GNH at Halifax stated GNH

stresses collective happiness to be addressed directly through public policies in which

happiness is an explicit criterion in projects and programmes (p7) If a governments

policy framework and its goals are adverse to happiness happiness will fail as a

7

collective goal (Ura 2008) In the GNH context a government concerned with the

happiness of its citizens must create an enabling environment for people to achieve

happiness

The concept of GNH is greatly influenced by Buddhism The Bhutanese

worldview including its social cultural and political ethos is rooted in Buddhism The

policymakers in Bhutan hold the view that simply imposing development models from

outside which do not take religion and tradition into account will not only serve to

diminish existing culture but will also meet with limited success (Planning

Commission 1992 p66) The Bhutan-Vision 2020 strongly reaffirms the notion of Gross

National Happiness as the central development concept for the country This vision

emphasizes a need and desire to balance economic development with cultural and

environmental conservation

14 Explanation of Gross National Happiness Index

Bhutan is not a GNH state at this moment it aspires to be one The Bhutanese

government is of the view that wellbeing arises in a society when sustainable and

equitable economic development is balanced with environmental and cultural

preservation and good governance (Rinzin 2006 Thinley 2005) These four pillars have

constantly guided the development policies in Bhutan This strategy has been referred to

as the middle path which is derived from Buddhist principles of avoiding extremism

and taking a balanced view (Planning Commission 1999) In November 2008 the

government adopted the GNH index as a means to measure GNH The government felt

the need for a GNH index for without some kind of measurement system GNH cannot

8

guide practical policies and programs (CBS 2008) Under the GNH index 72 indicators

were identified under the following nine domains psychological wellbeing cultural

resilience education health time use and balance good governance community vitality

ecological diversity and living standard The nine domains of Gross National Happiness

are explained below

1 Psychological wellbeing as an end includes satisfaction with all elements of life

life enjoyment and subjective wellbeing Under this domain there are 11 measurable

indicators (eg frequency of feeling of emotions such as jealousy compassion and

generosity) classified in three areas General psychological distress indicators Emotional

balance indicators and Spirituality practices indicators This study focuses on the

indicators under this domain

2 Time Use domain measures how individuals spend their time There are only two

indicators under this domain the sleeping hours and working hours The time spent

delivering voluntary and social service is also taken into account

3 Community Vitality refers to the quality of life in the community This domain

intends to measure how strong active and inclusive relationships are within communities

that work to foster individual and collective wellbeing It examines the nature of trust

belongingness vitality of caring relationships safety in the home and the community

and giving and volunteering The community vitality indicators are Family vitality

Safety Reciprocity Trust Social support Socialization and Kinship density

4 Cultural Diversity and Resilience This domain measures the diversity and

strength of cultural traditions The indicators study core values and perception of

changes in values and traditions Bhutanese tradition is a very broad term that

9

encompasses customs rituals religious ceremonies traditional dress sports music

dance poetry arts and code of behavior among other things The indicators of cultural

diversity and resilience are Dialect use Traditional sports Community festivity Artisan

skill Value transmission and Basic precept

5 Health Good health is said to have a significant positive effect on happiness The

GNH health domain assesses the health status of the population the determinants of

health and the health system Health status indicators show information on self-rated

health disabilities body mass index and number of healthy days experienced per month

Health indicators also measure the degree of knowledge about diseases and breast feeding

practices The health indicators are Health status Health knowledge and Barrier to

health

6 Education In a GNH society education should contribute to individual and

collective happiness The education domain assesses different types of knowledge and

skills that people have acquired in their lifetime It includes historical cultural civic

ecological and indigenous knowledge and skills which are mostly acquired informally

The education indicators are Education attainment Dzongkha (national) language and

Folk and historical literacy

7 Ecological Diversity and Resilience This indicator looks at peoples perception

of ecology The ecological diversity and resilience indicators are Ecological degradation

Ecological knowledge and Afforestation

8 Living standard The living standard indicators assess the levels of income at the

individual and household levels sense of financial security room ratio food security and

10

house ownership Thus the living standard indicators are Income Housing Food

security and Hardship

9 Good Governance The domain of good governance evaluates how people

perceive various government functions in terms of their efficacy honesty and quality

The indicators include human rights leadership at various levels of government

performance of government in delivering services and controlling inequality and

corruption peoples trust in media judiciary and police The indicators of good

governance are Government performance Freedom and Institutional trust indicator

A pilot survey was also carried out between September 2006 to January 2007 in

nine districts on 350 randomly chosen respondents to test the feasibility and robustness of

GNH pilot questionnaires The GNH index however was developed based on the result

of a final survey carried out in December 2007 to March 2008 (CBS 2008) A total of

950 respondents based on random sampling were interviewed in 12 districts by the CBS

in the final survey The questionnaires covered the key areas affecting the values and

principles of GNH roughly divided into the nine domains mentioned above CBS (2008)

states that the nine domains were selected on normative grounds and are equally

weighted because each dimension is considered relatively equal in terms of equal

intrinsic importance as a component of Gross National Happiness (pl) Within each

domain several indicators that seemed likely to remain informative across time had high

response rates and were relatively uncorrelated (CBS 2008 p 1) were selected For

example in the psychological wellbeing domain the respondents were asked how often

they felt emotions such as anger guilt selfishness pride calmness compassion

forgiveness disappointment jealousy and frustration Respondents were also given the

11

option to list other emotions that they often experienced From the survey results only

eleven indicators were selected under the psychological wellbeing domain In total 72

indicators under the nine domains were selected as the GNH index (See Appendix 1)

The GNH index is to be administered every two years in the country A survey is

currently being carried out by the CBS in all the twenty districts of Bhutan Tshoki

Zangmo a researcher at CBS states that the GNH survey will determine whether the

conditions leading to happiness have improved or not (Doiji 2010) Several structured

semi-structured and open-ended questions under each of the 72 indicators are asked of

the respondents to assess life satisfaction in each of the nine domains Any individual

having sufficient achievements in each of the nine domains is considered happy (CBS

2008) Unlike the GPI and HDI which uses GDP data the GNH index is measured based

on self-report assessment For example the GPI heavily relies on quantitative or

objective data produced by Statistics Canada as opposed to qualitative or subjective

survey data The GPI uses personal consumption expenditures as a starting point Those

elements which are regarded as regrettable are deducted mdash for example cost of crime

accidents and pollutions Values of leisure time unpaid housework parenting and

volunteer work are added back (Colman 2008a) All aggregation is done in terms of

monetary values The GNH index however is entirely depended on the self-report

survey data According to Diener and Lucas (1999) the self-report measurement of

subjective well being displays adequate levels of validity and reliability The GNH index

is calculated in two steps The first step involves setting a sufficiency cut off and

determining whether respondents have attained sufficiency in each of the nine domains

12

The final step involves aggregating the data using the formula GNH = 1 - Average

squared distance from cutoff

15 Research Questions and Objective of the Study

Measuring what really matters to people and framing policies in accordance with

the needs of people would help realize the goal of GNH The GNH index is an attempt by

the government to measure how well their citizens are doing economically socially and

emotionally The Centre for Bhutan Studies (2008) states that the nine domains identified

are regarded as the components of happiness and well-being in Bhutan However the

resulting question is To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do

the indicators reflect Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept

of GNH The objectives of my study are to analyze the indicators to determine to what

extent they reflect Buddhist principles and to determine the coherence of the indicators

with the concept of GNH

Although conducting an in-depth analysis of each of the 72 indicators would be

most beneficial due to the vastness of the indicators this study will focus only on the

indicators that fall under the domain of psychological wellbeing (see Appendix 1) I

choose this domain because many of the GNH indicators (for example education health

living standard time use ecology) are similar to those found in the conventional

economic measures like GDP Genuine Progress Indicators (GPI) Human Development

Index (HDI) and Quality of Life The psychological wellbeing indicator has not yet been

included in any of the national measures (CBS 2008) Since the measure of

13

psychological wellbeing is something new and unexplored as a development indicator it

would be a good place to begin assessing the indicators

16 Methodology

The main objective of this study is to determine the influence of Buddhist

principles and more specifically Buddhist principles of happiness on the indicators of

psychological wellbeing and the coherence of indicators with the concept of GNH This

policy analysis study uses the framework of Buddhist principles of happiness to analyze

the indicators Policy analysis research is associated with determining the nature causes

and effects of governmental decisions or policies designed to cope with specific social

problems Nagel (1980) points out four methods on which policy analysis focuses

determining what causes the policy determining what policies they are responsible for

determining what affects them and determining what policies will achieve or maximize a

given goal This study focuses on determining the influence of Buddhist principles on the

governments policy of measuring GNH and the consistency of the indicators with the

concept of GNH

Buddhism has long played an important role in the political economic and social

lives of Bhutanese It is in this context that Buddhism is used as a basis to assess the most

important development tool of Bhutan Gross National Happiness Index The intent is not

to prove that Buddhism is the best way to achieve GNH but to determine whether GNH

indicators reflect Buddhist principles of happiness This is done for three reasons First

the philosophy of GNH is understood to be engrained in Buddhism This study will

determine in part the extent to which this is the case (see chapter two) Second Bhutan is

14

a Buddhist country where the majority of the population is Buddhist (CIA 2009) As

such this study will determine the extent to which Buddhist principles have influenced

the indicators Third scholars such as Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and

Tashi (2004) have argued that Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH This study

attempts to analyze the psychological wellbeing indicators to determine the Buddhist

influence which then might support the notion put forth by them

Literature related to Gross National Happiness and the influence of Buddhism on

GNH are reviewed The origin of the concept of GNH and various discourses held on

GNH are explored Government documents and reports and secondary data sources such

as newspaper and research on GNH serve as important sources The primary data that are

used for the analysis are the eleven indicators of psychological wellbeing developed by

the CBS Each indicator is examined to see the degree to which it reflects Buddhist

principles of happiness

The indicators consist of positive emotions negative emotions and practices to

overcome negative emotions In a research design it is important to establish a

conceptual framework that acknowledges how the theoretical perspective will shape an

inquiry (Creswell 2007) To this end I will examine the Buddhist literature to find key

principles related to happiness Those principles and ideas that affect happiness will be

discussed In particular the key principles such as the four noble truths law of Karma

principle of interdependence and compassion will be discussed Further a theoretical

basis for happiness will be developed based on the Buddhist teachings of six paramitas

An understanding of these principles will assist the reader in gaining a sense of the scope

15

and direction of this study Overall the Buddhist principles of happiness framework will

serve as a basis for assessing the indicators

Since Bhutan is a Mahayana Buddhist country the key principles of Mahayana

Buddhist teachings will be examined The very popular Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse

Laglen will serve as a primary source This important Buddhist text on the thirty-seven

bodhisattva practices was written by the great Buddhist saint Thogme Zangpo (1245-

1369) The text is a summarization of the original teachings of Lord Buddha from

hundreds of volumes and contains all the key points of the vast and profound teachings

The text is used in all the schools of Bhutan In particular the six paramitas will be used

for the purpose of this study The thirty-seven practices were written to help every

sentient being achieve genuine happiness Therefore this study will examine the

teachings related to the six paramitas to determine the extent to which they are reflected

in the psychological wellbeing indicators Teachings by various Buddhist teachers such

as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will also be used

The Buddhist text Abhidhamma which is known as the higher teachings of the

Buddha and also called the ultimate teachings is also referenced for the analysis of the

indicators The text elucidates the working of mind or psyche thoughts thought-

processes and mental states The mind has been broken down into six primary and fifty-

one secondary consciousnesses representing the working of the psyche from an ethical

standpoint Abhidamma highlights wholesome and unwholesome emotions as well as

how they arise Since this study is on the analysis of the psychological wellbeing

indicators the text is appropriate However only those emotions which correspond to the

indicators are referred to for this study

16

17 Limitations and Significance of the study

There are three limitations recognized in this study First the theme of this study

focuses on the extent to which Buddhist principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH

indicators Happiness is a concept that can be viewed from a number of perspectives

Since the concept of GNH is inspired by Buddhism it is most appropriate that the

indicators be examined to determine the extent to which they reflect Buddhist principles

and then most specifically Mahayana Buddhist principles Further there are numerous

Buddhist teachings on happiness The teachings that are primarily used are those of

Master Thogme Zangpo the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche

Second the GNH index is still very new A survey was carried out to study the

indicators in twelve districts but the index has not yet been applied to the whole country

As such the GNH index is still in its infant stage and not many resources related to the

GNH index are available

The third limitation of this study is that only the indicators under the

psychological wellbeing domain are analyzed Findings from the preliminary survey of

the GNH index are not discussed

Exploring the psychological wellbeing domain is significant for various reasons

First there has been no study conducted on the indicators so far This is the first study

that analyzes the indicators and explores the relationship of the indicators to Buddhism

This study opens up a new perspective for future researchers Scholars interested in

studying the GNH index may use this study as a basis to analyze the other domains of

GNH Only one domain is explored in this study The remaining eight domains could be

an area of future research

17

Second the GNH index is the most important tool for guiding and analyzing the

government policy since the government will be designing policies based on the GNH

index The GNH index and its implementation will have a significant impact on the

design implementation and assessment of policy and the perceptions Bhutanese have of

the direction their society is taking Since what is measured affects what is done it is

important that the right indicators be used if measurements are flawed decisions can be

distorted (Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009) Therefore it is important to determine

whether the indicators cohere with the GNH concept

18 Summary

This chapter provides an overview of the study The chapter began by looking at

Bhutans culture economy and political history including its transition to democracy

The concept of Gross National Happiness and its indicators the objective the

methodology limitation and significance of study were also presented in this chapter

Chapter Two will provide the review of literature on the GNH It explores how

the concept of GNH first originated It then argues that the concept of GNH has been

influenced by key Buddhist principles based on the eightfold path which are linked to

each pillar of GNH Various workshops held on GNH that ultimately led to the

development of the GNH index are also discussed

Chapter Three will provide the framework to analyze the psychological

wellbeing indicators The key Buddhist principles related to happiness are examined

Specifically the four noble truths law of Karma principle of interdependence and

compassion are presented The Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse Lagin the 37 practices

18

of Bodhisattva are used to highlight Buddhist principles of happiness Specifically the

teachings on six paramitas are referenced to elucidate those principles

Chapter Four presents the core of the study The indicators of psychological

wellbeing are analyzed through the framework described in Chapter Three Each

indicator is examined from the perspective of Buddhist principles It highlights the extent

to which each indicator reflects the Buddhist principles of happiness and the consistency

of the indicators with the concept of GNH

Chapter Five concludes the study and offers some recommendations for future

studies

19

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW

There seems to be a unanimous agreement that Gross National Happiness (GNH)

is drawn from Buddhism but recognition of the influence of Buddhism on GNH is rather

implicit This may be due to the fact that Bhutan did not have the full academic

construction of GNH until recently When the concept of GNH was first pronounced in

the late 1980s it was just an abstract philosophy The concept has now gained more

depth and dimension through analysis and discourse While scholars such as Tashi (1999

2004) Priesner (1999) and Zangmo (2009) have linked Buddhism to GNH others have

argued for the importance of Buddhism in achieving the goal of GNH This chapter

reviews the influence of Buddhism on the concept of GNH Specifically the relationship

between the core concept of GNH and its four pillars to Buddhist principles is explored

Since this study uses Buddhism as the key lens in analyzing the extent to which Buddhist

principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH indicators the focus here is to

understand the centrality of Buddhism in the philosophy of GNH

The review is divided into four main sections The first section examines how the

core concept of GNH and the key teachings of Buddhism are related Literature points

out that key Buddhist principles such as interdependence Karma and the noble eightfold

path are linked to general themes that promote GNH The second section looks at how

the concept of GNH evolved Early Bhutanese history dating back to the 17th century

when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of living is explored This section

examines how Bhutan broke its isolationist policies and introduced planned development

giving priority to the preservation of its culture and environment thus giving birth to the

noble philosophy of GNH The third section discusses the various discourses held on 20

GNH that ultimately led to the development of the GNH index The final section of the

review discusses the idea of quantifying and measuring GNH The chapter concludes by

questioning whether the GNH index which is used as a basis to measure peoples

wellbeing in Bhutan captures the real essence of GNH

21 Buddhism and Gross National Happiness

Gross National Happiness is not a promise to make every individual happy This

is a common misconception The concept of GNH simply stresses the responsibility of

the government to create an environment for citizens to seek happiness Since all humans

value happiness the government of Bhutan takes the view that it cannot be left

exclusively to private individual devices and strivings (CBS 2008 pl) In the GNH

context the government should create by means of public policies addressing both

economic and emotional needs of the people an environment conducive for people to

pursue happiness Australian psychologist Suellen Donnelly (2004) defines happiness as

the sum of satisfaction with life domains and this satisfaction she states is judged against

the individuals and the societys values Happiness indeed depends on our social values

In Bhutan peoples social and cultural values are largely influenced by Buddhism GNH

thus places emphasis on happiness and wellbeing of people through promotion of social

and cultural values

Priesner (1999) Tashi (2004) and Zangmo (2009) argue that Buddhism and GNH

are intricately linked Zangmo (2009) points out that the concept of GNH is deeply rooted

in the rich traditions of Mahayana Buddhism Doiji and Pankaj (2004) state that GNH is

essentially a summarization of the basic tenets of Vajrayana Buddhism which embraces

21

harmony and compassion (p377) Vajrayana Buddhism is an offshoot of Mahayana

Buddhism The term Mahayana and Vajrayana is used interchangeably in Bhutan

Mahayana Buddhism emphasizes individual spiritual development rather than material

rewards compassion for others tolerance living in harmony with nature and the

importance of making the right choice Based on these values GNH seeks to achieve and

pave a middle path between material and spiritual aspects of life which are referred to as

peljor gongphel (economic development) and gakid (happiness and peace) (Zangmo

2009) Schumacher (1989) asserts that in a Buddhist society the lifestyle is strongly

influenced by Buddhist principles based on the Noble Eightfold Path The influence of

Buddhism is highly visible in every aspect of Bhutanese life Article 3(1) of the

Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan states Buddhism is the spiritual heritage of

Bhutan which promotes the principles and values of peace non-violence compassion

and tolerance (p 9) Buddhism here is seen as a spiritual practice

According to Buddhism the main purpose of life the heart of being human is

happiness what we all seek knowingly or unknowingly is happiness (Rabjam Rimpoche

as cited by Tourism Council of Bhutan [TCoB] 2008) The chief goal of Buddhism is to

remove sufferings and achieve genuine happiness Tashi (2004) points out that the

cultivation of happiness is central to Buddhism Buddhism states that wealth pleasure

and power are all sought for achieving happiness but these are all material and only the

means to achieve short-term happiness As humans strive for happiness the end goal is

often forgotten and people spend time pursuing the means for their own sake In the

process humans remain deeply unsatisfied because they place all their hopes and fears in

the material outer conditions and neglect inner condition for happiness Happiness in

22

Buddhism depends on our actions and how we view and interpret the world Rabjam

Rimpoche states that although it is difficult to change the world it is always possible to

change the way we look at it (as cited by TCoB 2008) Buddhist teachings stress the

importance of training the mind and developing a set of human qualities such as

altruistic love compassion inner peace and inner strength

Similarly the concept of GNH emphasizes that happiness is the end goal and

economic development is just a means to achieve happiness GNH claims happiness to be

a major focus in assessing the welfare of the people Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley

states that GNH is all about living with basic human values in a sustainable way (Bhutan

Observer 2010) This view is influenced by Buddhist principles Buddhism advocates

living in harmony with nature and respecting all forms of life Although GNH places

equal importance on both material and non-material wellbeing of the people the idea of

GNH essentially is to encourage a rethinking of what is important in peoples lives is it

the ability to produce and consume or is it the happiness of its people derived from its

social and cultural values When Bhutan opened up to the outside world in 1961 it was

overwhelmed to see that the world had achieved tremendous development in every field

(Doiji 2007a) In their pursuit of development however many countries had lost their

forests cultures and much more In the neighboring region of Nepal for example the

governments policy of promoting economic development through mass tourism led to

environmental and cultural degradation Pandey Chettri Kunwar amp Ghimire (1995)

argue that mass tourism in Nepal led to erosion of local customs increase in drug abuse

theft of antiques and cultural property and prostitution Kinley Doiji (2007a) states that

GNH is therefore a response to this realization

23

Tashi (2004) and Lokamitra (2004) argue that GNH cannot be achieved unless

Buddhist philosophy is fully incorporated and practiced by every citizen of Bhutan

Similarly Hewavitharana (2004) proposes a framework for operationalizing GNH from

the perspective of Buddhist ethics and values Lokamitra (2004) asserts that unless a

society is morally and psychologically strong GNH cannot be achieved He states that

this moral and psychological strength can come from Buddhism Tashi Prakke amp Chettri

(1999) argue that the use of Buddhist concepts does not make the discussions culture-

specific They state that Buddhist wisdom differs from actual Buddhist cultures Buddhist

values and ethics can be followed without necessarily being a Buddhist

Tashi Prakke and Chettri (1999) argue that Buddhist spiritual concepts can be

clearly linked to general themes for the promotion of GNH Overall the Buddhist belief

ofinterdependence has inspired the four pillars because environment culture economy

and governance are interwoven in reality (Thinley 2005) Maintaining a balance among

these enhances the quality of life for the individual for society and for the environment

(Rinzin 2006)

1 The First Pillar Environmental Preservation

Although it appears that environment and biodiversity are not strong correlates of

happiness few would deny the value of environment in everyday life and hence our

happiness our health and aesthetic experiences depend on the quality of the physical

environment around us (Thinley 2005) The impact of climate change because of the

uncompromising nature of humans towards the environment is causing a lot of panic in

the world

24

Buddhism emphasizes preserving nature and the sanctity of life (Planning

Commission 1999) Tashi et al (1999) state that Buddhist philosophy provides strong

arguments for the adoption of an environmentally sensitive development strategy The

relationship between human beings and the environment is seen in a fundamentally

different way The Buddhist concept of sunyata holds that no subject or object has an

independent existence rather they dissolve into a web of relationships with all

dimensions of environment The Buddhist principle of interconnectedness- the idea that

nature gives back what we give it- has influenced the Bhutanese with a strong ethic of

conservation which in turn influenced Bhutanese environmental policies (Thinley 2005)

Bhutanese people believe that high mountains deep ravines ancient trees and

rocks are the abode of spirits gods and demons Disturbing them would enrage the non-

human inhabitants and bring ill luck sickness and death to families Appeasing these

spirits will be rewarded with luck peace and prosperity (NEC 1998 Rinzin 2006)

These beliefs about the importance of protecting nature have permeated Bhutanese

consciousness and have become integral to the Bhutanese way of life and value system

The government therefore has adopted strong environmental policies As per the

constitution of Bhutan the country must always maintain 60 forest coverage

2 The Second Pillar- Cultural Preservation and Promotion

The conservation and promotion of tradition and culture has always been an

integral part of Bhutans development policies since the initiation of planned

development in the 1960s (Planning Commission 1999) The Bhutanese started their

policies from a well-defined set of values and culture which are typically Buddhist

Within such Buddhist cultural values there is a strong belief in the implications of the

25

doctrine of Karma (Gurung 1999) The overall Bhutanese culture is based on customary

rules norms indigenous knowledge systems and institutions in addition to a rich

religious heritage based on Buddhism It includes a code of conduct known as driglam

namzha which is designed to carve out a distinct Bhutanese identity In addition to

promoting national dress driglam namzha is built on strict observance of vows (tha-

damtshig) which are quintessential^ Buddhist and emphasize strong kinship loyalty

community-oriented behavior hospitality to guests respect for ones parents elders and

superiors and mutual cooperation between rulers and ruled parents and children and

teachers and students (MoHE 1994 Rinzin2006 Chophel 2008)

In a study conducted by Rinzin (2006) it was observed that the Bhutanese people

consider culture to be very important They fully support the preservation of Bhutanese

culture as a means to maintain national identity sense of security and conservation of a

way of life A unique Bhutanese culture is also a means to generate income through

tourism activities Since the happiness of the people also depends on their social and

cultural values the government of Bhutan is committed to preserving and strengthening

the Bhutanese culture and tradition

3 The Third Pillar - Sustainable and equitable socio-economic development

The concept of GNH does not neglect the importance of economic development

While economic development in many countries takes place at the expense of external

factors such as social coherence cultural diversity and environmental integrity the

concept of GNH limits the exploitation of social cultural ecological and human costs

(Priesner 1999) Economic development is just a means to achieve GNH and is not an

end itself If we look at the world today there are spiritual sufferings in terms of anxiety

26

insecurity stress and pain in every part of the world including Bhutan Economic

development can secure a livelihood and is vitally important to resolve poverty but it is

easier to identify and alleviate misery than to maximize happiness

Given the huge natural resource base that Bhutan enjoys the country could have

opted for mass economic development by making use of these resources However the

government does not overlook the difference between renewable and non-renewable

goods Keeping in view the negative impacts of exploiting natural resources and

exhaustibility of non-renewable goods the government has identified three avenues for

economic development These are hydropower tourism and agriculture (NEC 1998

Planning Commission 1999) All have minimal negative impact on the society and are

sustainable The use of nature in a sustainable way can be related to one of the

requirements for the Buddhas eightfold path called the Right Livelihood (Schumacher

1989) Right Livelihood entails that ones means of livelihood should not be dishonest or

cause suffering to other sentient beings Wrong Livelihood is anything that is based on

trickery or greed (Harvey 2000) This noble path teaches us to avoid extremism and

follow a balanced path Schumacher (1989) argues that Right Livelihood touches on

economic aspects of the Buddhist life and forms the basis of economic principles By

following the path of Right Livelihood the government is being cautious not to engage

in trades or occupations that result in harming its environment culture and society

4 The fourth Pillar - Good Governance

This last pillar stresses the kind of government that Bhutan needs to make it into a

GNH state Good governance means exercising of authority in managing a countrys

political social economic and administrative resources in a manner that is transparent

27

accountable and responsive to peoples needs (Gross National Happiness Commission

[GNHC] 2009 p56) The fourth king His Majesty Jigme Singye Wangchuck asserts

that good governance is an important prerequisite for strengthening the other pillars of

GNH During his reign decentralization and democratization have always been the most

important considerations All changes finally culminated in the evolution of democratic

government in 2008 The King in his wisdom decided that parliamentary democracy

would be the best path to good governance and that happiness comes from having the

freedom to choose Kinley Doiji (2007a) points out that this step by the king is a

Vajrayana Buddhist approach For the Bhutanese this came as an overwhelming surprise

Thus democracy in Bhutan sprang from the womb of GNH Democracy in Bhutan is the

path to good governance that leads to GNH

Chapter Two (clause 22) of the Bhutan Civil Service Rules and Regulations 2006

states that the government needs to maintain and promote the values of Tha-Damtshig

and Ley Jumdrey to serve the people and the country Tha Damtshig is a traditional

Buddhist belief of trust respect and cooperation between the government and its people

Ley Jumdrey is a very popular Buddhist belief referring to the cycle of Karma which

encourages us to follow the eightfold noble path Right View Right Intention Right

Action Right Speech Right Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right

Mindfulness The royal decree issued by the king in 1998 stated that the Bhutanese

judiciary system is based on the Buddhist 10 virtuous actions and 16 pure human laws

(as cited by Nishimizu 2008 p 40) The ten virtuous actions are 1 Avoid killing 2

Avoid Stealing 3 Avoid Sexual misconduct (the first three form the part of Right

Action) 4 Avoid lies 5 Avoid divisive talks 6 Avoid harsh speech 7 Avoid Gossip

28

(these four fall under Right Speech) 8 Avoid covetousness 9 Avoid harmful intent 10

Avoid wrong views (the last three are the part of Right Mindfulness) (Tshongkhapa as

cited by Powers 1995)

Tashi et al (1999) explain that in Buddhism there are three doors body speech

and mind (lii ngag yid) These three gates provide a basic categorization for policy

makers in recognizing that existence embraces more than physical aspects Any

individual or government that strives to enhance happiness must make the right use of the

three doors Right Mindfulness Right Speech and Right Action The three gates are like

the neutral ground which can be used for good neutral or bad action (Tashi et al 1999)

Right intention in the mind must spark right speech and right action because working

with the mind directly is considered too illusive With Right View one needs to

understand the nature of the world and embrace compassion Right View is the path that

refers to wisdom which means seeing emptiness realizing that appearances in the

relative world or the world in which things change lacking permanent existence

Embracing compassion and wisdom results in the accumulation of merit (Sonam) and

wisdom (Yeshe) Every government must embrace compassion and wisdom and work

with Right Mind Right Speech and Right Action The Bhutanese government strives to

nurture and manifest these qualities

22 Evolution of the Concept

The term GNH became popular in the late 1980s but the concept itself is very

old According to Priesner (1999) this concept evolved from the constituent features of

Bhutanese society before 1959 a socio-economic system based on a Buddhist and feudal

29

set of values Buddhism came to Bhutan in the 7th century AD but made little impact on

the lives of the people until the 9th century (Ministry of Health and Education [MoHE]

1994 Dargye 2008) Prior to the 7th century Bhutan was called the land of Monpas the

land of darkness or no religion Records show that people mainly practiced Bonism an

animistic and shamanistic belief system where nature is worshipped (Giri 2004) Bon

rituals are still included in some Buddhist festivals in Bhutan From the 10th century to

the beginning of the 17th century Buddhism started influencing peoples way of life

culture and customs During that period many Tibetan scholars came to teach Buddhism

in Bhutan They built monasteries and temples throughout the country but none of them

could establish a formal Buddhist community in Bhutan (MoHE 1994)

It was Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyel (1594-1651) a Tibetan monk who formally

instituted Buddhism in Bhutan in the 17th century (MoHE 1990 MoHE 1994)

Therefore the 17th century is the most important period in Bhutanese history Bhutanese

development policies stem from this period All the high-ranking officials during

Zhabdrungs era were monks and the governments primary function was to support the

religious establishment which in turn promoted Buddhist morality and ethics among the

lay population (MoHE 1994 Ura 1993 as cited by Priesner 1999) In other words the

government promoted the wellbeing of people through spiritual teachings based on

Buddhism The Bhutanese legal system codified in 1652 and based on principles of

Buddhism is the foundation of the contemporary Bhutanese law (Nishimizu 2008)

Since the concept of GNH emphasizes the importance of living with basic human values

giving equal importance to both economic and spiritual wellbeing this clearly indicates

30

that the seeds of GNH had been planted during Zhabdrungs reign Prime Minister Jigme

Y Thinley (2004) writes

Traditional polity in Bhutan drawing much on the Buddhist culture was certainly guided towards GNH A Buddhist equivalent of a Social Contract declared in Bhutan in 1675 said that happiness of sentient beings and teachings of the Buddha were mutually dependent The 1129 legal code of Bhutan stressed that laws should promote happiness of the sentient beings (p 2)

Until the 1960s Bhutan possessed very little of the infrastructure we see today in the

country (National Environment Commission [NEC] 1998 Planning Commission 1999)

Life was hard and conditions were very harsh There was no electricity telephones or

postal services to connect different parts of country or with the outside world There were

no motor roads and money was unknown The health infrastructure was poor life

expectancy was estimated to be an average of 35 years Western education was

considered unnecessary The vast majority of Bhutanese lived in isolation in the rugged

mountain terrains The Bhutanese were subsistence farmers totally dependent upon the

land and the forests for survival People exchanged goods among themselves and were

self sufficient for most purposes Bhutans traditional socio-economic system was based

on the principle of communal self-reliance which is related to the Buddhist doctrine of

the benevolent nature of small-scale (Priesner 1999 Gurung 1999)

Due to the lack of foreign influences Bhutan developed an extremely stable

social environment and traditional system of knowledge Self-reliance was the first

explicitly emphasized development objective in 1959 (as cited Priesner 1999) The

National Assembly in 1959 stated that its primary task was to maintain the sovereignty

of the kingdom through economic self-reliance (Kuensel Vol 2 No 9 [May 1-15

31

1968] p7 as cited by Priesner 1999) Modern development came to Bhutan in the early

1960s during the reign of the third king Jigme Doiji Wangchuck (1952-1972) (MoHE

1994) However Bhutans decision to embark on modern development was not

voluntary During a visit to Bhutan in September 1958 the Indian Prime Minister

expressed his concern about Bhutans security and emphasized the need for a road to link

Bhutan and India offering at the same time financial and technical assistance To avoid

increased dependence the government refused to accept the assistance Nevertheless

Bhutans attitude changed during 1959 a consequence of events in Tibet In 1959 the

Tibetan revolt was suppressed by the Chinese which resulted in the flow of several

thousand Tibetan refugees into Bhutan At the end of the same year Chinese actions

began to be directed against Bhutan A triangular shaped part of Tibetan territory between

the small Indian state of Sikkim and Bhutan through which the most important trade

route from Bhutan to India ran was sealed off (Galay 1999 Priesner 1999) In the

following National Assembly session the construction of roads became the main issue of

discussion As an underdeveloped country Bhutan lacked financial and labor resources

and India was the only possible source of aid Thus Bhutan took the first step towards

development cautiously Later when Chinese aggression declined measures of cultural

preservation were soon adopted to contain and counter-balance the negative effects of

modernization (Priesner 1999)

Since 1961 Bhutan plans its development every five years The third King

always expressed his priority as making the people prosperous and happy (Kuensel

1968 as cited by Priesner 1999 p7) Prosperity and happiness were highlighted in the

third kings address on the occasion of Bhutans admission to the United Nations in 1971

32

Further the preservation of environment and culture is the most consistently applied

principle from the start of the first Five Year Plan (FYP) and this is a major input for

GNH

The Bhutanese development concept thus evolved from the countrys socioshy

economic historic and political circumstances The concept of GNH is thus the

translation of cultural and social consciousness into development priorities (Priesner

1999) To sum up the influencing factors that caused Bhutan to have such a unique

development concept are the absence of foreign domination the desire to preserve

national identity Chinese invasion causing threat to the national security and deeply

embedded Buddhist beliefs The philosophy of GNH therefore evolved earlier than the

term Gross National Happiness was coined

23 GNH Discourses and Debates

The first official keynote speech on Gross National Happiness was delivered by

the current Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley at the United Nations Development

Programme (UNDP) Regional Millennium Meeting for Asia and the Pacific in 1998 His

keynote speech was later published in the countrys national newspaper Kuensel Many

scholars responded to the publication and this led to the first workshop in 1999 to explore

the conceptual foundations of human happiness During the workshop Prime Minister

Thinley raised three questions for deliberation First can an index be constructed for

GNH as it has been done for Human Development Second what are the main

ingredients of happiness Third what would be the main indicators of happiness if there

were any at all

33

Some participants proposed that GNH could be quantified Others suggested that

it would be a speculative exercise into what is essentially a subjective experience and

would defy any statistical device aimed at its quantification They expressed their

suspicion that the essence of conventional economic theories runs counter to GNH

Rinzin (2006) states that two schools of thought emerged one took a philosophical

approach and the other an empirical analytical approach of defining and measuring GNH

On the philosophical side scholars argued that GNH is a development philosophy and

there is no need to define and measure happiness For Stehlik (1999) the attempt even to

define happiness is unnecessary and even less to measure it The other school of thought

argued that in order for GNH to be applicable it should be measurable The first

workshop failed to come up with concrete results The discussion papers from this

workshop were published in June 1999 under the title Gross National Happiness A Set

of Discussion Papers

After a gap of five years the First International Conference on GNH

Operationalizing Gross National Happiness was held in Thimphu Bhutan from

February 18 to 20 2004 The conference intended to explore ways in which the concept

of happiness as an objective of economic and social development could be

operationalized in terms of both policy and evaluation of change The conference focused

largely on the concepts of happiness or wellbeing Dr Ron Colman and Dr Julia Sagebien

(2004) presented a paper on Nova Scotias Atlantic Genuine Progress Index or GPI

which assigns explicit value to environmental quality natural wealth population health

livelihood security equity free time and educational attainment The conference

discussed the relevance of GPI measures to Bhutan Colman and Sagebien suggested a

34

potential framework for measuring GNH proposing indicators such as education basic

security respect and care for all beings Although the conference did not come to any

definitive conclusions Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley (2007) stated that the conference

was a milestone in the history of international discourse as it opened up the discourse on

happiness Further the ripples from this seminar spread far and helped Bhutan develop

the indicators of GNH in a later period

The Second International Conference on GNH Rethinking Development Local

Pathways to Global Wellbeing was held in Nova Scotia Canada from June 20 to 24

2005 The conference focused on the exploration of practices the sharing of actual

experiences and the development of a framework to operationalize GNH The first and

second international conferences seemed to have convinced Bhutanese policy makers that

in order to make GNH practicable it must first become measurable By the time the third

international conference was held Bhutan was well on the way to constructing the GNH

Index

The Third International Conference held in Bangkok Thailand in 2007 focused

on the indicators of GNH The then Prime Minister of Bhutan Kinzang Doiji spoke on the

importance of good governance and highlighted the wellbeing of people as a priority in

developing government policies Just a week prior to the fourth international conference

Bhutan officially adopted the GNH Index

The theme for the Fourth International Conference (November 26 to 28 2008)

was Practice and Measurement of GNH indicating a step forward into a new phase

which focused more on how to reflect GNH in policies and how to grasp the current

situation and measure progress Discussions revolved around the GNH indicators

35

psychology environment community relations education health living standard

governance culture time use and economy Rosellini (2008) says that some of the

indicators of GNH would be relevant to the UNDP-Oxford initiative in understanding the

missing dimensions of poverty Rosellini (2008) further suggested that GNH should be

used as an alternative approach from an international perspective because none of the

methods that attempted to move beyond purely materialistic interpretations of human

progress have gained broad acceptance among academics and development practitioners

The fifth conference held in Brazil in 2009 (November 20-23) was a revelation

for the Bhutanese While the understanding of GNH had grown tremendously at the

international level the GNH conference held in Brazil made the Bhutanese government

realize that Bhutan is still lagging behind in implementing the philosophy of GNH

(Bhutan Broadcasting Service [BBS] 2009) There is no doubt that the policies are

framed in terms of the four pillars of GNH but the government failed to infuse GNH

values into the education system Further GNH values were not reflected in the day-to-

day working of the government institutions businesses and at the community level

Brazil had left Bhutan behind in terms of implementing GNH ethics Several business

establishments in Brazil practice the principle of GNH One pharmaceutical company is

believed to be implementing its ethics and modalities into the way the company

functions Likewise Brazilian villages at the community level are also practicing the

dimensions of GNH on a day-to-day basis (Kuensel 2009) This definitely was a

revelation for Bhutan

On his return from the GNH conference in Brazil the prime minister expressed

his sense of the urgency and immediacy of bringing GNH principles and values into the

36

education system Following this a workshop was conducted on how to achieve a GNH

infused education system (Kuensel 2009) The education ministry has come up with a

road map and an action plan to begin the process of bringing GNH values and principles

into the school system starting in 2010 The education minister stated that every school in

the country will now develop GNH-inspired curriculum material The latest reports state

that many schools in Bhutan have now infused GNH values into their curriculum

Students in most schools meditate for a few minutes before starting any lesson Many

schools are now working towards becoming green (Bhutan Observer March 2010)

Many students were quoted as saying that Meditation somehow helps to relax and

concentrate more on their studies (Business Bhutan 17 April 2010) This is a very

practical move by the government towards enhancing GNH Bhutan has learned a lot

through seminars and debates held at the national and international level The idea of

measuring and quantifying GNH has however raised many questions

24 Quantifying Gross National Happiness

Initially due to the absence of a specific and relevant development index that

takes into account the core principles and dimensions of GNH the United Nations

Human Development concept and its measurement the Human Development Index

(HDI) was used as an interim tool to assess all-round development in Bhutan (Gross

National Happiness Commission [GNHC] 2008) The HDI fails however to capture the

overall essence of the concept of GNH because only three variables are used in HDI

health (life expectancy) education (adult literacy) and wealth (GDP per capita) Owing

to the number of discourses and questions raised regarding the applicability of the

37

philosophy of GNH Bhutan has now adopted the GNH Index Karma Ura (2008)

president of the Centre for Bhutan Studies writes that as many contemporary indicators

of progress and development do not reflect GNH adequately the Royal Government of

Bhutan directed the Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) to develop GNH index which will

provide appropriate indicators for Bhutanese development (pl)

In his first international speech the Prime Minister of Bhutan Jigme Y Thinley

(1998) stated that the trends of happiness of people are unknown Although people

perceive their wellbeing subjectively their subjective views are not incorporated well

into the design of economic and social policy (Kusago 2006) Similarly Mark (2008)

argues that as a direct consequence of different governments collecting and analyzing

economic data (and social and environmental data to a lesser extent) much is known

about the material conditions of peoples lives but little about their actual lived

experience and their sense of personal and social wellbeing It is to address this lacunae

that the government needs to adopt indicators for measuring the wellbeing of its people

Former Minister Kinzang Dorji (2007b) points out that indicators can be useful in

revealing institutional and human conditions to show both the potential and result of

policy decisions (p 2) He argues that the use of indicators reflecting GNH values will

enable policy makers to locate those principles in determining GNH policy and tracking

GNH processes

Many are skeptical however and wonder whether quantifying such a noble

philosophy is justifiable Reducing real people and real lives to numerical values does not

do justice to the emotional and spiritual depth of the human experience (Doiji 2007b)

There is much doubt as to whether the indicators capture the real essence of human

38

happiness Nonetheless if the government wants to promote the wellbeing or happiness

of its citizens it needs to know the happiness trend of its citizens and find out if its

policies contribute to both subjective and objective wellbeing Even if Gross National

Happiness cannot be quantified as precisely as Gross Domestic Product is currently

quantified Daly amp Farley (2004) state that It is better to be vaguely right than precisely

wrong (p243) The policy makers will at least get an idea of peoples state of wellbeing

Measuring GNH is indeed a milestone in Bhutanese history as it will always

remind Bhutanese of their founding ideals A GNH Index would help citizens know if

they are improving as a nation in protecting and exercising their right to pursue happiness

(Brooks 2008) The adoption of the GNH Index shows the seriousness of the Bhutanese

government in pursuing the goal of GNH Lastly there is hope that Gross National

Happiness will not remain as a mere catchphrase

25 Summary

This chapter presented a review of the literature on GNH and the influence of

Buddhism on the concept of GNH The aim of this review is to get a better understanding

of the centrality of Buddhism in the concept of GNH and to highlight issues that emerged

in the GNH discourses The key principle of GNH which focuses on happiness is

influenced by the core teachings of Buddhism which states that the main purpose of life

the heart of being human is happiness The four pillars of GNH reflect traditional

Bhutanese beliefs and values inspired by Buddhism The law of Karma the principle of

interdependence and the noble eightfold path has certainly influenced the Bhutanese way

39

of living and thus the concept of GNH The Buddhist values of interdependence equality

and compassion are inherent in GNH

History reveals that the basic philosophy of GNH emerged between the 10th and

17th centuries when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of life Buddhism

therefore is the backbone of the concept of GNH Bhutan however is not a Utopian state

because it advocates GNH Like many developing countries Bhutan is grappling with

problems of increased rural urban migration poverty and unemployment thus

challenging the goals of GNH The government is continuing to reflect GNH objectives

in its policy and programmes Through the effective use of the four pillars of GNH

Bhutan never placed excessive emphasis on economic development The country did not

opt for economic activities which promised huge financial gain but caused damage to

health environment and culture Bhutan therefore is said to have one of the best policies

in the world (Priesner 1999) However it is important to know if the policies are

promoting happiness and wellbeing among the people The government has rightly

adopted the GNH Index because only through the use of the indicators will policymakers

know if their policies are in reality promoting happiness The question remains however

as to whether these indicators capture the real essence of GNH and whether they are

influenced by Buddhist principles

40

CHAPTER THREE THE BUDDHIST PRINCIPLES OF HAPPINESS

We all want happiness and do not want suffering Many of us support the

importance of moral values in making our lives happier Buddhist principles emphasize

that human values and principles are necessary to lead a happy life Yet there is a general

assumption that income and happiness are directly related Happiness research findings

defy this generalization and show that increasing incomes are not accompanied by

increasing happiness (Hirata 2006)

The Buddha discovered this 2500 years ago The Buddha did not reject the idea of

possessing wealth but taught that wealth does not guarantee happiness He rejected greed

in accumulating wealth being enslaved to materialism and treating wealth as the

ultimate goal (Wijeyawansa 2009) The Buddhas teachings are based on the key

problem ofsuffering Since Buddhism focuses so much on suffering it is often

criticized as being pessimistic But Buddhism does not deny the presence of happiness in

our lives It teaches the way out of suffering and shows the path towards genuine

happiness Buddhism understands that not everyone can lead an ascetic life and accepts

that for a layperson a certain degree of wealth is essential to live a happy life Living an

ethical and moral life is said to bring genuine happiness in Buddhism The objective of

this chapter is to understand happiness from a Buddhist perspective by laying down some

key Buddhist principles related to happiness

Understanding Buddhist principles and values that underpin the Buddhist

worldview will provide a framework that will be the lens through which the

psychological wellbeing indicators of GNH will be analyzed in the following chapter

The principles that will be discussed here are however not definitive boundaries because

41

Buddhism teaches innumerable ways to achieve ultimate happiness In this chapter the

framework of happiness is based on a specific Buddhist teachings called the six

paramitas Nonetheless the entire Buddhist teachings have the same essence and arise

out of the four noble truths and eightfold noble path

This chapter is divided into three sections The first section begins with a brief

introduction to the Buddhist view of happiness Buddhism in Bhutan belongs to the

Mahayana tradition and therefore this study is limited to the context of Mahayana

Buddhism The second section looks at key foundational doctrines such as the four noble

truths Karmamdashthe law of cause and effect the principle of interdependence and

compassion The third section constructs a framework for happiness based on the

Mahayana Buddhist principle using the six perfections or paramitas Paramita refers to

crossing over from the sea of suffering to the shore of happiness The paramitas are the

six kinds of virtuous practice required for skillfully serving the welfare of oneself and

others and a path to achieve genuine happiness For the purpose of this study Thogme

Zangpos text on Thirty-Seven Practices of Bodhisattava (Gyalse Laglin) and teachings

by Buddhist teachers such as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will

serve as sources for constructing this framework

31 Buddhist View of Happiness

Buddhism was founded in the 5th century and has over 365 million followers

worldwide (Ontario Consultants 2009) The term religion is often associated with the

concept of creator or a god but Buddhism rejects the idea of creator god as well as the

notion of a permanent self or a indestructible soul (Flanagan 2007) Therefore it is

42

commonly said that Buddhism is non-theistic or atheistic Buddhism is a series of

practices and a way of life based on the teachings of the Buddha Buddhists are strongly

influenced by Karma the law of cause and effect with the implication that there is no

creator (interview with the Dalai Lama by Chopra 2010)

The word Buddha means to awaken from the sleep of ignorance and to spread

ones intelligence to everything that can be known (Dalai Lama 2000 p2) The Buddha

was like any other human being before he attained nirvana at the age of thirty-seven The

lessons that the Buddha learned while in search of truth is the foundation of Buddhism

chief among which is the pursuit of happiness

In his book An Open Heart Practicing Compassion in Everyday Lifethe Dalai

Lama (2001) states that the purpose of spiritual practice is to fulfill our desire for

happiness (p30) Buddhism indeed has much to say about happiness Sogyal Rimpoche

a renowned Buddhist teacher states there are two kinds of happiness one based on

material comfort and pleasures the other on inner contentment and peace (Doiji 2010)

The two are the physical and mental components of happiness The mental experience or

the inner force plays a more powerful role For example in a very pleasant environment

if we are mentally depressed the surroundings will not make a difference Similarly if

we have inner peace or mental happiness it will be easier to face any challenge This

indicates our mind and thoughts play a powerful role in experiencing happiness (Dalai

Lama 2001) Khenpo Phuntsho Tashi (2004) asserts that in Mahayana Buddhism

happiness springs from an altruistic or compassionate mind Since human minds are often

agitated by afflictive emotions the results frequently are negative actions which in turn

cause suffering The essence of Buddhism therefore is to tame to transform to conquer

43

the human mind for it is the root of everythingmdash it is the creator of happiness and

suffering The Buddha has said in Dhammapada (as cited by Bancroft 1997 p41)

Such a Wandering mind is weak and unsteady Attracted here there and everywhere How good it is to control it and know the happiness of Freedom (Verse 35)

And yet how unruly still how subtle the delusion of the thoughts To quiet them and master them is the true way of happiness (Verse 36)

There is a significant similarity between the Buddhas teachings and Aristotles

ethic Eudiamonia the Aristotelian term for happiness is very similar to Buddhism

Aristotle states that if we want to be happy we should cultivate and practice virtues

through wisdom He also mentions that happiness is vulnerable to external hazards

sudden disaster can reverse happiness no matter how virtuous ones life has been

(Annas 1999) This is exactly what the Buddha preached 2500 years ago The Buddhas

teachings are based on the impermanent nature of life and the importance of virtuous and

righteous deeds Most of Aristotles ethic is devoted to an account of virtuous activities

that he states constitute happiness Aristotle describes happiness as doing well combined

with virtue or self sufficiency of life or the pleasantest life with safety or prosperity of

possessions and bodies with power to protect then and use them in action (Irwin 1999

p3) Aristotle believes that power and fortune are also parts of happiness because they

are the best providers of safety This idea that happiness requires fortune contradicts the

Buddhas teachings The Buddha preached that fortune power possession are all

materials and subject to change They are therefore not a source of genuine happiness but

a cause of suffering

44

His Holiness the Dalai Lama states that Buddhists aim not merely for temporary

happiness but for long-term results They are concerned with life after life This means

that ultimate happiness in Buddhism is Nirvana the cessation of suffering the end of the

cycle of birth-and-death He further adds that spiritual practice the practice of dharma

can bring both long-term happiness and more inner strength day by day (Dalai Lama amp

Hopkins 2000) Buddhist teaching employs innumerable skillful means through which

happiness can be achieved at the individual and collective levels Being on the

Bodhisattva path the path on which all sentient beings can receive help can bring us

happiness Powers (1995 p91) defines a Bodhisattva as someone who is progressing

towards the state of enlightenment Bodhisattva symbolizes compassion Bodhisattvas are

also called jangchup sempa which means a compassionate heart in Tibetan and

Bhutanese

32 Key Mahayana Buddhist Principles

321 The four noble truths

In his search for the meaning of life the Buddha discovered the four noble truths

which are the very foundation of all Buddhist beliefs The Buddhas four noble truths

explain the truth of suffering and the way to overcome it The first noble truth recognizes

that suffering is the essence of human existence suffering from birth old age sickness

and death as well as the pain from separation grief and despair The second noble truth

explains that desire or craving is the cause of all suffering craving for pleasure for

individual existence and for release from our present situation The third noble truth

states that suffering can cease by overcoming craving or desire The fourth noble truth

45

prescribes the way to overcome desire by following the eightfold noble path (Bancroft

1997)

A closer understanding of the four noble truths leads to the realization that no

person can achieve constant and prolonged happiness because as the first noble truth

states Life is suffering This means that as long as humans exist there will be no end

to suffering Suffering in Buddhism has generally been categorized into three types First

is the suffering of misery which includes physical and mental sufferings Second is the

suffering of change where we achieve happiness only for a brief period because all

phenomena are subject to change Third is compositional suffering the suffering which is

endemic to cyclic existence because humans are under the influence of afflictive

emotions (Dalai Lama as cited in Powers 1984 amp 1995 Negi 1999)

The cause of all suffering is the desire and aversion arising out of ignorance

which is called Klesha Klesha literally means afflictive emotions or delusions and refers

to wide range of mental states (Negi 1999) Bhutanese call it nyong mong meaning

distorted or confused By following the eightfold noble path one can overcome the

afflictive emotions and thus achieve genuine happiness Light Party (1996) asserts that

the main map the Buddha offered for the trip to happiness and contentment is the

Eightfold Path Right Understanding Right Intention Right Action Right Speech Right

Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right Mindfulness Buddhist

teachings are all centered on one or more steps of the eightfold noble path The eight

steps are usually divided into three main practices Morality (Sila) which also means

ethics or virtues Concentration (Samadhv meditation) and Wisdom (Prajnaj (Dalai

Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2000 Gomes 2004) Right Understanding and Right

46

Intention pertain to wisdom (Sanskrit panna) Right Action Right Speech and Right

Livelihood pertain to moral virtues or ethics Right Effort Right Concentration and

Right Mindfulness pertain to meditative cultivation of heart and mind

Moral virtue meditation and wisdom form part of the six perfections which

are the core teachings of Mahayana Buddhism The six perfections are the six qualities to

the Bodhisattvas path the state of genuine happiness This study uses the six perfections

as a framework for happiness which will be explored in depth in the third section

322 The Law of Karma Principle of Interdependence and Compassion

The most common belief among Buddhists is that we can never escape from our

own Karma (Sanskrit Kamma) Karma (the law of cause and effect) states that nothing

comes into being without a cause The law of Karma can be simply related to Newtons

Third Law which states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction The

same holds according to the law of Karma though it is not known whether the reaction

will occur in this life or beyond this life Since Buddhism supports the idea of rebirth

certain key aspects of a persons next rebirth are thought to be karmically determined

These include the family into which one is born ones social status physical appearance

character and personality Karma does not however claim that everything that happens

to a person is karmically determined Karma does not determine precisely what will

happen or how anyone will react to what happen Individuals are always free to resist

previous conditioning and establish new patterns of behavior

The belief in Karma sometimes degenerates into a form of fatalism but fate and

Karma are different Humans have freedom to choose and their present action is not the

47

entire result of their past Karma action It does however influence a persons action

because of the character a person has developed (Harvey 2005)

The belief that one has to bear the Karma of ones act is deeply rooted in the

Buddhist psyche It is a very common belief among Buddhists that depending on ones

Karmic consequences (or accumulated positivenegative merits) one will experience

happinesssufferings of various types (Gaylag 2004) good action leads to pleasant

effects and bad deeds lead to unpleasant results Harvey (2005) asserts that the cycle of

Karma provides a perspective on life which is supportive of compassion and respect for

other beings In Buddhism if you want happiness you need to sow the seed of good

merit

Buddhist philosophy explains innumerable ways to achieve positive Karma

Actions motivated by greed hatred and delusion result in bad Karma while actions

motivated by their opposites - non-attachment loving kindness and right understanding-

- result in positive Karma Good intentions therefore must find expression in right

actions and right actions are basically those that are wholesome and do no harm either

oneself or others Tashi (2004) states that in order to accumulate merits and to be happy

our actions can be summed up under three principle causes 1) Developing the attitude of

not harming others (this is being mindful and awakening oneself from ignorance) 2)

Cultivating the attitude of helping others and 3) Being Content

The principle of dependent origination also known as the principle of

interdependence is one of the important principles of Buddhism This principle is actually

an elaboration of the law of Karma which states that all things are interdependent and

48

everything that happens depends on other things happening (Negi 1999 Flanagan 2007

Doiji 2009) In other words since a whole is dependent on its parts any existent thing is

composed of its parts therefore its very existence depends on its parts Buddhism states

that human beings in particular are the combination of the five groups of existence or

five aggregates The physical body is the material aggregate and the mental aspect is

made up of feeling perception (awareness recognition through senses) mental

formations or thoughts and consciousness (knowing the object through our senses)

(Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2005) Since we are made of these five aggregates

and these aggregates themselves have no permanent existence there exists no permanent

self Buddhist teachings assert that humans do not comprehend this reality and assume

that all things including human beings have permanent selves As we are all

interdependent there are no existing phenomena which is not the effect of this What we

do affects those around us and vice versa People should therefore not think only of

themselves but should also take into consideration those around them To create

happiness it is important that we not only reflect on the interrelationship of all things but

also see ourselves clearly as a part of one system of causal relationships

The Buddhist belief is that genuine happiness can be generated from developing a

compassionate heart a heart focused not only on itself but which also helps and benefits

all beings Compassion is defined as the wish to free all beings from suffering (Dalai

Lama 2001) Gyatso (1984) and the Dalai Lama (2000 amp 2001) assert that the root of all

Buddhist practices is the heart of loving kindness and compassion In Buddhism it is

normally said that a person who lacks compassion does not have a good heart It is

49

through a compassionate attitude that Buddhists are motivated to have concern for all

humans animals and the environment because they are all part of the same world

Although it is not easy to free all beings from suffering Buddhism states that we can

develop virtuous minds and thereby help others to do the same (Dalai Lama 2001) It is

through the force of compassion that a person engages in accumulating the merit and

wisdom that make Buddhahood possible (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) and in that sense

also makes happiness possible The four noble truths the law of Karma the principle of

interdependence and the idea of compassion form the key components of a Buddhist

worldview The next section develops a framework for the Buddhist view of happiness

which extends from these key Buddhist doctrines

33 The Buddhist Happiness Framework

This section constructs a happiness framework based on the Mahayana

Buddhisms teachings on the six perfections paramitas) Thogme Zangpos 12th century

text on the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva especially his verses on the six

practices were referenced ( Hopkins 1989) The six perfections or paramitas are

1 Dana Paramita (generosity) 2 Sila Paramita (ethicsvirtuesmorality) 3 Kshanti

Paramita (patiencetolerance) 4 Virya Paramita (perseverance) 5 Dhayana paramita

(meditative concentration) 6 Prajna Paramita (wisdom) These six teachings are a way

for an inner cultivation which implies a kind of ethics that focuses directly on daily life

through which one accomplishes genuine happiness (Wright 2009) The first five are

methods or practices and the last wisdom is necessary for any of them to function The

first three practices are usually recommended for lay people Joyous effort and

concentration mainly refer to meditation normally practiced in monastic communities

50

However meditation is now becoming increasingly popular and is practiced also by lay

people

The opening verse of Thogme Zangpos (nd) text begins with the following

statement

The perfect Buddhas the sources of benefit and happiness arise from having practiced the excellent doctrine That in turn depends on knowing its practices Therefore I will explain the practices of Bodhisattva (p 1)

The Buddha is a symbol and a source of genuine happiness for the Buddhist The

Buddha achieved the state of eternal bliss through his practice of virtues Thogme

Zangpo states that one needs to understand that the source of all happiness whether

worldly or ultimate happiness comes from the practice of Dharma which means the

practice of virtues Geshey Kelsang Gyatso (1984) states that in general Dharma refers

to the teachings of the Buddha but the actual Dharma is the inner realizations which

directly protect living beings from their sufferings He further explains that there are

three kinds of meaning to be achieved through the practice of Dharma The highest is to

reach full enlightenment Buddhahood in this life The middle is to achieve self-

liberation from cyclic fears and sufferings The lowest is to achieve happiness in this life

by overcoming the inner problems and thus avoiding being reborn in the lower realms in

the next life Thus Buddhists aim at one of these three Lay Buddhists usually aim to

lead a happy virtuous life and to be reborn in the higher realms

Thogme Zangpos teachings stress committing oneself to virtues as much as

possible and not engaging in ill deeds Virtues are actions that bear the fruit of happiness

Ill deeds are those actions that cause suffering and unhappiness to oneself and to other

beings Everyone wants to achieve happiness the Dalai Lama defines happiness as a

51

blissful state devoid of all suffering Since the law of cause and effect binds Buddhism it

is necessary to examine phenomena that cause happiness and suffering According to

Buddhism ignorance desire and hatred are the main cause of suffering Our own

afflictive emotions and actions cause suffering

The famous Buddhist painting of a wheel with 21 parts outlines the meaning of

life in Buddhism The diagram designed by the Buddha himself depicts an inner

psychological cosmology This painting can be found at the doorway of every temple in

Bhutan The center of the wheel shows the picture of a pig rooster and snake These

three animals depict the root cause of suffering represented as ignorance desire and

hatred (anger) respectively They are known as the three poisons in Buddhism (Dalai

Lama 2000) Buddhism states that it is possible to overcome suffering since it depends

on causes which are within oneself When one understands the nature of suffering one

will work towards ending such causes However Mahayana Buddhism stresses that this

understanding must be extended to other sentient beings Others similarly want happiness

and not suffering Mahayana Buddhists therefore emphasizes developing compassion and

engaging in the practices of the six paramitas to overcome suffering

Ignorance is not just the absence of knowledge of the real status of phenomenon

but the inability to understand truth misconception of inherent existence of permanent

self (Dalai Lama 2000) The principle of dependent origination (Section 322) as

explained above shows that we do not exist independently on our own Thogme Zangpos

fourth verse states the following

Long-associated companions will part from each other Wealth and possessions obtained with effort will be left behind Consciousness the guest will cast aside

52

the guest-house of the bodv Letting go of this life is the bodhisattvas practice (pl)

The above verse states that our body is not ours The mind or consciousness leaves the

body at death as a guest leaves the guesthouse However we live as if we are going to

live forever and this ignorance draws us into afflictive desire and hatred Ignorance thus

comes out as greed and hatred Greed and hatred in turn promote ignorance The Dalai

Lama (2000) states without ignorance desire and anger are impossible These disturbing

emotions and attitudes are said to be true causes of suffering as are the karmic impulses

that arise under the power of these disturbing emotions Figure 2 below illustrates how

Buddhists perceive suffering and happiness It shows that the root causes of suffering are

ignorance desire and hatred These emerge through three doorsmdash body speech and

mindmdashas non-virtuous action generating negative Karma which causes suffering to

oneself and to others

Figure 2 Suffering and its causes

53

Gyatso (1984) points out that even though the body is like a guest house we will

receive many fruits if we practice Dharma meaning the practice of virtue which results in

the fruit of good Karma However all sentient beings are subject to the three poisons and

the question is how do we overcome them to practice virtue Buddhist teaching states

that the three poisons can be resisted and virtues cultivated through training in the six

practices When a person wants to reduce weight heshe goes through physical training

and dieting Similarly in Buddhism if one wants happiness one must practice the six

paramitas This will naturally generate virtuous actions leading to happiness This is

represented by Figure 3 below

Figure 3 Overcoming Suffering

54

331 Generosity

Mahayanists maintain that happiness comes from a compassionate and altruistic

mind The practice of compassion is training oneself in the perfection of generosity In

the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva the 25th verse states

If it is necessary to give away even ones body while aspiring to enlightenment what need is there to mention external objects Therefore practicing generosity without hope of reciprocation or positive karmic results is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)

The perfection of generosity is the first principle of happiness Generosity can be

practiced by anyone This practice refers to unconditional love a selfless generosity and

giving which is completely free from attachment and expectation Internally it means

overcoming our emotions (greed and hatred) and being generous with others voluntarily

giving ones material goods time or wisdom to others (Das 1995) Generosity is a cure

for the afflictions of greed miserliness and possessiveness The Anguttara Nikaya

(Anguttara Verse 34 and 35) a collection of Buddhist scriptures points out that there are

five blessings that result from the practice of generosity the person will be liked and

admired by everyone will have a good reputation will have lots of self confidence and

will have a heavenly rebirth Buddhists believe that giving without seeking anything in

return leads to greater spiritual wealth Generosity therefore is a very important virtue

bringing happiness to oneself and others

332 Ethics

The second practice is that of Sila which literally means ethics moralityvirtue

Right speech Right action and Right livelihood which form the part of Eightfold Noble

Path fall under ethical practice This perfection of ethics or Sila Paramita stresses quality

55

of virtuous and ethical behavior morality self-discipline personal integrity and never

having the thought to harm any sentient beings The Dalai Lama (2001) states that for

Buddhists ethics means avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions acts done by the body

speech and mind (p34) It is important that our practice of generosity is supported by

our practice of ethics Buddhists therefore abstain from the ten non-virtuous actions

killing stealing sexual misconduct lying divisive speech harsh speech gossip greed

malice and wrong views The first three (killing stealing sexual misconduct) correspond

to bodily action The fourth fifth sixth and seventh (lying malicious words harsh

language useless talk) correspond to verbal action The last three (covetousness ill will

wrong view) occur through the mind (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) The ten non-virtuous

actions lead to bad Karma and suffering Avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and

cultivating a compassionate heart brings good Karma and happiness We can enjoy

greater freedom happiness and security in our lives because through our virtuous

behavior we are no longer creating suffering for ourselves and others we basically

become virtuous and harmless in our thoughts speech and actions Thus in the 26th

verse Thogme Zangpo writes

If lacking ethical conduct one fails to achieve ones own purpose the wish to accomplish others purpose is laughable Therefore guarding ethics devoid of aspirations for worldly existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)

Thogme Zangpo points out that with unethical behavior one cannot achieve

happiness Unethical behavior is always the cause of suffering and unhappiness For

example a person who speaks ill of another person will disturb their mind and later will

56

be a cause of suffering for himself or herself His 34th verse stresses the importance of

avoiding harsh words

Harsh words disturb others minds and cause the mode of a Bodhisattvas behavior to deteriorate Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to abandon harsh words about the unpleasantness of others (p 3)

By cultivating ethical behavior we do not cause harm to others and we are free of

negativity we cause no harm by our actions our speech is kind and compassionate and

our thoughts are free of anger malice and wrong views Through the practice of ethics

we gain confidence because we are not carrying any underlying sense of guilt or remorse

for our actions we have nothing to hide Being ethical and moral is the cause of all

goodness and happiness This practice of ethical conduct is the very foundation for

progressing in any practice of meditation and for attaining all higher realizations on the

path The Dalai Lama states that the aim of ethical practice is to transform motivation and

mental disposition this is how we become better human beings The more we succeed in

training our hearts and minds the more we will be able to cope with adversity and our

actions will be naturally ethical Thus we will experience happiness

333 Patience and Tolerance

The third practice is that of patience and tolerance It is called the perfection of

patience (Bhutanese Bzod pa) Thogme Zangpos 27th verse states the importance of

patience

For bodhisattvas who desire the pleasures of virtue all those who do harm are like a precious treasure Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to cultivate patience without anger or resentment for anyone (p3)

57

Patience in Buddhism refers to having the strength to face the challenges and

difficulties of life without losing our composure and inner tranquility Bodhisattvas are

challenged to endure tolerate and bear any hardship without retaliation or negative

thoughts Through endurance and tolerance we gain strength to overcome any afflictive

emotions The Dalai Lama states that this enlightened quality comes from having our

heart open and our mind deeply concentrated upon the Dharma He states that endurance

and tolerance do not imply defeat but make the mind stronger When the Buddha was

deep in meditation demon Mara and his daughters tried to tempt and distract him

Through his patience however the Buddha remained calm and undistracted and finally

attained nirvana The ability to endure is therefore integral to Buddhism With the

strength of patience we can overcome anything The mind will be calm and clear and

this enables us to make better decisions Through the practice of patience we maintain

inner peace under all circumstances and thus experience genuine happiness

334 Perseverance

The fourth practice is the perfection of joyous effort or enthusiastic perseverance

It is called Virya Paramita in Sanskrit and is the quality of persistent effort or working

hard towards achieving a goal The 28th verse of Thogme Zangpos teaching states

Even hearers and solitary realizers who accomplish only their own welfare strive as if putting out a fire on their heads Seeing this taking up diligent effort -the source of good qualities - for the sake of all beings is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)

Thogme Zangpo points out that just as one makes an effort to put out the fire on

ones own head one must strive diligently to free oneself and all sentient beings from

58

suffering Our body speech and mind should put in effort to the best of our ability

Without putting in right effort we can be disillusioned and thus fail to achieve any goal

The Dalai Lama states that with joyous effort and enthusiastic perseverance we regard

failure as simply another step towards success danger as an inspiration for courage and

affliction as another opportunity to practice wisdom and compassion Thus to achieve

happiness one must put in right effort to be compassionate to be virtuous and ethical at

all times

335 Meditative Concentration

The fifth practice is that of meditative concentration It is called Dhyana

Paramita Meditative concentration is very important in developing mental qualities and

overcoming the three poisons The content of the very first verse of thirty-seven practices

of Bodhisattva is on meditation

At this time when the difficult-to-gain ship of leisure andfortune has been obtained ceaselessly hearing pondering and meditating day and night in order to liberate oneself and others from the ocean of cyclic existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)

The ship of leisure and fortune refers to the human body In Buddhism there are six

realms god2 demi-god human animals hungry ghost hell beings The humans in

comparison to the other realm is very rare It is therefore fortunate enough to be born as a

human Thogme Zangpo indicates that through hearing the dharma teachings meditating

day and night and developing a heart of loving kindness and compassion sentient beings

2 Gods in Buddhism are beings who are born into higher realms because of their positive Karma accumulated in their past lives Their lifespan eventually ends When their life ends they will be reborn in one of the six realms depending on their Karma

59

can be liberated from suffering Buddhism greatly stresses the taming of the mind

because the mind can be transformed and meditation is the means to transform it Tashi

(2004) explains the usefulness of meditation in destroying the root causes of suffering

and providing an antidote to them Meditation also plays an important role in achieiving

happiness at the individual national and global levels The perfection of meditative

concentration thus aims at taming the mind so that it does what we want it to do We

stabilize our mind and emotions by practicing meditation by being mindful and aware in

everything we do When we train the mind in this way all mental distortions and

misperceptions are eliminated We achieve focus composure and tranquility

Concentrating deeply makes us realize the cause of confusion and suffering and helps us

directly experience inner joy Thus Thogme Zangpos 29th verse states

Having understood that disturbing emotions are destroyed by insight possessed with tranquil abiding to cultivate meditative concentration which perfectly transcends the four formless absorptions is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)

336 Wisdom

The last practice is the perfection of wisdom called Prajna Parmaita in Sanskrit

Wisdom is the key to everything Wisdom will help us find the path to happiness

Without wisdom one will not understand the reality of phenomena and thus be

disillusioned by the three poisons Wisdom is therefore necessary to cultivate other

practices Thogme Zangpos 30th verse points out

If one lacks wisdom it is impossible to attain perfect enlightenment through the other five perfections Thus cultivating skillful means with the wisdom that doesnt discriminate among the three spheres is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)

60

Wisdom does not refer to mere intellectual understanding It is beyond that Ron

Liefer (1997) states that a mere intellectual understanding of reality will not change our

habitual negative patterns of thoughts speech and action because the intellect serves the

ego He further adds we cannot achieve wisdom without seeing through the trickery of

ego Wisdom refers to Right understanding and Right view (two of the eightfold noble

paths) of reality This entails getting rid of those wrong views which manifest the three

poisons Through wisdom one will be able to distinguish between what is ethical and

unethical or virtuous and non-virtuous We see the essential nature of reality with utmost

clarity our perception goes beyond the illusive and deceptive veils of material existence

Wisdom clears the delusion that envelops the mind It overturns ignorance and the

attitudes that lead to non-virtuous actions and ultimately shows us the path to happiness

(Rink 2010) Thus overcoming the three poisons by understanding the true nature of

reality and developing qualities of generosity morality patience and meditating with

joyous effort is said to generate the highest level of happiness in Buddhism

34 Summary

Buddhist teachings show the true cause of suffering as ignorance desire and

hatred enveloping the mind The teachings on the Four Noble Truths open our eyes to

various perspectives and send us the message that happiness is beyond material

wellbeing They make us realize that the real essence of happiness lies within us It is

only through taming the mind that we can experience happiness Whether we want to be

happy or not depends on how we perceive things and how we act John Milton said The

mind is its own place and in itself can make heaven of hell and a hell of heaven (as

61

cited by Williams 2008 p24) Buddhism teaches that if we can overcome the three

poisons and practice generosity patience mediation and morality we can experience

inner joy in this life This can even be extended to the next life with the possibility of

attaining nirvana The idea of reward for virtuous action (Karma) creates a healthy fear

and pushes the Buddhist to be ethical and practice virtues at all time Buddhism thus

accords the highest authority to experience with reason second and scripture third

(Flanagan 2007) Some may wonder however whether a focus exclusively on getting

rid of desire would inhibit worldly progress The path to overcoming attachment and

achieving worldly progress such as accumulating wealth are indeed poles apart

Buddhism does not necessarily say that we have to give up the material life It stresses

more the importance of having a good heart of never harming others of being

compassionate of being morally disciplined and of possessing loving kindness

generosity patience and a joyful desire to practice virtues These positive qualities can

reduce ones suffering and give happiness to oneself and others

62

CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING

INDICATORS

People always experience moods and emotions which have an enormous range of

effects on their wellbeing To know about peoples psychological state something must

be known about their subjective experiences The psychological wellbeing domain of the

GNH index thus assesses peoples subjective experience based on eleven indicators

Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking account of Karma Jealousy Selfishness

Frustration Generosity Calmness Compassion Suicidal Thought and General Mental

Health The government measures psychological wellbeing by assessing the socially

destructive attitudes and symptoms of psychological distress and the prevalence of

practices to avoid negative emotions The main purpose of this study is to determine to

what extent the indicators under the psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of

happiness and their coherence with the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH This

chapter analyzes each of these indicators to determine the extent to which they reflect

Buddhist principles of happiness using the conceptual framework laid down in Chapter

Three and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH

This chapter is divided into five sections The first section briefly highlights the

meaning of psychological wellbeing and the importance of measuring it It also highlights

similarities between the views of some modern psychologists and the Buddhist view on

the understanding of psychological wellbeing The second third and fourth sections

analyze the indicators of psychological wellbeing by grouping them into three broad

categories Emotional Balance Spirituality Practices and General Mental Health The

chapter concludes with an overview of the overall findings

63

41 Psychological Wellbeing Measures

Psychological wellbeing as the term denotes refers to the wellbeing of a persons

mental state It deals with emotions and feelings which are subjective experiences The

measure of the psychological wellbeing of its citizens is extremely important in a country

pursuing GNH because the mental or the psychological state influences the overall

wellbeing of people A GNH state therefore needs to minimize those mental conditions

that can be disruptive As Larsen amp Fredrickson (1999) point out the content of a

persons emotional life strongly influences his or her judgments of the quality of that life

(p40)

From the Buddhist perspective happiness depends on our mind Buddhist

teachings are directly or indirectly based on the workings of the mind Buddhism strongly

holds that it is the emotional and mental state of people that influence their wellbeing or

happiness The term ishepa which means the mind refers to all aspects of subjective

experiences In the Buddhist diction mind shepa) awareness (rigpa) and consciousness

(lo) are synonyms (Abhidhamma 1987 Negi 1999) The mind in Buddhism includes

all perceptual conceptual and emotional states both conscious and unconscious (Negi

1999) The emotional mental states therefore are all mind related subjective experiences

As explained in Chapter Three Buddhism is concerned with taming the mind

this entails understanding the types of mental activity that are truly conducive to

wellbeing and the ones that are harmful In this sense it would be justifiable to say that

Buddhism is all about achieving happiness mentally or psychologically Ekman

Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) agree that psychologists and Buddhists alike

64

believe that emotions strongly influence peoples thoughts words and actions and that

they help people in their pursuit of transient pleasures and satisfactions

The measurement of a persons psychological state is commonly based on the

self-report assessment Within the discipline of psychology there is a strong view that

self-reports on how well life is going can convey important information on underlying

emotional states and in measuring peoples subjective wellbeing Earlier psychologists

who were mainly interested in negative emotional states such as depression and anxiety

are now interested in positive emotions to evaluate peoples overall wellbeing (Ryff amp

Singer 1998) Indeed to get empirical clues of happiness establishing the absence of

negative experiences would not be enough positive feelings must also be present (Hirata

2006) The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index similarly includes

both positive and negative emotions

Structured questionnaires are used to collect data for each indicator A

sufficiency cut off or a threshold is set for each indicator A person is said to have met the

sufficiency cut-off if hisher evaluation in that indicator meets or exceeds the cut-off

point If the respondent meets or exceeds the sufficiency cut off heshe is given the full

score This means a person is psychologically well if heshe makes sufficient

achievement in each of the indicators Any shortfall from sufficiency that any

respondents experience in any indicator is considered to depress Gross National

Happiness The depth of insufficiency will rise if any person drops further away from

sufficiency cut-off This means that the distance from the cut-off or the sufficiency gap is

sensitive only if the achievements are below the sufficiency level This indicates that the

GNH index is sensitive to an unhappy or a poor persons experience Overall this method

65

is similar to poverty measurement where a poverty line is set to distinguish people who

are materially poor from non-poor (Millet 2010) However there is not much

information available on how the sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From

the information available on the CBS website it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut

off is set at a level that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises

questions because there is not any literature or research conducted on how the sufficiency

cut off has actually been set Arbitrarily setting cut-offs without any basis or setting it

based on some assumptions can lead to questionable results

42 Emotional Balance

The Centre for Bhutan Studies has grouped seven indicators under the category of

emotional balance The indicators can be further grouped into two categories negative

emotions and positive emotions The indicators under this index include emotions or

feelings related to wellbeing because these affect a persons evaluation of life Four of the

seven indicators pertain to negative emotions jealousy selfishness frustration and

suicidal thought and three pertain to positive emotion generosity calmness and

compassion Diener amp Lucas (1999) state that although the emotions are momentary

influences and would not reflect a stable state of happiness they do provide information

about the state of a persons life Research shows that a variety of etiological factors

contribute to these emotions (Berenbaum Raghavan Le Vernon amp Gomez 1999)

Buddhist teaching similarly maintains that these emotions do not occur on their own

there are causal factors associated with them

66

Buddhism places the mind at the centre of all experiences The Buddhist tradition

therefore places emotions at the core of individual and universal happiness In the

Abhidhamma Buddhist text the mind is presented in context to its primary and secondary

consciousnesses Primary consciousness refers to the content of mind which illuminates

merely the general nature of the content Secondary consciousness refers to the aspect of

mind that illuminates the particular nature of that content Both the primary and

secondary consciousnesses operate as one entity (Negi 1999) The Abhidhamma lists

fifty-one secondary consciousnesses All the positive and negative emotions fall under

the fifty-one secondary consciousnesses

a Negative Emotion

Chapter Three explained that negative emotions in Buddhism arise out of

ignorance desire and hatred Humans suffer because of their own negative emotions

These are negative because they harm oneself and others As we ignore the reality around

us and cling to the self or I we get angry for things we do not like jealous when others

succeed frustrated when we fail The extreme reaction is suicidal thoughts and action

All of these negative emotions from the Buddhist perspective fall under unethical

action action that occurs through the mind They are called nyong mongs meaning

distorted or confused or klesha translated as afflictive emotions Jealousy selfishness

frustration and suicidal thoughts arise due to covetousness ill will and wrong view The

four negative indicators form part of the ten non-virtuous actions and are afflictive

regardless of their degree or the context in which they arise These emotions are similarly

considered negative under the GNH index

67

1 Jealousy

Jealousy is often defined as a feeling of resentment when others succeed Harris

(2004) points out that jealousy is likely to arise over perceptions that a potential rival

poses a threat to what one perceives to be valuable in oneself and in an important

relationship In Buddhism jealousy is called dhrag-dog The Buddhist Abhidhamma text

classifies jealousy as part of hostility and calls it immoral Jealousy in Buddhism is

defined as a disturbing emotion that focuses on other peoples accomplishments such as

their good qualities possessions or success and is the inability to bear their

accomplishments due to excessive attachment to our own gain or to the respect we

receive (Berzin 2004 p 1) Jealousy in Buddhism is therefore related to attachment

Jealousy and envy have slightly different meanings in Buddhism Envy adds to what

jealousy means in Buddhism In addition to the inability to bear others accomplishments

envy is the wish to have these accomplishments for ourselves Therefore envy has the

element of what Buddhism calls covetousness (Bnab sem) Berzin (2004) points out that

envy as a combination of jealousy and covetousness leads to competitiveness Jealousy

is thus a disturbing emotion that drives us to become highly competitive and to work

fanatically to outdo others or ourselves Failure can cause much pain and success can lead

to further greed Jealousy has elements of resentment and hostility In addition it has

strong elements of insecurity and mistrust (Berzin 2004)

In the Abhidhamma text jealousy is opposite to compassion and appreciative joy

Lama Zopa Rinpoche (1973) states that rejoicing is the best remedy for jealousy and

envy (pl) Buddhist teaching maintains that we must rejoice for others success and

68

happiness and think that they created their own cause for their happiness Similarly in a

GNH society we must rejoice for others success and happiness Jealousy disturbs our

peace of mind and causes much suffering We cannot achieve GNH if we are all jealous

of others Jealousy is therefore opposed to GNH values

Mullen (1995) points out that men and women experience different types of

emotions when they are jealous These include pain distress oppression anxiety

sadness apprehension anger restless distress humiliation shame agitation and

betrayal All of these are negative and against happiness or wellbeing In order to

achieve GNH it is important to rule out the presence of such negative emotions Since

jealousy is directly opposed to the psychological wellbeing of people it is appropriate

that it be an indicator of GNH

In order to collect the data for this indicator the following question is asked of the

respondents (Box 1) The sufficiency cut off is set at never which means that

respondents are given full score when they answer never In a GNH state it is hoped or

expected that a person would never feel jealous Buddhism similarly marks jealousy as

non-virtuous and afflictive regardless of their degree in which they arise The sufficiency

cut-off which is set at never therefore also corresponds to Buddhist principles

How often do you experience jealousy

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 1 Survey question of Jealousy Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

69

2 Selfishness

The second indicator selfishness refers to an unwillingness to share because of

craving something for oneself Selfishness in Buddhism originates from attachment and

greed In Buddhism selfishness is closely related to the Buddhist term Serna (Negi

1999) Serna in the Abhidhamma text is termed as immoral consciousness (p96) and

appears as delusion arising out of a wrong view attachment and greed Negi (1999)

states that it is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity (p93)

Selfishness is also synonymous with the Tibetan Buddhist terms Rangdoed and lNoe

zirtwhich literally mean self-centered desire and material attachment respectively

Buddhist teachings condemn the idea of self or I from which selfishness arises As

explained in Chapter Three Buddhism teaches no-self (anatta) as an essential

principle The doctrine of no-self is to help us let go of our attachment and ego In one

of his interviews with FOR Atv the Dalai Lama (2008) narrates an incident in which a

rich couple asked him for a blessing He replied to them You are wealthy share your

wealth with the needy ones this will be the real blessing for you This indicates that

Buddhists believe in replacing selfishness with generosity to attain inner joy In

particular the paramita of ethics (see Chapter Three) emphasizes restraining self-

centeredness and to rooting it out completely The Dalai Lama (2000) states that the

ethic of restraining self-centeredness is crucial (p 101) A selfish attitude according to

Buddhism obstructs the path towards achieving Bodhisattva and thus genuine happiness

Selfishness gives rise to negative Karma leading one to be reborn in the lower realms

70

Similarly since the concept of GNH supports the idea of interdependence selfishness is

opposed to the GNH values

Under the selfishness indicator of GNH the participants are asked the following

question (See Box 2) For the answer never a full score is given which means that a

person should never feel selfish to get a positive GNH score This indicates that

selfishness is against the GNH essence Consistent with the Buddhist teachings the GNH

index similarly marks selfishness as a negative trait

How often do you experience selfishness

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 2 Survey question of Selfishness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

3 Frustration The American Heritage Stedmans Medical Dictionary defines frustration as a

condition that results when an impulse or an action is thwarted by an external or an

internal force There is no exact term for frustration in Buddhism but it can be related to

the term gopa which is translated as agitation Negi (1999) describes gopa as a

mental factor that disturbs the inner calm and focus of the mind (p44) Gopa forms

part of the twenty secondary delusions in the Abhidhamma In the Bhutanese national

language Ouggam1 holds equivalent meaning to frustration Ouggam literally means

pressurizing the breath Oug is breath and gam means pressure When we pressurize our

self we get frustrated and this comes out as anger causing suffering to others and

ourselves

71

Frustration is without doubt a negative emotion because it disturbs the peace of

mind causing anxiety and stress Like jealousy and selfishness frustration arises out

of attachment and desire In Buddhism any emotion that arises out of ignorance desire

and hatred is afflictive and non-virtuous Similarly in a GNH society that seeks to

maximize the happiness and wellbeing of people frustration is a negative trait and

opposed to the concept of GNH because it obstructs the path towards happiness Since

frustration has a negative impact on wellbeing it is necessary to determine if such

emotions occur frequently among people Therefore it is appropriate to have it as a

negative indicator of psychological wellbeing

The question (Box 3) how often do you experience frustration is asked of

respondents Since frustration hampers wellbeing respondents who never experience

frustration are given a full GNH score Respondents who often or sometimes

experience frustration are given a negative score

How often do you experience frustration

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 3 Survey question of Frustration Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

4 Suicidal Thoughts

Suicidal thoughts usually occur when one is no longer able to bear suffering in

life According to Buddhism suicide is an unwholesome act since it is encouraged by a

mind filled with greed hatred and delusion (Dhammananda nd) Killing is one of the ten

non-virtuous actions in Buddhism so any act of killing is unwholesome and suicide is

72

therefore an unwholesome act The Buddhist teachings on Karma maintain that death by

suicide only leads to another cycle of rebirth in the same condition Buddha Dharma

Education Association (nd) explains that in order for the act of killing to have its

complete and unmitigated power five conditions must be present a living being the

awareness of the existence of a living being the intention to kill the living being the

effort or action of killing the living being and the consequent death of the living being

Suicide will always lack the last element of a complete Karma because the one who

commits the act will already be dead at the time of the completion of the action

Therefore suicide becomes a defective action and is not completed as an act of killing

leading to rebirth in the same condition (Sopa 2005) The Dalai Lama (1981) states that

even if we take our own life we will have to take another body that again will be the

basis of suffering In order to get rid of all the difficulties we experience we need to get

rid of the fundamental cause (greed hatred and delusion) that gives rise to the aggregates

that are the basis of all suffering He adds that killing yourself is not going to solve your

problems Suicide in Buddhism is therefore a non-virtuous act that arises because of

afflictive emotion

According to Buddhism suicide does not end the problem The famous Buddhist

painting of truth depicts that death is only the beginning of another cycle of pain and

suffering Buddhists therefore do not support suicide and instead encourage constructive

living using this life to diligently practice virtuous action thus changing the present and

the future for the better

Research indicates that suicide and attempted suicide are associated with

elevated levels of anger anxiety guilt sadness and shame (Berenbaum Raghavan Le

73

Vernon Gomez 1999 p 279) Depression is found to be the main cause of suicides The

most common factors that push youth to commit suicide according to Bhutanese

psychiatrist Dr Nirola are peer and parental pressures competitive scenarios and failure

to get a job among others (as cited by Dorji 2010) This indicates that suicidal thoughts

occur because of what Buddhism calls the three poisons leading to further afflictive

emotions

Suicidal thoughts similarly are against the essence of GNH and therefore a

negative indicator of psychological wellbeing Under the GNH index a person who has

never thought of committing suicide (See Box 4) is given a foil GNH score while

respondents who have thought of committing suicide are given negative scores Overall

the indicator of suicidal thought finds groundings in Buddhist teachings

Have you ever seriously thought of committing suicide

1 Yes 2 No

Box 4 Survey question of Suicidal Thought Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Jealousy frustration selfishness and suicidal thoughts are negative emotions that

affect individuals and the societys wellbeing Satya Dev Negi (1996) asserts that the

distorted emotional states have achieved such a pervasive status that our era may become

known to history as the Age of Emotional Epidemic (p2) The effects of negative

emotions are clearly visible in society increasing crime substance abuse suicide and

divorce are all symptoms of emotional dysfunction

The entire Buddhist tradition evolved as a study of mental and emotional states

and ways to transform the negative emotions into positive ones Although Buddhism sees

74

ignorance desire and hatred as the main causes of suffering the three poisons come out

in the form of various negative emotions which include jealousy frustration and

selfishness Scientific research has revealed the role emotions play in affecting health the

immune system blood pressure and cardiovascular functions Research also indicates

that individuals with emotional disturbances are prone to induce negative effects upon

those with whom they have ongoing relationships (Berenbaum et al 1999) Besides

evaluation of the frequency of negative emotions it is important for the government to

know the reasons or the conditions that give rise to these negative emotions GNH as

policy must attend to it them

Overall all of the four indicators are directly opposed to the essence of GNH and

therefore it is appropriate to have them as indicators in order to minimize or eliminate

the presence of such negative emotions in a country Further all of these indicators are

rooted in Buddhism

b Positive Emotions

The process for accomplishing happiness in Buddhism involves uprooting the

negative emotions and enhancing the positive ones The three indicatorsmdashgenerosity

calmness and compassionmdashare positive because these emotions bring happiness to

oneself and others The practice of paramitas as explained in Chapter Three encourages

replacing the three poisons by practicing generosity ethics compassion and meditative

concentration Similarly generosity calmness and compassion are considered positive

indicators of psychological wellbeing

75

5 Generosity

Generosity is the act of giving and a means to overcome greed and selfishness In

Buddhism the practice of generosity (Dana Paramita- jinba) as laid down in Chapter

Three is one of the six paramitas and a way to practice compassion Buddhism maintains

that the practice of generosity in addition to the fivefold benefit to the one practicing it

brings happiness to others too Generosity is a moral practice that relates to positive

virtues such as compassion and loving kindness the cultivation of which leads to mental

development and spiritual happiness Through generosity we are able to extend ourselves

and help others The whole idea of generosity supports the concept of interdependence

which is the core principle of GNH and Buddhism The Centre for Bhutan Studies terms

generosity a positive emotion of great importance and a desirable habit Generosity as

an indicator is therefore coherent with the GNH principle as it promotes happiness for

oneself and others The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 5) for the

collection of data

How often do you experience generosity

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 5 Survey question of Generosity Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

The sufficiency cut off has been set as often which means a person should

frequently experience the feeling of generosity to get the full GNH score In a GNH

3 See Chapter Three

76

society people must help each other and promote a healthy environment Helping does

not necessarily mean giving all your possessions to others but it does entail sharing a part

of your wealth and being helpful in many ways An example would be a voluntary

service to society and charity Happiness derived by the act of generosity which does not

get included in the Gross Domestic Product (Hewavitharana 2004) should be included in

the evaluation of GNH Therefore generosity as an indicator of psychological

wellbeing is coherent with and appropriate to the concept of GNH

6 Calmness

Calmness refers to the clarity of mind and it entails patience and tolerance

Calmness is opposed to anger which is one of the three poisons in Buddhism The

Buddhist practice of Kshanita paramita the practice of patience and tolerance stresses

the importance of having a calm and composed mind at all times Patience in Buddhism

as seen in Chapter Three refers to having the strength to face the challenges and

difficulties of life without losing composure and inner tranquility In the Abhidhamma

text equanimity (long nyom) which is synonymous with calmness is listed as the

tenth positive secondary consciousness and a wholesome mental factor (Negi 1999)

Any mind that experiences such emotion becomes automatically positive states Negi

(1999) When we are calm we develop a tendency not to harm others and we are usually

at our best when we are calm Tranquility gives rise to clarity from which understanding

and wisdom grow (Graham 2007) A calm mind is therefore very essential for living a

happy and healthy life On the other hand constant fear and anger affect our own health

and overall wellbeing Horton (2010) states that through mental calmness one can

77

experience inner peace and as a result success too Calmness is therefore a virtue

consistent with GNH ideals

The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 6) for the collection of

data

How often do you experience calmness

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 6 Survey question of Calmness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Respondents who often feel calm are given the full GNH score which means in a GNH

society people should experience calmness frequently Overall this indicator can be

linked to Buddhist teachings and is coherent with GNH values as well

7 Compassion

Compassion is a wish to relieve the suffering of others and is central to Buddhist

practice As mentioned earlier in Chapter Three it is the most essential and important

trait for bodhisattvas within Mahayana Buddhism Mahayanists maintain that only

through developing a compassionate heart can one practice the other essential virtues

For example without being compassionate we will not develop a genuine sense of

generosity The compassion in Buddhism not only arises out of empathy towards the

suffering of others but from understanding and realizing the meaning of emptiness the

law of Karma and interdependence viewing self and others as devoid of inherent

meaning Compassion thus leads to the practice of loving kindness and helps to

78

overcome afflictive emotions such as hatred jealousy and selfishness which are

considered negative under the psychological wellbeing indicators

Compassion a profound human emotion can be a powerful means to creating a

GNH society When one is compassionate the thought of harming others does not arise

and this attitude cultivates a genuine sense to work toward everyones benefit The CBS

(2008) similarly holds compassion as an approach to sympathy for the suffering of

others which is necessary to establish a compassionate society Thinking about the

suffering of others and not just ones own is important for a GNH society Further

scientific studies suggest that individuals including children who may engage in

bullying people and society in general could benefit from practices of compassion (Lutz

Lewis Johnstone Davidson 2008) Therefore compassion as an indicator is very much

coherent with the GNH values

The following question (Box 7) is asked of respondents to find out how

compassionate they are The sufficiency cut off similar to the indicator of generosity

and calmness has been set at often which means a person should frequently

experience compassion to get the full GNH score

How often do you experience compassion

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 7 Survey question of Compassion Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Overall the presence of emotions such as compassion calmness and generosity

have a positive impact on physical wellbeing on decision-making process and on the

79

potential for leading a happy life Further each of the three indicators is clearly related to

the Buddhist practice of paramitas

43 Spiritual Practices

From the Buddhist perspective the indicators under this section consist of

practices to overcome negative or afflictive emotions Practicising them with sincerity

can hold negative emotions at bay

8 Frequency of Meditation

The Buddhists consider meditation a very important method to calm the mind

The eightfold noble path and the paramita of meditative concentration emphasizes the

importance of meditation as a means to destroy the three root causes of suffering (desire

hatred and ignorance) Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) states that the Buddhist meditative

practice does not merely suppress the destructive mental states but trains the mind to see

directly and concretely how the mind functions and using this understanding tames and

masters our own mind freeing it from afflictive states Many Buddhist masters prescribe

meditation as the key to finding happiness and peace of mind Tashi (2004) points out

that the important egalitarian aspects of meditation are its accessibility to everybody with

little or no cost involved Researchers have shown that Buddhists who meditate may be

able to train their minds to feel genuine happiness and control aggressive instincts

(Connor 2003) Another study of Buddhist meditation by scientists at the University of

California has found that meditation might tame the amygdale the part of the brain

involved with fear and anger Studies have also shown that even brief courses of

80

meditation with very short periods of the simplest meditative practices are associated

with better psychological and physical health (Levenson etal 2004) The CBS does not

link meditation to Buddhism but it is implicit that the indicators are inspired by Buddhist

teachings

Aside from the spiritual connotations meditation is a powerful method to calm

our mind (Connor 2003) Research has shown that practicing meditation regularly has

beneficial effects for a range of conditions These include stress anxiety depression

poor sleep and coping with chronic pain It also has other health benefits such as reduced

inflammation improved immunity and lower blood pressure A study conducted by three

universities (University of Wisconsin West Virginia University and University of

Reading) found that calmness and compassion could be developed through the practice of

meditation Lutz Lewis Johnstone and Davidson (2008) state that the long-term goal of

meditation is to weaken egocentric traits so that altruistic behaviors might arise more

frequently and spontaneously Meditation is indeed the best method to make the mind

relaxed and peaceful Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) maintains that the gift of learning to

meditate is the greatest gift you can gift yourself in this life (p58) He adds for it is

only through meditation that you can undertake the journey to discover your true nature

and so find the stability and confidence you will need to live and die well (p58)

The benefits of meditation as pointed out by the Buddhist teachings and supported

by modern research are immense The practice of meditation thus surely will have a

positive impact on the wellbeing of people which directly contributes to the essence of

GNH Having meditation as a GNH indicator signifies the importance the government is

putting on the benefits it provides The following question (Box 8) is asked of

respondents regarding the practice of meditation

Do you practice meditation

1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all

Box 8 Survey question of meditation Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

The sufficiency cut-off for meditation has been set as occasionally which means

one must practice meditation occasionally to get a full GNH score Although meditation

is considered a very important practice in Buddhism meditation among the lay

population is not popular in Bhutan According to the survey conducted by CBS (2008)

904 of respondents do not meditate at all This may arise from the fact that Bhutan

still does not have any meditation centre for lay people This may also be the reason why

the sufficiency cut-off has been set as occasionally instead of daily Very recently

meditation has been introduced in Bhutanese schools It however needs to be introduced

among lay population too Overall the indicator of mediation is coherent with GNH

values Further since Buddhism greatly stresses the importance of meditation the

indicator seems to have been influenced by Buddhism

9 Prayer Recitation

Prayer is a form of religious practice that seeks to connect to some greater power

Most religions involve prayer in one way or another The purpose of Buddhist prayer is to

awaken the inherent inner capacities of strength compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)

The translation for the word prayer in Bhutanese national language is thuen which

82

literally means the recitation of mantras Buddhism emphasizes the recitation of prayershy

like mantras A mantra is a word a syllable a phrase or a short prayer that is spoken

once or repeated over and over again (either aloud or in a persons head) and that is

thought to have a profound spiritual effect on the person (BBC 2006 p 1) Mantra

literally means that which protects the mind from negativity (Sogyal Rimpoche 2002

p71) Mantra Sogyal Rimpoche states is the essence of sound and embodiment of the

truth in the form of sound Each syllable contains spiritual power and vibrates with the

blessing of the speech of the Buddha There are mantras that are thought to subtly alter

ones mind and make a connection with a particular Buddha or enlightened being

Buddhists believe that when certain mantras are said many times they arouse good

vibrations within the person they awaken our inherent inner capacities of strength

compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)

A prayer can be silent meditation or a full chorus of chanting (Hanh 2006) In

Buddhism praying involves two important aspects the first is establishing a relationship

between ourselves and the one to whom we are praying This refers to reflecting on the

great qualities of the Buddha which involves visualization The second is regarding

effective prayer which is the idea of cultivating the energy of love mindfulness and

right concentration in prayer To pray effectively our body and mind must dwell

peacefully in the present moment (Hanh 2006) It is common that Buddhists lay prostrate

while praying This is a position that diminishes the ego opens one up and brings one

close to the earth (Hanh 2006 p 63) Since reciting prayers requires mindfulness and

concentration the paramita of meditative concentration extends to prayers too The

83

Buddhist Faith Fellowship of Connecticut asserts that Buddhist prayer is a form of

meditation and practice of inner reconditioning Similarly Sogyal Rimpoche (2002)

explains that reciting mantras is one of the meditation techniques He calls it uniting the

mind with the sound of mantra When one is nervous disoriented or emotionally fragile

reciting a mantra inspiringly can change the state of the mind completely by transforming

its energy and atmosphere He also mentions that mind rides on the subtle energy of

breath and when you chant a mantra you are charging your breath and energy with the

energy of the mantra so working directly on the mind and subtle body (p71) The

practice of reciting mantra for inner reconditioning is distinctively Buddhist

In addition to reciting mantras a majority of the Bhutanese Buddhists pray to

local deities It is a very popular belief in Bhutan that deities can protect us from evil

forces In a real sense this is not Buddhism because the Buddha never prayed to anyone

Buddhism stresses the recitation of mantras to awaken our inner qualities As mentioned

earlier Bhutan was largely a Bon country prior to the entry of Buddhism Bonism

emphasized worshipping the deities Buddhism in many countries flourished with

polytheistic features For example in Japan Buddhism mixed with Shinto which

worships kamis (nature spirits) created a tradition of praying to the kamis Bhutans

national newspaper Kuensel reported that Bonism mixed with Buddhism is still prevalent

in the country (Wangchuk 2005) The rituals of the Bon often include animal sacrifices

but animal sacrifices are discouraged in the country However many pray and perform

rituals to appease the local deities (yu-lha) For example in the village of Bongo under

Chukha district people worship and pray to two sister deities They also summon other

84

deities and spirits residing in mountains valleys lakes forests streams and cliffs

invoking them to assist and protect people from misfortunes (as cited by Wangchuk

2005) Similarly people in the capital Thimphu pray to a local deity located in the upper

valley Although this is not distinctively Buddhism (Powers 1995) it is an age-old

tradition that has been absorbed by Bhutanese Buddhists long ago This is now

considered an integral part of Bhutanese Buddhist culture

The following question (Box 9) is asked of respondents A person who prays

daily meets the sufficiency cutoff which means heshe is given a full GNH score

Do you sayrecite prayers

1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all

Box 9 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Although reciting prayers in Buddhism is seen as a method ofmeditation both

are given different sufficiency cut offs A person who meditates occasionally is given a

full score while a person who prays occasionally is not given a full score The different

sufficiency cut offs for the two different practices indicates that the prayer recitation

indicator is intended to be different from meditation However prayer recitation in

Buddhism itself is a form of meditation CBS mentions that those indicators which are

highly uncorrelated were selected but from a pure Buddhist perspective the two seem to

be closely related since both fall under the paramita of meditative concentration The

CBS does not mention how prayer recitation is consistent with GNH values

Nevertheless the benefits of prayer recitation and meditation maybe the same because

85

both practices require mindfulness and concentration In this sense prayer recitation too

is coherent with GNH To conclude prayer in the form of mantra accords with Buddhist

principles while prayer to deities is a local Buddhist practice Therefore the indicator of

prayer recitation seems to have been influenced by Buddhism with traces of local beliefs

10 Taking account of Karma

As seen in chapter three Karma is a very important Buddhist principle that guides

the Buddhist psyche The law of Karma provides the basis to practice the paramita of

ethics (sila) Karma as one of the GNH indicators clearly implies that Buddhism has

influenced the indicator The literal meaning of taking account of Karma is being

morally responsible for our own actions When a person takes account of Karma in daily

life heshe is being aware and morally responsible for their actions on which the result

depends When we understand the law of Karma we are discouraged from performing

non-virtuous or unwholesome actions which cause suffering Realizing that Karma

conditions and determines our happiness we will refrain from unwholesome behavior to

avoid the negative effects of these actions Similarly understanding that virtuous actions

bear the fruit of happiness one is encouraged to practice wholesome actions The law of

causality therefore promotes moral and ethical life

The sufficiency cutoff for taking account of Karma (Box 10) has been set as

daily indicating that a person who takes account of Karma daily is given a full GNH

score

86

Do you consider Karma in the course of your daily life

1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all

Box 10 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

For a country pursing GNH it is important to take account of Karma on a daily

basis because Karma promotes healthy and ethical living ideal for a GNH state

According to CBS for Bhutanese an understanding of the dynamics between causes

and effects are critical to each individuals pursuit for happiness as it tends to provide a

clearer understanding and cultivation of GNH values (pl) Understanding that the real

reason for our sufferings is our own Karma (action through body speech and mind)

serves as an antidote to all our afflictive emotions Karma promotes the sense of helping

each other and living in harmony with all forms of life It is therefore important that a

GNH society take account of Karma daily to promote wholesome actions for a happy

society The indicator of taking account of Karma daily is thus a reflection of Buddhist

principles and is consistent with GNH values

43 General Mental Health (GMH)

11 General Mental Health

The general mental health indicator assesses the mental health of people using the

General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) that would provide a possible indication of

depression anxiety low confidence and concentration levels Unlike the other indicators

under the psychological wellbeing domain the General Mental Health indicator consists

87

of fifteen questions (See Appendix 2) Questions related to ones stress level ability to

concentrate anxiety depression feeling of happiness and unhappiness are asked of the

respondents The questions are calculated and interpreted using the Likert scale with

lowest score at 0 and highest possible score at 36 A lower score between the ranges of 0-

15 indicates normal mental wellbeing a median score between 16-20 indicates some

mental distress and a high score of 21-36 indicates severe mental distress (CBS 2008)

The sufficiency cut-off is set as normal mental wellbeing which means people should

not experience any mental distress to get a full GNH score

The CBS (2008) asserts that mental health is an important indicator for the health

status of a population Studies have revealed that mental stress can negatively affect

wellbeing Studies also point out that stress may alter the immune system and increase

susceptibility to disease (CBS 2008)

From the Buddhist perspective psychological distress such as depression lack of

confidence and anxiety are the result of our own afflictive emotions Gyatso (2009)

points out that the overriding cause of mental stress is self-cherishingmdashseeing ones own

physical and mental pleasure as more important than anybody elses People who have

the tendency to use more self-referential terms (I me myself) tend to have more health

problems and earlier deaths (Dalai Lama 2009) According to Buddhism it is our own

ego the focus on the notion of I that cause us to suffer The causes of mental distress

thus lie within us Since cause is within us the cure is also in our own mind Buddhist

teachings maintain that meditating on emptiness4 can get rid of the notion of T Thus

4 A meditation technique

88

mental distress similar to other negative emotions are a result of ignorance desire and

hatred

Ven Thubten Gyatso (2009) a Buddhist teacher points out two reasons why

selfishness can cause mental illness The first is that unhappiness arising from

selfishness is cumulative When we do not obtain what we want we often over-react to a

ridiculous extent and our selfish behavior isolates us from others The accumulation of

small failures in life erodes our self-confidence and we fall into depression The second

reason he points out is that selfishness prevents us from doing the one thing that is

guaranteed to bring happiness - cherishing others being compassionate and generous

Self-obsession and self-centered thoughts blind us and we do nothing to help others In

Buddhism self-centeredness never brings real joy and satisfaction but instead causes

suffering

The mind drives every action that occurs through the body speech and mind

The causal factor therefore lies within us It is our ability to deal with emotions that

influences the mental state Since mental stress obstructs the path towards happiness it

opposes the goal of GNH It is therefore important to assess the stress levels of the

population to identify the risk group Intervention by government and offering remedy

(for example offering counseling) and monitoring changes over time can help people

pursue happiness

44 Summary

The purpose of this study is to determine to what extent the indicators under the

psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with

89

the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH Findings in this chapter reveal the following

The four indicators related to negative emotionsmdashjealousy selfishness frustration

suicidal thoughtmdashdo appear in Buddhism Jealousy (dhrag-dog) is clearly stated as an

afflictive emotion while the Buddhist teachings condemn the idea ofself through

which selfishness arises Although the exact term does not appear in Buddhism

frustration is closely related to the meaning of gopa or agitation which arises as a result

of the three poisons Buddhism holds that lack of wisdom or holding on to wrong views

leads to suicidal thoughts Jealousy selfishness frustration and suicidal thought thus

arise out of the three poisons ignorance desire and hatred All four indicators are what

Buddhism calls Klesha afflictive emotions that disturb the mind of oneself and others

thus obstructing the path towards happiness Similarly general mental health distress is a

result of afflictive emotion Buddhist teachings particularly points out that holding on to

the idea of self leads to mental stress

The indicators related to the three positive emotions (Generosity Compassion

and Calmness) and three spiritual practices (Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking

account of Karma) are clearly related to the Buddhist teachings on six paramitas

Generosity is the first paramita a practice towards achieving genuine happiness

Compassion is the root of all Mahayana Buddhist practices and an essential component of

the practice of six paramitas The indicator of calmness is related to Kshanti paramita

which entails the practice of patience tolerance and endurance Similarly the indicator

of meditation and prayer recitation is related to the Buddhist practice of meditative

concentration which is the fourth practice Dhayana paramita Prayer recitation

however does have elements of Bon practices which have been deeply absorbed by the

90

local Buddhist culture The indicator of taking account of Karma is clearly influenced by

Buddhism Karma promotes the practice of ethics which is sila paramita that stresses

avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and engaging in virtuous action Overall all of the

positive emotions and practices require wisdom which is prajna paramita The core

teachings of Buddhism thus find a place in each of the indicators Thus it would be

appropriate to conclude that the indicators have been influenced by Buddhism

Each of indicators either contributes to or negatively affects GNH In a GNH

society it is important to establish that people not only experience positive emotions but

also rule out the presence of negative emotions that can cause mental distress It is also

important to determine if people take up spiritual practices to keep the negative emotions

at bay Therefore each indicator under psychological wellbeing relates positively or

negatively with the concept of GNH It can thus be concluded that the indicators of

psychological wellbeing are consistent with GNH values

91

CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMMENDATIONS

From the very beginning of its development plan Bhutan chose to ensure the

preservation of its culture tradition and natural resources This came to be called the

philosophy of GNH where peoples spiritual and emotional wellbeing is afforded equal

importance to economic wellbeing GNH recognizes that economic development without

spiritual and emotional wellbeing will not bring happiness to people Several workshops

and discourses held on GNH led to the adoption of the GNH Index a set of indicators to

measure whether Bhutanese society is progressing towards GNH The index comprises

72 indicators grouped under nine domains that go beyond material values and incorporate

all values relevant to a happy life The GNH index is now the most important tool in

guiding the performance of the government towards achieving the goal of GNH The

purpose of this study was to determine to what extent the indicators under the

psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with

the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH The three questions that drove this study are

To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do the indicators reflect

Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept of GNH which does

reflect Buddhist principles The primary data that were used are the eleven indicators and

survey questionnaires developed by the Centre for Bhutan Studies The findings from the laquo

study reveal that each of the indicators under psychological wellbeing reflects Buddhist

principles The ultimate goal in Buddhism is to achieve genuine happiness Inspired by

this belief Bhutan is the only country in the world that officially pursues the state of

happiness The government believes that happiness is in the end what matters the most

92

The government has taken the utmost responsibility to create an enabling condition for

people to pursue happiness The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index

measures peoples psychological state which influences the overall wellbeing of people

Since the purpose of this study is to determine the extent to which indicators

reflected Buddhist principles it was necessary to highlight the key Buddhist principles

related to happiness Chapter Three examined the key Buddhist principles related to

happiness Specifically Thogme Zangpos teachings on the six paramitas were used as a

basis to develop the framework of happiness It was observed that happiness is not only

worldly pleasure derived from physical comfort but also an innate state of mind which

can be cultivated through the practice of compassion generosity ethics meditative

concentration patience and wisdom This can bring happiness to the individual and to

the society Although GNH stresses collective happiness Buddhism states that peace

must first be developed in the individual mind before it can contribute to others and the

happiness of the society Thus in the words of Master Shantideva it is not primarily the

outer conditions of our life that determine our happiness or suffering it is our own mind

that creates the cause for happiness or success

Humans experience many emotions and narrowing them down to eleven

indicators is not an easy task There is a strong relationship between emotions and

wellbeing The intensity of pleasant and unpleasant emotions influences the degree of

psychological wellbeing Studies have also shown that emotions play an integral role in

affecting the overall physical health Emotions also have powerful effects in shaping and

regulating social interactions and influencing how one appears to others Like the mind-

93

transforming practices in Buddhism the key to a nations progress lies in tracing

problems and solutions to the root causes

The indicators under the psychological wellbeing domain measure peoples

emotional state and the frequency of spiritual practices to eliminate negative emotion

Findings in Chapter Four reveal that each of the indicators of psychological wellbeing

correlates to Buddhist principles on happiness The relationship between the indicators of

psychological wellbeing and Buddhist principles are presented in the table below

Indicators Buddhist Principles

1 Jealousy Dhrag Dhog- Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

2 Selfishness Serna - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

3 Frustration Gopa - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

4 Suicidal Thought Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

5 Generosity Dana Paramita (Bjin ba) Generosity

6 Compassion The root of all Buddhist practices

7 Calmness Kshanti Paramita (Bzod pa) Patience tolerance endurance

8 Meditation Dhyana Parmto Meditative Concentration

9 Prayer Recitation Dhyana ParmitaMeditative Concentration

10 Karma Sila Paramita (Tshul khrim) virtue morality ethics

11 General Mental Health Klesha (Afflictive emotions) causes mental distress

Table 1 Relating the Indicators with Buddhism

The four negative emotion indicatorsmdashselfishness frustration jealousy and

suicidal thoughtmdashare found in Buddhism as afflictive emotions (klesha) arising out of the

three poisons Jealousy (dharg dhog) appears in the Abhidhamma text as an immoral and

94

deluded mental factor that feels displeasure in seeing others succeed Similarly

selfishness (sema) is listed as an immoral consciousness in the Abhidhamma Selfishness

is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity Buddhism teaches no-

self (anatta) as an essential principle and therefore strongly condemns the notion of I

through which selfishness arises Frustration in Buddhism is closely related to the term

gopa which is actually translated as agitation Gopa falls under the twenty secondary

immoral delusions in the Abhidhamma text Suicides and suicidal thought in Buddhism

are the result of wrong view Suicide is an unwholesome action and does not end the

problem Suicidal thought occurs because of afflictive emotions (klesha) All these

negative emotions (klesha) cause mental distress

The positive emotion and spiritual practice indicators such as compassion

calmness generosity meditation prayer recitation and taking account of Karma are the

replication of the six paramitas The positive emotions which Buddhists call virtuous

action such as generosity compassion and calmness tend to increase happiness in oneself

and others while negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration affect

psychological health and decrease happiness Since each of the indicators can be clearly

related to Buddhist principles of happiness it can thus be concluded that the

psychological wellbeing indicators are influenced by Buddhism and are consistent with

the concept of GNH One may argue that indicators such as compassion generosity and

calmness are universal values and ethics and may not necessarily be influenced by

Buddhism However in the case of Bhutan the Bhutanese worldview and its political

ethos are largely influenced by Buddhism The philosophy of GNH is also rooted in

Buddhism It is also evident that the government is seeking to measure and cater to long-

95

term rather than short-term happiness From the Buddhist perspective short-term

happiness is delivered chiefly by material goods while long-term happiness is derived

from spiritual cultural and social values

This study reveals that Buddhism stresses gaining control over our mind and

cultivating the right kind of habit which is said to be the root of all forms of joy and

happiness Buddhism in the original sense encourages exercises to tame and calm the

mind This study therefore partly seems to support the claims made by scholars such as

Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and Tashi (2004) who have argued that

Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH

Overall this study indicates that if the government creates good policies and

conditions for people GNH cannot be achieved if its citizens are not psychologically

strong For example if citizens are mentally stressed or filled with jealousy they will not

contribute to collective happiness In that sense happiness is inextricably linked to the

inner conditions of ones own mind

Measuring the psychological state of people will help the policy makers make

better decisions The emotional and psychological needs of people therefore must be

considered by the policy makers in order to achieve GNH A study by Sheldon Ryan

Deci and Kasser (2004) found that people pursuing intrinsic goals (emotional intimacy

community contribution and personal growth) had higher happiness expectancies than

those pursuing extrinsic goals (financial success attractive image and famepopularity)

By emphasizing human values of compassion generosity calmness and selflessness as

necessary indicators of GNH the government of Bhutan is providing the basis for

developing policies that focus on these values The domain of psychological wellbeing

96

thus focuses on the inner emotional development Within the concept of GNH inner non-

material development is equally important as external material development

Recommendations for Future Studies

The biggest challenge for the government is to combat the negative emotions of

the people The findings of this study reveal that Buddhist teachings are all geared

towards taming the mind and cultivating values that promote happiness Further

Buddhism does not emphasize individualism but emphasizes equality and cooperation

aimed at collective happiness It emphasizes individual effort geared towards universal

happiness Buddhist teachings and method to calm the mind can contribute to GNH

Ekman Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) suggest that Buddhist practices offer a

therapy not just for the disturbed but for all who seek to improve the quality of their

lives Although the majority of the population in Bhutan is Buddhist 25 are non-

Buddhist (CIA fact book 2009) Some scholars have argued however that Buddhism

can also be taught as education on human values (Mancall 2004 amp Lokamitra 2004)

Therefore extensive research on how this might be done could provide valuable lessons

insights and guidelines for the purpose of promoting GNH values

As pointed out earlier there is not much information available on how the

sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From the information available on the

CBS website however it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut off is set at a level

that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises questions because

there is not any literature or studies conducted on how the sufficiency cut off has actually

been set Arbitrarily setting a cut off without any basis or setting it based on some

assumptions can lead to questionable results Therefore an in-depth study on the basis

97

for setting the sufficiency cut off seems necessary to avoid misinterpretation by policy

makers

This study analyzed the indicators to determine the extent to which they reflected

Buddhist principles However it was observed that indicators of psychological wellbeing

were measured by questionnaires that only examined the frequency of occurrence of

emotions and the spiritual practices It is important that the government not only

recognize peoples suffering but identify its causes as well For example the questionnaire

notes the frequency of negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration but

does not identify their causes In order for the policy makers to identify effective

solutions the cause must be noted also Further the key terms such as generosity

compassion frustration and prayer recitation were not clearly defined For example the

term generosity could imply the practice rather than the emotional state of generosity

One can practice generosity yet not feel emotionally generous a practice can differ from

an emotional state Similarly the choices of answers such as often sometimes daily have

not been defined These terms can mean different things to different people To avoid

misinterpretation it is necessary that the key terms be clearly defined and nuanced

This study focused only on one of the domains of GNH index Although a similar

study needs to be carried out for the other eight domains there is a need for further

investigation into many of the issues related to the GNH index such as How would the

GNH index affect the government policies Does the index give equal importance to the

emotional spiritual and economical wellbeing of the people Does the index capture the

real essence of human happiness

98

References

A Manual of Abhidhamma (1987) Edited by Narada Maha Thera Malaysia Buddhist Missionary Society Retrieved from httpwwwbuddhanetnetpdf fileabhidhammapdf

Anguttara (nd) Dana Generosity Retrieved from (Anguttara IV 57) httpwwwbuddhamindinfoleftsidelifestv-2danahtm

Annas J (1999) Aristotles Ethics Critical Essay (p 35- 56)Edited by Nancy Sherman United States of America Rowman amp Littlefield Publishers Inc

Bancroft A (ed) (1997) The Dhammapada USA Element Inc

BBC (2006) Buddhist worships Retrieved from httpwwwbbccoukreligionreligionsbuddhisrncustomsworship 1 shtml

Berenbaum H Raghavan C Le H Vernon L amp Gomez J (1999) Disturbances in emotion In Daniel Kahneman Ed Diener and Norbert Schwarz (Eds) Wellbeing The foundation ofhedonic psychology (pp 267-287) New York Russell Sage Foundation

Berzin A (2004) Dealing with Jealousy Retrieved from httpwwwberzinarchivescomwebenarchivessutraylevel3 loiong materialgen eraldealing iealousvhtmln9203d70b0a90c002

Bhutan Observer (2010) A GNH School httpwwwbhutanobserverbt201 Qbhutan-news01a-gnh-schoolhtml

Boonyakiat S (2009) A Christian Theology of Suffering in the Context of Theravada Buddhism in Thailand

Brooks AC (2008) Gross National Happiness Why Happiness Matters for America and How We Can Get More of It USA

Buddha Dharma Education Association (NA) Fundamentals of Buddhism Karma Retrieved from httpwwwbuddhanetnetfundbud9htm

Buddhist Faith Fellowship of Connecticut (nd) Buddhist Prayers Retrieved from httpbuddhistfaithtripodcompureland sanghaid 14html

Business Bhutan (April 172010) A meditating school Retrieved from httpwwwbusinessbhutanbtp= 1366

99

Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) (2008) Explanation of GNH Index Centre for Bhutan Studies Retrieved on June 12 2009 from httpwwwgrossnationalhappinesseomgnhIndexintruductionGNHaspx

Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) (2008) Dimension Psychological Wellbeing Retrieved from httpwwwgrossnationalhappinesseomgnhIndexgnhlndexVariablesaspx

Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) (2008) Psychological Wellbeing Report Retrieved from httpwwwgrossnationalhappinesscomsurvevReportspsvchologicaIpwellbeingr eportdavidpdf

Central Intelligent Agency (CIA) (2009) Bhutan Retrieved from httpswwwciagovlibrarvpublicationsthe-world-factbookgeosbthtml

Chophel S (2008) Cultural diversity and resilience Journal of Bhutan Studies Centre for Bhutan Studies Thimphu Bhutan

Chopra S (2010) An exclusive interview with His Holiness the Dalai Lama Retrieved from httpwwwlifepositivecomspiritworld-religionsbuddhismdalai-interviewasp

Colman R (2008a) Application of the Genuine Progress Index to Nova Scotia Measuring Genuine Progress Indicators Accounts and Policy Retrieved from httpwwwgpiatlanticorgpdfintegratedpolicvapppdf

ColmanR(2008b) Measuring Progress towards Gross National Happiness Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference Held in Bhutan Retrieved on 30th

September 2009 from httpwwwbhutanstudiesorgbtadminpubFilesGNH41 GNH4pdf

ColmanR amp SagebienJ (2004) Measuring Genuine Progress- Indicators for Enlightened Society Proceedings of the First International Seminar on Operationalization of Gross National Happiness (p252- 259) Centre for Bhutan Studies

ConnorS(2003) Can Buddhists transcend mental reservations Retrieved on 14th April 2010 from httpwwwbiopsvchiatrvcomhappinessbuddhisthtml

Creswell J W (2007) Qualitative inquiry and research design Choosing among five approaches (2nd ed) Thousand Oaks CA SAGE

Dalai Lama (1981) Four noble truths A teaching given in Dharamsala Retrieved from httpwww Iamaveshecomindex phpsect=articleampid=380

100

Table of Contents

ABSTRACT ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii

Table of Contents iv

List of Tables vi

List of Figures vii

List of Abbreviations viii

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1 11 The Bhutanese Economy and Culture 3

12 Political History and Transition to Democracy 5

13 Gross National Happiness the Development Philosophy of Bhutan 7

14 Explanation of Gross National Happiness Index 8

15 Research Questions and Objective of the Study 13

16 Methodology 14

17 Limitations and Significance of the study 17

18 Summary 18

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 20 21 Buddhism and Gross National Happiness 21

22 Evolution of the Concept 29

23 GNH Discourses and Debates 33

24 Quantifying Gross National Happiness 37

25 Summary 39

CHAPTER THREE THE BUDDHIST PRINCIPLES OF HAPPINESS 41 31 Buddhist View of Happiness 42

32 Key Mahayana Buddhist Principles 45

321 The four noble truths 45

322 The Law of Karma Principle of Interdependence and Compassion 47 iv

33 The Buddhist Happiness Framework 50

331 Generosity 55

332 Ethics 55

333 Patience and Tolerance 57

334 Perseverance 58

335 Meditative Concentration 59

336 Wisdom 60

34 Summary 61

CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING INDICATORS 63

41 Psychological Wellbeing Measures 64

42 Emotional Balance 66

43 Spiritual Practices 80

43 General Mental Health (GMH) 87

44 Summary 89

CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMMENDATIONS 92

References 99

Appendix 1 110

Appendix 2 Ill Curriculum Vitae

v

List of Tables

Table 1 Relating the Indicators with Buddhism

VI

List of Figures

Figure 1 Map of Bhutan (Source CIA Fact Book) 4

Figure 2 Suffering and its causes 53

Figure 3 Overcoming Suffering 54

vii

List of Abbreviations

CBS Centre for Bhutan Studies

CIA Central Intelligence Agency

DPT Druk Phuensum Tshogpa

FYP Five Year Plan

GDP - Gross Domestic Product

GHQ General Health Questionnaire

GNH Gross National Happiness

GNHC Gross National Happiness Commission

GPI Genuine Progress Index

HDI Human Development Index

MoA Ministry of Agriculture

MoHE Ministry of Health and Education

NEC National Environment Commission

NSB National Statistic Bureau

RGoB Royal Government of Bhutan

TCoB Tourism Council of Bhutan

UNDP United Nation Development Programme

viii

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

Measuring the wellbeing of people is important in determining whether peoples

lives are improving or worsening over time Many countries in the world today focus on

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as a basis to measure the economic wellbeing of the

people Although GDP mainly measures market production it has been treated as if it

measures economic wellbeing The focus on economic growth measures fails to capture

fully the overall wellbeing of the people (Kusago 2006 Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009)

Due to the failure of GDP to measure the non-economic aspect of human wellbeing

alternative measurements such as Genuine Progress Index (GPI) and Human

Development Index (HDI) have been introduced GPI and HDI include many important

factors that contribute to healthy living but they are still calculated based on monetary

values (Hargen 2002 Kusago 2006) and do not capture the Bhutanese concept of Gross

National Happiness

Gross National Happiness (GNH) is the central development philosophy of

Bhutan (Planning Commission 1999) This unique philosophy aims at maximizing

human wellbeing and minimizing human suffering by balancing economic needs with the

spiritual and emotional needs of people Bhutans fourth king Jigme Singye Wangchuck

coined the term Gross National Happiness in the late 1980s when he stated that Gross

National Happiness is more important than Gross Domestic Product (as cited by Ura

2008 para 1) His vision was to create a GNH society which means the creation of an

enlightened society in which happiness and wellbeing of all people and sentient beings is

the ultimate purpose of governance (as cited by Ura 2008 para2) Since it was difficult

1

for the government to list every factor that contributes to the happiness of its people four

major areas were identified as the pillars of GNH cultural promotion equitable

economic development good governance and environmental conservation (Planning

Commission 1999) These four pillars constitute the broad strategic framework through

which national development processes are actualized for the maximization of GNH

Since the adoption of the concept of GNH the government has consistently

sought to address development beyond income or economic growth The country lacked

however a specific and relevant development index that takes into account the core

principles and dimensions of GNH In November 2008 coinciding with the coronation

of the fifth King of Bhutan Jigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchuck the Government of

Bhutan adopted the GNH index The purpose of the GNH index is to reflect GNH

values set benchmarks and track policies and performances of the country (Ura 2008

pl) Seventy-two measurable indicators grouped under nine domains have been

identified as the GNH index The Government of Bhutan states that the country is now

ready with a set of mathematical formulae to measure human wellbeing and government

performances towards achieving GNH (as cited by Dorji 2009) The purpose of this

study is to analyze the GNH index to determine the extent to which it reflects Buddhist

principles and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH

This chapter is divided into eight sections The first section presents a brief

background of Bhutan its people economy and culture The second section presents

Bhutans political journey from monarchy to democracy The concept of Gross National

Happiness is discussed in the third section The fourth section explains the nine domains

of the GNH index and how the GNH index is administered in the country The fifth

2

section presents the research questions and objective of the study The sixth section

presents the methodology of the study The seventh section lays down the significance

and limitation of the study The summary of this chapter and the outline of the study are

presented in the eighth section

11 The Bhutanese Economy and Culture

Bhutan is a tiny landlocked kingdom with a population of 691141 (Central

Intelligent Agency [CIA] Factbook 2009) and having a total area of 38394 square

kilometres (National Statistical Bureau 2007) The country is sandwiched between two

leading economies India and China (Figure 1) Until the 1960s Bhutan was the most

isolated nation in the world Today about 69 of the population in Bhutan are

smallholder agrarian farmers and they practice mainly mixed (crop and livestock)

farming systems (Gross National Happiness Commission 2010) Of the population

945 represent people from the age group of 0-64 years while only 55 of the

population are 65 years and above (CIA Factbook 2009) Bhutans GDP per capita was

estimated at $2218 in 2009 (International Monetary Fund 2010) The country is almost

entirely mountainous with altitudes ranging from 240 meters to 7541 meters above sea

level About 725 of the country consists of forest land (National Statistical Bureau

2007) and the policy of the government is to maintain at least 60 forest cover (Ministry

of Agriculture 2002) Bhutan has been declared one of the ten global biodiversity

Hotspots (National Environment Commission 1999)

The Bhutanese culture and development policies are greatly influenced by

Buddhism The philosophy of GNH has its roots in Buddhism Under this unique

3

philosophy Bhutan has been able to balance modernization with its ancient culture and

traditions From the very beginning of the enthronement in 1972 the fourth king Jigme

Singye Wangchuck was very clear that Gross National Happiness is more important than

Gross Domestic Product According to him happiness is the ultimate common goal of

every human being and everything else is a means for fulfilling this wish He believed

that happiness is an indicator of good development and good society (Thinley 2005)

This led the country to adopt GNH as its development priority

25 SO Km

50 25

G r e a

S Gasa Ozong

Toogsa THIMPHU Paro

Tashigang

Samdrup Jongkhar Phuntsholing

r~

BANGLADESH

Figure 1 Map of Bhutan (Source CIA Fact Book)

4

12 Political History and Transition to Democracy

Bhutanese polity is said to have begun in 1616 with the arrival of Zhabdrung

Ngawang Namgyal from Tibet Through the spread of Buddhism Zhabdrung was able to

unify the country Buddhism provided the ideological basis for unifying Bhutan

(Mancall 2004) Zhabdrung was both a religious and political figure in Bhutan He was

the head of theocratic state that he himself created (Ministry of Health amp Education

[MoHE] 1994) He started the dual system of governance known as the Choesi system

where political affairs were looked after by the Desi1 and religious affairs by the head

abbot called the Jekhenpo Zhabdrung died in the year 1651 The official announcement

of his death was however made only in the year 1705 There were several reasons for

this chief of which there was no clear successor to Zhabdrung During the period 1651 -

1706 the country was ruled in the name of Zhabdrung who was said to be in religious

retreat by various Desi appointed under the Choesi system established by the Zhabdrung

himself (MoHE 1994) The period between 1705 to 1907 was marked by internal

stability and external invasion Ultimately in the year 1907 Ugyen Wangchuck was

unanimously elected as the first hereditary king of Bhutan (MoHE 1994) Since then

visionary descendants of the Wangchuck dynasty have ruled the country

Bhutans political system however evolved from a monarchy into a constitutional

democracy Democracy did not come to Bhutan overnight the process of democratization

was going on long before but slowly and cautiously King Jigme Singye Wangchuck

continued the policy of controlled development with particular focus on the preservation

A title given to the person who looks after the political matters in the country

5

of the environment and Bhutans unique culture Yet during his reign there was a steady

decentralization of decision-making processes which aimed to enhance peoples

participation in the formulation of development policies and activities and to strengthen

the traditional local institutions This process started largely in 1981 with the

establishment of the District Development Committees (Dzongkhag Yargye

Tshogchungs) and in 1991 with the establishment of the Block Development Committees

(Geog Yargye Tshogchungs) The people democratically elect all members of these

committees The most momentous change came in 1998 when the executive powers

previously held by the King was granted to the Council of Ministers (GNHC 2008)

On 17 December 2005 King Jigme Singye Wangchuck announced to a stunned

nation that the first general elections would be held in 2008 and that he would abdicate

the throne in favor of his eldest son the crown prince Jigme Khesar Namgyal

Wangchuck Unlike other countries where people fight for democracy the opposite

occurred in Bhutan people were given power without having to fight for it The fifth king

was formally crowned on November 6 2008 becoming the worlds youngest reigning

monarch and head of the newest democracy The fifth King like his father proclaimed

that fulfilling the vision of GNH would be one of the main responsibilities of his reign

He said As the king of a Buddhist nation my duty is not only to ensure your happiness

today but to create the fertile ground from which you may gain the fruits of spiritual

pursuit and attain good Karma (Wangchuck 2008 para8) The newly elected

government Druk Phuensum Tshogpa (DPT) is also committed to the principles of GNH

6

13 Gross National Happiness the Development Philosophy of Bhutan

The notion that the emotional and spiritual wellbeing of humans should be

included into the development policies is gaining a lot of international support The

importance of the concept of GNH is articulated in the policy document Bhutan 2020-A

Vision for Peace Prosperity and Happiness (Planning Commission 1999) which states

that its aim is to maximize the happiness of all Bhutanese and to enable them to achieve

their full and innate potential as human beings (p41) Reflecting the importance of the

concept the promotion of enabling conditions for GNH has also been enshrined as an

important principle of state policy under Article 9 of the Constitution (Royal Government

of Bhutan [RGoB] 2008)

GNH is a noble and holistic approach towards development It seeks to

complement inner happiness with outer circumstances It addresses both material and

non-material wellbeing Although material wealth is associated with physical wellbeing

ones mental state or inner wellbeing is not conditioned by material needs alone GNH

supports the notion that happiness pursued and realized within the context of the greater

good of society offers the best possibility for the sustained happiness of the individual

The society as a whole cannot obtain happiness if individuals compete irresponsibly for

it To this end GNH recognizes that happiness can be realized as a collective goal it

cannot be left as an individual goal (Thinley 2005 Ura 2008) Prime Minister Jigme

YThinley (2005) in his speech at the 2nd Conference of GNH at Halifax stated GNH

stresses collective happiness to be addressed directly through public policies in which

happiness is an explicit criterion in projects and programmes (p7) If a governments

policy framework and its goals are adverse to happiness happiness will fail as a

7

collective goal (Ura 2008) In the GNH context a government concerned with the

happiness of its citizens must create an enabling environment for people to achieve

happiness

The concept of GNH is greatly influenced by Buddhism The Bhutanese

worldview including its social cultural and political ethos is rooted in Buddhism The

policymakers in Bhutan hold the view that simply imposing development models from

outside which do not take religion and tradition into account will not only serve to

diminish existing culture but will also meet with limited success (Planning

Commission 1992 p66) The Bhutan-Vision 2020 strongly reaffirms the notion of Gross

National Happiness as the central development concept for the country This vision

emphasizes a need and desire to balance economic development with cultural and

environmental conservation

14 Explanation of Gross National Happiness Index

Bhutan is not a GNH state at this moment it aspires to be one The Bhutanese

government is of the view that wellbeing arises in a society when sustainable and

equitable economic development is balanced with environmental and cultural

preservation and good governance (Rinzin 2006 Thinley 2005) These four pillars have

constantly guided the development policies in Bhutan This strategy has been referred to

as the middle path which is derived from Buddhist principles of avoiding extremism

and taking a balanced view (Planning Commission 1999) In November 2008 the

government adopted the GNH index as a means to measure GNH The government felt

the need for a GNH index for without some kind of measurement system GNH cannot

8

guide practical policies and programs (CBS 2008) Under the GNH index 72 indicators

were identified under the following nine domains psychological wellbeing cultural

resilience education health time use and balance good governance community vitality

ecological diversity and living standard The nine domains of Gross National Happiness

are explained below

1 Psychological wellbeing as an end includes satisfaction with all elements of life

life enjoyment and subjective wellbeing Under this domain there are 11 measurable

indicators (eg frequency of feeling of emotions such as jealousy compassion and

generosity) classified in three areas General psychological distress indicators Emotional

balance indicators and Spirituality practices indicators This study focuses on the

indicators under this domain

2 Time Use domain measures how individuals spend their time There are only two

indicators under this domain the sleeping hours and working hours The time spent

delivering voluntary and social service is also taken into account

3 Community Vitality refers to the quality of life in the community This domain

intends to measure how strong active and inclusive relationships are within communities

that work to foster individual and collective wellbeing It examines the nature of trust

belongingness vitality of caring relationships safety in the home and the community

and giving and volunteering The community vitality indicators are Family vitality

Safety Reciprocity Trust Social support Socialization and Kinship density

4 Cultural Diversity and Resilience This domain measures the diversity and

strength of cultural traditions The indicators study core values and perception of

changes in values and traditions Bhutanese tradition is a very broad term that

9

encompasses customs rituals religious ceremonies traditional dress sports music

dance poetry arts and code of behavior among other things The indicators of cultural

diversity and resilience are Dialect use Traditional sports Community festivity Artisan

skill Value transmission and Basic precept

5 Health Good health is said to have a significant positive effect on happiness The

GNH health domain assesses the health status of the population the determinants of

health and the health system Health status indicators show information on self-rated

health disabilities body mass index and number of healthy days experienced per month

Health indicators also measure the degree of knowledge about diseases and breast feeding

practices The health indicators are Health status Health knowledge and Barrier to

health

6 Education In a GNH society education should contribute to individual and

collective happiness The education domain assesses different types of knowledge and

skills that people have acquired in their lifetime It includes historical cultural civic

ecological and indigenous knowledge and skills which are mostly acquired informally

The education indicators are Education attainment Dzongkha (national) language and

Folk and historical literacy

7 Ecological Diversity and Resilience This indicator looks at peoples perception

of ecology The ecological diversity and resilience indicators are Ecological degradation

Ecological knowledge and Afforestation

8 Living standard The living standard indicators assess the levels of income at the

individual and household levels sense of financial security room ratio food security and

10

house ownership Thus the living standard indicators are Income Housing Food

security and Hardship

9 Good Governance The domain of good governance evaluates how people

perceive various government functions in terms of their efficacy honesty and quality

The indicators include human rights leadership at various levels of government

performance of government in delivering services and controlling inequality and

corruption peoples trust in media judiciary and police The indicators of good

governance are Government performance Freedom and Institutional trust indicator

A pilot survey was also carried out between September 2006 to January 2007 in

nine districts on 350 randomly chosen respondents to test the feasibility and robustness of

GNH pilot questionnaires The GNH index however was developed based on the result

of a final survey carried out in December 2007 to March 2008 (CBS 2008) A total of

950 respondents based on random sampling were interviewed in 12 districts by the CBS

in the final survey The questionnaires covered the key areas affecting the values and

principles of GNH roughly divided into the nine domains mentioned above CBS (2008)

states that the nine domains were selected on normative grounds and are equally

weighted because each dimension is considered relatively equal in terms of equal

intrinsic importance as a component of Gross National Happiness (pl) Within each

domain several indicators that seemed likely to remain informative across time had high

response rates and were relatively uncorrelated (CBS 2008 p 1) were selected For

example in the psychological wellbeing domain the respondents were asked how often

they felt emotions such as anger guilt selfishness pride calmness compassion

forgiveness disappointment jealousy and frustration Respondents were also given the

11

option to list other emotions that they often experienced From the survey results only

eleven indicators were selected under the psychological wellbeing domain In total 72

indicators under the nine domains were selected as the GNH index (See Appendix 1)

The GNH index is to be administered every two years in the country A survey is

currently being carried out by the CBS in all the twenty districts of Bhutan Tshoki

Zangmo a researcher at CBS states that the GNH survey will determine whether the

conditions leading to happiness have improved or not (Doiji 2010) Several structured

semi-structured and open-ended questions under each of the 72 indicators are asked of

the respondents to assess life satisfaction in each of the nine domains Any individual

having sufficient achievements in each of the nine domains is considered happy (CBS

2008) Unlike the GPI and HDI which uses GDP data the GNH index is measured based

on self-report assessment For example the GPI heavily relies on quantitative or

objective data produced by Statistics Canada as opposed to qualitative or subjective

survey data The GPI uses personal consumption expenditures as a starting point Those

elements which are regarded as regrettable are deducted mdash for example cost of crime

accidents and pollutions Values of leisure time unpaid housework parenting and

volunteer work are added back (Colman 2008a) All aggregation is done in terms of

monetary values The GNH index however is entirely depended on the self-report

survey data According to Diener and Lucas (1999) the self-report measurement of

subjective well being displays adequate levels of validity and reliability The GNH index

is calculated in two steps The first step involves setting a sufficiency cut off and

determining whether respondents have attained sufficiency in each of the nine domains

12

The final step involves aggregating the data using the formula GNH = 1 - Average

squared distance from cutoff

15 Research Questions and Objective of the Study

Measuring what really matters to people and framing policies in accordance with

the needs of people would help realize the goal of GNH The GNH index is an attempt by

the government to measure how well their citizens are doing economically socially and

emotionally The Centre for Bhutan Studies (2008) states that the nine domains identified

are regarded as the components of happiness and well-being in Bhutan However the

resulting question is To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do

the indicators reflect Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept

of GNH The objectives of my study are to analyze the indicators to determine to what

extent they reflect Buddhist principles and to determine the coherence of the indicators

with the concept of GNH

Although conducting an in-depth analysis of each of the 72 indicators would be

most beneficial due to the vastness of the indicators this study will focus only on the

indicators that fall under the domain of psychological wellbeing (see Appendix 1) I

choose this domain because many of the GNH indicators (for example education health

living standard time use ecology) are similar to those found in the conventional

economic measures like GDP Genuine Progress Indicators (GPI) Human Development

Index (HDI) and Quality of Life The psychological wellbeing indicator has not yet been

included in any of the national measures (CBS 2008) Since the measure of

13

psychological wellbeing is something new and unexplored as a development indicator it

would be a good place to begin assessing the indicators

16 Methodology

The main objective of this study is to determine the influence of Buddhist

principles and more specifically Buddhist principles of happiness on the indicators of

psychological wellbeing and the coherence of indicators with the concept of GNH This

policy analysis study uses the framework of Buddhist principles of happiness to analyze

the indicators Policy analysis research is associated with determining the nature causes

and effects of governmental decisions or policies designed to cope with specific social

problems Nagel (1980) points out four methods on which policy analysis focuses

determining what causes the policy determining what policies they are responsible for

determining what affects them and determining what policies will achieve or maximize a

given goal This study focuses on determining the influence of Buddhist principles on the

governments policy of measuring GNH and the consistency of the indicators with the

concept of GNH

Buddhism has long played an important role in the political economic and social

lives of Bhutanese It is in this context that Buddhism is used as a basis to assess the most

important development tool of Bhutan Gross National Happiness Index The intent is not

to prove that Buddhism is the best way to achieve GNH but to determine whether GNH

indicators reflect Buddhist principles of happiness This is done for three reasons First

the philosophy of GNH is understood to be engrained in Buddhism This study will

determine in part the extent to which this is the case (see chapter two) Second Bhutan is

14

a Buddhist country where the majority of the population is Buddhist (CIA 2009) As

such this study will determine the extent to which Buddhist principles have influenced

the indicators Third scholars such as Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and

Tashi (2004) have argued that Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH This study

attempts to analyze the psychological wellbeing indicators to determine the Buddhist

influence which then might support the notion put forth by them

Literature related to Gross National Happiness and the influence of Buddhism on

GNH are reviewed The origin of the concept of GNH and various discourses held on

GNH are explored Government documents and reports and secondary data sources such

as newspaper and research on GNH serve as important sources The primary data that are

used for the analysis are the eleven indicators of psychological wellbeing developed by

the CBS Each indicator is examined to see the degree to which it reflects Buddhist

principles of happiness

The indicators consist of positive emotions negative emotions and practices to

overcome negative emotions In a research design it is important to establish a

conceptual framework that acknowledges how the theoretical perspective will shape an

inquiry (Creswell 2007) To this end I will examine the Buddhist literature to find key

principles related to happiness Those principles and ideas that affect happiness will be

discussed In particular the key principles such as the four noble truths law of Karma

principle of interdependence and compassion will be discussed Further a theoretical

basis for happiness will be developed based on the Buddhist teachings of six paramitas

An understanding of these principles will assist the reader in gaining a sense of the scope

15

and direction of this study Overall the Buddhist principles of happiness framework will

serve as a basis for assessing the indicators

Since Bhutan is a Mahayana Buddhist country the key principles of Mahayana

Buddhist teachings will be examined The very popular Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse

Laglen will serve as a primary source This important Buddhist text on the thirty-seven

bodhisattva practices was written by the great Buddhist saint Thogme Zangpo (1245-

1369) The text is a summarization of the original teachings of Lord Buddha from

hundreds of volumes and contains all the key points of the vast and profound teachings

The text is used in all the schools of Bhutan In particular the six paramitas will be used

for the purpose of this study The thirty-seven practices were written to help every

sentient being achieve genuine happiness Therefore this study will examine the

teachings related to the six paramitas to determine the extent to which they are reflected

in the psychological wellbeing indicators Teachings by various Buddhist teachers such

as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will also be used

The Buddhist text Abhidhamma which is known as the higher teachings of the

Buddha and also called the ultimate teachings is also referenced for the analysis of the

indicators The text elucidates the working of mind or psyche thoughts thought-

processes and mental states The mind has been broken down into six primary and fifty-

one secondary consciousnesses representing the working of the psyche from an ethical

standpoint Abhidamma highlights wholesome and unwholesome emotions as well as

how they arise Since this study is on the analysis of the psychological wellbeing

indicators the text is appropriate However only those emotions which correspond to the

indicators are referred to for this study

16

17 Limitations and Significance of the study

There are three limitations recognized in this study First the theme of this study

focuses on the extent to which Buddhist principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH

indicators Happiness is a concept that can be viewed from a number of perspectives

Since the concept of GNH is inspired by Buddhism it is most appropriate that the

indicators be examined to determine the extent to which they reflect Buddhist principles

and then most specifically Mahayana Buddhist principles Further there are numerous

Buddhist teachings on happiness The teachings that are primarily used are those of

Master Thogme Zangpo the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche

Second the GNH index is still very new A survey was carried out to study the

indicators in twelve districts but the index has not yet been applied to the whole country

As such the GNH index is still in its infant stage and not many resources related to the

GNH index are available

The third limitation of this study is that only the indicators under the

psychological wellbeing domain are analyzed Findings from the preliminary survey of

the GNH index are not discussed

Exploring the psychological wellbeing domain is significant for various reasons

First there has been no study conducted on the indicators so far This is the first study

that analyzes the indicators and explores the relationship of the indicators to Buddhism

This study opens up a new perspective for future researchers Scholars interested in

studying the GNH index may use this study as a basis to analyze the other domains of

GNH Only one domain is explored in this study The remaining eight domains could be

an area of future research

17

Second the GNH index is the most important tool for guiding and analyzing the

government policy since the government will be designing policies based on the GNH

index The GNH index and its implementation will have a significant impact on the

design implementation and assessment of policy and the perceptions Bhutanese have of

the direction their society is taking Since what is measured affects what is done it is

important that the right indicators be used if measurements are flawed decisions can be

distorted (Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009) Therefore it is important to determine

whether the indicators cohere with the GNH concept

18 Summary

This chapter provides an overview of the study The chapter began by looking at

Bhutans culture economy and political history including its transition to democracy

The concept of Gross National Happiness and its indicators the objective the

methodology limitation and significance of study were also presented in this chapter

Chapter Two will provide the review of literature on the GNH It explores how

the concept of GNH first originated It then argues that the concept of GNH has been

influenced by key Buddhist principles based on the eightfold path which are linked to

each pillar of GNH Various workshops held on GNH that ultimately led to the

development of the GNH index are also discussed

Chapter Three will provide the framework to analyze the psychological

wellbeing indicators The key Buddhist principles related to happiness are examined

Specifically the four noble truths law of Karma principle of interdependence and

compassion are presented The Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse Lagin the 37 practices

18

of Bodhisattva are used to highlight Buddhist principles of happiness Specifically the

teachings on six paramitas are referenced to elucidate those principles

Chapter Four presents the core of the study The indicators of psychological

wellbeing are analyzed through the framework described in Chapter Three Each

indicator is examined from the perspective of Buddhist principles It highlights the extent

to which each indicator reflects the Buddhist principles of happiness and the consistency

of the indicators with the concept of GNH

Chapter Five concludes the study and offers some recommendations for future

studies

19

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW

There seems to be a unanimous agreement that Gross National Happiness (GNH)

is drawn from Buddhism but recognition of the influence of Buddhism on GNH is rather

implicit This may be due to the fact that Bhutan did not have the full academic

construction of GNH until recently When the concept of GNH was first pronounced in

the late 1980s it was just an abstract philosophy The concept has now gained more

depth and dimension through analysis and discourse While scholars such as Tashi (1999

2004) Priesner (1999) and Zangmo (2009) have linked Buddhism to GNH others have

argued for the importance of Buddhism in achieving the goal of GNH This chapter

reviews the influence of Buddhism on the concept of GNH Specifically the relationship

between the core concept of GNH and its four pillars to Buddhist principles is explored

Since this study uses Buddhism as the key lens in analyzing the extent to which Buddhist

principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH indicators the focus here is to

understand the centrality of Buddhism in the philosophy of GNH

The review is divided into four main sections The first section examines how the

core concept of GNH and the key teachings of Buddhism are related Literature points

out that key Buddhist principles such as interdependence Karma and the noble eightfold

path are linked to general themes that promote GNH The second section looks at how

the concept of GNH evolved Early Bhutanese history dating back to the 17th century

when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of living is explored This section

examines how Bhutan broke its isolationist policies and introduced planned development

giving priority to the preservation of its culture and environment thus giving birth to the

noble philosophy of GNH The third section discusses the various discourses held on 20

GNH that ultimately led to the development of the GNH index The final section of the

review discusses the idea of quantifying and measuring GNH The chapter concludes by

questioning whether the GNH index which is used as a basis to measure peoples

wellbeing in Bhutan captures the real essence of GNH

21 Buddhism and Gross National Happiness

Gross National Happiness is not a promise to make every individual happy This

is a common misconception The concept of GNH simply stresses the responsibility of

the government to create an environment for citizens to seek happiness Since all humans

value happiness the government of Bhutan takes the view that it cannot be left

exclusively to private individual devices and strivings (CBS 2008 pl) In the GNH

context the government should create by means of public policies addressing both

economic and emotional needs of the people an environment conducive for people to

pursue happiness Australian psychologist Suellen Donnelly (2004) defines happiness as

the sum of satisfaction with life domains and this satisfaction she states is judged against

the individuals and the societys values Happiness indeed depends on our social values

In Bhutan peoples social and cultural values are largely influenced by Buddhism GNH

thus places emphasis on happiness and wellbeing of people through promotion of social

and cultural values

Priesner (1999) Tashi (2004) and Zangmo (2009) argue that Buddhism and GNH

are intricately linked Zangmo (2009) points out that the concept of GNH is deeply rooted

in the rich traditions of Mahayana Buddhism Doiji and Pankaj (2004) state that GNH is

essentially a summarization of the basic tenets of Vajrayana Buddhism which embraces

21

harmony and compassion (p377) Vajrayana Buddhism is an offshoot of Mahayana

Buddhism The term Mahayana and Vajrayana is used interchangeably in Bhutan

Mahayana Buddhism emphasizes individual spiritual development rather than material

rewards compassion for others tolerance living in harmony with nature and the

importance of making the right choice Based on these values GNH seeks to achieve and

pave a middle path between material and spiritual aspects of life which are referred to as

peljor gongphel (economic development) and gakid (happiness and peace) (Zangmo

2009) Schumacher (1989) asserts that in a Buddhist society the lifestyle is strongly

influenced by Buddhist principles based on the Noble Eightfold Path The influence of

Buddhism is highly visible in every aspect of Bhutanese life Article 3(1) of the

Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan states Buddhism is the spiritual heritage of

Bhutan which promotes the principles and values of peace non-violence compassion

and tolerance (p 9) Buddhism here is seen as a spiritual practice

According to Buddhism the main purpose of life the heart of being human is

happiness what we all seek knowingly or unknowingly is happiness (Rabjam Rimpoche

as cited by Tourism Council of Bhutan [TCoB] 2008) The chief goal of Buddhism is to

remove sufferings and achieve genuine happiness Tashi (2004) points out that the

cultivation of happiness is central to Buddhism Buddhism states that wealth pleasure

and power are all sought for achieving happiness but these are all material and only the

means to achieve short-term happiness As humans strive for happiness the end goal is

often forgotten and people spend time pursuing the means for their own sake In the

process humans remain deeply unsatisfied because they place all their hopes and fears in

the material outer conditions and neglect inner condition for happiness Happiness in

22

Buddhism depends on our actions and how we view and interpret the world Rabjam

Rimpoche states that although it is difficult to change the world it is always possible to

change the way we look at it (as cited by TCoB 2008) Buddhist teachings stress the

importance of training the mind and developing a set of human qualities such as

altruistic love compassion inner peace and inner strength

Similarly the concept of GNH emphasizes that happiness is the end goal and

economic development is just a means to achieve happiness GNH claims happiness to be

a major focus in assessing the welfare of the people Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley

states that GNH is all about living with basic human values in a sustainable way (Bhutan

Observer 2010) This view is influenced by Buddhist principles Buddhism advocates

living in harmony with nature and respecting all forms of life Although GNH places

equal importance on both material and non-material wellbeing of the people the idea of

GNH essentially is to encourage a rethinking of what is important in peoples lives is it

the ability to produce and consume or is it the happiness of its people derived from its

social and cultural values When Bhutan opened up to the outside world in 1961 it was

overwhelmed to see that the world had achieved tremendous development in every field

(Doiji 2007a) In their pursuit of development however many countries had lost their

forests cultures and much more In the neighboring region of Nepal for example the

governments policy of promoting economic development through mass tourism led to

environmental and cultural degradation Pandey Chettri Kunwar amp Ghimire (1995)

argue that mass tourism in Nepal led to erosion of local customs increase in drug abuse

theft of antiques and cultural property and prostitution Kinley Doiji (2007a) states that

GNH is therefore a response to this realization

23

Tashi (2004) and Lokamitra (2004) argue that GNH cannot be achieved unless

Buddhist philosophy is fully incorporated and practiced by every citizen of Bhutan

Similarly Hewavitharana (2004) proposes a framework for operationalizing GNH from

the perspective of Buddhist ethics and values Lokamitra (2004) asserts that unless a

society is morally and psychologically strong GNH cannot be achieved He states that

this moral and psychological strength can come from Buddhism Tashi Prakke amp Chettri

(1999) argue that the use of Buddhist concepts does not make the discussions culture-

specific They state that Buddhist wisdom differs from actual Buddhist cultures Buddhist

values and ethics can be followed without necessarily being a Buddhist

Tashi Prakke and Chettri (1999) argue that Buddhist spiritual concepts can be

clearly linked to general themes for the promotion of GNH Overall the Buddhist belief

ofinterdependence has inspired the four pillars because environment culture economy

and governance are interwoven in reality (Thinley 2005) Maintaining a balance among

these enhances the quality of life for the individual for society and for the environment

(Rinzin 2006)

1 The First Pillar Environmental Preservation

Although it appears that environment and biodiversity are not strong correlates of

happiness few would deny the value of environment in everyday life and hence our

happiness our health and aesthetic experiences depend on the quality of the physical

environment around us (Thinley 2005) The impact of climate change because of the

uncompromising nature of humans towards the environment is causing a lot of panic in

the world

24

Buddhism emphasizes preserving nature and the sanctity of life (Planning

Commission 1999) Tashi et al (1999) state that Buddhist philosophy provides strong

arguments for the adoption of an environmentally sensitive development strategy The

relationship between human beings and the environment is seen in a fundamentally

different way The Buddhist concept of sunyata holds that no subject or object has an

independent existence rather they dissolve into a web of relationships with all

dimensions of environment The Buddhist principle of interconnectedness- the idea that

nature gives back what we give it- has influenced the Bhutanese with a strong ethic of

conservation which in turn influenced Bhutanese environmental policies (Thinley 2005)

Bhutanese people believe that high mountains deep ravines ancient trees and

rocks are the abode of spirits gods and demons Disturbing them would enrage the non-

human inhabitants and bring ill luck sickness and death to families Appeasing these

spirits will be rewarded with luck peace and prosperity (NEC 1998 Rinzin 2006)

These beliefs about the importance of protecting nature have permeated Bhutanese

consciousness and have become integral to the Bhutanese way of life and value system

The government therefore has adopted strong environmental policies As per the

constitution of Bhutan the country must always maintain 60 forest coverage

2 The Second Pillar- Cultural Preservation and Promotion

The conservation and promotion of tradition and culture has always been an

integral part of Bhutans development policies since the initiation of planned

development in the 1960s (Planning Commission 1999) The Bhutanese started their

policies from a well-defined set of values and culture which are typically Buddhist

Within such Buddhist cultural values there is a strong belief in the implications of the

25

doctrine of Karma (Gurung 1999) The overall Bhutanese culture is based on customary

rules norms indigenous knowledge systems and institutions in addition to a rich

religious heritage based on Buddhism It includes a code of conduct known as driglam

namzha which is designed to carve out a distinct Bhutanese identity In addition to

promoting national dress driglam namzha is built on strict observance of vows (tha-

damtshig) which are quintessential^ Buddhist and emphasize strong kinship loyalty

community-oriented behavior hospitality to guests respect for ones parents elders and

superiors and mutual cooperation between rulers and ruled parents and children and

teachers and students (MoHE 1994 Rinzin2006 Chophel 2008)

In a study conducted by Rinzin (2006) it was observed that the Bhutanese people

consider culture to be very important They fully support the preservation of Bhutanese

culture as a means to maintain national identity sense of security and conservation of a

way of life A unique Bhutanese culture is also a means to generate income through

tourism activities Since the happiness of the people also depends on their social and

cultural values the government of Bhutan is committed to preserving and strengthening

the Bhutanese culture and tradition

3 The Third Pillar - Sustainable and equitable socio-economic development

The concept of GNH does not neglect the importance of economic development

While economic development in many countries takes place at the expense of external

factors such as social coherence cultural diversity and environmental integrity the

concept of GNH limits the exploitation of social cultural ecological and human costs

(Priesner 1999) Economic development is just a means to achieve GNH and is not an

end itself If we look at the world today there are spiritual sufferings in terms of anxiety

26

insecurity stress and pain in every part of the world including Bhutan Economic

development can secure a livelihood and is vitally important to resolve poverty but it is

easier to identify and alleviate misery than to maximize happiness

Given the huge natural resource base that Bhutan enjoys the country could have

opted for mass economic development by making use of these resources However the

government does not overlook the difference between renewable and non-renewable

goods Keeping in view the negative impacts of exploiting natural resources and

exhaustibility of non-renewable goods the government has identified three avenues for

economic development These are hydropower tourism and agriculture (NEC 1998

Planning Commission 1999) All have minimal negative impact on the society and are

sustainable The use of nature in a sustainable way can be related to one of the

requirements for the Buddhas eightfold path called the Right Livelihood (Schumacher

1989) Right Livelihood entails that ones means of livelihood should not be dishonest or

cause suffering to other sentient beings Wrong Livelihood is anything that is based on

trickery or greed (Harvey 2000) This noble path teaches us to avoid extremism and

follow a balanced path Schumacher (1989) argues that Right Livelihood touches on

economic aspects of the Buddhist life and forms the basis of economic principles By

following the path of Right Livelihood the government is being cautious not to engage

in trades or occupations that result in harming its environment culture and society

4 The fourth Pillar - Good Governance

This last pillar stresses the kind of government that Bhutan needs to make it into a

GNH state Good governance means exercising of authority in managing a countrys

political social economic and administrative resources in a manner that is transparent

27

accountable and responsive to peoples needs (Gross National Happiness Commission

[GNHC] 2009 p56) The fourth king His Majesty Jigme Singye Wangchuck asserts

that good governance is an important prerequisite for strengthening the other pillars of

GNH During his reign decentralization and democratization have always been the most

important considerations All changes finally culminated in the evolution of democratic

government in 2008 The King in his wisdom decided that parliamentary democracy

would be the best path to good governance and that happiness comes from having the

freedom to choose Kinley Doiji (2007a) points out that this step by the king is a

Vajrayana Buddhist approach For the Bhutanese this came as an overwhelming surprise

Thus democracy in Bhutan sprang from the womb of GNH Democracy in Bhutan is the

path to good governance that leads to GNH

Chapter Two (clause 22) of the Bhutan Civil Service Rules and Regulations 2006

states that the government needs to maintain and promote the values of Tha-Damtshig

and Ley Jumdrey to serve the people and the country Tha Damtshig is a traditional

Buddhist belief of trust respect and cooperation between the government and its people

Ley Jumdrey is a very popular Buddhist belief referring to the cycle of Karma which

encourages us to follow the eightfold noble path Right View Right Intention Right

Action Right Speech Right Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right

Mindfulness The royal decree issued by the king in 1998 stated that the Bhutanese

judiciary system is based on the Buddhist 10 virtuous actions and 16 pure human laws

(as cited by Nishimizu 2008 p 40) The ten virtuous actions are 1 Avoid killing 2

Avoid Stealing 3 Avoid Sexual misconduct (the first three form the part of Right

Action) 4 Avoid lies 5 Avoid divisive talks 6 Avoid harsh speech 7 Avoid Gossip

28

(these four fall under Right Speech) 8 Avoid covetousness 9 Avoid harmful intent 10

Avoid wrong views (the last three are the part of Right Mindfulness) (Tshongkhapa as

cited by Powers 1995)

Tashi et al (1999) explain that in Buddhism there are three doors body speech

and mind (lii ngag yid) These three gates provide a basic categorization for policy

makers in recognizing that existence embraces more than physical aspects Any

individual or government that strives to enhance happiness must make the right use of the

three doors Right Mindfulness Right Speech and Right Action The three gates are like

the neutral ground which can be used for good neutral or bad action (Tashi et al 1999)

Right intention in the mind must spark right speech and right action because working

with the mind directly is considered too illusive With Right View one needs to

understand the nature of the world and embrace compassion Right View is the path that

refers to wisdom which means seeing emptiness realizing that appearances in the

relative world or the world in which things change lacking permanent existence

Embracing compassion and wisdom results in the accumulation of merit (Sonam) and

wisdom (Yeshe) Every government must embrace compassion and wisdom and work

with Right Mind Right Speech and Right Action The Bhutanese government strives to

nurture and manifest these qualities

22 Evolution of the Concept

The term GNH became popular in the late 1980s but the concept itself is very

old According to Priesner (1999) this concept evolved from the constituent features of

Bhutanese society before 1959 a socio-economic system based on a Buddhist and feudal

29

set of values Buddhism came to Bhutan in the 7th century AD but made little impact on

the lives of the people until the 9th century (Ministry of Health and Education [MoHE]

1994 Dargye 2008) Prior to the 7th century Bhutan was called the land of Monpas the

land of darkness or no religion Records show that people mainly practiced Bonism an

animistic and shamanistic belief system where nature is worshipped (Giri 2004) Bon

rituals are still included in some Buddhist festivals in Bhutan From the 10th century to

the beginning of the 17th century Buddhism started influencing peoples way of life

culture and customs During that period many Tibetan scholars came to teach Buddhism

in Bhutan They built monasteries and temples throughout the country but none of them

could establish a formal Buddhist community in Bhutan (MoHE 1994)

It was Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyel (1594-1651) a Tibetan monk who formally

instituted Buddhism in Bhutan in the 17th century (MoHE 1990 MoHE 1994)

Therefore the 17th century is the most important period in Bhutanese history Bhutanese

development policies stem from this period All the high-ranking officials during

Zhabdrungs era were monks and the governments primary function was to support the

religious establishment which in turn promoted Buddhist morality and ethics among the

lay population (MoHE 1994 Ura 1993 as cited by Priesner 1999) In other words the

government promoted the wellbeing of people through spiritual teachings based on

Buddhism The Bhutanese legal system codified in 1652 and based on principles of

Buddhism is the foundation of the contemporary Bhutanese law (Nishimizu 2008)

Since the concept of GNH emphasizes the importance of living with basic human values

giving equal importance to both economic and spiritual wellbeing this clearly indicates

30

that the seeds of GNH had been planted during Zhabdrungs reign Prime Minister Jigme

Y Thinley (2004) writes

Traditional polity in Bhutan drawing much on the Buddhist culture was certainly guided towards GNH A Buddhist equivalent of a Social Contract declared in Bhutan in 1675 said that happiness of sentient beings and teachings of the Buddha were mutually dependent The 1129 legal code of Bhutan stressed that laws should promote happiness of the sentient beings (p 2)

Until the 1960s Bhutan possessed very little of the infrastructure we see today in the

country (National Environment Commission [NEC] 1998 Planning Commission 1999)

Life was hard and conditions were very harsh There was no electricity telephones or

postal services to connect different parts of country or with the outside world There were

no motor roads and money was unknown The health infrastructure was poor life

expectancy was estimated to be an average of 35 years Western education was

considered unnecessary The vast majority of Bhutanese lived in isolation in the rugged

mountain terrains The Bhutanese were subsistence farmers totally dependent upon the

land and the forests for survival People exchanged goods among themselves and were

self sufficient for most purposes Bhutans traditional socio-economic system was based

on the principle of communal self-reliance which is related to the Buddhist doctrine of

the benevolent nature of small-scale (Priesner 1999 Gurung 1999)

Due to the lack of foreign influences Bhutan developed an extremely stable

social environment and traditional system of knowledge Self-reliance was the first

explicitly emphasized development objective in 1959 (as cited Priesner 1999) The

National Assembly in 1959 stated that its primary task was to maintain the sovereignty

of the kingdom through economic self-reliance (Kuensel Vol 2 No 9 [May 1-15

31

1968] p7 as cited by Priesner 1999) Modern development came to Bhutan in the early

1960s during the reign of the third king Jigme Doiji Wangchuck (1952-1972) (MoHE

1994) However Bhutans decision to embark on modern development was not

voluntary During a visit to Bhutan in September 1958 the Indian Prime Minister

expressed his concern about Bhutans security and emphasized the need for a road to link

Bhutan and India offering at the same time financial and technical assistance To avoid

increased dependence the government refused to accept the assistance Nevertheless

Bhutans attitude changed during 1959 a consequence of events in Tibet In 1959 the

Tibetan revolt was suppressed by the Chinese which resulted in the flow of several

thousand Tibetan refugees into Bhutan At the end of the same year Chinese actions

began to be directed against Bhutan A triangular shaped part of Tibetan territory between

the small Indian state of Sikkim and Bhutan through which the most important trade

route from Bhutan to India ran was sealed off (Galay 1999 Priesner 1999) In the

following National Assembly session the construction of roads became the main issue of

discussion As an underdeveloped country Bhutan lacked financial and labor resources

and India was the only possible source of aid Thus Bhutan took the first step towards

development cautiously Later when Chinese aggression declined measures of cultural

preservation were soon adopted to contain and counter-balance the negative effects of

modernization (Priesner 1999)

Since 1961 Bhutan plans its development every five years The third King

always expressed his priority as making the people prosperous and happy (Kuensel

1968 as cited by Priesner 1999 p7) Prosperity and happiness were highlighted in the

third kings address on the occasion of Bhutans admission to the United Nations in 1971

32

Further the preservation of environment and culture is the most consistently applied

principle from the start of the first Five Year Plan (FYP) and this is a major input for

GNH

The Bhutanese development concept thus evolved from the countrys socioshy

economic historic and political circumstances The concept of GNH is thus the

translation of cultural and social consciousness into development priorities (Priesner

1999) To sum up the influencing factors that caused Bhutan to have such a unique

development concept are the absence of foreign domination the desire to preserve

national identity Chinese invasion causing threat to the national security and deeply

embedded Buddhist beliefs The philosophy of GNH therefore evolved earlier than the

term Gross National Happiness was coined

23 GNH Discourses and Debates

The first official keynote speech on Gross National Happiness was delivered by

the current Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley at the United Nations Development

Programme (UNDP) Regional Millennium Meeting for Asia and the Pacific in 1998 His

keynote speech was later published in the countrys national newspaper Kuensel Many

scholars responded to the publication and this led to the first workshop in 1999 to explore

the conceptual foundations of human happiness During the workshop Prime Minister

Thinley raised three questions for deliberation First can an index be constructed for

GNH as it has been done for Human Development Second what are the main

ingredients of happiness Third what would be the main indicators of happiness if there

were any at all

33

Some participants proposed that GNH could be quantified Others suggested that

it would be a speculative exercise into what is essentially a subjective experience and

would defy any statistical device aimed at its quantification They expressed their

suspicion that the essence of conventional economic theories runs counter to GNH

Rinzin (2006) states that two schools of thought emerged one took a philosophical

approach and the other an empirical analytical approach of defining and measuring GNH

On the philosophical side scholars argued that GNH is a development philosophy and

there is no need to define and measure happiness For Stehlik (1999) the attempt even to

define happiness is unnecessary and even less to measure it The other school of thought

argued that in order for GNH to be applicable it should be measurable The first

workshop failed to come up with concrete results The discussion papers from this

workshop were published in June 1999 under the title Gross National Happiness A Set

of Discussion Papers

After a gap of five years the First International Conference on GNH

Operationalizing Gross National Happiness was held in Thimphu Bhutan from

February 18 to 20 2004 The conference intended to explore ways in which the concept

of happiness as an objective of economic and social development could be

operationalized in terms of both policy and evaluation of change The conference focused

largely on the concepts of happiness or wellbeing Dr Ron Colman and Dr Julia Sagebien

(2004) presented a paper on Nova Scotias Atlantic Genuine Progress Index or GPI

which assigns explicit value to environmental quality natural wealth population health

livelihood security equity free time and educational attainment The conference

discussed the relevance of GPI measures to Bhutan Colman and Sagebien suggested a

34

potential framework for measuring GNH proposing indicators such as education basic

security respect and care for all beings Although the conference did not come to any

definitive conclusions Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley (2007) stated that the conference

was a milestone in the history of international discourse as it opened up the discourse on

happiness Further the ripples from this seminar spread far and helped Bhutan develop

the indicators of GNH in a later period

The Second International Conference on GNH Rethinking Development Local

Pathways to Global Wellbeing was held in Nova Scotia Canada from June 20 to 24

2005 The conference focused on the exploration of practices the sharing of actual

experiences and the development of a framework to operationalize GNH The first and

second international conferences seemed to have convinced Bhutanese policy makers that

in order to make GNH practicable it must first become measurable By the time the third

international conference was held Bhutan was well on the way to constructing the GNH

Index

The Third International Conference held in Bangkok Thailand in 2007 focused

on the indicators of GNH The then Prime Minister of Bhutan Kinzang Doiji spoke on the

importance of good governance and highlighted the wellbeing of people as a priority in

developing government policies Just a week prior to the fourth international conference

Bhutan officially adopted the GNH Index

The theme for the Fourth International Conference (November 26 to 28 2008)

was Practice and Measurement of GNH indicating a step forward into a new phase

which focused more on how to reflect GNH in policies and how to grasp the current

situation and measure progress Discussions revolved around the GNH indicators

35

psychology environment community relations education health living standard

governance culture time use and economy Rosellini (2008) says that some of the

indicators of GNH would be relevant to the UNDP-Oxford initiative in understanding the

missing dimensions of poverty Rosellini (2008) further suggested that GNH should be

used as an alternative approach from an international perspective because none of the

methods that attempted to move beyond purely materialistic interpretations of human

progress have gained broad acceptance among academics and development practitioners

The fifth conference held in Brazil in 2009 (November 20-23) was a revelation

for the Bhutanese While the understanding of GNH had grown tremendously at the

international level the GNH conference held in Brazil made the Bhutanese government

realize that Bhutan is still lagging behind in implementing the philosophy of GNH

(Bhutan Broadcasting Service [BBS] 2009) There is no doubt that the policies are

framed in terms of the four pillars of GNH but the government failed to infuse GNH

values into the education system Further GNH values were not reflected in the day-to-

day working of the government institutions businesses and at the community level

Brazil had left Bhutan behind in terms of implementing GNH ethics Several business

establishments in Brazil practice the principle of GNH One pharmaceutical company is

believed to be implementing its ethics and modalities into the way the company

functions Likewise Brazilian villages at the community level are also practicing the

dimensions of GNH on a day-to-day basis (Kuensel 2009) This definitely was a

revelation for Bhutan

On his return from the GNH conference in Brazil the prime minister expressed

his sense of the urgency and immediacy of bringing GNH principles and values into the

36

education system Following this a workshop was conducted on how to achieve a GNH

infused education system (Kuensel 2009) The education ministry has come up with a

road map and an action plan to begin the process of bringing GNH values and principles

into the school system starting in 2010 The education minister stated that every school in

the country will now develop GNH-inspired curriculum material The latest reports state

that many schools in Bhutan have now infused GNH values into their curriculum

Students in most schools meditate for a few minutes before starting any lesson Many

schools are now working towards becoming green (Bhutan Observer March 2010)

Many students were quoted as saying that Meditation somehow helps to relax and

concentrate more on their studies (Business Bhutan 17 April 2010) This is a very

practical move by the government towards enhancing GNH Bhutan has learned a lot

through seminars and debates held at the national and international level The idea of

measuring and quantifying GNH has however raised many questions

24 Quantifying Gross National Happiness

Initially due to the absence of a specific and relevant development index that

takes into account the core principles and dimensions of GNH the United Nations

Human Development concept and its measurement the Human Development Index

(HDI) was used as an interim tool to assess all-round development in Bhutan (Gross

National Happiness Commission [GNHC] 2008) The HDI fails however to capture the

overall essence of the concept of GNH because only three variables are used in HDI

health (life expectancy) education (adult literacy) and wealth (GDP per capita) Owing

to the number of discourses and questions raised regarding the applicability of the

37

philosophy of GNH Bhutan has now adopted the GNH Index Karma Ura (2008)

president of the Centre for Bhutan Studies writes that as many contemporary indicators

of progress and development do not reflect GNH adequately the Royal Government of

Bhutan directed the Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) to develop GNH index which will

provide appropriate indicators for Bhutanese development (pl)

In his first international speech the Prime Minister of Bhutan Jigme Y Thinley

(1998) stated that the trends of happiness of people are unknown Although people

perceive their wellbeing subjectively their subjective views are not incorporated well

into the design of economic and social policy (Kusago 2006) Similarly Mark (2008)

argues that as a direct consequence of different governments collecting and analyzing

economic data (and social and environmental data to a lesser extent) much is known

about the material conditions of peoples lives but little about their actual lived

experience and their sense of personal and social wellbeing It is to address this lacunae

that the government needs to adopt indicators for measuring the wellbeing of its people

Former Minister Kinzang Dorji (2007b) points out that indicators can be useful in

revealing institutional and human conditions to show both the potential and result of

policy decisions (p 2) He argues that the use of indicators reflecting GNH values will

enable policy makers to locate those principles in determining GNH policy and tracking

GNH processes

Many are skeptical however and wonder whether quantifying such a noble

philosophy is justifiable Reducing real people and real lives to numerical values does not

do justice to the emotional and spiritual depth of the human experience (Doiji 2007b)

There is much doubt as to whether the indicators capture the real essence of human

38

happiness Nonetheless if the government wants to promote the wellbeing or happiness

of its citizens it needs to know the happiness trend of its citizens and find out if its

policies contribute to both subjective and objective wellbeing Even if Gross National

Happiness cannot be quantified as precisely as Gross Domestic Product is currently

quantified Daly amp Farley (2004) state that It is better to be vaguely right than precisely

wrong (p243) The policy makers will at least get an idea of peoples state of wellbeing

Measuring GNH is indeed a milestone in Bhutanese history as it will always

remind Bhutanese of their founding ideals A GNH Index would help citizens know if

they are improving as a nation in protecting and exercising their right to pursue happiness

(Brooks 2008) The adoption of the GNH Index shows the seriousness of the Bhutanese

government in pursuing the goal of GNH Lastly there is hope that Gross National

Happiness will not remain as a mere catchphrase

25 Summary

This chapter presented a review of the literature on GNH and the influence of

Buddhism on the concept of GNH The aim of this review is to get a better understanding

of the centrality of Buddhism in the concept of GNH and to highlight issues that emerged

in the GNH discourses The key principle of GNH which focuses on happiness is

influenced by the core teachings of Buddhism which states that the main purpose of life

the heart of being human is happiness The four pillars of GNH reflect traditional

Bhutanese beliefs and values inspired by Buddhism The law of Karma the principle of

interdependence and the noble eightfold path has certainly influenced the Bhutanese way

39

of living and thus the concept of GNH The Buddhist values of interdependence equality

and compassion are inherent in GNH

History reveals that the basic philosophy of GNH emerged between the 10th and

17th centuries when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of life Buddhism

therefore is the backbone of the concept of GNH Bhutan however is not a Utopian state

because it advocates GNH Like many developing countries Bhutan is grappling with

problems of increased rural urban migration poverty and unemployment thus

challenging the goals of GNH The government is continuing to reflect GNH objectives

in its policy and programmes Through the effective use of the four pillars of GNH

Bhutan never placed excessive emphasis on economic development The country did not

opt for economic activities which promised huge financial gain but caused damage to

health environment and culture Bhutan therefore is said to have one of the best policies

in the world (Priesner 1999) However it is important to know if the policies are

promoting happiness and wellbeing among the people The government has rightly

adopted the GNH Index because only through the use of the indicators will policymakers

know if their policies are in reality promoting happiness The question remains however

as to whether these indicators capture the real essence of GNH and whether they are

influenced by Buddhist principles

40

CHAPTER THREE THE BUDDHIST PRINCIPLES OF HAPPINESS

We all want happiness and do not want suffering Many of us support the

importance of moral values in making our lives happier Buddhist principles emphasize

that human values and principles are necessary to lead a happy life Yet there is a general

assumption that income and happiness are directly related Happiness research findings

defy this generalization and show that increasing incomes are not accompanied by

increasing happiness (Hirata 2006)

The Buddha discovered this 2500 years ago The Buddha did not reject the idea of

possessing wealth but taught that wealth does not guarantee happiness He rejected greed

in accumulating wealth being enslaved to materialism and treating wealth as the

ultimate goal (Wijeyawansa 2009) The Buddhas teachings are based on the key

problem ofsuffering Since Buddhism focuses so much on suffering it is often

criticized as being pessimistic But Buddhism does not deny the presence of happiness in

our lives It teaches the way out of suffering and shows the path towards genuine

happiness Buddhism understands that not everyone can lead an ascetic life and accepts

that for a layperson a certain degree of wealth is essential to live a happy life Living an

ethical and moral life is said to bring genuine happiness in Buddhism The objective of

this chapter is to understand happiness from a Buddhist perspective by laying down some

key Buddhist principles related to happiness

Understanding Buddhist principles and values that underpin the Buddhist

worldview will provide a framework that will be the lens through which the

psychological wellbeing indicators of GNH will be analyzed in the following chapter

The principles that will be discussed here are however not definitive boundaries because

41

Buddhism teaches innumerable ways to achieve ultimate happiness In this chapter the

framework of happiness is based on a specific Buddhist teachings called the six

paramitas Nonetheless the entire Buddhist teachings have the same essence and arise

out of the four noble truths and eightfold noble path

This chapter is divided into three sections The first section begins with a brief

introduction to the Buddhist view of happiness Buddhism in Bhutan belongs to the

Mahayana tradition and therefore this study is limited to the context of Mahayana

Buddhism The second section looks at key foundational doctrines such as the four noble

truths Karmamdashthe law of cause and effect the principle of interdependence and

compassion The third section constructs a framework for happiness based on the

Mahayana Buddhist principle using the six perfections or paramitas Paramita refers to

crossing over from the sea of suffering to the shore of happiness The paramitas are the

six kinds of virtuous practice required for skillfully serving the welfare of oneself and

others and a path to achieve genuine happiness For the purpose of this study Thogme

Zangpos text on Thirty-Seven Practices of Bodhisattava (Gyalse Laglin) and teachings

by Buddhist teachers such as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will

serve as sources for constructing this framework

31 Buddhist View of Happiness

Buddhism was founded in the 5th century and has over 365 million followers

worldwide (Ontario Consultants 2009) The term religion is often associated with the

concept of creator or a god but Buddhism rejects the idea of creator god as well as the

notion of a permanent self or a indestructible soul (Flanagan 2007) Therefore it is

42

commonly said that Buddhism is non-theistic or atheistic Buddhism is a series of

practices and a way of life based on the teachings of the Buddha Buddhists are strongly

influenced by Karma the law of cause and effect with the implication that there is no

creator (interview with the Dalai Lama by Chopra 2010)

The word Buddha means to awaken from the sleep of ignorance and to spread

ones intelligence to everything that can be known (Dalai Lama 2000 p2) The Buddha

was like any other human being before he attained nirvana at the age of thirty-seven The

lessons that the Buddha learned while in search of truth is the foundation of Buddhism

chief among which is the pursuit of happiness

In his book An Open Heart Practicing Compassion in Everyday Lifethe Dalai

Lama (2001) states that the purpose of spiritual practice is to fulfill our desire for

happiness (p30) Buddhism indeed has much to say about happiness Sogyal Rimpoche

a renowned Buddhist teacher states there are two kinds of happiness one based on

material comfort and pleasures the other on inner contentment and peace (Doiji 2010)

The two are the physical and mental components of happiness The mental experience or

the inner force plays a more powerful role For example in a very pleasant environment

if we are mentally depressed the surroundings will not make a difference Similarly if

we have inner peace or mental happiness it will be easier to face any challenge This

indicates our mind and thoughts play a powerful role in experiencing happiness (Dalai

Lama 2001) Khenpo Phuntsho Tashi (2004) asserts that in Mahayana Buddhism

happiness springs from an altruistic or compassionate mind Since human minds are often

agitated by afflictive emotions the results frequently are negative actions which in turn

cause suffering The essence of Buddhism therefore is to tame to transform to conquer

43

the human mind for it is the root of everythingmdash it is the creator of happiness and

suffering The Buddha has said in Dhammapada (as cited by Bancroft 1997 p41)

Such a Wandering mind is weak and unsteady Attracted here there and everywhere How good it is to control it and know the happiness of Freedom (Verse 35)

And yet how unruly still how subtle the delusion of the thoughts To quiet them and master them is the true way of happiness (Verse 36)

There is a significant similarity between the Buddhas teachings and Aristotles

ethic Eudiamonia the Aristotelian term for happiness is very similar to Buddhism

Aristotle states that if we want to be happy we should cultivate and practice virtues

through wisdom He also mentions that happiness is vulnerable to external hazards

sudden disaster can reverse happiness no matter how virtuous ones life has been

(Annas 1999) This is exactly what the Buddha preached 2500 years ago The Buddhas

teachings are based on the impermanent nature of life and the importance of virtuous and

righteous deeds Most of Aristotles ethic is devoted to an account of virtuous activities

that he states constitute happiness Aristotle describes happiness as doing well combined

with virtue or self sufficiency of life or the pleasantest life with safety or prosperity of

possessions and bodies with power to protect then and use them in action (Irwin 1999

p3) Aristotle believes that power and fortune are also parts of happiness because they

are the best providers of safety This idea that happiness requires fortune contradicts the

Buddhas teachings The Buddha preached that fortune power possession are all

materials and subject to change They are therefore not a source of genuine happiness but

a cause of suffering

44

His Holiness the Dalai Lama states that Buddhists aim not merely for temporary

happiness but for long-term results They are concerned with life after life This means

that ultimate happiness in Buddhism is Nirvana the cessation of suffering the end of the

cycle of birth-and-death He further adds that spiritual practice the practice of dharma

can bring both long-term happiness and more inner strength day by day (Dalai Lama amp

Hopkins 2000) Buddhist teaching employs innumerable skillful means through which

happiness can be achieved at the individual and collective levels Being on the

Bodhisattva path the path on which all sentient beings can receive help can bring us

happiness Powers (1995 p91) defines a Bodhisattva as someone who is progressing

towards the state of enlightenment Bodhisattva symbolizes compassion Bodhisattvas are

also called jangchup sempa which means a compassionate heart in Tibetan and

Bhutanese

32 Key Mahayana Buddhist Principles

321 The four noble truths

In his search for the meaning of life the Buddha discovered the four noble truths

which are the very foundation of all Buddhist beliefs The Buddhas four noble truths

explain the truth of suffering and the way to overcome it The first noble truth recognizes

that suffering is the essence of human existence suffering from birth old age sickness

and death as well as the pain from separation grief and despair The second noble truth

explains that desire or craving is the cause of all suffering craving for pleasure for

individual existence and for release from our present situation The third noble truth

states that suffering can cease by overcoming craving or desire The fourth noble truth

45

prescribes the way to overcome desire by following the eightfold noble path (Bancroft

1997)

A closer understanding of the four noble truths leads to the realization that no

person can achieve constant and prolonged happiness because as the first noble truth

states Life is suffering This means that as long as humans exist there will be no end

to suffering Suffering in Buddhism has generally been categorized into three types First

is the suffering of misery which includes physical and mental sufferings Second is the

suffering of change where we achieve happiness only for a brief period because all

phenomena are subject to change Third is compositional suffering the suffering which is

endemic to cyclic existence because humans are under the influence of afflictive

emotions (Dalai Lama as cited in Powers 1984 amp 1995 Negi 1999)

The cause of all suffering is the desire and aversion arising out of ignorance

which is called Klesha Klesha literally means afflictive emotions or delusions and refers

to wide range of mental states (Negi 1999) Bhutanese call it nyong mong meaning

distorted or confused By following the eightfold noble path one can overcome the

afflictive emotions and thus achieve genuine happiness Light Party (1996) asserts that

the main map the Buddha offered for the trip to happiness and contentment is the

Eightfold Path Right Understanding Right Intention Right Action Right Speech Right

Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right Mindfulness Buddhist

teachings are all centered on one or more steps of the eightfold noble path The eight

steps are usually divided into three main practices Morality (Sila) which also means

ethics or virtues Concentration (Samadhv meditation) and Wisdom (Prajnaj (Dalai

Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2000 Gomes 2004) Right Understanding and Right

46

Intention pertain to wisdom (Sanskrit panna) Right Action Right Speech and Right

Livelihood pertain to moral virtues or ethics Right Effort Right Concentration and

Right Mindfulness pertain to meditative cultivation of heart and mind

Moral virtue meditation and wisdom form part of the six perfections which

are the core teachings of Mahayana Buddhism The six perfections are the six qualities to

the Bodhisattvas path the state of genuine happiness This study uses the six perfections

as a framework for happiness which will be explored in depth in the third section

322 The Law of Karma Principle of Interdependence and Compassion

The most common belief among Buddhists is that we can never escape from our

own Karma (Sanskrit Kamma) Karma (the law of cause and effect) states that nothing

comes into being without a cause The law of Karma can be simply related to Newtons

Third Law which states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction The

same holds according to the law of Karma though it is not known whether the reaction

will occur in this life or beyond this life Since Buddhism supports the idea of rebirth

certain key aspects of a persons next rebirth are thought to be karmically determined

These include the family into which one is born ones social status physical appearance

character and personality Karma does not however claim that everything that happens

to a person is karmically determined Karma does not determine precisely what will

happen or how anyone will react to what happen Individuals are always free to resist

previous conditioning and establish new patterns of behavior

The belief in Karma sometimes degenerates into a form of fatalism but fate and

Karma are different Humans have freedom to choose and their present action is not the

47

entire result of their past Karma action It does however influence a persons action

because of the character a person has developed (Harvey 2005)

The belief that one has to bear the Karma of ones act is deeply rooted in the

Buddhist psyche It is a very common belief among Buddhists that depending on ones

Karmic consequences (or accumulated positivenegative merits) one will experience

happinesssufferings of various types (Gaylag 2004) good action leads to pleasant

effects and bad deeds lead to unpleasant results Harvey (2005) asserts that the cycle of

Karma provides a perspective on life which is supportive of compassion and respect for

other beings In Buddhism if you want happiness you need to sow the seed of good

merit

Buddhist philosophy explains innumerable ways to achieve positive Karma

Actions motivated by greed hatred and delusion result in bad Karma while actions

motivated by their opposites - non-attachment loving kindness and right understanding-

- result in positive Karma Good intentions therefore must find expression in right

actions and right actions are basically those that are wholesome and do no harm either

oneself or others Tashi (2004) states that in order to accumulate merits and to be happy

our actions can be summed up under three principle causes 1) Developing the attitude of

not harming others (this is being mindful and awakening oneself from ignorance) 2)

Cultivating the attitude of helping others and 3) Being Content

The principle of dependent origination also known as the principle of

interdependence is one of the important principles of Buddhism This principle is actually

an elaboration of the law of Karma which states that all things are interdependent and

48

everything that happens depends on other things happening (Negi 1999 Flanagan 2007

Doiji 2009) In other words since a whole is dependent on its parts any existent thing is

composed of its parts therefore its very existence depends on its parts Buddhism states

that human beings in particular are the combination of the five groups of existence or

five aggregates The physical body is the material aggregate and the mental aspect is

made up of feeling perception (awareness recognition through senses) mental

formations or thoughts and consciousness (knowing the object through our senses)

(Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2005) Since we are made of these five aggregates

and these aggregates themselves have no permanent existence there exists no permanent

self Buddhist teachings assert that humans do not comprehend this reality and assume

that all things including human beings have permanent selves As we are all

interdependent there are no existing phenomena which is not the effect of this What we

do affects those around us and vice versa People should therefore not think only of

themselves but should also take into consideration those around them To create

happiness it is important that we not only reflect on the interrelationship of all things but

also see ourselves clearly as a part of one system of causal relationships

The Buddhist belief is that genuine happiness can be generated from developing a

compassionate heart a heart focused not only on itself but which also helps and benefits

all beings Compassion is defined as the wish to free all beings from suffering (Dalai

Lama 2001) Gyatso (1984) and the Dalai Lama (2000 amp 2001) assert that the root of all

Buddhist practices is the heart of loving kindness and compassion In Buddhism it is

normally said that a person who lacks compassion does not have a good heart It is

49

through a compassionate attitude that Buddhists are motivated to have concern for all

humans animals and the environment because they are all part of the same world

Although it is not easy to free all beings from suffering Buddhism states that we can

develop virtuous minds and thereby help others to do the same (Dalai Lama 2001) It is

through the force of compassion that a person engages in accumulating the merit and

wisdom that make Buddhahood possible (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) and in that sense

also makes happiness possible The four noble truths the law of Karma the principle of

interdependence and the idea of compassion form the key components of a Buddhist

worldview The next section develops a framework for the Buddhist view of happiness

which extends from these key Buddhist doctrines

33 The Buddhist Happiness Framework

This section constructs a happiness framework based on the Mahayana

Buddhisms teachings on the six perfections paramitas) Thogme Zangpos 12th century

text on the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva especially his verses on the six

practices were referenced ( Hopkins 1989) The six perfections or paramitas are

1 Dana Paramita (generosity) 2 Sila Paramita (ethicsvirtuesmorality) 3 Kshanti

Paramita (patiencetolerance) 4 Virya Paramita (perseverance) 5 Dhayana paramita

(meditative concentration) 6 Prajna Paramita (wisdom) These six teachings are a way

for an inner cultivation which implies a kind of ethics that focuses directly on daily life

through which one accomplishes genuine happiness (Wright 2009) The first five are

methods or practices and the last wisdom is necessary for any of them to function The

first three practices are usually recommended for lay people Joyous effort and

concentration mainly refer to meditation normally practiced in monastic communities

50

However meditation is now becoming increasingly popular and is practiced also by lay

people

The opening verse of Thogme Zangpos (nd) text begins with the following

statement

The perfect Buddhas the sources of benefit and happiness arise from having practiced the excellent doctrine That in turn depends on knowing its practices Therefore I will explain the practices of Bodhisattva (p 1)

The Buddha is a symbol and a source of genuine happiness for the Buddhist The

Buddha achieved the state of eternal bliss through his practice of virtues Thogme

Zangpo states that one needs to understand that the source of all happiness whether

worldly or ultimate happiness comes from the practice of Dharma which means the

practice of virtues Geshey Kelsang Gyatso (1984) states that in general Dharma refers

to the teachings of the Buddha but the actual Dharma is the inner realizations which

directly protect living beings from their sufferings He further explains that there are

three kinds of meaning to be achieved through the practice of Dharma The highest is to

reach full enlightenment Buddhahood in this life The middle is to achieve self-

liberation from cyclic fears and sufferings The lowest is to achieve happiness in this life

by overcoming the inner problems and thus avoiding being reborn in the lower realms in

the next life Thus Buddhists aim at one of these three Lay Buddhists usually aim to

lead a happy virtuous life and to be reborn in the higher realms

Thogme Zangpos teachings stress committing oneself to virtues as much as

possible and not engaging in ill deeds Virtues are actions that bear the fruit of happiness

Ill deeds are those actions that cause suffering and unhappiness to oneself and to other

beings Everyone wants to achieve happiness the Dalai Lama defines happiness as a

51

blissful state devoid of all suffering Since the law of cause and effect binds Buddhism it

is necessary to examine phenomena that cause happiness and suffering According to

Buddhism ignorance desire and hatred are the main cause of suffering Our own

afflictive emotions and actions cause suffering

The famous Buddhist painting of a wheel with 21 parts outlines the meaning of

life in Buddhism The diagram designed by the Buddha himself depicts an inner

psychological cosmology This painting can be found at the doorway of every temple in

Bhutan The center of the wheel shows the picture of a pig rooster and snake These

three animals depict the root cause of suffering represented as ignorance desire and

hatred (anger) respectively They are known as the three poisons in Buddhism (Dalai

Lama 2000) Buddhism states that it is possible to overcome suffering since it depends

on causes which are within oneself When one understands the nature of suffering one

will work towards ending such causes However Mahayana Buddhism stresses that this

understanding must be extended to other sentient beings Others similarly want happiness

and not suffering Mahayana Buddhists therefore emphasizes developing compassion and

engaging in the practices of the six paramitas to overcome suffering

Ignorance is not just the absence of knowledge of the real status of phenomenon

but the inability to understand truth misconception of inherent existence of permanent

self (Dalai Lama 2000) The principle of dependent origination (Section 322) as

explained above shows that we do not exist independently on our own Thogme Zangpos

fourth verse states the following

Long-associated companions will part from each other Wealth and possessions obtained with effort will be left behind Consciousness the guest will cast aside

52

the guest-house of the bodv Letting go of this life is the bodhisattvas practice (pl)

The above verse states that our body is not ours The mind or consciousness leaves the

body at death as a guest leaves the guesthouse However we live as if we are going to

live forever and this ignorance draws us into afflictive desire and hatred Ignorance thus

comes out as greed and hatred Greed and hatred in turn promote ignorance The Dalai

Lama (2000) states without ignorance desire and anger are impossible These disturbing

emotions and attitudes are said to be true causes of suffering as are the karmic impulses

that arise under the power of these disturbing emotions Figure 2 below illustrates how

Buddhists perceive suffering and happiness It shows that the root causes of suffering are

ignorance desire and hatred These emerge through three doorsmdash body speech and

mindmdashas non-virtuous action generating negative Karma which causes suffering to

oneself and to others

Figure 2 Suffering and its causes

53

Gyatso (1984) points out that even though the body is like a guest house we will

receive many fruits if we practice Dharma meaning the practice of virtue which results in

the fruit of good Karma However all sentient beings are subject to the three poisons and

the question is how do we overcome them to practice virtue Buddhist teaching states

that the three poisons can be resisted and virtues cultivated through training in the six

practices When a person wants to reduce weight heshe goes through physical training

and dieting Similarly in Buddhism if one wants happiness one must practice the six

paramitas This will naturally generate virtuous actions leading to happiness This is

represented by Figure 3 below

Figure 3 Overcoming Suffering

54

331 Generosity

Mahayanists maintain that happiness comes from a compassionate and altruistic

mind The practice of compassion is training oneself in the perfection of generosity In

the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva the 25th verse states

If it is necessary to give away even ones body while aspiring to enlightenment what need is there to mention external objects Therefore practicing generosity without hope of reciprocation or positive karmic results is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)

The perfection of generosity is the first principle of happiness Generosity can be

practiced by anyone This practice refers to unconditional love a selfless generosity and

giving which is completely free from attachment and expectation Internally it means

overcoming our emotions (greed and hatred) and being generous with others voluntarily

giving ones material goods time or wisdom to others (Das 1995) Generosity is a cure

for the afflictions of greed miserliness and possessiveness The Anguttara Nikaya

(Anguttara Verse 34 and 35) a collection of Buddhist scriptures points out that there are

five blessings that result from the practice of generosity the person will be liked and

admired by everyone will have a good reputation will have lots of self confidence and

will have a heavenly rebirth Buddhists believe that giving without seeking anything in

return leads to greater spiritual wealth Generosity therefore is a very important virtue

bringing happiness to oneself and others

332 Ethics

The second practice is that of Sila which literally means ethics moralityvirtue

Right speech Right action and Right livelihood which form the part of Eightfold Noble

Path fall under ethical practice This perfection of ethics or Sila Paramita stresses quality

55

of virtuous and ethical behavior morality self-discipline personal integrity and never

having the thought to harm any sentient beings The Dalai Lama (2001) states that for

Buddhists ethics means avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions acts done by the body

speech and mind (p34) It is important that our practice of generosity is supported by

our practice of ethics Buddhists therefore abstain from the ten non-virtuous actions

killing stealing sexual misconduct lying divisive speech harsh speech gossip greed

malice and wrong views The first three (killing stealing sexual misconduct) correspond

to bodily action The fourth fifth sixth and seventh (lying malicious words harsh

language useless talk) correspond to verbal action The last three (covetousness ill will

wrong view) occur through the mind (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) The ten non-virtuous

actions lead to bad Karma and suffering Avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and

cultivating a compassionate heart brings good Karma and happiness We can enjoy

greater freedom happiness and security in our lives because through our virtuous

behavior we are no longer creating suffering for ourselves and others we basically

become virtuous and harmless in our thoughts speech and actions Thus in the 26th

verse Thogme Zangpo writes

If lacking ethical conduct one fails to achieve ones own purpose the wish to accomplish others purpose is laughable Therefore guarding ethics devoid of aspirations for worldly existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)

Thogme Zangpo points out that with unethical behavior one cannot achieve

happiness Unethical behavior is always the cause of suffering and unhappiness For

example a person who speaks ill of another person will disturb their mind and later will

56

be a cause of suffering for himself or herself His 34th verse stresses the importance of

avoiding harsh words

Harsh words disturb others minds and cause the mode of a Bodhisattvas behavior to deteriorate Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to abandon harsh words about the unpleasantness of others (p 3)

By cultivating ethical behavior we do not cause harm to others and we are free of

negativity we cause no harm by our actions our speech is kind and compassionate and

our thoughts are free of anger malice and wrong views Through the practice of ethics

we gain confidence because we are not carrying any underlying sense of guilt or remorse

for our actions we have nothing to hide Being ethical and moral is the cause of all

goodness and happiness This practice of ethical conduct is the very foundation for

progressing in any practice of meditation and for attaining all higher realizations on the

path The Dalai Lama states that the aim of ethical practice is to transform motivation and

mental disposition this is how we become better human beings The more we succeed in

training our hearts and minds the more we will be able to cope with adversity and our

actions will be naturally ethical Thus we will experience happiness

333 Patience and Tolerance

The third practice is that of patience and tolerance It is called the perfection of

patience (Bhutanese Bzod pa) Thogme Zangpos 27th verse states the importance of

patience

For bodhisattvas who desire the pleasures of virtue all those who do harm are like a precious treasure Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to cultivate patience without anger or resentment for anyone (p3)

57

Patience in Buddhism refers to having the strength to face the challenges and

difficulties of life without losing our composure and inner tranquility Bodhisattvas are

challenged to endure tolerate and bear any hardship without retaliation or negative

thoughts Through endurance and tolerance we gain strength to overcome any afflictive

emotions The Dalai Lama states that this enlightened quality comes from having our

heart open and our mind deeply concentrated upon the Dharma He states that endurance

and tolerance do not imply defeat but make the mind stronger When the Buddha was

deep in meditation demon Mara and his daughters tried to tempt and distract him

Through his patience however the Buddha remained calm and undistracted and finally

attained nirvana The ability to endure is therefore integral to Buddhism With the

strength of patience we can overcome anything The mind will be calm and clear and

this enables us to make better decisions Through the practice of patience we maintain

inner peace under all circumstances and thus experience genuine happiness

334 Perseverance

The fourth practice is the perfection of joyous effort or enthusiastic perseverance

It is called Virya Paramita in Sanskrit and is the quality of persistent effort or working

hard towards achieving a goal The 28th verse of Thogme Zangpos teaching states

Even hearers and solitary realizers who accomplish only their own welfare strive as if putting out a fire on their heads Seeing this taking up diligent effort -the source of good qualities - for the sake of all beings is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)

Thogme Zangpo points out that just as one makes an effort to put out the fire on

ones own head one must strive diligently to free oneself and all sentient beings from

58

suffering Our body speech and mind should put in effort to the best of our ability

Without putting in right effort we can be disillusioned and thus fail to achieve any goal

The Dalai Lama states that with joyous effort and enthusiastic perseverance we regard

failure as simply another step towards success danger as an inspiration for courage and

affliction as another opportunity to practice wisdom and compassion Thus to achieve

happiness one must put in right effort to be compassionate to be virtuous and ethical at

all times

335 Meditative Concentration

The fifth practice is that of meditative concentration It is called Dhyana

Paramita Meditative concentration is very important in developing mental qualities and

overcoming the three poisons The content of the very first verse of thirty-seven practices

of Bodhisattva is on meditation

At this time when the difficult-to-gain ship of leisure andfortune has been obtained ceaselessly hearing pondering and meditating day and night in order to liberate oneself and others from the ocean of cyclic existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)

The ship of leisure and fortune refers to the human body In Buddhism there are six

realms god2 demi-god human animals hungry ghost hell beings The humans in

comparison to the other realm is very rare It is therefore fortunate enough to be born as a

human Thogme Zangpo indicates that through hearing the dharma teachings meditating

day and night and developing a heart of loving kindness and compassion sentient beings

2 Gods in Buddhism are beings who are born into higher realms because of their positive Karma accumulated in their past lives Their lifespan eventually ends When their life ends they will be reborn in one of the six realms depending on their Karma

59

can be liberated from suffering Buddhism greatly stresses the taming of the mind

because the mind can be transformed and meditation is the means to transform it Tashi

(2004) explains the usefulness of meditation in destroying the root causes of suffering

and providing an antidote to them Meditation also plays an important role in achieiving

happiness at the individual national and global levels The perfection of meditative

concentration thus aims at taming the mind so that it does what we want it to do We

stabilize our mind and emotions by practicing meditation by being mindful and aware in

everything we do When we train the mind in this way all mental distortions and

misperceptions are eliminated We achieve focus composure and tranquility

Concentrating deeply makes us realize the cause of confusion and suffering and helps us

directly experience inner joy Thus Thogme Zangpos 29th verse states

Having understood that disturbing emotions are destroyed by insight possessed with tranquil abiding to cultivate meditative concentration which perfectly transcends the four formless absorptions is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)

336 Wisdom

The last practice is the perfection of wisdom called Prajna Parmaita in Sanskrit

Wisdom is the key to everything Wisdom will help us find the path to happiness

Without wisdom one will not understand the reality of phenomena and thus be

disillusioned by the three poisons Wisdom is therefore necessary to cultivate other

practices Thogme Zangpos 30th verse points out

If one lacks wisdom it is impossible to attain perfect enlightenment through the other five perfections Thus cultivating skillful means with the wisdom that doesnt discriminate among the three spheres is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)

60

Wisdom does not refer to mere intellectual understanding It is beyond that Ron

Liefer (1997) states that a mere intellectual understanding of reality will not change our

habitual negative patterns of thoughts speech and action because the intellect serves the

ego He further adds we cannot achieve wisdom without seeing through the trickery of

ego Wisdom refers to Right understanding and Right view (two of the eightfold noble

paths) of reality This entails getting rid of those wrong views which manifest the three

poisons Through wisdom one will be able to distinguish between what is ethical and

unethical or virtuous and non-virtuous We see the essential nature of reality with utmost

clarity our perception goes beyond the illusive and deceptive veils of material existence

Wisdom clears the delusion that envelops the mind It overturns ignorance and the

attitudes that lead to non-virtuous actions and ultimately shows us the path to happiness

(Rink 2010) Thus overcoming the three poisons by understanding the true nature of

reality and developing qualities of generosity morality patience and meditating with

joyous effort is said to generate the highest level of happiness in Buddhism

34 Summary

Buddhist teachings show the true cause of suffering as ignorance desire and

hatred enveloping the mind The teachings on the Four Noble Truths open our eyes to

various perspectives and send us the message that happiness is beyond material

wellbeing They make us realize that the real essence of happiness lies within us It is

only through taming the mind that we can experience happiness Whether we want to be

happy or not depends on how we perceive things and how we act John Milton said The

mind is its own place and in itself can make heaven of hell and a hell of heaven (as

61

cited by Williams 2008 p24) Buddhism teaches that if we can overcome the three

poisons and practice generosity patience mediation and morality we can experience

inner joy in this life This can even be extended to the next life with the possibility of

attaining nirvana The idea of reward for virtuous action (Karma) creates a healthy fear

and pushes the Buddhist to be ethical and practice virtues at all time Buddhism thus

accords the highest authority to experience with reason second and scripture third

(Flanagan 2007) Some may wonder however whether a focus exclusively on getting

rid of desire would inhibit worldly progress The path to overcoming attachment and

achieving worldly progress such as accumulating wealth are indeed poles apart

Buddhism does not necessarily say that we have to give up the material life It stresses

more the importance of having a good heart of never harming others of being

compassionate of being morally disciplined and of possessing loving kindness

generosity patience and a joyful desire to practice virtues These positive qualities can

reduce ones suffering and give happiness to oneself and others

62

CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING

INDICATORS

People always experience moods and emotions which have an enormous range of

effects on their wellbeing To know about peoples psychological state something must

be known about their subjective experiences The psychological wellbeing domain of the

GNH index thus assesses peoples subjective experience based on eleven indicators

Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking account of Karma Jealousy Selfishness

Frustration Generosity Calmness Compassion Suicidal Thought and General Mental

Health The government measures psychological wellbeing by assessing the socially

destructive attitudes and symptoms of psychological distress and the prevalence of

practices to avoid negative emotions The main purpose of this study is to determine to

what extent the indicators under the psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of

happiness and their coherence with the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH This

chapter analyzes each of these indicators to determine the extent to which they reflect

Buddhist principles of happiness using the conceptual framework laid down in Chapter

Three and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH

This chapter is divided into five sections The first section briefly highlights the

meaning of psychological wellbeing and the importance of measuring it It also highlights

similarities between the views of some modern psychologists and the Buddhist view on

the understanding of psychological wellbeing The second third and fourth sections

analyze the indicators of psychological wellbeing by grouping them into three broad

categories Emotional Balance Spirituality Practices and General Mental Health The

chapter concludes with an overview of the overall findings

63

41 Psychological Wellbeing Measures

Psychological wellbeing as the term denotes refers to the wellbeing of a persons

mental state It deals with emotions and feelings which are subjective experiences The

measure of the psychological wellbeing of its citizens is extremely important in a country

pursuing GNH because the mental or the psychological state influences the overall

wellbeing of people A GNH state therefore needs to minimize those mental conditions

that can be disruptive As Larsen amp Fredrickson (1999) point out the content of a

persons emotional life strongly influences his or her judgments of the quality of that life

(p40)

From the Buddhist perspective happiness depends on our mind Buddhist

teachings are directly or indirectly based on the workings of the mind Buddhism strongly

holds that it is the emotional and mental state of people that influence their wellbeing or

happiness The term ishepa which means the mind refers to all aspects of subjective

experiences In the Buddhist diction mind shepa) awareness (rigpa) and consciousness

(lo) are synonyms (Abhidhamma 1987 Negi 1999) The mind in Buddhism includes

all perceptual conceptual and emotional states both conscious and unconscious (Negi

1999) The emotional mental states therefore are all mind related subjective experiences

As explained in Chapter Three Buddhism is concerned with taming the mind

this entails understanding the types of mental activity that are truly conducive to

wellbeing and the ones that are harmful In this sense it would be justifiable to say that

Buddhism is all about achieving happiness mentally or psychologically Ekman

Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) agree that psychologists and Buddhists alike

64

believe that emotions strongly influence peoples thoughts words and actions and that

they help people in their pursuit of transient pleasures and satisfactions

The measurement of a persons psychological state is commonly based on the

self-report assessment Within the discipline of psychology there is a strong view that

self-reports on how well life is going can convey important information on underlying

emotional states and in measuring peoples subjective wellbeing Earlier psychologists

who were mainly interested in negative emotional states such as depression and anxiety

are now interested in positive emotions to evaluate peoples overall wellbeing (Ryff amp

Singer 1998) Indeed to get empirical clues of happiness establishing the absence of

negative experiences would not be enough positive feelings must also be present (Hirata

2006) The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index similarly includes

both positive and negative emotions

Structured questionnaires are used to collect data for each indicator A

sufficiency cut off or a threshold is set for each indicator A person is said to have met the

sufficiency cut-off if hisher evaluation in that indicator meets or exceeds the cut-off

point If the respondent meets or exceeds the sufficiency cut off heshe is given the full

score This means a person is psychologically well if heshe makes sufficient

achievement in each of the indicators Any shortfall from sufficiency that any

respondents experience in any indicator is considered to depress Gross National

Happiness The depth of insufficiency will rise if any person drops further away from

sufficiency cut-off This means that the distance from the cut-off or the sufficiency gap is

sensitive only if the achievements are below the sufficiency level This indicates that the

GNH index is sensitive to an unhappy or a poor persons experience Overall this method

65

is similar to poverty measurement where a poverty line is set to distinguish people who

are materially poor from non-poor (Millet 2010) However there is not much

information available on how the sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From

the information available on the CBS website it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut

off is set at a level that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises

questions because there is not any literature or research conducted on how the sufficiency

cut off has actually been set Arbitrarily setting cut-offs without any basis or setting it

based on some assumptions can lead to questionable results

42 Emotional Balance

The Centre for Bhutan Studies has grouped seven indicators under the category of

emotional balance The indicators can be further grouped into two categories negative

emotions and positive emotions The indicators under this index include emotions or

feelings related to wellbeing because these affect a persons evaluation of life Four of the

seven indicators pertain to negative emotions jealousy selfishness frustration and

suicidal thought and three pertain to positive emotion generosity calmness and

compassion Diener amp Lucas (1999) state that although the emotions are momentary

influences and would not reflect a stable state of happiness they do provide information

about the state of a persons life Research shows that a variety of etiological factors

contribute to these emotions (Berenbaum Raghavan Le Vernon amp Gomez 1999)

Buddhist teaching similarly maintains that these emotions do not occur on their own

there are causal factors associated with them

66

Buddhism places the mind at the centre of all experiences The Buddhist tradition

therefore places emotions at the core of individual and universal happiness In the

Abhidhamma Buddhist text the mind is presented in context to its primary and secondary

consciousnesses Primary consciousness refers to the content of mind which illuminates

merely the general nature of the content Secondary consciousness refers to the aspect of

mind that illuminates the particular nature of that content Both the primary and

secondary consciousnesses operate as one entity (Negi 1999) The Abhidhamma lists

fifty-one secondary consciousnesses All the positive and negative emotions fall under

the fifty-one secondary consciousnesses

a Negative Emotion

Chapter Three explained that negative emotions in Buddhism arise out of

ignorance desire and hatred Humans suffer because of their own negative emotions

These are negative because they harm oneself and others As we ignore the reality around

us and cling to the self or I we get angry for things we do not like jealous when others

succeed frustrated when we fail The extreme reaction is suicidal thoughts and action

All of these negative emotions from the Buddhist perspective fall under unethical

action action that occurs through the mind They are called nyong mongs meaning

distorted or confused or klesha translated as afflictive emotions Jealousy selfishness

frustration and suicidal thoughts arise due to covetousness ill will and wrong view The

four negative indicators form part of the ten non-virtuous actions and are afflictive

regardless of their degree or the context in which they arise These emotions are similarly

considered negative under the GNH index

67

1 Jealousy

Jealousy is often defined as a feeling of resentment when others succeed Harris

(2004) points out that jealousy is likely to arise over perceptions that a potential rival

poses a threat to what one perceives to be valuable in oneself and in an important

relationship In Buddhism jealousy is called dhrag-dog The Buddhist Abhidhamma text

classifies jealousy as part of hostility and calls it immoral Jealousy in Buddhism is

defined as a disturbing emotion that focuses on other peoples accomplishments such as

their good qualities possessions or success and is the inability to bear their

accomplishments due to excessive attachment to our own gain or to the respect we

receive (Berzin 2004 p 1) Jealousy in Buddhism is therefore related to attachment

Jealousy and envy have slightly different meanings in Buddhism Envy adds to what

jealousy means in Buddhism In addition to the inability to bear others accomplishments

envy is the wish to have these accomplishments for ourselves Therefore envy has the

element of what Buddhism calls covetousness (Bnab sem) Berzin (2004) points out that

envy as a combination of jealousy and covetousness leads to competitiveness Jealousy

is thus a disturbing emotion that drives us to become highly competitive and to work

fanatically to outdo others or ourselves Failure can cause much pain and success can lead

to further greed Jealousy has elements of resentment and hostility In addition it has

strong elements of insecurity and mistrust (Berzin 2004)

In the Abhidhamma text jealousy is opposite to compassion and appreciative joy

Lama Zopa Rinpoche (1973) states that rejoicing is the best remedy for jealousy and

envy (pl) Buddhist teaching maintains that we must rejoice for others success and

68

happiness and think that they created their own cause for their happiness Similarly in a

GNH society we must rejoice for others success and happiness Jealousy disturbs our

peace of mind and causes much suffering We cannot achieve GNH if we are all jealous

of others Jealousy is therefore opposed to GNH values

Mullen (1995) points out that men and women experience different types of

emotions when they are jealous These include pain distress oppression anxiety

sadness apprehension anger restless distress humiliation shame agitation and

betrayal All of these are negative and against happiness or wellbeing In order to

achieve GNH it is important to rule out the presence of such negative emotions Since

jealousy is directly opposed to the psychological wellbeing of people it is appropriate

that it be an indicator of GNH

In order to collect the data for this indicator the following question is asked of the

respondents (Box 1) The sufficiency cut off is set at never which means that

respondents are given full score when they answer never In a GNH state it is hoped or

expected that a person would never feel jealous Buddhism similarly marks jealousy as

non-virtuous and afflictive regardless of their degree in which they arise The sufficiency

cut-off which is set at never therefore also corresponds to Buddhist principles

How often do you experience jealousy

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 1 Survey question of Jealousy Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

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2 Selfishness

The second indicator selfishness refers to an unwillingness to share because of

craving something for oneself Selfishness in Buddhism originates from attachment and

greed In Buddhism selfishness is closely related to the Buddhist term Serna (Negi

1999) Serna in the Abhidhamma text is termed as immoral consciousness (p96) and

appears as delusion arising out of a wrong view attachment and greed Negi (1999)

states that it is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity (p93)

Selfishness is also synonymous with the Tibetan Buddhist terms Rangdoed and lNoe

zirtwhich literally mean self-centered desire and material attachment respectively

Buddhist teachings condemn the idea of self or I from which selfishness arises As

explained in Chapter Three Buddhism teaches no-self (anatta) as an essential

principle The doctrine of no-self is to help us let go of our attachment and ego In one

of his interviews with FOR Atv the Dalai Lama (2008) narrates an incident in which a

rich couple asked him for a blessing He replied to them You are wealthy share your

wealth with the needy ones this will be the real blessing for you This indicates that

Buddhists believe in replacing selfishness with generosity to attain inner joy In

particular the paramita of ethics (see Chapter Three) emphasizes restraining self-

centeredness and to rooting it out completely The Dalai Lama (2000) states that the

ethic of restraining self-centeredness is crucial (p 101) A selfish attitude according to

Buddhism obstructs the path towards achieving Bodhisattva and thus genuine happiness

Selfishness gives rise to negative Karma leading one to be reborn in the lower realms

70

Similarly since the concept of GNH supports the idea of interdependence selfishness is

opposed to the GNH values

Under the selfishness indicator of GNH the participants are asked the following

question (See Box 2) For the answer never a full score is given which means that a

person should never feel selfish to get a positive GNH score This indicates that

selfishness is against the GNH essence Consistent with the Buddhist teachings the GNH

index similarly marks selfishness as a negative trait

How often do you experience selfishness

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 2 Survey question of Selfishness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

3 Frustration The American Heritage Stedmans Medical Dictionary defines frustration as a

condition that results when an impulse or an action is thwarted by an external or an

internal force There is no exact term for frustration in Buddhism but it can be related to

the term gopa which is translated as agitation Negi (1999) describes gopa as a

mental factor that disturbs the inner calm and focus of the mind (p44) Gopa forms

part of the twenty secondary delusions in the Abhidhamma In the Bhutanese national

language Ouggam1 holds equivalent meaning to frustration Ouggam literally means

pressurizing the breath Oug is breath and gam means pressure When we pressurize our

self we get frustrated and this comes out as anger causing suffering to others and

ourselves

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Frustration is without doubt a negative emotion because it disturbs the peace of

mind causing anxiety and stress Like jealousy and selfishness frustration arises out

of attachment and desire In Buddhism any emotion that arises out of ignorance desire

and hatred is afflictive and non-virtuous Similarly in a GNH society that seeks to

maximize the happiness and wellbeing of people frustration is a negative trait and

opposed to the concept of GNH because it obstructs the path towards happiness Since

frustration has a negative impact on wellbeing it is necessary to determine if such

emotions occur frequently among people Therefore it is appropriate to have it as a

negative indicator of psychological wellbeing

The question (Box 3) how often do you experience frustration is asked of

respondents Since frustration hampers wellbeing respondents who never experience

frustration are given a full GNH score Respondents who often or sometimes

experience frustration are given a negative score

How often do you experience frustration

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 3 Survey question of Frustration Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

4 Suicidal Thoughts

Suicidal thoughts usually occur when one is no longer able to bear suffering in

life According to Buddhism suicide is an unwholesome act since it is encouraged by a

mind filled with greed hatred and delusion (Dhammananda nd) Killing is one of the ten

non-virtuous actions in Buddhism so any act of killing is unwholesome and suicide is

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therefore an unwholesome act The Buddhist teachings on Karma maintain that death by

suicide only leads to another cycle of rebirth in the same condition Buddha Dharma

Education Association (nd) explains that in order for the act of killing to have its

complete and unmitigated power five conditions must be present a living being the

awareness of the existence of a living being the intention to kill the living being the

effort or action of killing the living being and the consequent death of the living being

Suicide will always lack the last element of a complete Karma because the one who

commits the act will already be dead at the time of the completion of the action

Therefore suicide becomes a defective action and is not completed as an act of killing

leading to rebirth in the same condition (Sopa 2005) The Dalai Lama (1981) states that

even if we take our own life we will have to take another body that again will be the

basis of suffering In order to get rid of all the difficulties we experience we need to get

rid of the fundamental cause (greed hatred and delusion) that gives rise to the aggregates

that are the basis of all suffering He adds that killing yourself is not going to solve your

problems Suicide in Buddhism is therefore a non-virtuous act that arises because of

afflictive emotion

According to Buddhism suicide does not end the problem The famous Buddhist

painting of truth depicts that death is only the beginning of another cycle of pain and

suffering Buddhists therefore do not support suicide and instead encourage constructive

living using this life to diligently practice virtuous action thus changing the present and

the future for the better

Research indicates that suicide and attempted suicide are associated with

elevated levels of anger anxiety guilt sadness and shame (Berenbaum Raghavan Le

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Vernon Gomez 1999 p 279) Depression is found to be the main cause of suicides The

most common factors that push youth to commit suicide according to Bhutanese

psychiatrist Dr Nirola are peer and parental pressures competitive scenarios and failure

to get a job among others (as cited by Dorji 2010) This indicates that suicidal thoughts

occur because of what Buddhism calls the three poisons leading to further afflictive

emotions

Suicidal thoughts similarly are against the essence of GNH and therefore a

negative indicator of psychological wellbeing Under the GNH index a person who has

never thought of committing suicide (See Box 4) is given a foil GNH score while

respondents who have thought of committing suicide are given negative scores Overall

the indicator of suicidal thought finds groundings in Buddhist teachings

Have you ever seriously thought of committing suicide

1 Yes 2 No

Box 4 Survey question of Suicidal Thought Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Jealousy frustration selfishness and suicidal thoughts are negative emotions that

affect individuals and the societys wellbeing Satya Dev Negi (1996) asserts that the

distorted emotional states have achieved such a pervasive status that our era may become

known to history as the Age of Emotional Epidemic (p2) The effects of negative

emotions are clearly visible in society increasing crime substance abuse suicide and

divorce are all symptoms of emotional dysfunction

The entire Buddhist tradition evolved as a study of mental and emotional states

and ways to transform the negative emotions into positive ones Although Buddhism sees

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ignorance desire and hatred as the main causes of suffering the three poisons come out

in the form of various negative emotions which include jealousy frustration and

selfishness Scientific research has revealed the role emotions play in affecting health the

immune system blood pressure and cardiovascular functions Research also indicates

that individuals with emotional disturbances are prone to induce negative effects upon

those with whom they have ongoing relationships (Berenbaum et al 1999) Besides

evaluation of the frequency of negative emotions it is important for the government to

know the reasons or the conditions that give rise to these negative emotions GNH as

policy must attend to it them

Overall all of the four indicators are directly opposed to the essence of GNH and

therefore it is appropriate to have them as indicators in order to minimize or eliminate

the presence of such negative emotions in a country Further all of these indicators are

rooted in Buddhism

b Positive Emotions

The process for accomplishing happiness in Buddhism involves uprooting the

negative emotions and enhancing the positive ones The three indicatorsmdashgenerosity

calmness and compassionmdashare positive because these emotions bring happiness to

oneself and others The practice of paramitas as explained in Chapter Three encourages

replacing the three poisons by practicing generosity ethics compassion and meditative

concentration Similarly generosity calmness and compassion are considered positive

indicators of psychological wellbeing

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5 Generosity

Generosity is the act of giving and a means to overcome greed and selfishness In

Buddhism the practice of generosity (Dana Paramita- jinba) as laid down in Chapter

Three is one of the six paramitas and a way to practice compassion Buddhism maintains

that the practice of generosity in addition to the fivefold benefit to the one practicing it

brings happiness to others too Generosity is a moral practice that relates to positive

virtues such as compassion and loving kindness the cultivation of which leads to mental

development and spiritual happiness Through generosity we are able to extend ourselves

and help others The whole idea of generosity supports the concept of interdependence

which is the core principle of GNH and Buddhism The Centre for Bhutan Studies terms

generosity a positive emotion of great importance and a desirable habit Generosity as

an indicator is therefore coherent with the GNH principle as it promotes happiness for

oneself and others The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 5) for the

collection of data

How often do you experience generosity

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 5 Survey question of Generosity Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

The sufficiency cut off has been set as often which means a person should

frequently experience the feeling of generosity to get the full GNH score In a GNH

3 See Chapter Three

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society people must help each other and promote a healthy environment Helping does

not necessarily mean giving all your possessions to others but it does entail sharing a part

of your wealth and being helpful in many ways An example would be a voluntary

service to society and charity Happiness derived by the act of generosity which does not

get included in the Gross Domestic Product (Hewavitharana 2004) should be included in

the evaluation of GNH Therefore generosity as an indicator of psychological

wellbeing is coherent with and appropriate to the concept of GNH

6 Calmness

Calmness refers to the clarity of mind and it entails patience and tolerance

Calmness is opposed to anger which is one of the three poisons in Buddhism The

Buddhist practice of Kshanita paramita the practice of patience and tolerance stresses

the importance of having a calm and composed mind at all times Patience in Buddhism

as seen in Chapter Three refers to having the strength to face the challenges and

difficulties of life without losing composure and inner tranquility In the Abhidhamma

text equanimity (long nyom) which is synonymous with calmness is listed as the

tenth positive secondary consciousness and a wholesome mental factor (Negi 1999)

Any mind that experiences such emotion becomes automatically positive states Negi

(1999) When we are calm we develop a tendency not to harm others and we are usually

at our best when we are calm Tranquility gives rise to clarity from which understanding

and wisdom grow (Graham 2007) A calm mind is therefore very essential for living a

happy and healthy life On the other hand constant fear and anger affect our own health

and overall wellbeing Horton (2010) states that through mental calmness one can

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experience inner peace and as a result success too Calmness is therefore a virtue

consistent with GNH ideals

The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 6) for the collection of

data

How often do you experience calmness

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 6 Survey question of Calmness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Respondents who often feel calm are given the full GNH score which means in a GNH

society people should experience calmness frequently Overall this indicator can be

linked to Buddhist teachings and is coherent with GNH values as well

7 Compassion

Compassion is a wish to relieve the suffering of others and is central to Buddhist

practice As mentioned earlier in Chapter Three it is the most essential and important

trait for bodhisattvas within Mahayana Buddhism Mahayanists maintain that only

through developing a compassionate heart can one practice the other essential virtues

For example without being compassionate we will not develop a genuine sense of

generosity The compassion in Buddhism not only arises out of empathy towards the

suffering of others but from understanding and realizing the meaning of emptiness the

law of Karma and interdependence viewing self and others as devoid of inherent

meaning Compassion thus leads to the practice of loving kindness and helps to

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overcome afflictive emotions such as hatred jealousy and selfishness which are

considered negative under the psychological wellbeing indicators

Compassion a profound human emotion can be a powerful means to creating a

GNH society When one is compassionate the thought of harming others does not arise

and this attitude cultivates a genuine sense to work toward everyones benefit The CBS

(2008) similarly holds compassion as an approach to sympathy for the suffering of

others which is necessary to establish a compassionate society Thinking about the

suffering of others and not just ones own is important for a GNH society Further

scientific studies suggest that individuals including children who may engage in

bullying people and society in general could benefit from practices of compassion (Lutz

Lewis Johnstone Davidson 2008) Therefore compassion as an indicator is very much

coherent with the GNH values

The following question (Box 7) is asked of respondents to find out how

compassionate they are The sufficiency cut off similar to the indicator of generosity

and calmness has been set at often which means a person should frequently

experience compassion to get the full GNH score

How often do you experience compassion

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 7 Survey question of Compassion Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Overall the presence of emotions such as compassion calmness and generosity

have a positive impact on physical wellbeing on decision-making process and on the

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potential for leading a happy life Further each of the three indicators is clearly related to

the Buddhist practice of paramitas

43 Spiritual Practices

From the Buddhist perspective the indicators under this section consist of

practices to overcome negative or afflictive emotions Practicising them with sincerity

can hold negative emotions at bay

8 Frequency of Meditation

The Buddhists consider meditation a very important method to calm the mind

The eightfold noble path and the paramita of meditative concentration emphasizes the

importance of meditation as a means to destroy the three root causes of suffering (desire

hatred and ignorance) Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) states that the Buddhist meditative

practice does not merely suppress the destructive mental states but trains the mind to see

directly and concretely how the mind functions and using this understanding tames and

masters our own mind freeing it from afflictive states Many Buddhist masters prescribe

meditation as the key to finding happiness and peace of mind Tashi (2004) points out

that the important egalitarian aspects of meditation are its accessibility to everybody with

little or no cost involved Researchers have shown that Buddhists who meditate may be

able to train their minds to feel genuine happiness and control aggressive instincts

(Connor 2003) Another study of Buddhist meditation by scientists at the University of

California has found that meditation might tame the amygdale the part of the brain

involved with fear and anger Studies have also shown that even brief courses of

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meditation with very short periods of the simplest meditative practices are associated

with better psychological and physical health (Levenson etal 2004) The CBS does not

link meditation to Buddhism but it is implicit that the indicators are inspired by Buddhist

teachings

Aside from the spiritual connotations meditation is a powerful method to calm

our mind (Connor 2003) Research has shown that practicing meditation regularly has

beneficial effects for a range of conditions These include stress anxiety depression

poor sleep and coping with chronic pain It also has other health benefits such as reduced

inflammation improved immunity and lower blood pressure A study conducted by three

universities (University of Wisconsin West Virginia University and University of

Reading) found that calmness and compassion could be developed through the practice of

meditation Lutz Lewis Johnstone and Davidson (2008) state that the long-term goal of

meditation is to weaken egocentric traits so that altruistic behaviors might arise more

frequently and spontaneously Meditation is indeed the best method to make the mind

relaxed and peaceful Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) maintains that the gift of learning to

meditate is the greatest gift you can gift yourself in this life (p58) He adds for it is

only through meditation that you can undertake the journey to discover your true nature

and so find the stability and confidence you will need to live and die well (p58)

The benefits of meditation as pointed out by the Buddhist teachings and supported

by modern research are immense The practice of meditation thus surely will have a

positive impact on the wellbeing of people which directly contributes to the essence of

GNH Having meditation as a GNH indicator signifies the importance the government is

putting on the benefits it provides The following question (Box 8) is asked of

respondents regarding the practice of meditation

Do you practice meditation

1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all

Box 8 Survey question of meditation Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

The sufficiency cut-off for meditation has been set as occasionally which means

one must practice meditation occasionally to get a full GNH score Although meditation

is considered a very important practice in Buddhism meditation among the lay

population is not popular in Bhutan According to the survey conducted by CBS (2008)

904 of respondents do not meditate at all This may arise from the fact that Bhutan

still does not have any meditation centre for lay people This may also be the reason why

the sufficiency cut-off has been set as occasionally instead of daily Very recently

meditation has been introduced in Bhutanese schools It however needs to be introduced

among lay population too Overall the indicator of mediation is coherent with GNH

values Further since Buddhism greatly stresses the importance of meditation the

indicator seems to have been influenced by Buddhism

9 Prayer Recitation

Prayer is a form of religious practice that seeks to connect to some greater power

Most religions involve prayer in one way or another The purpose of Buddhist prayer is to

awaken the inherent inner capacities of strength compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)

The translation for the word prayer in Bhutanese national language is thuen which

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literally means the recitation of mantras Buddhism emphasizes the recitation of prayershy

like mantras A mantra is a word a syllable a phrase or a short prayer that is spoken

once or repeated over and over again (either aloud or in a persons head) and that is

thought to have a profound spiritual effect on the person (BBC 2006 p 1) Mantra

literally means that which protects the mind from negativity (Sogyal Rimpoche 2002

p71) Mantra Sogyal Rimpoche states is the essence of sound and embodiment of the

truth in the form of sound Each syllable contains spiritual power and vibrates with the

blessing of the speech of the Buddha There are mantras that are thought to subtly alter

ones mind and make a connection with a particular Buddha or enlightened being

Buddhists believe that when certain mantras are said many times they arouse good

vibrations within the person they awaken our inherent inner capacities of strength

compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)

A prayer can be silent meditation or a full chorus of chanting (Hanh 2006) In

Buddhism praying involves two important aspects the first is establishing a relationship

between ourselves and the one to whom we are praying This refers to reflecting on the

great qualities of the Buddha which involves visualization The second is regarding

effective prayer which is the idea of cultivating the energy of love mindfulness and

right concentration in prayer To pray effectively our body and mind must dwell

peacefully in the present moment (Hanh 2006) It is common that Buddhists lay prostrate

while praying This is a position that diminishes the ego opens one up and brings one

close to the earth (Hanh 2006 p 63) Since reciting prayers requires mindfulness and

concentration the paramita of meditative concentration extends to prayers too The

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Buddhist Faith Fellowship of Connecticut asserts that Buddhist prayer is a form of

meditation and practice of inner reconditioning Similarly Sogyal Rimpoche (2002)

explains that reciting mantras is one of the meditation techniques He calls it uniting the

mind with the sound of mantra When one is nervous disoriented or emotionally fragile

reciting a mantra inspiringly can change the state of the mind completely by transforming

its energy and atmosphere He also mentions that mind rides on the subtle energy of

breath and when you chant a mantra you are charging your breath and energy with the

energy of the mantra so working directly on the mind and subtle body (p71) The

practice of reciting mantra for inner reconditioning is distinctively Buddhist

In addition to reciting mantras a majority of the Bhutanese Buddhists pray to

local deities It is a very popular belief in Bhutan that deities can protect us from evil

forces In a real sense this is not Buddhism because the Buddha never prayed to anyone

Buddhism stresses the recitation of mantras to awaken our inner qualities As mentioned

earlier Bhutan was largely a Bon country prior to the entry of Buddhism Bonism

emphasized worshipping the deities Buddhism in many countries flourished with

polytheistic features For example in Japan Buddhism mixed with Shinto which

worships kamis (nature spirits) created a tradition of praying to the kamis Bhutans

national newspaper Kuensel reported that Bonism mixed with Buddhism is still prevalent

in the country (Wangchuk 2005) The rituals of the Bon often include animal sacrifices

but animal sacrifices are discouraged in the country However many pray and perform

rituals to appease the local deities (yu-lha) For example in the village of Bongo under

Chukha district people worship and pray to two sister deities They also summon other

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deities and spirits residing in mountains valleys lakes forests streams and cliffs

invoking them to assist and protect people from misfortunes (as cited by Wangchuk

2005) Similarly people in the capital Thimphu pray to a local deity located in the upper

valley Although this is not distinctively Buddhism (Powers 1995) it is an age-old

tradition that has been absorbed by Bhutanese Buddhists long ago This is now

considered an integral part of Bhutanese Buddhist culture

The following question (Box 9) is asked of respondents A person who prays

daily meets the sufficiency cutoff which means heshe is given a full GNH score

Do you sayrecite prayers

1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all

Box 9 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Although reciting prayers in Buddhism is seen as a method ofmeditation both

are given different sufficiency cut offs A person who meditates occasionally is given a

full score while a person who prays occasionally is not given a full score The different

sufficiency cut offs for the two different practices indicates that the prayer recitation

indicator is intended to be different from meditation However prayer recitation in

Buddhism itself is a form of meditation CBS mentions that those indicators which are

highly uncorrelated were selected but from a pure Buddhist perspective the two seem to

be closely related since both fall under the paramita of meditative concentration The

CBS does not mention how prayer recitation is consistent with GNH values

Nevertheless the benefits of prayer recitation and meditation maybe the same because

85

both practices require mindfulness and concentration In this sense prayer recitation too

is coherent with GNH To conclude prayer in the form of mantra accords with Buddhist

principles while prayer to deities is a local Buddhist practice Therefore the indicator of

prayer recitation seems to have been influenced by Buddhism with traces of local beliefs

10 Taking account of Karma

As seen in chapter three Karma is a very important Buddhist principle that guides

the Buddhist psyche The law of Karma provides the basis to practice the paramita of

ethics (sila) Karma as one of the GNH indicators clearly implies that Buddhism has

influenced the indicator The literal meaning of taking account of Karma is being

morally responsible for our own actions When a person takes account of Karma in daily

life heshe is being aware and morally responsible for their actions on which the result

depends When we understand the law of Karma we are discouraged from performing

non-virtuous or unwholesome actions which cause suffering Realizing that Karma

conditions and determines our happiness we will refrain from unwholesome behavior to

avoid the negative effects of these actions Similarly understanding that virtuous actions

bear the fruit of happiness one is encouraged to practice wholesome actions The law of

causality therefore promotes moral and ethical life

The sufficiency cutoff for taking account of Karma (Box 10) has been set as

daily indicating that a person who takes account of Karma daily is given a full GNH

score

86

Do you consider Karma in the course of your daily life

1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all

Box 10 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

For a country pursing GNH it is important to take account of Karma on a daily

basis because Karma promotes healthy and ethical living ideal for a GNH state

According to CBS for Bhutanese an understanding of the dynamics between causes

and effects are critical to each individuals pursuit for happiness as it tends to provide a

clearer understanding and cultivation of GNH values (pl) Understanding that the real

reason for our sufferings is our own Karma (action through body speech and mind)

serves as an antidote to all our afflictive emotions Karma promotes the sense of helping

each other and living in harmony with all forms of life It is therefore important that a

GNH society take account of Karma daily to promote wholesome actions for a happy

society The indicator of taking account of Karma daily is thus a reflection of Buddhist

principles and is consistent with GNH values

43 General Mental Health (GMH)

11 General Mental Health

The general mental health indicator assesses the mental health of people using the

General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) that would provide a possible indication of

depression anxiety low confidence and concentration levels Unlike the other indicators

under the psychological wellbeing domain the General Mental Health indicator consists

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of fifteen questions (See Appendix 2) Questions related to ones stress level ability to

concentrate anxiety depression feeling of happiness and unhappiness are asked of the

respondents The questions are calculated and interpreted using the Likert scale with

lowest score at 0 and highest possible score at 36 A lower score between the ranges of 0-

15 indicates normal mental wellbeing a median score between 16-20 indicates some

mental distress and a high score of 21-36 indicates severe mental distress (CBS 2008)

The sufficiency cut-off is set as normal mental wellbeing which means people should

not experience any mental distress to get a full GNH score

The CBS (2008) asserts that mental health is an important indicator for the health

status of a population Studies have revealed that mental stress can negatively affect

wellbeing Studies also point out that stress may alter the immune system and increase

susceptibility to disease (CBS 2008)

From the Buddhist perspective psychological distress such as depression lack of

confidence and anxiety are the result of our own afflictive emotions Gyatso (2009)

points out that the overriding cause of mental stress is self-cherishingmdashseeing ones own

physical and mental pleasure as more important than anybody elses People who have

the tendency to use more self-referential terms (I me myself) tend to have more health

problems and earlier deaths (Dalai Lama 2009) According to Buddhism it is our own

ego the focus on the notion of I that cause us to suffer The causes of mental distress

thus lie within us Since cause is within us the cure is also in our own mind Buddhist

teachings maintain that meditating on emptiness4 can get rid of the notion of T Thus

4 A meditation technique

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mental distress similar to other negative emotions are a result of ignorance desire and

hatred

Ven Thubten Gyatso (2009) a Buddhist teacher points out two reasons why

selfishness can cause mental illness The first is that unhappiness arising from

selfishness is cumulative When we do not obtain what we want we often over-react to a

ridiculous extent and our selfish behavior isolates us from others The accumulation of

small failures in life erodes our self-confidence and we fall into depression The second

reason he points out is that selfishness prevents us from doing the one thing that is

guaranteed to bring happiness - cherishing others being compassionate and generous

Self-obsession and self-centered thoughts blind us and we do nothing to help others In

Buddhism self-centeredness never brings real joy and satisfaction but instead causes

suffering

The mind drives every action that occurs through the body speech and mind

The causal factor therefore lies within us It is our ability to deal with emotions that

influences the mental state Since mental stress obstructs the path towards happiness it

opposes the goal of GNH It is therefore important to assess the stress levels of the

population to identify the risk group Intervention by government and offering remedy

(for example offering counseling) and monitoring changes over time can help people

pursue happiness

44 Summary

The purpose of this study is to determine to what extent the indicators under the

psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with

89

the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH Findings in this chapter reveal the following

The four indicators related to negative emotionsmdashjealousy selfishness frustration

suicidal thoughtmdashdo appear in Buddhism Jealousy (dhrag-dog) is clearly stated as an

afflictive emotion while the Buddhist teachings condemn the idea ofself through

which selfishness arises Although the exact term does not appear in Buddhism

frustration is closely related to the meaning of gopa or agitation which arises as a result

of the three poisons Buddhism holds that lack of wisdom or holding on to wrong views

leads to suicidal thoughts Jealousy selfishness frustration and suicidal thought thus

arise out of the three poisons ignorance desire and hatred All four indicators are what

Buddhism calls Klesha afflictive emotions that disturb the mind of oneself and others

thus obstructing the path towards happiness Similarly general mental health distress is a

result of afflictive emotion Buddhist teachings particularly points out that holding on to

the idea of self leads to mental stress

The indicators related to the three positive emotions (Generosity Compassion

and Calmness) and three spiritual practices (Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking

account of Karma) are clearly related to the Buddhist teachings on six paramitas

Generosity is the first paramita a practice towards achieving genuine happiness

Compassion is the root of all Mahayana Buddhist practices and an essential component of

the practice of six paramitas The indicator of calmness is related to Kshanti paramita

which entails the practice of patience tolerance and endurance Similarly the indicator

of meditation and prayer recitation is related to the Buddhist practice of meditative

concentration which is the fourth practice Dhayana paramita Prayer recitation

however does have elements of Bon practices which have been deeply absorbed by the

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local Buddhist culture The indicator of taking account of Karma is clearly influenced by

Buddhism Karma promotes the practice of ethics which is sila paramita that stresses

avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and engaging in virtuous action Overall all of the

positive emotions and practices require wisdom which is prajna paramita The core

teachings of Buddhism thus find a place in each of the indicators Thus it would be

appropriate to conclude that the indicators have been influenced by Buddhism

Each of indicators either contributes to or negatively affects GNH In a GNH

society it is important to establish that people not only experience positive emotions but

also rule out the presence of negative emotions that can cause mental distress It is also

important to determine if people take up spiritual practices to keep the negative emotions

at bay Therefore each indicator under psychological wellbeing relates positively or

negatively with the concept of GNH It can thus be concluded that the indicators of

psychological wellbeing are consistent with GNH values

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CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMMENDATIONS

From the very beginning of its development plan Bhutan chose to ensure the

preservation of its culture tradition and natural resources This came to be called the

philosophy of GNH where peoples spiritual and emotional wellbeing is afforded equal

importance to economic wellbeing GNH recognizes that economic development without

spiritual and emotional wellbeing will not bring happiness to people Several workshops

and discourses held on GNH led to the adoption of the GNH Index a set of indicators to

measure whether Bhutanese society is progressing towards GNH The index comprises

72 indicators grouped under nine domains that go beyond material values and incorporate

all values relevant to a happy life The GNH index is now the most important tool in

guiding the performance of the government towards achieving the goal of GNH The

purpose of this study was to determine to what extent the indicators under the

psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with

the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH The three questions that drove this study are

To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do the indicators reflect

Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept of GNH which does

reflect Buddhist principles The primary data that were used are the eleven indicators and

survey questionnaires developed by the Centre for Bhutan Studies The findings from the laquo

study reveal that each of the indicators under psychological wellbeing reflects Buddhist

principles The ultimate goal in Buddhism is to achieve genuine happiness Inspired by

this belief Bhutan is the only country in the world that officially pursues the state of

happiness The government believes that happiness is in the end what matters the most

92

The government has taken the utmost responsibility to create an enabling condition for

people to pursue happiness The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index

measures peoples psychological state which influences the overall wellbeing of people

Since the purpose of this study is to determine the extent to which indicators

reflected Buddhist principles it was necessary to highlight the key Buddhist principles

related to happiness Chapter Three examined the key Buddhist principles related to

happiness Specifically Thogme Zangpos teachings on the six paramitas were used as a

basis to develop the framework of happiness It was observed that happiness is not only

worldly pleasure derived from physical comfort but also an innate state of mind which

can be cultivated through the practice of compassion generosity ethics meditative

concentration patience and wisdom This can bring happiness to the individual and to

the society Although GNH stresses collective happiness Buddhism states that peace

must first be developed in the individual mind before it can contribute to others and the

happiness of the society Thus in the words of Master Shantideva it is not primarily the

outer conditions of our life that determine our happiness or suffering it is our own mind

that creates the cause for happiness or success

Humans experience many emotions and narrowing them down to eleven

indicators is not an easy task There is a strong relationship between emotions and

wellbeing The intensity of pleasant and unpleasant emotions influences the degree of

psychological wellbeing Studies have also shown that emotions play an integral role in

affecting the overall physical health Emotions also have powerful effects in shaping and

regulating social interactions and influencing how one appears to others Like the mind-

93

transforming practices in Buddhism the key to a nations progress lies in tracing

problems and solutions to the root causes

The indicators under the psychological wellbeing domain measure peoples

emotional state and the frequency of spiritual practices to eliminate negative emotion

Findings in Chapter Four reveal that each of the indicators of psychological wellbeing

correlates to Buddhist principles on happiness The relationship between the indicators of

psychological wellbeing and Buddhist principles are presented in the table below

Indicators Buddhist Principles

1 Jealousy Dhrag Dhog- Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

2 Selfishness Serna - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

3 Frustration Gopa - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

4 Suicidal Thought Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

5 Generosity Dana Paramita (Bjin ba) Generosity

6 Compassion The root of all Buddhist practices

7 Calmness Kshanti Paramita (Bzod pa) Patience tolerance endurance

8 Meditation Dhyana Parmto Meditative Concentration

9 Prayer Recitation Dhyana ParmitaMeditative Concentration

10 Karma Sila Paramita (Tshul khrim) virtue morality ethics

11 General Mental Health Klesha (Afflictive emotions) causes mental distress

Table 1 Relating the Indicators with Buddhism

The four negative emotion indicatorsmdashselfishness frustration jealousy and

suicidal thoughtmdashare found in Buddhism as afflictive emotions (klesha) arising out of the

three poisons Jealousy (dharg dhog) appears in the Abhidhamma text as an immoral and

94

deluded mental factor that feels displeasure in seeing others succeed Similarly

selfishness (sema) is listed as an immoral consciousness in the Abhidhamma Selfishness

is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity Buddhism teaches no-

self (anatta) as an essential principle and therefore strongly condemns the notion of I

through which selfishness arises Frustration in Buddhism is closely related to the term

gopa which is actually translated as agitation Gopa falls under the twenty secondary

immoral delusions in the Abhidhamma text Suicides and suicidal thought in Buddhism

are the result of wrong view Suicide is an unwholesome action and does not end the

problem Suicidal thought occurs because of afflictive emotions (klesha) All these

negative emotions (klesha) cause mental distress

The positive emotion and spiritual practice indicators such as compassion

calmness generosity meditation prayer recitation and taking account of Karma are the

replication of the six paramitas The positive emotions which Buddhists call virtuous

action such as generosity compassion and calmness tend to increase happiness in oneself

and others while negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration affect

psychological health and decrease happiness Since each of the indicators can be clearly

related to Buddhist principles of happiness it can thus be concluded that the

psychological wellbeing indicators are influenced by Buddhism and are consistent with

the concept of GNH One may argue that indicators such as compassion generosity and

calmness are universal values and ethics and may not necessarily be influenced by

Buddhism However in the case of Bhutan the Bhutanese worldview and its political

ethos are largely influenced by Buddhism The philosophy of GNH is also rooted in

Buddhism It is also evident that the government is seeking to measure and cater to long-

95

term rather than short-term happiness From the Buddhist perspective short-term

happiness is delivered chiefly by material goods while long-term happiness is derived

from spiritual cultural and social values

This study reveals that Buddhism stresses gaining control over our mind and

cultivating the right kind of habit which is said to be the root of all forms of joy and

happiness Buddhism in the original sense encourages exercises to tame and calm the

mind This study therefore partly seems to support the claims made by scholars such as

Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and Tashi (2004) who have argued that

Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH

Overall this study indicates that if the government creates good policies and

conditions for people GNH cannot be achieved if its citizens are not psychologically

strong For example if citizens are mentally stressed or filled with jealousy they will not

contribute to collective happiness In that sense happiness is inextricably linked to the

inner conditions of ones own mind

Measuring the psychological state of people will help the policy makers make

better decisions The emotional and psychological needs of people therefore must be

considered by the policy makers in order to achieve GNH A study by Sheldon Ryan

Deci and Kasser (2004) found that people pursuing intrinsic goals (emotional intimacy

community contribution and personal growth) had higher happiness expectancies than

those pursuing extrinsic goals (financial success attractive image and famepopularity)

By emphasizing human values of compassion generosity calmness and selflessness as

necessary indicators of GNH the government of Bhutan is providing the basis for

developing policies that focus on these values The domain of psychological wellbeing

96

thus focuses on the inner emotional development Within the concept of GNH inner non-

material development is equally important as external material development

Recommendations for Future Studies

The biggest challenge for the government is to combat the negative emotions of

the people The findings of this study reveal that Buddhist teachings are all geared

towards taming the mind and cultivating values that promote happiness Further

Buddhism does not emphasize individualism but emphasizes equality and cooperation

aimed at collective happiness It emphasizes individual effort geared towards universal

happiness Buddhist teachings and method to calm the mind can contribute to GNH

Ekman Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) suggest that Buddhist practices offer a

therapy not just for the disturbed but for all who seek to improve the quality of their

lives Although the majority of the population in Bhutan is Buddhist 25 are non-

Buddhist (CIA fact book 2009) Some scholars have argued however that Buddhism

can also be taught as education on human values (Mancall 2004 amp Lokamitra 2004)

Therefore extensive research on how this might be done could provide valuable lessons

insights and guidelines for the purpose of promoting GNH values

As pointed out earlier there is not much information available on how the

sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From the information available on the

CBS website however it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut off is set at a level

that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises questions because

there is not any literature or studies conducted on how the sufficiency cut off has actually

been set Arbitrarily setting a cut off without any basis or setting it based on some

assumptions can lead to questionable results Therefore an in-depth study on the basis

97

for setting the sufficiency cut off seems necessary to avoid misinterpretation by policy

makers

This study analyzed the indicators to determine the extent to which they reflected

Buddhist principles However it was observed that indicators of psychological wellbeing

were measured by questionnaires that only examined the frequency of occurrence of

emotions and the spiritual practices It is important that the government not only

recognize peoples suffering but identify its causes as well For example the questionnaire

notes the frequency of negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration but

does not identify their causes In order for the policy makers to identify effective

solutions the cause must be noted also Further the key terms such as generosity

compassion frustration and prayer recitation were not clearly defined For example the

term generosity could imply the practice rather than the emotional state of generosity

One can practice generosity yet not feel emotionally generous a practice can differ from

an emotional state Similarly the choices of answers such as often sometimes daily have

not been defined These terms can mean different things to different people To avoid

misinterpretation it is necessary that the key terms be clearly defined and nuanced

This study focused only on one of the domains of GNH index Although a similar

study needs to be carried out for the other eight domains there is a need for further

investigation into many of the issues related to the GNH index such as How would the

GNH index affect the government policies Does the index give equal importance to the

emotional spiritual and economical wellbeing of the people Does the index capture the

real essence of human happiness

98

References

A Manual of Abhidhamma (1987) Edited by Narada Maha Thera Malaysia Buddhist Missionary Society Retrieved from httpwwwbuddhanetnetpdf fileabhidhammapdf

Anguttara (nd) Dana Generosity Retrieved from (Anguttara IV 57) httpwwwbuddhamindinfoleftsidelifestv-2danahtm

Annas J (1999) Aristotles Ethics Critical Essay (p 35- 56)Edited by Nancy Sherman United States of America Rowman amp Littlefield Publishers Inc

Bancroft A (ed) (1997) The Dhammapada USA Element Inc

BBC (2006) Buddhist worships Retrieved from httpwwwbbccoukreligionreligionsbuddhisrncustomsworship 1 shtml

Berenbaum H Raghavan C Le H Vernon L amp Gomez J (1999) Disturbances in emotion In Daniel Kahneman Ed Diener and Norbert Schwarz (Eds) Wellbeing The foundation ofhedonic psychology (pp 267-287) New York Russell Sage Foundation

Berzin A (2004) Dealing with Jealousy Retrieved from httpwwwberzinarchivescomwebenarchivessutraylevel3 loiong materialgen eraldealing iealousvhtmln9203d70b0a90c002

Bhutan Observer (2010) A GNH School httpwwwbhutanobserverbt201 Qbhutan-news01a-gnh-schoolhtml

Boonyakiat S (2009) A Christian Theology of Suffering in the Context of Theravada Buddhism in Thailand

Brooks AC (2008) Gross National Happiness Why Happiness Matters for America and How We Can Get More of It USA

Buddha Dharma Education Association (NA) Fundamentals of Buddhism Karma Retrieved from httpwwwbuddhanetnetfundbud9htm

Buddhist Faith Fellowship of Connecticut (nd) Buddhist Prayers Retrieved from httpbuddhistfaithtripodcompureland sanghaid 14html

Business Bhutan (April 172010) A meditating school Retrieved from httpwwwbusinessbhutanbtp= 1366

99

Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) (2008) Explanation of GNH Index Centre for Bhutan Studies Retrieved on June 12 2009 from httpwwwgrossnationalhappinesseomgnhIndexintruductionGNHaspx

Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) (2008) Dimension Psychological Wellbeing Retrieved from httpwwwgrossnationalhappinesseomgnhIndexgnhlndexVariablesaspx

Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) (2008) Psychological Wellbeing Report Retrieved from httpwwwgrossnationalhappinesscomsurvevReportspsvchologicaIpwellbeingr eportdavidpdf

Central Intelligent Agency (CIA) (2009) Bhutan Retrieved from httpswwwciagovlibrarvpublicationsthe-world-factbookgeosbthtml

Chophel S (2008) Cultural diversity and resilience Journal of Bhutan Studies Centre for Bhutan Studies Thimphu Bhutan

Chopra S (2010) An exclusive interview with His Holiness the Dalai Lama Retrieved from httpwwwlifepositivecomspiritworld-religionsbuddhismdalai-interviewasp

Colman R (2008a) Application of the Genuine Progress Index to Nova Scotia Measuring Genuine Progress Indicators Accounts and Policy Retrieved from httpwwwgpiatlanticorgpdfintegratedpolicvapppdf

ColmanR(2008b) Measuring Progress towards Gross National Happiness Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference Held in Bhutan Retrieved on 30th

September 2009 from httpwwwbhutanstudiesorgbtadminpubFilesGNH41 GNH4pdf

ColmanR amp SagebienJ (2004) Measuring Genuine Progress- Indicators for Enlightened Society Proceedings of the First International Seminar on Operationalization of Gross National Happiness (p252- 259) Centre for Bhutan Studies

ConnorS(2003) Can Buddhists transcend mental reservations Retrieved on 14th April 2010 from httpwwwbiopsvchiatrvcomhappinessbuddhisthtml

Creswell J W (2007) Qualitative inquiry and research design Choosing among five approaches (2nd ed) Thousand Oaks CA SAGE

Dalai Lama (1981) Four noble truths A teaching given in Dharamsala Retrieved from httpwww Iamaveshecomindex phpsect=articleampid=380

100

33 The Buddhist Happiness Framework 50

331 Generosity 55

332 Ethics 55

333 Patience and Tolerance 57

334 Perseverance 58

335 Meditative Concentration 59

336 Wisdom 60

34 Summary 61

CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING INDICATORS 63

41 Psychological Wellbeing Measures 64

42 Emotional Balance 66

43 Spiritual Practices 80

43 General Mental Health (GMH) 87

44 Summary 89

CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMMENDATIONS 92

References 99

Appendix 1 110

Appendix 2 Ill Curriculum Vitae

v

List of Tables

Table 1 Relating the Indicators with Buddhism

VI

List of Figures

Figure 1 Map of Bhutan (Source CIA Fact Book) 4

Figure 2 Suffering and its causes 53

Figure 3 Overcoming Suffering 54

vii

List of Abbreviations

CBS Centre for Bhutan Studies

CIA Central Intelligence Agency

DPT Druk Phuensum Tshogpa

FYP Five Year Plan

GDP - Gross Domestic Product

GHQ General Health Questionnaire

GNH Gross National Happiness

GNHC Gross National Happiness Commission

GPI Genuine Progress Index

HDI Human Development Index

MoA Ministry of Agriculture

MoHE Ministry of Health and Education

NEC National Environment Commission

NSB National Statistic Bureau

RGoB Royal Government of Bhutan

TCoB Tourism Council of Bhutan

UNDP United Nation Development Programme

viii

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

Measuring the wellbeing of people is important in determining whether peoples

lives are improving or worsening over time Many countries in the world today focus on

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as a basis to measure the economic wellbeing of the

people Although GDP mainly measures market production it has been treated as if it

measures economic wellbeing The focus on economic growth measures fails to capture

fully the overall wellbeing of the people (Kusago 2006 Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009)

Due to the failure of GDP to measure the non-economic aspect of human wellbeing

alternative measurements such as Genuine Progress Index (GPI) and Human

Development Index (HDI) have been introduced GPI and HDI include many important

factors that contribute to healthy living but they are still calculated based on monetary

values (Hargen 2002 Kusago 2006) and do not capture the Bhutanese concept of Gross

National Happiness

Gross National Happiness (GNH) is the central development philosophy of

Bhutan (Planning Commission 1999) This unique philosophy aims at maximizing

human wellbeing and minimizing human suffering by balancing economic needs with the

spiritual and emotional needs of people Bhutans fourth king Jigme Singye Wangchuck

coined the term Gross National Happiness in the late 1980s when he stated that Gross

National Happiness is more important than Gross Domestic Product (as cited by Ura

2008 para 1) His vision was to create a GNH society which means the creation of an

enlightened society in which happiness and wellbeing of all people and sentient beings is

the ultimate purpose of governance (as cited by Ura 2008 para2) Since it was difficult

1

for the government to list every factor that contributes to the happiness of its people four

major areas were identified as the pillars of GNH cultural promotion equitable

economic development good governance and environmental conservation (Planning

Commission 1999) These four pillars constitute the broad strategic framework through

which national development processes are actualized for the maximization of GNH

Since the adoption of the concept of GNH the government has consistently

sought to address development beyond income or economic growth The country lacked

however a specific and relevant development index that takes into account the core

principles and dimensions of GNH In November 2008 coinciding with the coronation

of the fifth King of Bhutan Jigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchuck the Government of

Bhutan adopted the GNH index The purpose of the GNH index is to reflect GNH

values set benchmarks and track policies and performances of the country (Ura 2008

pl) Seventy-two measurable indicators grouped under nine domains have been

identified as the GNH index The Government of Bhutan states that the country is now

ready with a set of mathematical formulae to measure human wellbeing and government

performances towards achieving GNH (as cited by Dorji 2009) The purpose of this

study is to analyze the GNH index to determine the extent to which it reflects Buddhist

principles and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH

This chapter is divided into eight sections The first section presents a brief

background of Bhutan its people economy and culture The second section presents

Bhutans political journey from monarchy to democracy The concept of Gross National

Happiness is discussed in the third section The fourth section explains the nine domains

of the GNH index and how the GNH index is administered in the country The fifth

2

section presents the research questions and objective of the study The sixth section

presents the methodology of the study The seventh section lays down the significance

and limitation of the study The summary of this chapter and the outline of the study are

presented in the eighth section

11 The Bhutanese Economy and Culture

Bhutan is a tiny landlocked kingdom with a population of 691141 (Central

Intelligent Agency [CIA] Factbook 2009) and having a total area of 38394 square

kilometres (National Statistical Bureau 2007) The country is sandwiched between two

leading economies India and China (Figure 1) Until the 1960s Bhutan was the most

isolated nation in the world Today about 69 of the population in Bhutan are

smallholder agrarian farmers and they practice mainly mixed (crop and livestock)

farming systems (Gross National Happiness Commission 2010) Of the population

945 represent people from the age group of 0-64 years while only 55 of the

population are 65 years and above (CIA Factbook 2009) Bhutans GDP per capita was

estimated at $2218 in 2009 (International Monetary Fund 2010) The country is almost

entirely mountainous with altitudes ranging from 240 meters to 7541 meters above sea

level About 725 of the country consists of forest land (National Statistical Bureau

2007) and the policy of the government is to maintain at least 60 forest cover (Ministry

of Agriculture 2002) Bhutan has been declared one of the ten global biodiversity

Hotspots (National Environment Commission 1999)

The Bhutanese culture and development policies are greatly influenced by

Buddhism The philosophy of GNH has its roots in Buddhism Under this unique

3

philosophy Bhutan has been able to balance modernization with its ancient culture and

traditions From the very beginning of the enthronement in 1972 the fourth king Jigme

Singye Wangchuck was very clear that Gross National Happiness is more important than

Gross Domestic Product According to him happiness is the ultimate common goal of

every human being and everything else is a means for fulfilling this wish He believed

that happiness is an indicator of good development and good society (Thinley 2005)

This led the country to adopt GNH as its development priority

25 SO Km

50 25

G r e a

S Gasa Ozong

Toogsa THIMPHU Paro

Tashigang

Samdrup Jongkhar Phuntsholing

r~

BANGLADESH

Figure 1 Map of Bhutan (Source CIA Fact Book)

4

12 Political History and Transition to Democracy

Bhutanese polity is said to have begun in 1616 with the arrival of Zhabdrung

Ngawang Namgyal from Tibet Through the spread of Buddhism Zhabdrung was able to

unify the country Buddhism provided the ideological basis for unifying Bhutan

(Mancall 2004) Zhabdrung was both a religious and political figure in Bhutan He was

the head of theocratic state that he himself created (Ministry of Health amp Education

[MoHE] 1994) He started the dual system of governance known as the Choesi system

where political affairs were looked after by the Desi1 and religious affairs by the head

abbot called the Jekhenpo Zhabdrung died in the year 1651 The official announcement

of his death was however made only in the year 1705 There were several reasons for

this chief of which there was no clear successor to Zhabdrung During the period 1651 -

1706 the country was ruled in the name of Zhabdrung who was said to be in religious

retreat by various Desi appointed under the Choesi system established by the Zhabdrung

himself (MoHE 1994) The period between 1705 to 1907 was marked by internal

stability and external invasion Ultimately in the year 1907 Ugyen Wangchuck was

unanimously elected as the first hereditary king of Bhutan (MoHE 1994) Since then

visionary descendants of the Wangchuck dynasty have ruled the country

Bhutans political system however evolved from a monarchy into a constitutional

democracy Democracy did not come to Bhutan overnight the process of democratization

was going on long before but slowly and cautiously King Jigme Singye Wangchuck

continued the policy of controlled development with particular focus on the preservation

A title given to the person who looks after the political matters in the country

5

of the environment and Bhutans unique culture Yet during his reign there was a steady

decentralization of decision-making processes which aimed to enhance peoples

participation in the formulation of development policies and activities and to strengthen

the traditional local institutions This process started largely in 1981 with the

establishment of the District Development Committees (Dzongkhag Yargye

Tshogchungs) and in 1991 with the establishment of the Block Development Committees

(Geog Yargye Tshogchungs) The people democratically elect all members of these

committees The most momentous change came in 1998 when the executive powers

previously held by the King was granted to the Council of Ministers (GNHC 2008)

On 17 December 2005 King Jigme Singye Wangchuck announced to a stunned

nation that the first general elections would be held in 2008 and that he would abdicate

the throne in favor of his eldest son the crown prince Jigme Khesar Namgyal

Wangchuck Unlike other countries where people fight for democracy the opposite

occurred in Bhutan people were given power without having to fight for it The fifth king

was formally crowned on November 6 2008 becoming the worlds youngest reigning

monarch and head of the newest democracy The fifth King like his father proclaimed

that fulfilling the vision of GNH would be one of the main responsibilities of his reign

He said As the king of a Buddhist nation my duty is not only to ensure your happiness

today but to create the fertile ground from which you may gain the fruits of spiritual

pursuit and attain good Karma (Wangchuck 2008 para8) The newly elected

government Druk Phuensum Tshogpa (DPT) is also committed to the principles of GNH

6

13 Gross National Happiness the Development Philosophy of Bhutan

The notion that the emotional and spiritual wellbeing of humans should be

included into the development policies is gaining a lot of international support The

importance of the concept of GNH is articulated in the policy document Bhutan 2020-A

Vision for Peace Prosperity and Happiness (Planning Commission 1999) which states

that its aim is to maximize the happiness of all Bhutanese and to enable them to achieve

their full and innate potential as human beings (p41) Reflecting the importance of the

concept the promotion of enabling conditions for GNH has also been enshrined as an

important principle of state policy under Article 9 of the Constitution (Royal Government

of Bhutan [RGoB] 2008)

GNH is a noble and holistic approach towards development It seeks to

complement inner happiness with outer circumstances It addresses both material and

non-material wellbeing Although material wealth is associated with physical wellbeing

ones mental state or inner wellbeing is not conditioned by material needs alone GNH

supports the notion that happiness pursued and realized within the context of the greater

good of society offers the best possibility for the sustained happiness of the individual

The society as a whole cannot obtain happiness if individuals compete irresponsibly for

it To this end GNH recognizes that happiness can be realized as a collective goal it

cannot be left as an individual goal (Thinley 2005 Ura 2008) Prime Minister Jigme

YThinley (2005) in his speech at the 2nd Conference of GNH at Halifax stated GNH

stresses collective happiness to be addressed directly through public policies in which

happiness is an explicit criterion in projects and programmes (p7) If a governments

policy framework and its goals are adverse to happiness happiness will fail as a

7

collective goal (Ura 2008) In the GNH context a government concerned with the

happiness of its citizens must create an enabling environment for people to achieve

happiness

The concept of GNH is greatly influenced by Buddhism The Bhutanese

worldview including its social cultural and political ethos is rooted in Buddhism The

policymakers in Bhutan hold the view that simply imposing development models from

outside which do not take religion and tradition into account will not only serve to

diminish existing culture but will also meet with limited success (Planning

Commission 1992 p66) The Bhutan-Vision 2020 strongly reaffirms the notion of Gross

National Happiness as the central development concept for the country This vision

emphasizes a need and desire to balance economic development with cultural and

environmental conservation

14 Explanation of Gross National Happiness Index

Bhutan is not a GNH state at this moment it aspires to be one The Bhutanese

government is of the view that wellbeing arises in a society when sustainable and

equitable economic development is balanced with environmental and cultural

preservation and good governance (Rinzin 2006 Thinley 2005) These four pillars have

constantly guided the development policies in Bhutan This strategy has been referred to

as the middle path which is derived from Buddhist principles of avoiding extremism

and taking a balanced view (Planning Commission 1999) In November 2008 the

government adopted the GNH index as a means to measure GNH The government felt

the need for a GNH index for without some kind of measurement system GNH cannot

8

guide practical policies and programs (CBS 2008) Under the GNH index 72 indicators

were identified under the following nine domains psychological wellbeing cultural

resilience education health time use and balance good governance community vitality

ecological diversity and living standard The nine domains of Gross National Happiness

are explained below

1 Psychological wellbeing as an end includes satisfaction with all elements of life

life enjoyment and subjective wellbeing Under this domain there are 11 measurable

indicators (eg frequency of feeling of emotions such as jealousy compassion and

generosity) classified in three areas General psychological distress indicators Emotional

balance indicators and Spirituality practices indicators This study focuses on the

indicators under this domain

2 Time Use domain measures how individuals spend their time There are only two

indicators under this domain the sleeping hours and working hours The time spent

delivering voluntary and social service is also taken into account

3 Community Vitality refers to the quality of life in the community This domain

intends to measure how strong active and inclusive relationships are within communities

that work to foster individual and collective wellbeing It examines the nature of trust

belongingness vitality of caring relationships safety in the home and the community

and giving and volunteering The community vitality indicators are Family vitality

Safety Reciprocity Trust Social support Socialization and Kinship density

4 Cultural Diversity and Resilience This domain measures the diversity and

strength of cultural traditions The indicators study core values and perception of

changes in values and traditions Bhutanese tradition is a very broad term that

9

encompasses customs rituals religious ceremonies traditional dress sports music

dance poetry arts and code of behavior among other things The indicators of cultural

diversity and resilience are Dialect use Traditional sports Community festivity Artisan

skill Value transmission and Basic precept

5 Health Good health is said to have a significant positive effect on happiness The

GNH health domain assesses the health status of the population the determinants of

health and the health system Health status indicators show information on self-rated

health disabilities body mass index and number of healthy days experienced per month

Health indicators also measure the degree of knowledge about diseases and breast feeding

practices The health indicators are Health status Health knowledge and Barrier to

health

6 Education In a GNH society education should contribute to individual and

collective happiness The education domain assesses different types of knowledge and

skills that people have acquired in their lifetime It includes historical cultural civic

ecological and indigenous knowledge and skills which are mostly acquired informally

The education indicators are Education attainment Dzongkha (national) language and

Folk and historical literacy

7 Ecological Diversity and Resilience This indicator looks at peoples perception

of ecology The ecological diversity and resilience indicators are Ecological degradation

Ecological knowledge and Afforestation

8 Living standard The living standard indicators assess the levels of income at the

individual and household levels sense of financial security room ratio food security and

10

house ownership Thus the living standard indicators are Income Housing Food

security and Hardship

9 Good Governance The domain of good governance evaluates how people

perceive various government functions in terms of their efficacy honesty and quality

The indicators include human rights leadership at various levels of government

performance of government in delivering services and controlling inequality and

corruption peoples trust in media judiciary and police The indicators of good

governance are Government performance Freedom and Institutional trust indicator

A pilot survey was also carried out between September 2006 to January 2007 in

nine districts on 350 randomly chosen respondents to test the feasibility and robustness of

GNH pilot questionnaires The GNH index however was developed based on the result

of a final survey carried out in December 2007 to March 2008 (CBS 2008) A total of

950 respondents based on random sampling were interviewed in 12 districts by the CBS

in the final survey The questionnaires covered the key areas affecting the values and

principles of GNH roughly divided into the nine domains mentioned above CBS (2008)

states that the nine domains were selected on normative grounds and are equally

weighted because each dimension is considered relatively equal in terms of equal

intrinsic importance as a component of Gross National Happiness (pl) Within each

domain several indicators that seemed likely to remain informative across time had high

response rates and were relatively uncorrelated (CBS 2008 p 1) were selected For

example in the psychological wellbeing domain the respondents were asked how often

they felt emotions such as anger guilt selfishness pride calmness compassion

forgiveness disappointment jealousy and frustration Respondents were also given the

11

option to list other emotions that they often experienced From the survey results only

eleven indicators were selected under the psychological wellbeing domain In total 72

indicators under the nine domains were selected as the GNH index (See Appendix 1)

The GNH index is to be administered every two years in the country A survey is

currently being carried out by the CBS in all the twenty districts of Bhutan Tshoki

Zangmo a researcher at CBS states that the GNH survey will determine whether the

conditions leading to happiness have improved or not (Doiji 2010) Several structured

semi-structured and open-ended questions under each of the 72 indicators are asked of

the respondents to assess life satisfaction in each of the nine domains Any individual

having sufficient achievements in each of the nine domains is considered happy (CBS

2008) Unlike the GPI and HDI which uses GDP data the GNH index is measured based

on self-report assessment For example the GPI heavily relies on quantitative or

objective data produced by Statistics Canada as opposed to qualitative or subjective

survey data The GPI uses personal consumption expenditures as a starting point Those

elements which are regarded as regrettable are deducted mdash for example cost of crime

accidents and pollutions Values of leisure time unpaid housework parenting and

volunteer work are added back (Colman 2008a) All aggregation is done in terms of

monetary values The GNH index however is entirely depended on the self-report

survey data According to Diener and Lucas (1999) the self-report measurement of

subjective well being displays adequate levels of validity and reliability The GNH index

is calculated in two steps The first step involves setting a sufficiency cut off and

determining whether respondents have attained sufficiency in each of the nine domains

12

The final step involves aggregating the data using the formula GNH = 1 - Average

squared distance from cutoff

15 Research Questions and Objective of the Study

Measuring what really matters to people and framing policies in accordance with

the needs of people would help realize the goal of GNH The GNH index is an attempt by

the government to measure how well their citizens are doing economically socially and

emotionally The Centre for Bhutan Studies (2008) states that the nine domains identified

are regarded as the components of happiness and well-being in Bhutan However the

resulting question is To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do

the indicators reflect Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept

of GNH The objectives of my study are to analyze the indicators to determine to what

extent they reflect Buddhist principles and to determine the coherence of the indicators

with the concept of GNH

Although conducting an in-depth analysis of each of the 72 indicators would be

most beneficial due to the vastness of the indicators this study will focus only on the

indicators that fall under the domain of psychological wellbeing (see Appendix 1) I

choose this domain because many of the GNH indicators (for example education health

living standard time use ecology) are similar to those found in the conventional

economic measures like GDP Genuine Progress Indicators (GPI) Human Development

Index (HDI) and Quality of Life The psychological wellbeing indicator has not yet been

included in any of the national measures (CBS 2008) Since the measure of

13

psychological wellbeing is something new and unexplored as a development indicator it

would be a good place to begin assessing the indicators

16 Methodology

The main objective of this study is to determine the influence of Buddhist

principles and more specifically Buddhist principles of happiness on the indicators of

psychological wellbeing and the coherence of indicators with the concept of GNH This

policy analysis study uses the framework of Buddhist principles of happiness to analyze

the indicators Policy analysis research is associated with determining the nature causes

and effects of governmental decisions or policies designed to cope with specific social

problems Nagel (1980) points out four methods on which policy analysis focuses

determining what causes the policy determining what policies they are responsible for

determining what affects them and determining what policies will achieve or maximize a

given goal This study focuses on determining the influence of Buddhist principles on the

governments policy of measuring GNH and the consistency of the indicators with the

concept of GNH

Buddhism has long played an important role in the political economic and social

lives of Bhutanese It is in this context that Buddhism is used as a basis to assess the most

important development tool of Bhutan Gross National Happiness Index The intent is not

to prove that Buddhism is the best way to achieve GNH but to determine whether GNH

indicators reflect Buddhist principles of happiness This is done for three reasons First

the philosophy of GNH is understood to be engrained in Buddhism This study will

determine in part the extent to which this is the case (see chapter two) Second Bhutan is

14

a Buddhist country where the majority of the population is Buddhist (CIA 2009) As

such this study will determine the extent to which Buddhist principles have influenced

the indicators Third scholars such as Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and

Tashi (2004) have argued that Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH This study

attempts to analyze the psychological wellbeing indicators to determine the Buddhist

influence which then might support the notion put forth by them

Literature related to Gross National Happiness and the influence of Buddhism on

GNH are reviewed The origin of the concept of GNH and various discourses held on

GNH are explored Government documents and reports and secondary data sources such

as newspaper and research on GNH serve as important sources The primary data that are

used for the analysis are the eleven indicators of psychological wellbeing developed by

the CBS Each indicator is examined to see the degree to which it reflects Buddhist

principles of happiness

The indicators consist of positive emotions negative emotions and practices to

overcome negative emotions In a research design it is important to establish a

conceptual framework that acknowledges how the theoretical perspective will shape an

inquiry (Creswell 2007) To this end I will examine the Buddhist literature to find key

principles related to happiness Those principles and ideas that affect happiness will be

discussed In particular the key principles such as the four noble truths law of Karma

principle of interdependence and compassion will be discussed Further a theoretical

basis for happiness will be developed based on the Buddhist teachings of six paramitas

An understanding of these principles will assist the reader in gaining a sense of the scope

15

and direction of this study Overall the Buddhist principles of happiness framework will

serve as a basis for assessing the indicators

Since Bhutan is a Mahayana Buddhist country the key principles of Mahayana

Buddhist teachings will be examined The very popular Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse

Laglen will serve as a primary source This important Buddhist text on the thirty-seven

bodhisattva practices was written by the great Buddhist saint Thogme Zangpo (1245-

1369) The text is a summarization of the original teachings of Lord Buddha from

hundreds of volumes and contains all the key points of the vast and profound teachings

The text is used in all the schools of Bhutan In particular the six paramitas will be used

for the purpose of this study The thirty-seven practices were written to help every

sentient being achieve genuine happiness Therefore this study will examine the

teachings related to the six paramitas to determine the extent to which they are reflected

in the psychological wellbeing indicators Teachings by various Buddhist teachers such

as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will also be used

The Buddhist text Abhidhamma which is known as the higher teachings of the

Buddha and also called the ultimate teachings is also referenced for the analysis of the

indicators The text elucidates the working of mind or psyche thoughts thought-

processes and mental states The mind has been broken down into six primary and fifty-

one secondary consciousnesses representing the working of the psyche from an ethical

standpoint Abhidamma highlights wholesome and unwholesome emotions as well as

how they arise Since this study is on the analysis of the psychological wellbeing

indicators the text is appropriate However only those emotions which correspond to the

indicators are referred to for this study

16

17 Limitations and Significance of the study

There are three limitations recognized in this study First the theme of this study

focuses on the extent to which Buddhist principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH

indicators Happiness is a concept that can be viewed from a number of perspectives

Since the concept of GNH is inspired by Buddhism it is most appropriate that the

indicators be examined to determine the extent to which they reflect Buddhist principles

and then most specifically Mahayana Buddhist principles Further there are numerous

Buddhist teachings on happiness The teachings that are primarily used are those of

Master Thogme Zangpo the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche

Second the GNH index is still very new A survey was carried out to study the

indicators in twelve districts but the index has not yet been applied to the whole country

As such the GNH index is still in its infant stage and not many resources related to the

GNH index are available

The third limitation of this study is that only the indicators under the

psychological wellbeing domain are analyzed Findings from the preliminary survey of

the GNH index are not discussed

Exploring the psychological wellbeing domain is significant for various reasons

First there has been no study conducted on the indicators so far This is the first study

that analyzes the indicators and explores the relationship of the indicators to Buddhism

This study opens up a new perspective for future researchers Scholars interested in

studying the GNH index may use this study as a basis to analyze the other domains of

GNH Only one domain is explored in this study The remaining eight domains could be

an area of future research

17

Second the GNH index is the most important tool for guiding and analyzing the

government policy since the government will be designing policies based on the GNH

index The GNH index and its implementation will have a significant impact on the

design implementation and assessment of policy and the perceptions Bhutanese have of

the direction their society is taking Since what is measured affects what is done it is

important that the right indicators be used if measurements are flawed decisions can be

distorted (Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009) Therefore it is important to determine

whether the indicators cohere with the GNH concept

18 Summary

This chapter provides an overview of the study The chapter began by looking at

Bhutans culture economy and political history including its transition to democracy

The concept of Gross National Happiness and its indicators the objective the

methodology limitation and significance of study were also presented in this chapter

Chapter Two will provide the review of literature on the GNH It explores how

the concept of GNH first originated It then argues that the concept of GNH has been

influenced by key Buddhist principles based on the eightfold path which are linked to

each pillar of GNH Various workshops held on GNH that ultimately led to the

development of the GNH index are also discussed

Chapter Three will provide the framework to analyze the psychological

wellbeing indicators The key Buddhist principles related to happiness are examined

Specifically the four noble truths law of Karma principle of interdependence and

compassion are presented The Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse Lagin the 37 practices

18

of Bodhisattva are used to highlight Buddhist principles of happiness Specifically the

teachings on six paramitas are referenced to elucidate those principles

Chapter Four presents the core of the study The indicators of psychological

wellbeing are analyzed through the framework described in Chapter Three Each

indicator is examined from the perspective of Buddhist principles It highlights the extent

to which each indicator reflects the Buddhist principles of happiness and the consistency

of the indicators with the concept of GNH

Chapter Five concludes the study and offers some recommendations for future

studies

19

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW

There seems to be a unanimous agreement that Gross National Happiness (GNH)

is drawn from Buddhism but recognition of the influence of Buddhism on GNH is rather

implicit This may be due to the fact that Bhutan did not have the full academic

construction of GNH until recently When the concept of GNH was first pronounced in

the late 1980s it was just an abstract philosophy The concept has now gained more

depth and dimension through analysis and discourse While scholars such as Tashi (1999

2004) Priesner (1999) and Zangmo (2009) have linked Buddhism to GNH others have

argued for the importance of Buddhism in achieving the goal of GNH This chapter

reviews the influence of Buddhism on the concept of GNH Specifically the relationship

between the core concept of GNH and its four pillars to Buddhist principles is explored

Since this study uses Buddhism as the key lens in analyzing the extent to which Buddhist

principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH indicators the focus here is to

understand the centrality of Buddhism in the philosophy of GNH

The review is divided into four main sections The first section examines how the

core concept of GNH and the key teachings of Buddhism are related Literature points

out that key Buddhist principles such as interdependence Karma and the noble eightfold

path are linked to general themes that promote GNH The second section looks at how

the concept of GNH evolved Early Bhutanese history dating back to the 17th century

when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of living is explored This section

examines how Bhutan broke its isolationist policies and introduced planned development

giving priority to the preservation of its culture and environment thus giving birth to the

noble philosophy of GNH The third section discusses the various discourses held on 20

GNH that ultimately led to the development of the GNH index The final section of the

review discusses the idea of quantifying and measuring GNH The chapter concludes by

questioning whether the GNH index which is used as a basis to measure peoples

wellbeing in Bhutan captures the real essence of GNH

21 Buddhism and Gross National Happiness

Gross National Happiness is not a promise to make every individual happy This

is a common misconception The concept of GNH simply stresses the responsibility of

the government to create an environment for citizens to seek happiness Since all humans

value happiness the government of Bhutan takes the view that it cannot be left

exclusively to private individual devices and strivings (CBS 2008 pl) In the GNH

context the government should create by means of public policies addressing both

economic and emotional needs of the people an environment conducive for people to

pursue happiness Australian psychologist Suellen Donnelly (2004) defines happiness as

the sum of satisfaction with life domains and this satisfaction she states is judged against

the individuals and the societys values Happiness indeed depends on our social values

In Bhutan peoples social and cultural values are largely influenced by Buddhism GNH

thus places emphasis on happiness and wellbeing of people through promotion of social

and cultural values

Priesner (1999) Tashi (2004) and Zangmo (2009) argue that Buddhism and GNH

are intricately linked Zangmo (2009) points out that the concept of GNH is deeply rooted

in the rich traditions of Mahayana Buddhism Doiji and Pankaj (2004) state that GNH is

essentially a summarization of the basic tenets of Vajrayana Buddhism which embraces

21

harmony and compassion (p377) Vajrayana Buddhism is an offshoot of Mahayana

Buddhism The term Mahayana and Vajrayana is used interchangeably in Bhutan

Mahayana Buddhism emphasizes individual spiritual development rather than material

rewards compassion for others tolerance living in harmony with nature and the

importance of making the right choice Based on these values GNH seeks to achieve and

pave a middle path between material and spiritual aspects of life which are referred to as

peljor gongphel (economic development) and gakid (happiness and peace) (Zangmo

2009) Schumacher (1989) asserts that in a Buddhist society the lifestyle is strongly

influenced by Buddhist principles based on the Noble Eightfold Path The influence of

Buddhism is highly visible in every aspect of Bhutanese life Article 3(1) of the

Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan states Buddhism is the spiritual heritage of

Bhutan which promotes the principles and values of peace non-violence compassion

and tolerance (p 9) Buddhism here is seen as a spiritual practice

According to Buddhism the main purpose of life the heart of being human is

happiness what we all seek knowingly or unknowingly is happiness (Rabjam Rimpoche

as cited by Tourism Council of Bhutan [TCoB] 2008) The chief goal of Buddhism is to

remove sufferings and achieve genuine happiness Tashi (2004) points out that the

cultivation of happiness is central to Buddhism Buddhism states that wealth pleasure

and power are all sought for achieving happiness but these are all material and only the

means to achieve short-term happiness As humans strive for happiness the end goal is

often forgotten and people spend time pursuing the means for their own sake In the

process humans remain deeply unsatisfied because they place all their hopes and fears in

the material outer conditions and neglect inner condition for happiness Happiness in

22

Buddhism depends on our actions and how we view and interpret the world Rabjam

Rimpoche states that although it is difficult to change the world it is always possible to

change the way we look at it (as cited by TCoB 2008) Buddhist teachings stress the

importance of training the mind and developing a set of human qualities such as

altruistic love compassion inner peace and inner strength

Similarly the concept of GNH emphasizes that happiness is the end goal and

economic development is just a means to achieve happiness GNH claims happiness to be

a major focus in assessing the welfare of the people Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley

states that GNH is all about living with basic human values in a sustainable way (Bhutan

Observer 2010) This view is influenced by Buddhist principles Buddhism advocates

living in harmony with nature and respecting all forms of life Although GNH places

equal importance on both material and non-material wellbeing of the people the idea of

GNH essentially is to encourage a rethinking of what is important in peoples lives is it

the ability to produce and consume or is it the happiness of its people derived from its

social and cultural values When Bhutan opened up to the outside world in 1961 it was

overwhelmed to see that the world had achieved tremendous development in every field

(Doiji 2007a) In their pursuit of development however many countries had lost their

forests cultures and much more In the neighboring region of Nepal for example the

governments policy of promoting economic development through mass tourism led to

environmental and cultural degradation Pandey Chettri Kunwar amp Ghimire (1995)

argue that mass tourism in Nepal led to erosion of local customs increase in drug abuse

theft of antiques and cultural property and prostitution Kinley Doiji (2007a) states that

GNH is therefore a response to this realization

23

Tashi (2004) and Lokamitra (2004) argue that GNH cannot be achieved unless

Buddhist philosophy is fully incorporated and practiced by every citizen of Bhutan

Similarly Hewavitharana (2004) proposes a framework for operationalizing GNH from

the perspective of Buddhist ethics and values Lokamitra (2004) asserts that unless a

society is morally and psychologically strong GNH cannot be achieved He states that

this moral and psychological strength can come from Buddhism Tashi Prakke amp Chettri

(1999) argue that the use of Buddhist concepts does not make the discussions culture-

specific They state that Buddhist wisdom differs from actual Buddhist cultures Buddhist

values and ethics can be followed without necessarily being a Buddhist

Tashi Prakke and Chettri (1999) argue that Buddhist spiritual concepts can be

clearly linked to general themes for the promotion of GNH Overall the Buddhist belief

ofinterdependence has inspired the four pillars because environment culture economy

and governance are interwoven in reality (Thinley 2005) Maintaining a balance among

these enhances the quality of life for the individual for society and for the environment

(Rinzin 2006)

1 The First Pillar Environmental Preservation

Although it appears that environment and biodiversity are not strong correlates of

happiness few would deny the value of environment in everyday life and hence our

happiness our health and aesthetic experiences depend on the quality of the physical

environment around us (Thinley 2005) The impact of climate change because of the

uncompromising nature of humans towards the environment is causing a lot of panic in

the world

24

Buddhism emphasizes preserving nature and the sanctity of life (Planning

Commission 1999) Tashi et al (1999) state that Buddhist philosophy provides strong

arguments for the adoption of an environmentally sensitive development strategy The

relationship between human beings and the environment is seen in a fundamentally

different way The Buddhist concept of sunyata holds that no subject or object has an

independent existence rather they dissolve into a web of relationships with all

dimensions of environment The Buddhist principle of interconnectedness- the idea that

nature gives back what we give it- has influenced the Bhutanese with a strong ethic of

conservation which in turn influenced Bhutanese environmental policies (Thinley 2005)

Bhutanese people believe that high mountains deep ravines ancient trees and

rocks are the abode of spirits gods and demons Disturbing them would enrage the non-

human inhabitants and bring ill luck sickness and death to families Appeasing these

spirits will be rewarded with luck peace and prosperity (NEC 1998 Rinzin 2006)

These beliefs about the importance of protecting nature have permeated Bhutanese

consciousness and have become integral to the Bhutanese way of life and value system

The government therefore has adopted strong environmental policies As per the

constitution of Bhutan the country must always maintain 60 forest coverage

2 The Second Pillar- Cultural Preservation and Promotion

The conservation and promotion of tradition and culture has always been an

integral part of Bhutans development policies since the initiation of planned

development in the 1960s (Planning Commission 1999) The Bhutanese started their

policies from a well-defined set of values and culture which are typically Buddhist

Within such Buddhist cultural values there is a strong belief in the implications of the

25

doctrine of Karma (Gurung 1999) The overall Bhutanese culture is based on customary

rules norms indigenous knowledge systems and institutions in addition to a rich

religious heritage based on Buddhism It includes a code of conduct known as driglam

namzha which is designed to carve out a distinct Bhutanese identity In addition to

promoting national dress driglam namzha is built on strict observance of vows (tha-

damtshig) which are quintessential^ Buddhist and emphasize strong kinship loyalty

community-oriented behavior hospitality to guests respect for ones parents elders and

superiors and mutual cooperation between rulers and ruled parents and children and

teachers and students (MoHE 1994 Rinzin2006 Chophel 2008)

In a study conducted by Rinzin (2006) it was observed that the Bhutanese people

consider culture to be very important They fully support the preservation of Bhutanese

culture as a means to maintain national identity sense of security and conservation of a

way of life A unique Bhutanese culture is also a means to generate income through

tourism activities Since the happiness of the people also depends on their social and

cultural values the government of Bhutan is committed to preserving and strengthening

the Bhutanese culture and tradition

3 The Third Pillar - Sustainable and equitable socio-economic development

The concept of GNH does not neglect the importance of economic development

While economic development in many countries takes place at the expense of external

factors such as social coherence cultural diversity and environmental integrity the

concept of GNH limits the exploitation of social cultural ecological and human costs

(Priesner 1999) Economic development is just a means to achieve GNH and is not an

end itself If we look at the world today there are spiritual sufferings in terms of anxiety

26

insecurity stress and pain in every part of the world including Bhutan Economic

development can secure a livelihood and is vitally important to resolve poverty but it is

easier to identify and alleviate misery than to maximize happiness

Given the huge natural resource base that Bhutan enjoys the country could have

opted for mass economic development by making use of these resources However the

government does not overlook the difference between renewable and non-renewable

goods Keeping in view the negative impacts of exploiting natural resources and

exhaustibility of non-renewable goods the government has identified three avenues for

economic development These are hydropower tourism and agriculture (NEC 1998

Planning Commission 1999) All have minimal negative impact on the society and are

sustainable The use of nature in a sustainable way can be related to one of the

requirements for the Buddhas eightfold path called the Right Livelihood (Schumacher

1989) Right Livelihood entails that ones means of livelihood should not be dishonest or

cause suffering to other sentient beings Wrong Livelihood is anything that is based on

trickery or greed (Harvey 2000) This noble path teaches us to avoid extremism and

follow a balanced path Schumacher (1989) argues that Right Livelihood touches on

economic aspects of the Buddhist life and forms the basis of economic principles By

following the path of Right Livelihood the government is being cautious not to engage

in trades or occupations that result in harming its environment culture and society

4 The fourth Pillar - Good Governance

This last pillar stresses the kind of government that Bhutan needs to make it into a

GNH state Good governance means exercising of authority in managing a countrys

political social economic and administrative resources in a manner that is transparent

27

accountable and responsive to peoples needs (Gross National Happiness Commission

[GNHC] 2009 p56) The fourth king His Majesty Jigme Singye Wangchuck asserts

that good governance is an important prerequisite for strengthening the other pillars of

GNH During his reign decentralization and democratization have always been the most

important considerations All changes finally culminated in the evolution of democratic

government in 2008 The King in his wisdom decided that parliamentary democracy

would be the best path to good governance and that happiness comes from having the

freedom to choose Kinley Doiji (2007a) points out that this step by the king is a

Vajrayana Buddhist approach For the Bhutanese this came as an overwhelming surprise

Thus democracy in Bhutan sprang from the womb of GNH Democracy in Bhutan is the

path to good governance that leads to GNH

Chapter Two (clause 22) of the Bhutan Civil Service Rules and Regulations 2006

states that the government needs to maintain and promote the values of Tha-Damtshig

and Ley Jumdrey to serve the people and the country Tha Damtshig is a traditional

Buddhist belief of trust respect and cooperation between the government and its people

Ley Jumdrey is a very popular Buddhist belief referring to the cycle of Karma which

encourages us to follow the eightfold noble path Right View Right Intention Right

Action Right Speech Right Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right

Mindfulness The royal decree issued by the king in 1998 stated that the Bhutanese

judiciary system is based on the Buddhist 10 virtuous actions and 16 pure human laws

(as cited by Nishimizu 2008 p 40) The ten virtuous actions are 1 Avoid killing 2

Avoid Stealing 3 Avoid Sexual misconduct (the first three form the part of Right

Action) 4 Avoid lies 5 Avoid divisive talks 6 Avoid harsh speech 7 Avoid Gossip

28

(these four fall under Right Speech) 8 Avoid covetousness 9 Avoid harmful intent 10

Avoid wrong views (the last three are the part of Right Mindfulness) (Tshongkhapa as

cited by Powers 1995)

Tashi et al (1999) explain that in Buddhism there are three doors body speech

and mind (lii ngag yid) These three gates provide a basic categorization for policy

makers in recognizing that existence embraces more than physical aspects Any

individual or government that strives to enhance happiness must make the right use of the

three doors Right Mindfulness Right Speech and Right Action The three gates are like

the neutral ground which can be used for good neutral or bad action (Tashi et al 1999)

Right intention in the mind must spark right speech and right action because working

with the mind directly is considered too illusive With Right View one needs to

understand the nature of the world and embrace compassion Right View is the path that

refers to wisdom which means seeing emptiness realizing that appearances in the

relative world or the world in which things change lacking permanent existence

Embracing compassion and wisdom results in the accumulation of merit (Sonam) and

wisdom (Yeshe) Every government must embrace compassion and wisdom and work

with Right Mind Right Speech and Right Action The Bhutanese government strives to

nurture and manifest these qualities

22 Evolution of the Concept

The term GNH became popular in the late 1980s but the concept itself is very

old According to Priesner (1999) this concept evolved from the constituent features of

Bhutanese society before 1959 a socio-economic system based on a Buddhist and feudal

29

set of values Buddhism came to Bhutan in the 7th century AD but made little impact on

the lives of the people until the 9th century (Ministry of Health and Education [MoHE]

1994 Dargye 2008) Prior to the 7th century Bhutan was called the land of Monpas the

land of darkness or no religion Records show that people mainly practiced Bonism an

animistic and shamanistic belief system where nature is worshipped (Giri 2004) Bon

rituals are still included in some Buddhist festivals in Bhutan From the 10th century to

the beginning of the 17th century Buddhism started influencing peoples way of life

culture and customs During that period many Tibetan scholars came to teach Buddhism

in Bhutan They built monasteries and temples throughout the country but none of them

could establish a formal Buddhist community in Bhutan (MoHE 1994)

It was Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyel (1594-1651) a Tibetan monk who formally

instituted Buddhism in Bhutan in the 17th century (MoHE 1990 MoHE 1994)

Therefore the 17th century is the most important period in Bhutanese history Bhutanese

development policies stem from this period All the high-ranking officials during

Zhabdrungs era were monks and the governments primary function was to support the

religious establishment which in turn promoted Buddhist morality and ethics among the

lay population (MoHE 1994 Ura 1993 as cited by Priesner 1999) In other words the

government promoted the wellbeing of people through spiritual teachings based on

Buddhism The Bhutanese legal system codified in 1652 and based on principles of

Buddhism is the foundation of the contemporary Bhutanese law (Nishimizu 2008)

Since the concept of GNH emphasizes the importance of living with basic human values

giving equal importance to both economic and spiritual wellbeing this clearly indicates

30

that the seeds of GNH had been planted during Zhabdrungs reign Prime Minister Jigme

Y Thinley (2004) writes

Traditional polity in Bhutan drawing much on the Buddhist culture was certainly guided towards GNH A Buddhist equivalent of a Social Contract declared in Bhutan in 1675 said that happiness of sentient beings and teachings of the Buddha were mutually dependent The 1129 legal code of Bhutan stressed that laws should promote happiness of the sentient beings (p 2)

Until the 1960s Bhutan possessed very little of the infrastructure we see today in the

country (National Environment Commission [NEC] 1998 Planning Commission 1999)

Life was hard and conditions were very harsh There was no electricity telephones or

postal services to connect different parts of country or with the outside world There were

no motor roads and money was unknown The health infrastructure was poor life

expectancy was estimated to be an average of 35 years Western education was

considered unnecessary The vast majority of Bhutanese lived in isolation in the rugged

mountain terrains The Bhutanese were subsistence farmers totally dependent upon the

land and the forests for survival People exchanged goods among themselves and were

self sufficient for most purposes Bhutans traditional socio-economic system was based

on the principle of communal self-reliance which is related to the Buddhist doctrine of

the benevolent nature of small-scale (Priesner 1999 Gurung 1999)

Due to the lack of foreign influences Bhutan developed an extremely stable

social environment and traditional system of knowledge Self-reliance was the first

explicitly emphasized development objective in 1959 (as cited Priesner 1999) The

National Assembly in 1959 stated that its primary task was to maintain the sovereignty

of the kingdom through economic self-reliance (Kuensel Vol 2 No 9 [May 1-15

31

1968] p7 as cited by Priesner 1999) Modern development came to Bhutan in the early

1960s during the reign of the third king Jigme Doiji Wangchuck (1952-1972) (MoHE

1994) However Bhutans decision to embark on modern development was not

voluntary During a visit to Bhutan in September 1958 the Indian Prime Minister

expressed his concern about Bhutans security and emphasized the need for a road to link

Bhutan and India offering at the same time financial and technical assistance To avoid

increased dependence the government refused to accept the assistance Nevertheless

Bhutans attitude changed during 1959 a consequence of events in Tibet In 1959 the

Tibetan revolt was suppressed by the Chinese which resulted in the flow of several

thousand Tibetan refugees into Bhutan At the end of the same year Chinese actions

began to be directed against Bhutan A triangular shaped part of Tibetan territory between

the small Indian state of Sikkim and Bhutan through which the most important trade

route from Bhutan to India ran was sealed off (Galay 1999 Priesner 1999) In the

following National Assembly session the construction of roads became the main issue of

discussion As an underdeveloped country Bhutan lacked financial and labor resources

and India was the only possible source of aid Thus Bhutan took the first step towards

development cautiously Later when Chinese aggression declined measures of cultural

preservation were soon adopted to contain and counter-balance the negative effects of

modernization (Priesner 1999)

Since 1961 Bhutan plans its development every five years The third King

always expressed his priority as making the people prosperous and happy (Kuensel

1968 as cited by Priesner 1999 p7) Prosperity and happiness were highlighted in the

third kings address on the occasion of Bhutans admission to the United Nations in 1971

32

Further the preservation of environment and culture is the most consistently applied

principle from the start of the first Five Year Plan (FYP) and this is a major input for

GNH

The Bhutanese development concept thus evolved from the countrys socioshy

economic historic and political circumstances The concept of GNH is thus the

translation of cultural and social consciousness into development priorities (Priesner

1999) To sum up the influencing factors that caused Bhutan to have such a unique

development concept are the absence of foreign domination the desire to preserve

national identity Chinese invasion causing threat to the national security and deeply

embedded Buddhist beliefs The philosophy of GNH therefore evolved earlier than the

term Gross National Happiness was coined

23 GNH Discourses and Debates

The first official keynote speech on Gross National Happiness was delivered by

the current Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley at the United Nations Development

Programme (UNDP) Regional Millennium Meeting for Asia and the Pacific in 1998 His

keynote speech was later published in the countrys national newspaper Kuensel Many

scholars responded to the publication and this led to the first workshop in 1999 to explore

the conceptual foundations of human happiness During the workshop Prime Minister

Thinley raised three questions for deliberation First can an index be constructed for

GNH as it has been done for Human Development Second what are the main

ingredients of happiness Third what would be the main indicators of happiness if there

were any at all

33

Some participants proposed that GNH could be quantified Others suggested that

it would be a speculative exercise into what is essentially a subjective experience and

would defy any statistical device aimed at its quantification They expressed their

suspicion that the essence of conventional economic theories runs counter to GNH

Rinzin (2006) states that two schools of thought emerged one took a philosophical

approach and the other an empirical analytical approach of defining and measuring GNH

On the philosophical side scholars argued that GNH is a development philosophy and

there is no need to define and measure happiness For Stehlik (1999) the attempt even to

define happiness is unnecessary and even less to measure it The other school of thought

argued that in order for GNH to be applicable it should be measurable The first

workshop failed to come up with concrete results The discussion papers from this

workshop were published in June 1999 under the title Gross National Happiness A Set

of Discussion Papers

After a gap of five years the First International Conference on GNH

Operationalizing Gross National Happiness was held in Thimphu Bhutan from

February 18 to 20 2004 The conference intended to explore ways in which the concept

of happiness as an objective of economic and social development could be

operationalized in terms of both policy and evaluation of change The conference focused

largely on the concepts of happiness or wellbeing Dr Ron Colman and Dr Julia Sagebien

(2004) presented a paper on Nova Scotias Atlantic Genuine Progress Index or GPI

which assigns explicit value to environmental quality natural wealth population health

livelihood security equity free time and educational attainment The conference

discussed the relevance of GPI measures to Bhutan Colman and Sagebien suggested a

34

potential framework for measuring GNH proposing indicators such as education basic

security respect and care for all beings Although the conference did not come to any

definitive conclusions Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley (2007) stated that the conference

was a milestone in the history of international discourse as it opened up the discourse on

happiness Further the ripples from this seminar spread far and helped Bhutan develop

the indicators of GNH in a later period

The Second International Conference on GNH Rethinking Development Local

Pathways to Global Wellbeing was held in Nova Scotia Canada from June 20 to 24

2005 The conference focused on the exploration of practices the sharing of actual

experiences and the development of a framework to operationalize GNH The first and

second international conferences seemed to have convinced Bhutanese policy makers that

in order to make GNH practicable it must first become measurable By the time the third

international conference was held Bhutan was well on the way to constructing the GNH

Index

The Third International Conference held in Bangkok Thailand in 2007 focused

on the indicators of GNH The then Prime Minister of Bhutan Kinzang Doiji spoke on the

importance of good governance and highlighted the wellbeing of people as a priority in

developing government policies Just a week prior to the fourth international conference

Bhutan officially adopted the GNH Index

The theme for the Fourth International Conference (November 26 to 28 2008)

was Practice and Measurement of GNH indicating a step forward into a new phase

which focused more on how to reflect GNH in policies and how to grasp the current

situation and measure progress Discussions revolved around the GNH indicators

35

psychology environment community relations education health living standard

governance culture time use and economy Rosellini (2008) says that some of the

indicators of GNH would be relevant to the UNDP-Oxford initiative in understanding the

missing dimensions of poverty Rosellini (2008) further suggested that GNH should be

used as an alternative approach from an international perspective because none of the

methods that attempted to move beyond purely materialistic interpretations of human

progress have gained broad acceptance among academics and development practitioners

The fifth conference held in Brazil in 2009 (November 20-23) was a revelation

for the Bhutanese While the understanding of GNH had grown tremendously at the

international level the GNH conference held in Brazil made the Bhutanese government

realize that Bhutan is still lagging behind in implementing the philosophy of GNH

(Bhutan Broadcasting Service [BBS] 2009) There is no doubt that the policies are

framed in terms of the four pillars of GNH but the government failed to infuse GNH

values into the education system Further GNH values were not reflected in the day-to-

day working of the government institutions businesses and at the community level

Brazil had left Bhutan behind in terms of implementing GNH ethics Several business

establishments in Brazil practice the principle of GNH One pharmaceutical company is

believed to be implementing its ethics and modalities into the way the company

functions Likewise Brazilian villages at the community level are also practicing the

dimensions of GNH on a day-to-day basis (Kuensel 2009) This definitely was a

revelation for Bhutan

On his return from the GNH conference in Brazil the prime minister expressed

his sense of the urgency and immediacy of bringing GNH principles and values into the

36

education system Following this a workshop was conducted on how to achieve a GNH

infused education system (Kuensel 2009) The education ministry has come up with a

road map and an action plan to begin the process of bringing GNH values and principles

into the school system starting in 2010 The education minister stated that every school in

the country will now develop GNH-inspired curriculum material The latest reports state

that many schools in Bhutan have now infused GNH values into their curriculum

Students in most schools meditate for a few minutes before starting any lesson Many

schools are now working towards becoming green (Bhutan Observer March 2010)

Many students were quoted as saying that Meditation somehow helps to relax and

concentrate more on their studies (Business Bhutan 17 April 2010) This is a very

practical move by the government towards enhancing GNH Bhutan has learned a lot

through seminars and debates held at the national and international level The idea of

measuring and quantifying GNH has however raised many questions

24 Quantifying Gross National Happiness

Initially due to the absence of a specific and relevant development index that

takes into account the core principles and dimensions of GNH the United Nations

Human Development concept and its measurement the Human Development Index

(HDI) was used as an interim tool to assess all-round development in Bhutan (Gross

National Happiness Commission [GNHC] 2008) The HDI fails however to capture the

overall essence of the concept of GNH because only three variables are used in HDI

health (life expectancy) education (adult literacy) and wealth (GDP per capita) Owing

to the number of discourses and questions raised regarding the applicability of the

37

philosophy of GNH Bhutan has now adopted the GNH Index Karma Ura (2008)

president of the Centre for Bhutan Studies writes that as many contemporary indicators

of progress and development do not reflect GNH adequately the Royal Government of

Bhutan directed the Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) to develop GNH index which will

provide appropriate indicators for Bhutanese development (pl)

In his first international speech the Prime Minister of Bhutan Jigme Y Thinley

(1998) stated that the trends of happiness of people are unknown Although people

perceive their wellbeing subjectively their subjective views are not incorporated well

into the design of economic and social policy (Kusago 2006) Similarly Mark (2008)

argues that as a direct consequence of different governments collecting and analyzing

economic data (and social and environmental data to a lesser extent) much is known

about the material conditions of peoples lives but little about their actual lived

experience and their sense of personal and social wellbeing It is to address this lacunae

that the government needs to adopt indicators for measuring the wellbeing of its people

Former Minister Kinzang Dorji (2007b) points out that indicators can be useful in

revealing institutional and human conditions to show both the potential and result of

policy decisions (p 2) He argues that the use of indicators reflecting GNH values will

enable policy makers to locate those principles in determining GNH policy and tracking

GNH processes

Many are skeptical however and wonder whether quantifying such a noble

philosophy is justifiable Reducing real people and real lives to numerical values does not

do justice to the emotional and spiritual depth of the human experience (Doiji 2007b)

There is much doubt as to whether the indicators capture the real essence of human

38

happiness Nonetheless if the government wants to promote the wellbeing or happiness

of its citizens it needs to know the happiness trend of its citizens and find out if its

policies contribute to both subjective and objective wellbeing Even if Gross National

Happiness cannot be quantified as precisely as Gross Domestic Product is currently

quantified Daly amp Farley (2004) state that It is better to be vaguely right than precisely

wrong (p243) The policy makers will at least get an idea of peoples state of wellbeing

Measuring GNH is indeed a milestone in Bhutanese history as it will always

remind Bhutanese of their founding ideals A GNH Index would help citizens know if

they are improving as a nation in protecting and exercising their right to pursue happiness

(Brooks 2008) The adoption of the GNH Index shows the seriousness of the Bhutanese

government in pursuing the goal of GNH Lastly there is hope that Gross National

Happiness will not remain as a mere catchphrase

25 Summary

This chapter presented a review of the literature on GNH and the influence of

Buddhism on the concept of GNH The aim of this review is to get a better understanding

of the centrality of Buddhism in the concept of GNH and to highlight issues that emerged

in the GNH discourses The key principle of GNH which focuses on happiness is

influenced by the core teachings of Buddhism which states that the main purpose of life

the heart of being human is happiness The four pillars of GNH reflect traditional

Bhutanese beliefs and values inspired by Buddhism The law of Karma the principle of

interdependence and the noble eightfold path has certainly influenced the Bhutanese way

39

of living and thus the concept of GNH The Buddhist values of interdependence equality

and compassion are inherent in GNH

History reveals that the basic philosophy of GNH emerged between the 10th and

17th centuries when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of life Buddhism

therefore is the backbone of the concept of GNH Bhutan however is not a Utopian state

because it advocates GNH Like many developing countries Bhutan is grappling with

problems of increased rural urban migration poverty and unemployment thus

challenging the goals of GNH The government is continuing to reflect GNH objectives

in its policy and programmes Through the effective use of the four pillars of GNH

Bhutan never placed excessive emphasis on economic development The country did not

opt for economic activities which promised huge financial gain but caused damage to

health environment and culture Bhutan therefore is said to have one of the best policies

in the world (Priesner 1999) However it is important to know if the policies are

promoting happiness and wellbeing among the people The government has rightly

adopted the GNH Index because only through the use of the indicators will policymakers

know if their policies are in reality promoting happiness The question remains however

as to whether these indicators capture the real essence of GNH and whether they are

influenced by Buddhist principles

40

CHAPTER THREE THE BUDDHIST PRINCIPLES OF HAPPINESS

We all want happiness and do not want suffering Many of us support the

importance of moral values in making our lives happier Buddhist principles emphasize

that human values and principles are necessary to lead a happy life Yet there is a general

assumption that income and happiness are directly related Happiness research findings

defy this generalization and show that increasing incomes are not accompanied by

increasing happiness (Hirata 2006)

The Buddha discovered this 2500 years ago The Buddha did not reject the idea of

possessing wealth but taught that wealth does not guarantee happiness He rejected greed

in accumulating wealth being enslaved to materialism and treating wealth as the

ultimate goal (Wijeyawansa 2009) The Buddhas teachings are based on the key

problem ofsuffering Since Buddhism focuses so much on suffering it is often

criticized as being pessimistic But Buddhism does not deny the presence of happiness in

our lives It teaches the way out of suffering and shows the path towards genuine

happiness Buddhism understands that not everyone can lead an ascetic life and accepts

that for a layperson a certain degree of wealth is essential to live a happy life Living an

ethical and moral life is said to bring genuine happiness in Buddhism The objective of

this chapter is to understand happiness from a Buddhist perspective by laying down some

key Buddhist principles related to happiness

Understanding Buddhist principles and values that underpin the Buddhist

worldview will provide a framework that will be the lens through which the

psychological wellbeing indicators of GNH will be analyzed in the following chapter

The principles that will be discussed here are however not definitive boundaries because

41

Buddhism teaches innumerable ways to achieve ultimate happiness In this chapter the

framework of happiness is based on a specific Buddhist teachings called the six

paramitas Nonetheless the entire Buddhist teachings have the same essence and arise

out of the four noble truths and eightfold noble path

This chapter is divided into three sections The first section begins with a brief

introduction to the Buddhist view of happiness Buddhism in Bhutan belongs to the

Mahayana tradition and therefore this study is limited to the context of Mahayana

Buddhism The second section looks at key foundational doctrines such as the four noble

truths Karmamdashthe law of cause and effect the principle of interdependence and

compassion The third section constructs a framework for happiness based on the

Mahayana Buddhist principle using the six perfections or paramitas Paramita refers to

crossing over from the sea of suffering to the shore of happiness The paramitas are the

six kinds of virtuous practice required for skillfully serving the welfare of oneself and

others and a path to achieve genuine happiness For the purpose of this study Thogme

Zangpos text on Thirty-Seven Practices of Bodhisattava (Gyalse Laglin) and teachings

by Buddhist teachers such as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will

serve as sources for constructing this framework

31 Buddhist View of Happiness

Buddhism was founded in the 5th century and has over 365 million followers

worldwide (Ontario Consultants 2009) The term religion is often associated with the

concept of creator or a god but Buddhism rejects the idea of creator god as well as the

notion of a permanent self or a indestructible soul (Flanagan 2007) Therefore it is

42

commonly said that Buddhism is non-theistic or atheistic Buddhism is a series of

practices and a way of life based on the teachings of the Buddha Buddhists are strongly

influenced by Karma the law of cause and effect with the implication that there is no

creator (interview with the Dalai Lama by Chopra 2010)

The word Buddha means to awaken from the sleep of ignorance and to spread

ones intelligence to everything that can be known (Dalai Lama 2000 p2) The Buddha

was like any other human being before he attained nirvana at the age of thirty-seven The

lessons that the Buddha learned while in search of truth is the foundation of Buddhism

chief among which is the pursuit of happiness

In his book An Open Heart Practicing Compassion in Everyday Lifethe Dalai

Lama (2001) states that the purpose of spiritual practice is to fulfill our desire for

happiness (p30) Buddhism indeed has much to say about happiness Sogyal Rimpoche

a renowned Buddhist teacher states there are two kinds of happiness one based on

material comfort and pleasures the other on inner contentment and peace (Doiji 2010)

The two are the physical and mental components of happiness The mental experience or

the inner force plays a more powerful role For example in a very pleasant environment

if we are mentally depressed the surroundings will not make a difference Similarly if

we have inner peace or mental happiness it will be easier to face any challenge This

indicates our mind and thoughts play a powerful role in experiencing happiness (Dalai

Lama 2001) Khenpo Phuntsho Tashi (2004) asserts that in Mahayana Buddhism

happiness springs from an altruistic or compassionate mind Since human minds are often

agitated by afflictive emotions the results frequently are negative actions which in turn

cause suffering The essence of Buddhism therefore is to tame to transform to conquer

43

the human mind for it is the root of everythingmdash it is the creator of happiness and

suffering The Buddha has said in Dhammapada (as cited by Bancroft 1997 p41)

Such a Wandering mind is weak and unsteady Attracted here there and everywhere How good it is to control it and know the happiness of Freedom (Verse 35)

And yet how unruly still how subtle the delusion of the thoughts To quiet them and master them is the true way of happiness (Verse 36)

There is a significant similarity between the Buddhas teachings and Aristotles

ethic Eudiamonia the Aristotelian term for happiness is very similar to Buddhism

Aristotle states that if we want to be happy we should cultivate and practice virtues

through wisdom He also mentions that happiness is vulnerable to external hazards

sudden disaster can reverse happiness no matter how virtuous ones life has been

(Annas 1999) This is exactly what the Buddha preached 2500 years ago The Buddhas

teachings are based on the impermanent nature of life and the importance of virtuous and

righteous deeds Most of Aristotles ethic is devoted to an account of virtuous activities

that he states constitute happiness Aristotle describes happiness as doing well combined

with virtue or self sufficiency of life or the pleasantest life with safety or prosperity of

possessions and bodies with power to protect then and use them in action (Irwin 1999

p3) Aristotle believes that power and fortune are also parts of happiness because they

are the best providers of safety This idea that happiness requires fortune contradicts the

Buddhas teachings The Buddha preached that fortune power possession are all

materials and subject to change They are therefore not a source of genuine happiness but

a cause of suffering

44

His Holiness the Dalai Lama states that Buddhists aim not merely for temporary

happiness but for long-term results They are concerned with life after life This means

that ultimate happiness in Buddhism is Nirvana the cessation of suffering the end of the

cycle of birth-and-death He further adds that spiritual practice the practice of dharma

can bring both long-term happiness and more inner strength day by day (Dalai Lama amp

Hopkins 2000) Buddhist teaching employs innumerable skillful means through which

happiness can be achieved at the individual and collective levels Being on the

Bodhisattva path the path on which all sentient beings can receive help can bring us

happiness Powers (1995 p91) defines a Bodhisattva as someone who is progressing

towards the state of enlightenment Bodhisattva symbolizes compassion Bodhisattvas are

also called jangchup sempa which means a compassionate heart in Tibetan and

Bhutanese

32 Key Mahayana Buddhist Principles

321 The four noble truths

In his search for the meaning of life the Buddha discovered the four noble truths

which are the very foundation of all Buddhist beliefs The Buddhas four noble truths

explain the truth of suffering and the way to overcome it The first noble truth recognizes

that suffering is the essence of human existence suffering from birth old age sickness

and death as well as the pain from separation grief and despair The second noble truth

explains that desire or craving is the cause of all suffering craving for pleasure for

individual existence and for release from our present situation The third noble truth

states that suffering can cease by overcoming craving or desire The fourth noble truth

45

prescribes the way to overcome desire by following the eightfold noble path (Bancroft

1997)

A closer understanding of the four noble truths leads to the realization that no

person can achieve constant and prolonged happiness because as the first noble truth

states Life is suffering This means that as long as humans exist there will be no end

to suffering Suffering in Buddhism has generally been categorized into three types First

is the suffering of misery which includes physical and mental sufferings Second is the

suffering of change where we achieve happiness only for a brief period because all

phenomena are subject to change Third is compositional suffering the suffering which is

endemic to cyclic existence because humans are under the influence of afflictive

emotions (Dalai Lama as cited in Powers 1984 amp 1995 Negi 1999)

The cause of all suffering is the desire and aversion arising out of ignorance

which is called Klesha Klesha literally means afflictive emotions or delusions and refers

to wide range of mental states (Negi 1999) Bhutanese call it nyong mong meaning

distorted or confused By following the eightfold noble path one can overcome the

afflictive emotions and thus achieve genuine happiness Light Party (1996) asserts that

the main map the Buddha offered for the trip to happiness and contentment is the

Eightfold Path Right Understanding Right Intention Right Action Right Speech Right

Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right Mindfulness Buddhist

teachings are all centered on one or more steps of the eightfold noble path The eight

steps are usually divided into three main practices Morality (Sila) which also means

ethics or virtues Concentration (Samadhv meditation) and Wisdom (Prajnaj (Dalai

Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2000 Gomes 2004) Right Understanding and Right

46

Intention pertain to wisdom (Sanskrit panna) Right Action Right Speech and Right

Livelihood pertain to moral virtues or ethics Right Effort Right Concentration and

Right Mindfulness pertain to meditative cultivation of heart and mind

Moral virtue meditation and wisdom form part of the six perfections which

are the core teachings of Mahayana Buddhism The six perfections are the six qualities to

the Bodhisattvas path the state of genuine happiness This study uses the six perfections

as a framework for happiness which will be explored in depth in the third section

322 The Law of Karma Principle of Interdependence and Compassion

The most common belief among Buddhists is that we can never escape from our

own Karma (Sanskrit Kamma) Karma (the law of cause and effect) states that nothing

comes into being without a cause The law of Karma can be simply related to Newtons

Third Law which states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction The

same holds according to the law of Karma though it is not known whether the reaction

will occur in this life or beyond this life Since Buddhism supports the idea of rebirth

certain key aspects of a persons next rebirth are thought to be karmically determined

These include the family into which one is born ones social status physical appearance

character and personality Karma does not however claim that everything that happens

to a person is karmically determined Karma does not determine precisely what will

happen or how anyone will react to what happen Individuals are always free to resist

previous conditioning and establish new patterns of behavior

The belief in Karma sometimes degenerates into a form of fatalism but fate and

Karma are different Humans have freedom to choose and their present action is not the

47

entire result of their past Karma action It does however influence a persons action

because of the character a person has developed (Harvey 2005)

The belief that one has to bear the Karma of ones act is deeply rooted in the

Buddhist psyche It is a very common belief among Buddhists that depending on ones

Karmic consequences (or accumulated positivenegative merits) one will experience

happinesssufferings of various types (Gaylag 2004) good action leads to pleasant

effects and bad deeds lead to unpleasant results Harvey (2005) asserts that the cycle of

Karma provides a perspective on life which is supportive of compassion and respect for

other beings In Buddhism if you want happiness you need to sow the seed of good

merit

Buddhist philosophy explains innumerable ways to achieve positive Karma

Actions motivated by greed hatred and delusion result in bad Karma while actions

motivated by their opposites - non-attachment loving kindness and right understanding-

- result in positive Karma Good intentions therefore must find expression in right

actions and right actions are basically those that are wholesome and do no harm either

oneself or others Tashi (2004) states that in order to accumulate merits and to be happy

our actions can be summed up under three principle causes 1) Developing the attitude of

not harming others (this is being mindful and awakening oneself from ignorance) 2)

Cultivating the attitude of helping others and 3) Being Content

The principle of dependent origination also known as the principle of

interdependence is one of the important principles of Buddhism This principle is actually

an elaboration of the law of Karma which states that all things are interdependent and

48

everything that happens depends on other things happening (Negi 1999 Flanagan 2007

Doiji 2009) In other words since a whole is dependent on its parts any existent thing is

composed of its parts therefore its very existence depends on its parts Buddhism states

that human beings in particular are the combination of the five groups of existence or

five aggregates The physical body is the material aggregate and the mental aspect is

made up of feeling perception (awareness recognition through senses) mental

formations or thoughts and consciousness (knowing the object through our senses)

(Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2005) Since we are made of these five aggregates

and these aggregates themselves have no permanent existence there exists no permanent

self Buddhist teachings assert that humans do not comprehend this reality and assume

that all things including human beings have permanent selves As we are all

interdependent there are no existing phenomena which is not the effect of this What we

do affects those around us and vice versa People should therefore not think only of

themselves but should also take into consideration those around them To create

happiness it is important that we not only reflect on the interrelationship of all things but

also see ourselves clearly as a part of one system of causal relationships

The Buddhist belief is that genuine happiness can be generated from developing a

compassionate heart a heart focused not only on itself but which also helps and benefits

all beings Compassion is defined as the wish to free all beings from suffering (Dalai

Lama 2001) Gyatso (1984) and the Dalai Lama (2000 amp 2001) assert that the root of all

Buddhist practices is the heart of loving kindness and compassion In Buddhism it is

normally said that a person who lacks compassion does not have a good heart It is

49

through a compassionate attitude that Buddhists are motivated to have concern for all

humans animals and the environment because they are all part of the same world

Although it is not easy to free all beings from suffering Buddhism states that we can

develop virtuous minds and thereby help others to do the same (Dalai Lama 2001) It is

through the force of compassion that a person engages in accumulating the merit and

wisdom that make Buddhahood possible (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) and in that sense

also makes happiness possible The four noble truths the law of Karma the principle of

interdependence and the idea of compassion form the key components of a Buddhist

worldview The next section develops a framework for the Buddhist view of happiness

which extends from these key Buddhist doctrines

33 The Buddhist Happiness Framework

This section constructs a happiness framework based on the Mahayana

Buddhisms teachings on the six perfections paramitas) Thogme Zangpos 12th century

text on the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva especially his verses on the six

practices were referenced ( Hopkins 1989) The six perfections or paramitas are

1 Dana Paramita (generosity) 2 Sila Paramita (ethicsvirtuesmorality) 3 Kshanti

Paramita (patiencetolerance) 4 Virya Paramita (perseverance) 5 Dhayana paramita

(meditative concentration) 6 Prajna Paramita (wisdom) These six teachings are a way

for an inner cultivation which implies a kind of ethics that focuses directly on daily life

through which one accomplishes genuine happiness (Wright 2009) The first five are

methods or practices and the last wisdom is necessary for any of them to function The

first three practices are usually recommended for lay people Joyous effort and

concentration mainly refer to meditation normally practiced in monastic communities

50

However meditation is now becoming increasingly popular and is practiced also by lay

people

The opening verse of Thogme Zangpos (nd) text begins with the following

statement

The perfect Buddhas the sources of benefit and happiness arise from having practiced the excellent doctrine That in turn depends on knowing its practices Therefore I will explain the practices of Bodhisattva (p 1)

The Buddha is a symbol and a source of genuine happiness for the Buddhist The

Buddha achieved the state of eternal bliss through his practice of virtues Thogme

Zangpo states that one needs to understand that the source of all happiness whether

worldly or ultimate happiness comes from the practice of Dharma which means the

practice of virtues Geshey Kelsang Gyatso (1984) states that in general Dharma refers

to the teachings of the Buddha but the actual Dharma is the inner realizations which

directly protect living beings from their sufferings He further explains that there are

three kinds of meaning to be achieved through the practice of Dharma The highest is to

reach full enlightenment Buddhahood in this life The middle is to achieve self-

liberation from cyclic fears and sufferings The lowest is to achieve happiness in this life

by overcoming the inner problems and thus avoiding being reborn in the lower realms in

the next life Thus Buddhists aim at one of these three Lay Buddhists usually aim to

lead a happy virtuous life and to be reborn in the higher realms

Thogme Zangpos teachings stress committing oneself to virtues as much as

possible and not engaging in ill deeds Virtues are actions that bear the fruit of happiness

Ill deeds are those actions that cause suffering and unhappiness to oneself and to other

beings Everyone wants to achieve happiness the Dalai Lama defines happiness as a

51

blissful state devoid of all suffering Since the law of cause and effect binds Buddhism it

is necessary to examine phenomena that cause happiness and suffering According to

Buddhism ignorance desire and hatred are the main cause of suffering Our own

afflictive emotions and actions cause suffering

The famous Buddhist painting of a wheel with 21 parts outlines the meaning of

life in Buddhism The diagram designed by the Buddha himself depicts an inner

psychological cosmology This painting can be found at the doorway of every temple in

Bhutan The center of the wheel shows the picture of a pig rooster and snake These

three animals depict the root cause of suffering represented as ignorance desire and

hatred (anger) respectively They are known as the three poisons in Buddhism (Dalai

Lama 2000) Buddhism states that it is possible to overcome suffering since it depends

on causes which are within oneself When one understands the nature of suffering one

will work towards ending such causes However Mahayana Buddhism stresses that this

understanding must be extended to other sentient beings Others similarly want happiness

and not suffering Mahayana Buddhists therefore emphasizes developing compassion and

engaging in the practices of the six paramitas to overcome suffering

Ignorance is not just the absence of knowledge of the real status of phenomenon

but the inability to understand truth misconception of inherent existence of permanent

self (Dalai Lama 2000) The principle of dependent origination (Section 322) as

explained above shows that we do not exist independently on our own Thogme Zangpos

fourth verse states the following

Long-associated companions will part from each other Wealth and possessions obtained with effort will be left behind Consciousness the guest will cast aside

52

the guest-house of the bodv Letting go of this life is the bodhisattvas practice (pl)

The above verse states that our body is not ours The mind or consciousness leaves the

body at death as a guest leaves the guesthouse However we live as if we are going to

live forever and this ignorance draws us into afflictive desire and hatred Ignorance thus

comes out as greed and hatred Greed and hatred in turn promote ignorance The Dalai

Lama (2000) states without ignorance desire and anger are impossible These disturbing

emotions and attitudes are said to be true causes of suffering as are the karmic impulses

that arise under the power of these disturbing emotions Figure 2 below illustrates how

Buddhists perceive suffering and happiness It shows that the root causes of suffering are

ignorance desire and hatred These emerge through three doorsmdash body speech and

mindmdashas non-virtuous action generating negative Karma which causes suffering to

oneself and to others

Figure 2 Suffering and its causes

53

Gyatso (1984) points out that even though the body is like a guest house we will

receive many fruits if we practice Dharma meaning the practice of virtue which results in

the fruit of good Karma However all sentient beings are subject to the three poisons and

the question is how do we overcome them to practice virtue Buddhist teaching states

that the three poisons can be resisted and virtues cultivated through training in the six

practices When a person wants to reduce weight heshe goes through physical training

and dieting Similarly in Buddhism if one wants happiness one must practice the six

paramitas This will naturally generate virtuous actions leading to happiness This is

represented by Figure 3 below

Figure 3 Overcoming Suffering

54

331 Generosity

Mahayanists maintain that happiness comes from a compassionate and altruistic

mind The practice of compassion is training oneself in the perfection of generosity In

the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva the 25th verse states

If it is necessary to give away even ones body while aspiring to enlightenment what need is there to mention external objects Therefore practicing generosity without hope of reciprocation or positive karmic results is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)

The perfection of generosity is the first principle of happiness Generosity can be

practiced by anyone This practice refers to unconditional love a selfless generosity and

giving which is completely free from attachment and expectation Internally it means

overcoming our emotions (greed and hatred) and being generous with others voluntarily

giving ones material goods time or wisdom to others (Das 1995) Generosity is a cure

for the afflictions of greed miserliness and possessiveness The Anguttara Nikaya

(Anguttara Verse 34 and 35) a collection of Buddhist scriptures points out that there are

five blessings that result from the practice of generosity the person will be liked and

admired by everyone will have a good reputation will have lots of self confidence and

will have a heavenly rebirth Buddhists believe that giving without seeking anything in

return leads to greater spiritual wealth Generosity therefore is a very important virtue

bringing happiness to oneself and others

332 Ethics

The second practice is that of Sila which literally means ethics moralityvirtue

Right speech Right action and Right livelihood which form the part of Eightfold Noble

Path fall under ethical practice This perfection of ethics or Sila Paramita stresses quality

55

of virtuous and ethical behavior morality self-discipline personal integrity and never

having the thought to harm any sentient beings The Dalai Lama (2001) states that for

Buddhists ethics means avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions acts done by the body

speech and mind (p34) It is important that our practice of generosity is supported by

our practice of ethics Buddhists therefore abstain from the ten non-virtuous actions

killing stealing sexual misconduct lying divisive speech harsh speech gossip greed

malice and wrong views The first three (killing stealing sexual misconduct) correspond

to bodily action The fourth fifth sixth and seventh (lying malicious words harsh

language useless talk) correspond to verbal action The last three (covetousness ill will

wrong view) occur through the mind (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) The ten non-virtuous

actions lead to bad Karma and suffering Avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and

cultivating a compassionate heart brings good Karma and happiness We can enjoy

greater freedom happiness and security in our lives because through our virtuous

behavior we are no longer creating suffering for ourselves and others we basically

become virtuous and harmless in our thoughts speech and actions Thus in the 26th

verse Thogme Zangpo writes

If lacking ethical conduct one fails to achieve ones own purpose the wish to accomplish others purpose is laughable Therefore guarding ethics devoid of aspirations for worldly existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)

Thogme Zangpo points out that with unethical behavior one cannot achieve

happiness Unethical behavior is always the cause of suffering and unhappiness For

example a person who speaks ill of another person will disturb their mind and later will

56

be a cause of suffering for himself or herself His 34th verse stresses the importance of

avoiding harsh words

Harsh words disturb others minds and cause the mode of a Bodhisattvas behavior to deteriorate Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to abandon harsh words about the unpleasantness of others (p 3)

By cultivating ethical behavior we do not cause harm to others and we are free of

negativity we cause no harm by our actions our speech is kind and compassionate and

our thoughts are free of anger malice and wrong views Through the practice of ethics

we gain confidence because we are not carrying any underlying sense of guilt or remorse

for our actions we have nothing to hide Being ethical and moral is the cause of all

goodness and happiness This practice of ethical conduct is the very foundation for

progressing in any practice of meditation and for attaining all higher realizations on the

path The Dalai Lama states that the aim of ethical practice is to transform motivation and

mental disposition this is how we become better human beings The more we succeed in

training our hearts and minds the more we will be able to cope with adversity and our

actions will be naturally ethical Thus we will experience happiness

333 Patience and Tolerance

The third practice is that of patience and tolerance It is called the perfection of

patience (Bhutanese Bzod pa) Thogme Zangpos 27th verse states the importance of

patience

For bodhisattvas who desire the pleasures of virtue all those who do harm are like a precious treasure Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to cultivate patience without anger or resentment for anyone (p3)

57

Patience in Buddhism refers to having the strength to face the challenges and

difficulties of life without losing our composure and inner tranquility Bodhisattvas are

challenged to endure tolerate and bear any hardship without retaliation or negative

thoughts Through endurance and tolerance we gain strength to overcome any afflictive

emotions The Dalai Lama states that this enlightened quality comes from having our

heart open and our mind deeply concentrated upon the Dharma He states that endurance

and tolerance do not imply defeat but make the mind stronger When the Buddha was

deep in meditation demon Mara and his daughters tried to tempt and distract him

Through his patience however the Buddha remained calm and undistracted and finally

attained nirvana The ability to endure is therefore integral to Buddhism With the

strength of patience we can overcome anything The mind will be calm and clear and

this enables us to make better decisions Through the practice of patience we maintain

inner peace under all circumstances and thus experience genuine happiness

334 Perseverance

The fourth practice is the perfection of joyous effort or enthusiastic perseverance

It is called Virya Paramita in Sanskrit and is the quality of persistent effort or working

hard towards achieving a goal The 28th verse of Thogme Zangpos teaching states

Even hearers and solitary realizers who accomplish only their own welfare strive as if putting out a fire on their heads Seeing this taking up diligent effort -the source of good qualities - for the sake of all beings is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)

Thogme Zangpo points out that just as one makes an effort to put out the fire on

ones own head one must strive diligently to free oneself and all sentient beings from

58

suffering Our body speech and mind should put in effort to the best of our ability

Without putting in right effort we can be disillusioned and thus fail to achieve any goal

The Dalai Lama states that with joyous effort and enthusiastic perseverance we regard

failure as simply another step towards success danger as an inspiration for courage and

affliction as another opportunity to practice wisdom and compassion Thus to achieve

happiness one must put in right effort to be compassionate to be virtuous and ethical at

all times

335 Meditative Concentration

The fifth practice is that of meditative concentration It is called Dhyana

Paramita Meditative concentration is very important in developing mental qualities and

overcoming the three poisons The content of the very first verse of thirty-seven practices

of Bodhisattva is on meditation

At this time when the difficult-to-gain ship of leisure andfortune has been obtained ceaselessly hearing pondering and meditating day and night in order to liberate oneself and others from the ocean of cyclic existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)

The ship of leisure and fortune refers to the human body In Buddhism there are six

realms god2 demi-god human animals hungry ghost hell beings The humans in

comparison to the other realm is very rare It is therefore fortunate enough to be born as a

human Thogme Zangpo indicates that through hearing the dharma teachings meditating

day and night and developing a heart of loving kindness and compassion sentient beings

2 Gods in Buddhism are beings who are born into higher realms because of their positive Karma accumulated in their past lives Their lifespan eventually ends When their life ends they will be reborn in one of the six realms depending on their Karma

59

can be liberated from suffering Buddhism greatly stresses the taming of the mind

because the mind can be transformed and meditation is the means to transform it Tashi

(2004) explains the usefulness of meditation in destroying the root causes of suffering

and providing an antidote to them Meditation also plays an important role in achieiving

happiness at the individual national and global levels The perfection of meditative

concentration thus aims at taming the mind so that it does what we want it to do We

stabilize our mind and emotions by practicing meditation by being mindful and aware in

everything we do When we train the mind in this way all mental distortions and

misperceptions are eliminated We achieve focus composure and tranquility

Concentrating deeply makes us realize the cause of confusion and suffering and helps us

directly experience inner joy Thus Thogme Zangpos 29th verse states

Having understood that disturbing emotions are destroyed by insight possessed with tranquil abiding to cultivate meditative concentration which perfectly transcends the four formless absorptions is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)

336 Wisdom

The last practice is the perfection of wisdom called Prajna Parmaita in Sanskrit

Wisdom is the key to everything Wisdom will help us find the path to happiness

Without wisdom one will not understand the reality of phenomena and thus be

disillusioned by the three poisons Wisdom is therefore necessary to cultivate other

practices Thogme Zangpos 30th verse points out

If one lacks wisdom it is impossible to attain perfect enlightenment through the other five perfections Thus cultivating skillful means with the wisdom that doesnt discriminate among the three spheres is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)

60

Wisdom does not refer to mere intellectual understanding It is beyond that Ron

Liefer (1997) states that a mere intellectual understanding of reality will not change our

habitual negative patterns of thoughts speech and action because the intellect serves the

ego He further adds we cannot achieve wisdom without seeing through the trickery of

ego Wisdom refers to Right understanding and Right view (two of the eightfold noble

paths) of reality This entails getting rid of those wrong views which manifest the three

poisons Through wisdom one will be able to distinguish between what is ethical and

unethical or virtuous and non-virtuous We see the essential nature of reality with utmost

clarity our perception goes beyond the illusive and deceptive veils of material existence

Wisdom clears the delusion that envelops the mind It overturns ignorance and the

attitudes that lead to non-virtuous actions and ultimately shows us the path to happiness

(Rink 2010) Thus overcoming the three poisons by understanding the true nature of

reality and developing qualities of generosity morality patience and meditating with

joyous effort is said to generate the highest level of happiness in Buddhism

34 Summary

Buddhist teachings show the true cause of suffering as ignorance desire and

hatred enveloping the mind The teachings on the Four Noble Truths open our eyes to

various perspectives and send us the message that happiness is beyond material

wellbeing They make us realize that the real essence of happiness lies within us It is

only through taming the mind that we can experience happiness Whether we want to be

happy or not depends on how we perceive things and how we act John Milton said The

mind is its own place and in itself can make heaven of hell and a hell of heaven (as

61

cited by Williams 2008 p24) Buddhism teaches that if we can overcome the three

poisons and practice generosity patience mediation and morality we can experience

inner joy in this life This can even be extended to the next life with the possibility of

attaining nirvana The idea of reward for virtuous action (Karma) creates a healthy fear

and pushes the Buddhist to be ethical and practice virtues at all time Buddhism thus

accords the highest authority to experience with reason second and scripture third

(Flanagan 2007) Some may wonder however whether a focus exclusively on getting

rid of desire would inhibit worldly progress The path to overcoming attachment and

achieving worldly progress such as accumulating wealth are indeed poles apart

Buddhism does not necessarily say that we have to give up the material life It stresses

more the importance of having a good heart of never harming others of being

compassionate of being morally disciplined and of possessing loving kindness

generosity patience and a joyful desire to practice virtues These positive qualities can

reduce ones suffering and give happiness to oneself and others

62

CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING

INDICATORS

People always experience moods and emotions which have an enormous range of

effects on their wellbeing To know about peoples psychological state something must

be known about their subjective experiences The psychological wellbeing domain of the

GNH index thus assesses peoples subjective experience based on eleven indicators

Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking account of Karma Jealousy Selfishness

Frustration Generosity Calmness Compassion Suicidal Thought and General Mental

Health The government measures psychological wellbeing by assessing the socially

destructive attitudes and symptoms of psychological distress and the prevalence of

practices to avoid negative emotions The main purpose of this study is to determine to

what extent the indicators under the psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of

happiness and their coherence with the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH This

chapter analyzes each of these indicators to determine the extent to which they reflect

Buddhist principles of happiness using the conceptual framework laid down in Chapter

Three and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH

This chapter is divided into five sections The first section briefly highlights the

meaning of psychological wellbeing and the importance of measuring it It also highlights

similarities between the views of some modern psychologists and the Buddhist view on

the understanding of psychological wellbeing The second third and fourth sections

analyze the indicators of psychological wellbeing by grouping them into three broad

categories Emotional Balance Spirituality Practices and General Mental Health The

chapter concludes with an overview of the overall findings

63

41 Psychological Wellbeing Measures

Psychological wellbeing as the term denotes refers to the wellbeing of a persons

mental state It deals with emotions and feelings which are subjective experiences The

measure of the psychological wellbeing of its citizens is extremely important in a country

pursuing GNH because the mental or the psychological state influences the overall

wellbeing of people A GNH state therefore needs to minimize those mental conditions

that can be disruptive As Larsen amp Fredrickson (1999) point out the content of a

persons emotional life strongly influences his or her judgments of the quality of that life

(p40)

From the Buddhist perspective happiness depends on our mind Buddhist

teachings are directly or indirectly based on the workings of the mind Buddhism strongly

holds that it is the emotional and mental state of people that influence their wellbeing or

happiness The term ishepa which means the mind refers to all aspects of subjective

experiences In the Buddhist diction mind shepa) awareness (rigpa) and consciousness

(lo) are synonyms (Abhidhamma 1987 Negi 1999) The mind in Buddhism includes

all perceptual conceptual and emotional states both conscious and unconscious (Negi

1999) The emotional mental states therefore are all mind related subjective experiences

As explained in Chapter Three Buddhism is concerned with taming the mind

this entails understanding the types of mental activity that are truly conducive to

wellbeing and the ones that are harmful In this sense it would be justifiable to say that

Buddhism is all about achieving happiness mentally or psychologically Ekman

Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) agree that psychologists and Buddhists alike

64

believe that emotions strongly influence peoples thoughts words and actions and that

they help people in their pursuit of transient pleasures and satisfactions

The measurement of a persons psychological state is commonly based on the

self-report assessment Within the discipline of psychology there is a strong view that

self-reports on how well life is going can convey important information on underlying

emotional states and in measuring peoples subjective wellbeing Earlier psychologists

who were mainly interested in negative emotional states such as depression and anxiety

are now interested in positive emotions to evaluate peoples overall wellbeing (Ryff amp

Singer 1998) Indeed to get empirical clues of happiness establishing the absence of

negative experiences would not be enough positive feelings must also be present (Hirata

2006) The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index similarly includes

both positive and negative emotions

Structured questionnaires are used to collect data for each indicator A

sufficiency cut off or a threshold is set for each indicator A person is said to have met the

sufficiency cut-off if hisher evaluation in that indicator meets or exceeds the cut-off

point If the respondent meets or exceeds the sufficiency cut off heshe is given the full

score This means a person is psychologically well if heshe makes sufficient

achievement in each of the indicators Any shortfall from sufficiency that any

respondents experience in any indicator is considered to depress Gross National

Happiness The depth of insufficiency will rise if any person drops further away from

sufficiency cut-off This means that the distance from the cut-off or the sufficiency gap is

sensitive only if the achievements are below the sufficiency level This indicates that the

GNH index is sensitive to an unhappy or a poor persons experience Overall this method

65

is similar to poverty measurement where a poverty line is set to distinguish people who

are materially poor from non-poor (Millet 2010) However there is not much

information available on how the sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From

the information available on the CBS website it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut

off is set at a level that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises

questions because there is not any literature or research conducted on how the sufficiency

cut off has actually been set Arbitrarily setting cut-offs without any basis or setting it

based on some assumptions can lead to questionable results

42 Emotional Balance

The Centre for Bhutan Studies has grouped seven indicators under the category of

emotional balance The indicators can be further grouped into two categories negative

emotions and positive emotions The indicators under this index include emotions or

feelings related to wellbeing because these affect a persons evaluation of life Four of the

seven indicators pertain to negative emotions jealousy selfishness frustration and

suicidal thought and three pertain to positive emotion generosity calmness and

compassion Diener amp Lucas (1999) state that although the emotions are momentary

influences and would not reflect a stable state of happiness they do provide information

about the state of a persons life Research shows that a variety of etiological factors

contribute to these emotions (Berenbaum Raghavan Le Vernon amp Gomez 1999)

Buddhist teaching similarly maintains that these emotions do not occur on their own

there are causal factors associated with them

66

Buddhism places the mind at the centre of all experiences The Buddhist tradition

therefore places emotions at the core of individual and universal happiness In the

Abhidhamma Buddhist text the mind is presented in context to its primary and secondary

consciousnesses Primary consciousness refers to the content of mind which illuminates

merely the general nature of the content Secondary consciousness refers to the aspect of

mind that illuminates the particular nature of that content Both the primary and

secondary consciousnesses operate as one entity (Negi 1999) The Abhidhamma lists

fifty-one secondary consciousnesses All the positive and negative emotions fall under

the fifty-one secondary consciousnesses

a Negative Emotion

Chapter Three explained that negative emotions in Buddhism arise out of

ignorance desire and hatred Humans suffer because of their own negative emotions

These are negative because they harm oneself and others As we ignore the reality around

us and cling to the self or I we get angry for things we do not like jealous when others

succeed frustrated when we fail The extreme reaction is suicidal thoughts and action

All of these negative emotions from the Buddhist perspective fall under unethical

action action that occurs through the mind They are called nyong mongs meaning

distorted or confused or klesha translated as afflictive emotions Jealousy selfishness

frustration and suicidal thoughts arise due to covetousness ill will and wrong view The

four negative indicators form part of the ten non-virtuous actions and are afflictive

regardless of their degree or the context in which they arise These emotions are similarly

considered negative under the GNH index

67

1 Jealousy

Jealousy is often defined as a feeling of resentment when others succeed Harris

(2004) points out that jealousy is likely to arise over perceptions that a potential rival

poses a threat to what one perceives to be valuable in oneself and in an important

relationship In Buddhism jealousy is called dhrag-dog The Buddhist Abhidhamma text

classifies jealousy as part of hostility and calls it immoral Jealousy in Buddhism is

defined as a disturbing emotion that focuses on other peoples accomplishments such as

their good qualities possessions or success and is the inability to bear their

accomplishments due to excessive attachment to our own gain or to the respect we

receive (Berzin 2004 p 1) Jealousy in Buddhism is therefore related to attachment

Jealousy and envy have slightly different meanings in Buddhism Envy adds to what

jealousy means in Buddhism In addition to the inability to bear others accomplishments

envy is the wish to have these accomplishments for ourselves Therefore envy has the

element of what Buddhism calls covetousness (Bnab sem) Berzin (2004) points out that

envy as a combination of jealousy and covetousness leads to competitiveness Jealousy

is thus a disturbing emotion that drives us to become highly competitive and to work

fanatically to outdo others or ourselves Failure can cause much pain and success can lead

to further greed Jealousy has elements of resentment and hostility In addition it has

strong elements of insecurity and mistrust (Berzin 2004)

In the Abhidhamma text jealousy is opposite to compassion and appreciative joy

Lama Zopa Rinpoche (1973) states that rejoicing is the best remedy for jealousy and

envy (pl) Buddhist teaching maintains that we must rejoice for others success and

68

happiness and think that they created their own cause for their happiness Similarly in a

GNH society we must rejoice for others success and happiness Jealousy disturbs our

peace of mind and causes much suffering We cannot achieve GNH if we are all jealous

of others Jealousy is therefore opposed to GNH values

Mullen (1995) points out that men and women experience different types of

emotions when they are jealous These include pain distress oppression anxiety

sadness apprehension anger restless distress humiliation shame agitation and

betrayal All of these are negative and against happiness or wellbeing In order to

achieve GNH it is important to rule out the presence of such negative emotions Since

jealousy is directly opposed to the psychological wellbeing of people it is appropriate

that it be an indicator of GNH

In order to collect the data for this indicator the following question is asked of the

respondents (Box 1) The sufficiency cut off is set at never which means that

respondents are given full score when they answer never In a GNH state it is hoped or

expected that a person would never feel jealous Buddhism similarly marks jealousy as

non-virtuous and afflictive regardless of their degree in which they arise The sufficiency

cut-off which is set at never therefore also corresponds to Buddhist principles

How often do you experience jealousy

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 1 Survey question of Jealousy Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

69

2 Selfishness

The second indicator selfishness refers to an unwillingness to share because of

craving something for oneself Selfishness in Buddhism originates from attachment and

greed In Buddhism selfishness is closely related to the Buddhist term Serna (Negi

1999) Serna in the Abhidhamma text is termed as immoral consciousness (p96) and

appears as delusion arising out of a wrong view attachment and greed Negi (1999)

states that it is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity (p93)

Selfishness is also synonymous with the Tibetan Buddhist terms Rangdoed and lNoe

zirtwhich literally mean self-centered desire and material attachment respectively

Buddhist teachings condemn the idea of self or I from which selfishness arises As

explained in Chapter Three Buddhism teaches no-self (anatta) as an essential

principle The doctrine of no-self is to help us let go of our attachment and ego In one

of his interviews with FOR Atv the Dalai Lama (2008) narrates an incident in which a

rich couple asked him for a blessing He replied to them You are wealthy share your

wealth with the needy ones this will be the real blessing for you This indicates that

Buddhists believe in replacing selfishness with generosity to attain inner joy In

particular the paramita of ethics (see Chapter Three) emphasizes restraining self-

centeredness and to rooting it out completely The Dalai Lama (2000) states that the

ethic of restraining self-centeredness is crucial (p 101) A selfish attitude according to

Buddhism obstructs the path towards achieving Bodhisattva and thus genuine happiness

Selfishness gives rise to negative Karma leading one to be reborn in the lower realms

70

Similarly since the concept of GNH supports the idea of interdependence selfishness is

opposed to the GNH values

Under the selfishness indicator of GNH the participants are asked the following

question (See Box 2) For the answer never a full score is given which means that a

person should never feel selfish to get a positive GNH score This indicates that

selfishness is against the GNH essence Consistent with the Buddhist teachings the GNH

index similarly marks selfishness as a negative trait

How often do you experience selfishness

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 2 Survey question of Selfishness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

3 Frustration The American Heritage Stedmans Medical Dictionary defines frustration as a

condition that results when an impulse or an action is thwarted by an external or an

internal force There is no exact term for frustration in Buddhism but it can be related to

the term gopa which is translated as agitation Negi (1999) describes gopa as a

mental factor that disturbs the inner calm and focus of the mind (p44) Gopa forms

part of the twenty secondary delusions in the Abhidhamma In the Bhutanese national

language Ouggam1 holds equivalent meaning to frustration Ouggam literally means

pressurizing the breath Oug is breath and gam means pressure When we pressurize our

self we get frustrated and this comes out as anger causing suffering to others and

ourselves

71

Frustration is without doubt a negative emotion because it disturbs the peace of

mind causing anxiety and stress Like jealousy and selfishness frustration arises out

of attachment and desire In Buddhism any emotion that arises out of ignorance desire

and hatred is afflictive and non-virtuous Similarly in a GNH society that seeks to

maximize the happiness and wellbeing of people frustration is a negative trait and

opposed to the concept of GNH because it obstructs the path towards happiness Since

frustration has a negative impact on wellbeing it is necessary to determine if such

emotions occur frequently among people Therefore it is appropriate to have it as a

negative indicator of psychological wellbeing

The question (Box 3) how often do you experience frustration is asked of

respondents Since frustration hampers wellbeing respondents who never experience

frustration are given a full GNH score Respondents who often or sometimes

experience frustration are given a negative score

How often do you experience frustration

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 3 Survey question of Frustration Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

4 Suicidal Thoughts

Suicidal thoughts usually occur when one is no longer able to bear suffering in

life According to Buddhism suicide is an unwholesome act since it is encouraged by a

mind filled with greed hatred and delusion (Dhammananda nd) Killing is one of the ten

non-virtuous actions in Buddhism so any act of killing is unwholesome and suicide is

72

therefore an unwholesome act The Buddhist teachings on Karma maintain that death by

suicide only leads to another cycle of rebirth in the same condition Buddha Dharma

Education Association (nd) explains that in order for the act of killing to have its

complete and unmitigated power five conditions must be present a living being the

awareness of the existence of a living being the intention to kill the living being the

effort or action of killing the living being and the consequent death of the living being

Suicide will always lack the last element of a complete Karma because the one who

commits the act will already be dead at the time of the completion of the action

Therefore suicide becomes a defective action and is not completed as an act of killing

leading to rebirth in the same condition (Sopa 2005) The Dalai Lama (1981) states that

even if we take our own life we will have to take another body that again will be the

basis of suffering In order to get rid of all the difficulties we experience we need to get

rid of the fundamental cause (greed hatred and delusion) that gives rise to the aggregates

that are the basis of all suffering He adds that killing yourself is not going to solve your

problems Suicide in Buddhism is therefore a non-virtuous act that arises because of

afflictive emotion

According to Buddhism suicide does not end the problem The famous Buddhist

painting of truth depicts that death is only the beginning of another cycle of pain and

suffering Buddhists therefore do not support suicide and instead encourage constructive

living using this life to diligently practice virtuous action thus changing the present and

the future for the better

Research indicates that suicide and attempted suicide are associated with

elevated levels of anger anxiety guilt sadness and shame (Berenbaum Raghavan Le

73

Vernon Gomez 1999 p 279) Depression is found to be the main cause of suicides The

most common factors that push youth to commit suicide according to Bhutanese

psychiatrist Dr Nirola are peer and parental pressures competitive scenarios and failure

to get a job among others (as cited by Dorji 2010) This indicates that suicidal thoughts

occur because of what Buddhism calls the three poisons leading to further afflictive

emotions

Suicidal thoughts similarly are against the essence of GNH and therefore a

negative indicator of psychological wellbeing Under the GNH index a person who has

never thought of committing suicide (See Box 4) is given a foil GNH score while

respondents who have thought of committing suicide are given negative scores Overall

the indicator of suicidal thought finds groundings in Buddhist teachings

Have you ever seriously thought of committing suicide

1 Yes 2 No

Box 4 Survey question of Suicidal Thought Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Jealousy frustration selfishness and suicidal thoughts are negative emotions that

affect individuals and the societys wellbeing Satya Dev Negi (1996) asserts that the

distorted emotional states have achieved such a pervasive status that our era may become

known to history as the Age of Emotional Epidemic (p2) The effects of negative

emotions are clearly visible in society increasing crime substance abuse suicide and

divorce are all symptoms of emotional dysfunction

The entire Buddhist tradition evolved as a study of mental and emotional states

and ways to transform the negative emotions into positive ones Although Buddhism sees

74

ignorance desire and hatred as the main causes of suffering the three poisons come out

in the form of various negative emotions which include jealousy frustration and

selfishness Scientific research has revealed the role emotions play in affecting health the

immune system blood pressure and cardiovascular functions Research also indicates

that individuals with emotional disturbances are prone to induce negative effects upon

those with whom they have ongoing relationships (Berenbaum et al 1999) Besides

evaluation of the frequency of negative emotions it is important for the government to

know the reasons or the conditions that give rise to these negative emotions GNH as

policy must attend to it them

Overall all of the four indicators are directly opposed to the essence of GNH and

therefore it is appropriate to have them as indicators in order to minimize or eliminate

the presence of such negative emotions in a country Further all of these indicators are

rooted in Buddhism

b Positive Emotions

The process for accomplishing happiness in Buddhism involves uprooting the

negative emotions and enhancing the positive ones The three indicatorsmdashgenerosity

calmness and compassionmdashare positive because these emotions bring happiness to

oneself and others The practice of paramitas as explained in Chapter Three encourages

replacing the three poisons by practicing generosity ethics compassion and meditative

concentration Similarly generosity calmness and compassion are considered positive

indicators of psychological wellbeing

75

5 Generosity

Generosity is the act of giving and a means to overcome greed and selfishness In

Buddhism the practice of generosity (Dana Paramita- jinba) as laid down in Chapter

Three is one of the six paramitas and a way to practice compassion Buddhism maintains

that the practice of generosity in addition to the fivefold benefit to the one practicing it

brings happiness to others too Generosity is a moral practice that relates to positive

virtues such as compassion and loving kindness the cultivation of which leads to mental

development and spiritual happiness Through generosity we are able to extend ourselves

and help others The whole idea of generosity supports the concept of interdependence

which is the core principle of GNH and Buddhism The Centre for Bhutan Studies terms

generosity a positive emotion of great importance and a desirable habit Generosity as

an indicator is therefore coherent with the GNH principle as it promotes happiness for

oneself and others The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 5) for the

collection of data

How often do you experience generosity

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 5 Survey question of Generosity Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

The sufficiency cut off has been set as often which means a person should

frequently experience the feeling of generosity to get the full GNH score In a GNH

3 See Chapter Three

76

society people must help each other and promote a healthy environment Helping does

not necessarily mean giving all your possessions to others but it does entail sharing a part

of your wealth and being helpful in many ways An example would be a voluntary

service to society and charity Happiness derived by the act of generosity which does not

get included in the Gross Domestic Product (Hewavitharana 2004) should be included in

the evaluation of GNH Therefore generosity as an indicator of psychological

wellbeing is coherent with and appropriate to the concept of GNH

6 Calmness

Calmness refers to the clarity of mind and it entails patience and tolerance

Calmness is opposed to anger which is one of the three poisons in Buddhism The

Buddhist practice of Kshanita paramita the practice of patience and tolerance stresses

the importance of having a calm and composed mind at all times Patience in Buddhism

as seen in Chapter Three refers to having the strength to face the challenges and

difficulties of life without losing composure and inner tranquility In the Abhidhamma

text equanimity (long nyom) which is synonymous with calmness is listed as the

tenth positive secondary consciousness and a wholesome mental factor (Negi 1999)

Any mind that experiences such emotion becomes automatically positive states Negi

(1999) When we are calm we develop a tendency not to harm others and we are usually

at our best when we are calm Tranquility gives rise to clarity from which understanding

and wisdom grow (Graham 2007) A calm mind is therefore very essential for living a

happy and healthy life On the other hand constant fear and anger affect our own health

and overall wellbeing Horton (2010) states that through mental calmness one can

77

experience inner peace and as a result success too Calmness is therefore a virtue

consistent with GNH ideals

The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 6) for the collection of

data

How often do you experience calmness

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 6 Survey question of Calmness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Respondents who often feel calm are given the full GNH score which means in a GNH

society people should experience calmness frequently Overall this indicator can be

linked to Buddhist teachings and is coherent with GNH values as well

7 Compassion

Compassion is a wish to relieve the suffering of others and is central to Buddhist

practice As mentioned earlier in Chapter Three it is the most essential and important

trait for bodhisattvas within Mahayana Buddhism Mahayanists maintain that only

through developing a compassionate heart can one practice the other essential virtues

For example without being compassionate we will not develop a genuine sense of

generosity The compassion in Buddhism not only arises out of empathy towards the

suffering of others but from understanding and realizing the meaning of emptiness the

law of Karma and interdependence viewing self and others as devoid of inherent

meaning Compassion thus leads to the practice of loving kindness and helps to

78

overcome afflictive emotions such as hatred jealousy and selfishness which are

considered negative under the psychological wellbeing indicators

Compassion a profound human emotion can be a powerful means to creating a

GNH society When one is compassionate the thought of harming others does not arise

and this attitude cultivates a genuine sense to work toward everyones benefit The CBS

(2008) similarly holds compassion as an approach to sympathy for the suffering of

others which is necessary to establish a compassionate society Thinking about the

suffering of others and not just ones own is important for a GNH society Further

scientific studies suggest that individuals including children who may engage in

bullying people and society in general could benefit from practices of compassion (Lutz

Lewis Johnstone Davidson 2008) Therefore compassion as an indicator is very much

coherent with the GNH values

The following question (Box 7) is asked of respondents to find out how

compassionate they are The sufficiency cut off similar to the indicator of generosity

and calmness has been set at often which means a person should frequently

experience compassion to get the full GNH score

How often do you experience compassion

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 7 Survey question of Compassion Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Overall the presence of emotions such as compassion calmness and generosity

have a positive impact on physical wellbeing on decision-making process and on the

79

potential for leading a happy life Further each of the three indicators is clearly related to

the Buddhist practice of paramitas

43 Spiritual Practices

From the Buddhist perspective the indicators under this section consist of

practices to overcome negative or afflictive emotions Practicising them with sincerity

can hold negative emotions at bay

8 Frequency of Meditation

The Buddhists consider meditation a very important method to calm the mind

The eightfold noble path and the paramita of meditative concentration emphasizes the

importance of meditation as a means to destroy the three root causes of suffering (desire

hatred and ignorance) Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) states that the Buddhist meditative

practice does not merely suppress the destructive mental states but trains the mind to see

directly and concretely how the mind functions and using this understanding tames and

masters our own mind freeing it from afflictive states Many Buddhist masters prescribe

meditation as the key to finding happiness and peace of mind Tashi (2004) points out

that the important egalitarian aspects of meditation are its accessibility to everybody with

little or no cost involved Researchers have shown that Buddhists who meditate may be

able to train their minds to feel genuine happiness and control aggressive instincts

(Connor 2003) Another study of Buddhist meditation by scientists at the University of

California has found that meditation might tame the amygdale the part of the brain

involved with fear and anger Studies have also shown that even brief courses of

80

meditation with very short periods of the simplest meditative practices are associated

with better psychological and physical health (Levenson etal 2004) The CBS does not

link meditation to Buddhism but it is implicit that the indicators are inspired by Buddhist

teachings

Aside from the spiritual connotations meditation is a powerful method to calm

our mind (Connor 2003) Research has shown that practicing meditation regularly has

beneficial effects for a range of conditions These include stress anxiety depression

poor sleep and coping with chronic pain It also has other health benefits such as reduced

inflammation improved immunity and lower blood pressure A study conducted by three

universities (University of Wisconsin West Virginia University and University of

Reading) found that calmness and compassion could be developed through the practice of

meditation Lutz Lewis Johnstone and Davidson (2008) state that the long-term goal of

meditation is to weaken egocentric traits so that altruistic behaviors might arise more

frequently and spontaneously Meditation is indeed the best method to make the mind

relaxed and peaceful Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) maintains that the gift of learning to

meditate is the greatest gift you can gift yourself in this life (p58) He adds for it is

only through meditation that you can undertake the journey to discover your true nature

and so find the stability and confidence you will need to live and die well (p58)

The benefits of meditation as pointed out by the Buddhist teachings and supported

by modern research are immense The practice of meditation thus surely will have a

positive impact on the wellbeing of people which directly contributes to the essence of

GNH Having meditation as a GNH indicator signifies the importance the government is

putting on the benefits it provides The following question (Box 8) is asked of

respondents regarding the practice of meditation

Do you practice meditation

1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all

Box 8 Survey question of meditation Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

The sufficiency cut-off for meditation has been set as occasionally which means

one must practice meditation occasionally to get a full GNH score Although meditation

is considered a very important practice in Buddhism meditation among the lay

population is not popular in Bhutan According to the survey conducted by CBS (2008)

904 of respondents do not meditate at all This may arise from the fact that Bhutan

still does not have any meditation centre for lay people This may also be the reason why

the sufficiency cut-off has been set as occasionally instead of daily Very recently

meditation has been introduced in Bhutanese schools It however needs to be introduced

among lay population too Overall the indicator of mediation is coherent with GNH

values Further since Buddhism greatly stresses the importance of meditation the

indicator seems to have been influenced by Buddhism

9 Prayer Recitation

Prayer is a form of religious practice that seeks to connect to some greater power

Most religions involve prayer in one way or another The purpose of Buddhist prayer is to

awaken the inherent inner capacities of strength compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)

The translation for the word prayer in Bhutanese national language is thuen which

82

literally means the recitation of mantras Buddhism emphasizes the recitation of prayershy

like mantras A mantra is a word a syllable a phrase or a short prayer that is spoken

once or repeated over and over again (either aloud or in a persons head) and that is

thought to have a profound spiritual effect on the person (BBC 2006 p 1) Mantra

literally means that which protects the mind from negativity (Sogyal Rimpoche 2002

p71) Mantra Sogyal Rimpoche states is the essence of sound and embodiment of the

truth in the form of sound Each syllable contains spiritual power and vibrates with the

blessing of the speech of the Buddha There are mantras that are thought to subtly alter

ones mind and make a connection with a particular Buddha or enlightened being

Buddhists believe that when certain mantras are said many times they arouse good

vibrations within the person they awaken our inherent inner capacities of strength

compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)

A prayer can be silent meditation or a full chorus of chanting (Hanh 2006) In

Buddhism praying involves two important aspects the first is establishing a relationship

between ourselves and the one to whom we are praying This refers to reflecting on the

great qualities of the Buddha which involves visualization The second is regarding

effective prayer which is the idea of cultivating the energy of love mindfulness and

right concentration in prayer To pray effectively our body and mind must dwell

peacefully in the present moment (Hanh 2006) It is common that Buddhists lay prostrate

while praying This is a position that diminishes the ego opens one up and brings one

close to the earth (Hanh 2006 p 63) Since reciting prayers requires mindfulness and

concentration the paramita of meditative concentration extends to prayers too The

83

Buddhist Faith Fellowship of Connecticut asserts that Buddhist prayer is a form of

meditation and practice of inner reconditioning Similarly Sogyal Rimpoche (2002)

explains that reciting mantras is one of the meditation techniques He calls it uniting the

mind with the sound of mantra When one is nervous disoriented or emotionally fragile

reciting a mantra inspiringly can change the state of the mind completely by transforming

its energy and atmosphere He also mentions that mind rides on the subtle energy of

breath and when you chant a mantra you are charging your breath and energy with the

energy of the mantra so working directly on the mind and subtle body (p71) The

practice of reciting mantra for inner reconditioning is distinctively Buddhist

In addition to reciting mantras a majority of the Bhutanese Buddhists pray to

local deities It is a very popular belief in Bhutan that deities can protect us from evil

forces In a real sense this is not Buddhism because the Buddha never prayed to anyone

Buddhism stresses the recitation of mantras to awaken our inner qualities As mentioned

earlier Bhutan was largely a Bon country prior to the entry of Buddhism Bonism

emphasized worshipping the deities Buddhism in many countries flourished with

polytheistic features For example in Japan Buddhism mixed with Shinto which

worships kamis (nature spirits) created a tradition of praying to the kamis Bhutans

national newspaper Kuensel reported that Bonism mixed with Buddhism is still prevalent

in the country (Wangchuk 2005) The rituals of the Bon often include animal sacrifices

but animal sacrifices are discouraged in the country However many pray and perform

rituals to appease the local deities (yu-lha) For example in the village of Bongo under

Chukha district people worship and pray to two sister deities They also summon other

84

deities and spirits residing in mountains valleys lakes forests streams and cliffs

invoking them to assist and protect people from misfortunes (as cited by Wangchuk

2005) Similarly people in the capital Thimphu pray to a local deity located in the upper

valley Although this is not distinctively Buddhism (Powers 1995) it is an age-old

tradition that has been absorbed by Bhutanese Buddhists long ago This is now

considered an integral part of Bhutanese Buddhist culture

The following question (Box 9) is asked of respondents A person who prays

daily meets the sufficiency cutoff which means heshe is given a full GNH score

Do you sayrecite prayers

1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all

Box 9 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Although reciting prayers in Buddhism is seen as a method ofmeditation both

are given different sufficiency cut offs A person who meditates occasionally is given a

full score while a person who prays occasionally is not given a full score The different

sufficiency cut offs for the two different practices indicates that the prayer recitation

indicator is intended to be different from meditation However prayer recitation in

Buddhism itself is a form of meditation CBS mentions that those indicators which are

highly uncorrelated were selected but from a pure Buddhist perspective the two seem to

be closely related since both fall under the paramita of meditative concentration The

CBS does not mention how prayer recitation is consistent with GNH values

Nevertheless the benefits of prayer recitation and meditation maybe the same because

85

both practices require mindfulness and concentration In this sense prayer recitation too

is coherent with GNH To conclude prayer in the form of mantra accords with Buddhist

principles while prayer to deities is a local Buddhist practice Therefore the indicator of

prayer recitation seems to have been influenced by Buddhism with traces of local beliefs

10 Taking account of Karma

As seen in chapter three Karma is a very important Buddhist principle that guides

the Buddhist psyche The law of Karma provides the basis to practice the paramita of

ethics (sila) Karma as one of the GNH indicators clearly implies that Buddhism has

influenced the indicator The literal meaning of taking account of Karma is being

morally responsible for our own actions When a person takes account of Karma in daily

life heshe is being aware and morally responsible for their actions on which the result

depends When we understand the law of Karma we are discouraged from performing

non-virtuous or unwholesome actions which cause suffering Realizing that Karma

conditions and determines our happiness we will refrain from unwholesome behavior to

avoid the negative effects of these actions Similarly understanding that virtuous actions

bear the fruit of happiness one is encouraged to practice wholesome actions The law of

causality therefore promotes moral and ethical life

The sufficiency cutoff for taking account of Karma (Box 10) has been set as

daily indicating that a person who takes account of Karma daily is given a full GNH

score

86

Do you consider Karma in the course of your daily life

1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all

Box 10 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

For a country pursing GNH it is important to take account of Karma on a daily

basis because Karma promotes healthy and ethical living ideal for a GNH state

According to CBS for Bhutanese an understanding of the dynamics between causes

and effects are critical to each individuals pursuit for happiness as it tends to provide a

clearer understanding and cultivation of GNH values (pl) Understanding that the real

reason for our sufferings is our own Karma (action through body speech and mind)

serves as an antidote to all our afflictive emotions Karma promotes the sense of helping

each other and living in harmony with all forms of life It is therefore important that a

GNH society take account of Karma daily to promote wholesome actions for a happy

society The indicator of taking account of Karma daily is thus a reflection of Buddhist

principles and is consistent with GNH values

43 General Mental Health (GMH)

11 General Mental Health

The general mental health indicator assesses the mental health of people using the

General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) that would provide a possible indication of

depression anxiety low confidence and concentration levels Unlike the other indicators

under the psychological wellbeing domain the General Mental Health indicator consists

87

of fifteen questions (See Appendix 2) Questions related to ones stress level ability to

concentrate anxiety depression feeling of happiness and unhappiness are asked of the

respondents The questions are calculated and interpreted using the Likert scale with

lowest score at 0 and highest possible score at 36 A lower score between the ranges of 0-

15 indicates normal mental wellbeing a median score between 16-20 indicates some

mental distress and a high score of 21-36 indicates severe mental distress (CBS 2008)

The sufficiency cut-off is set as normal mental wellbeing which means people should

not experience any mental distress to get a full GNH score

The CBS (2008) asserts that mental health is an important indicator for the health

status of a population Studies have revealed that mental stress can negatively affect

wellbeing Studies also point out that stress may alter the immune system and increase

susceptibility to disease (CBS 2008)

From the Buddhist perspective psychological distress such as depression lack of

confidence and anxiety are the result of our own afflictive emotions Gyatso (2009)

points out that the overriding cause of mental stress is self-cherishingmdashseeing ones own

physical and mental pleasure as more important than anybody elses People who have

the tendency to use more self-referential terms (I me myself) tend to have more health

problems and earlier deaths (Dalai Lama 2009) According to Buddhism it is our own

ego the focus on the notion of I that cause us to suffer The causes of mental distress

thus lie within us Since cause is within us the cure is also in our own mind Buddhist

teachings maintain that meditating on emptiness4 can get rid of the notion of T Thus

4 A meditation technique

88

mental distress similar to other negative emotions are a result of ignorance desire and

hatred

Ven Thubten Gyatso (2009) a Buddhist teacher points out two reasons why

selfishness can cause mental illness The first is that unhappiness arising from

selfishness is cumulative When we do not obtain what we want we often over-react to a

ridiculous extent and our selfish behavior isolates us from others The accumulation of

small failures in life erodes our self-confidence and we fall into depression The second

reason he points out is that selfishness prevents us from doing the one thing that is

guaranteed to bring happiness - cherishing others being compassionate and generous

Self-obsession and self-centered thoughts blind us and we do nothing to help others In

Buddhism self-centeredness never brings real joy and satisfaction but instead causes

suffering

The mind drives every action that occurs through the body speech and mind

The causal factor therefore lies within us It is our ability to deal with emotions that

influences the mental state Since mental stress obstructs the path towards happiness it

opposes the goal of GNH It is therefore important to assess the stress levels of the

population to identify the risk group Intervention by government and offering remedy

(for example offering counseling) and monitoring changes over time can help people

pursue happiness

44 Summary

The purpose of this study is to determine to what extent the indicators under the

psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with

89

the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH Findings in this chapter reveal the following

The four indicators related to negative emotionsmdashjealousy selfishness frustration

suicidal thoughtmdashdo appear in Buddhism Jealousy (dhrag-dog) is clearly stated as an

afflictive emotion while the Buddhist teachings condemn the idea ofself through

which selfishness arises Although the exact term does not appear in Buddhism

frustration is closely related to the meaning of gopa or agitation which arises as a result

of the three poisons Buddhism holds that lack of wisdom or holding on to wrong views

leads to suicidal thoughts Jealousy selfishness frustration and suicidal thought thus

arise out of the three poisons ignorance desire and hatred All four indicators are what

Buddhism calls Klesha afflictive emotions that disturb the mind of oneself and others

thus obstructing the path towards happiness Similarly general mental health distress is a

result of afflictive emotion Buddhist teachings particularly points out that holding on to

the idea of self leads to mental stress

The indicators related to the three positive emotions (Generosity Compassion

and Calmness) and three spiritual practices (Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking

account of Karma) are clearly related to the Buddhist teachings on six paramitas

Generosity is the first paramita a practice towards achieving genuine happiness

Compassion is the root of all Mahayana Buddhist practices and an essential component of

the practice of six paramitas The indicator of calmness is related to Kshanti paramita

which entails the practice of patience tolerance and endurance Similarly the indicator

of meditation and prayer recitation is related to the Buddhist practice of meditative

concentration which is the fourth practice Dhayana paramita Prayer recitation

however does have elements of Bon practices which have been deeply absorbed by the

90

local Buddhist culture The indicator of taking account of Karma is clearly influenced by

Buddhism Karma promotes the practice of ethics which is sila paramita that stresses

avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and engaging in virtuous action Overall all of the

positive emotions and practices require wisdom which is prajna paramita The core

teachings of Buddhism thus find a place in each of the indicators Thus it would be

appropriate to conclude that the indicators have been influenced by Buddhism

Each of indicators either contributes to or negatively affects GNH In a GNH

society it is important to establish that people not only experience positive emotions but

also rule out the presence of negative emotions that can cause mental distress It is also

important to determine if people take up spiritual practices to keep the negative emotions

at bay Therefore each indicator under psychological wellbeing relates positively or

negatively with the concept of GNH It can thus be concluded that the indicators of

psychological wellbeing are consistent with GNH values

91

CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMMENDATIONS

From the very beginning of its development plan Bhutan chose to ensure the

preservation of its culture tradition and natural resources This came to be called the

philosophy of GNH where peoples spiritual and emotional wellbeing is afforded equal

importance to economic wellbeing GNH recognizes that economic development without

spiritual and emotional wellbeing will not bring happiness to people Several workshops

and discourses held on GNH led to the adoption of the GNH Index a set of indicators to

measure whether Bhutanese society is progressing towards GNH The index comprises

72 indicators grouped under nine domains that go beyond material values and incorporate

all values relevant to a happy life The GNH index is now the most important tool in

guiding the performance of the government towards achieving the goal of GNH The

purpose of this study was to determine to what extent the indicators under the

psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with

the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH The three questions that drove this study are

To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do the indicators reflect

Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept of GNH which does

reflect Buddhist principles The primary data that were used are the eleven indicators and

survey questionnaires developed by the Centre for Bhutan Studies The findings from the laquo

study reveal that each of the indicators under psychological wellbeing reflects Buddhist

principles The ultimate goal in Buddhism is to achieve genuine happiness Inspired by

this belief Bhutan is the only country in the world that officially pursues the state of

happiness The government believes that happiness is in the end what matters the most

92

The government has taken the utmost responsibility to create an enabling condition for

people to pursue happiness The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index

measures peoples psychological state which influences the overall wellbeing of people

Since the purpose of this study is to determine the extent to which indicators

reflected Buddhist principles it was necessary to highlight the key Buddhist principles

related to happiness Chapter Three examined the key Buddhist principles related to

happiness Specifically Thogme Zangpos teachings on the six paramitas were used as a

basis to develop the framework of happiness It was observed that happiness is not only

worldly pleasure derived from physical comfort but also an innate state of mind which

can be cultivated through the practice of compassion generosity ethics meditative

concentration patience and wisdom This can bring happiness to the individual and to

the society Although GNH stresses collective happiness Buddhism states that peace

must first be developed in the individual mind before it can contribute to others and the

happiness of the society Thus in the words of Master Shantideva it is not primarily the

outer conditions of our life that determine our happiness or suffering it is our own mind

that creates the cause for happiness or success

Humans experience many emotions and narrowing them down to eleven

indicators is not an easy task There is a strong relationship between emotions and

wellbeing The intensity of pleasant and unpleasant emotions influences the degree of

psychological wellbeing Studies have also shown that emotions play an integral role in

affecting the overall physical health Emotions also have powerful effects in shaping and

regulating social interactions and influencing how one appears to others Like the mind-

93

transforming practices in Buddhism the key to a nations progress lies in tracing

problems and solutions to the root causes

The indicators under the psychological wellbeing domain measure peoples

emotional state and the frequency of spiritual practices to eliminate negative emotion

Findings in Chapter Four reveal that each of the indicators of psychological wellbeing

correlates to Buddhist principles on happiness The relationship between the indicators of

psychological wellbeing and Buddhist principles are presented in the table below

Indicators Buddhist Principles

1 Jealousy Dhrag Dhog- Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

2 Selfishness Serna - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

3 Frustration Gopa - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

4 Suicidal Thought Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

5 Generosity Dana Paramita (Bjin ba) Generosity

6 Compassion The root of all Buddhist practices

7 Calmness Kshanti Paramita (Bzod pa) Patience tolerance endurance

8 Meditation Dhyana Parmto Meditative Concentration

9 Prayer Recitation Dhyana ParmitaMeditative Concentration

10 Karma Sila Paramita (Tshul khrim) virtue morality ethics

11 General Mental Health Klesha (Afflictive emotions) causes mental distress

Table 1 Relating the Indicators with Buddhism

The four negative emotion indicatorsmdashselfishness frustration jealousy and

suicidal thoughtmdashare found in Buddhism as afflictive emotions (klesha) arising out of the

three poisons Jealousy (dharg dhog) appears in the Abhidhamma text as an immoral and

94

deluded mental factor that feels displeasure in seeing others succeed Similarly

selfishness (sema) is listed as an immoral consciousness in the Abhidhamma Selfishness

is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity Buddhism teaches no-

self (anatta) as an essential principle and therefore strongly condemns the notion of I

through which selfishness arises Frustration in Buddhism is closely related to the term

gopa which is actually translated as agitation Gopa falls under the twenty secondary

immoral delusions in the Abhidhamma text Suicides and suicidal thought in Buddhism

are the result of wrong view Suicide is an unwholesome action and does not end the

problem Suicidal thought occurs because of afflictive emotions (klesha) All these

negative emotions (klesha) cause mental distress

The positive emotion and spiritual practice indicators such as compassion

calmness generosity meditation prayer recitation and taking account of Karma are the

replication of the six paramitas The positive emotions which Buddhists call virtuous

action such as generosity compassion and calmness tend to increase happiness in oneself

and others while negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration affect

psychological health and decrease happiness Since each of the indicators can be clearly

related to Buddhist principles of happiness it can thus be concluded that the

psychological wellbeing indicators are influenced by Buddhism and are consistent with

the concept of GNH One may argue that indicators such as compassion generosity and

calmness are universal values and ethics and may not necessarily be influenced by

Buddhism However in the case of Bhutan the Bhutanese worldview and its political

ethos are largely influenced by Buddhism The philosophy of GNH is also rooted in

Buddhism It is also evident that the government is seeking to measure and cater to long-

95

term rather than short-term happiness From the Buddhist perspective short-term

happiness is delivered chiefly by material goods while long-term happiness is derived

from spiritual cultural and social values

This study reveals that Buddhism stresses gaining control over our mind and

cultivating the right kind of habit which is said to be the root of all forms of joy and

happiness Buddhism in the original sense encourages exercises to tame and calm the

mind This study therefore partly seems to support the claims made by scholars such as

Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and Tashi (2004) who have argued that

Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH

Overall this study indicates that if the government creates good policies and

conditions for people GNH cannot be achieved if its citizens are not psychologically

strong For example if citizens are mentally stressed or filled with jealousy they will not

contribute to collective happiness In that sense happiness is inextricably linked to the

inner conditions of ones own mind

Measuring the psychological state of people will help the policy makers make

better decisions The emotional and psychological needs of people therefore must be

considered by the policy makers in order to achieve GNH A study by Sheldon Ryan

Deci and Kasser (2004) found that people pursuing intrinsic goals (emotional intimacy

community contribution and personal growth) had higher happiness expectancies than

those pursuing extrinsic goals (financial success attractive image and famepopularity)

By emphasizing human values of compassion generosity calmness and selflessness as

necessary indicators of GNH the government of Bhutan is providing the basis for

developing policies that focus on these values The domain of psychological wellbeing

96

thus focuses on the inner emotional development Within the concept of GNH inner non-

material development is equally important as external material development

Recommendations for Future Studies

The biggest challenge for the government is to combat the negative emotions of

the people The findings of this study reveal that Buddhist teachings are all geared

towards taming the mind and cultivating values that promote happiness Further

Buddhism does not emphasize individualism but emphasizes equality and cooperation

aimed at collective happiness It emphasizes individual effort geared towards universal

happiness Buddhist teachings and method to calm the mind can contribute to GNH

Ekman Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) suggest that Buddhist practices offer a

therapy not just for the disturbed but for all who seek to improve the quality of their

lives Although the majority of the population in Bhutan is Buddhist 25 are non-

Buddhist (CIA fact book 2009) Some scholars have argued however that Buddhism

can also be taught as education on human values (Mancall 2004 amp Lokamitra 2004)

Therefore extensive research on how this might be done could provide valuable lessons

insights and guidelines for the purpose of promoting GNH values

As pointed out earlier there is not much information available on how the

sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From the information available on the

CBS website however it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut off is set at a level

that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises questions because

there is not any literature or studies conducted on how the sufficiency cut off has actually

been set Arbitrarily setting a cut off without any basis or setting it based on some

assumptions can lead to questionable results Therefore an in-depth study on the basis

97

for setting the sufficiency cut off seems necessary to avoid misinterpretation by policy

makers

This study analyzed the indicators to determine the extent to which they reflected

Buddhist principles However it was observed that indicators of psychological wellbeing

were measured by questionnaires that only examined the frequency of occurrence of

emotions and the spiritual practices It is important that the government not only

recognize peoples suffering but identify its causes as well For example the questionnaire

notes the frequency of negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration but

does not identify their causes In order for the policy makers to identify effective

solutions the cause must be noted also Further the key terms such as generosity

compassion frustration and prayer recitation were not clearly defined For example the

term generosity could imply the practice rather than the emotional state of generosity

One can practice generosity yet not feel emotionally generous a practice can differ from

an emotional state Similarly the choices of answers such as often sometimes daily have

not been defined These terms can mean different things to different people To avoid

misinterpretation it is necessary that the key terms be clearly defined and nuanced

This study focused only on one of the domains of GNH index Although a similar

study needs to be carried out for the other eight domains there is a need for further

investigation into many of the issues related to the GNH index such as How would the

GNH index affect the government policies Does the index give equal importance to the

emotional spiritual and economical wellbeing of the people Does the index capture the

real essence of human happiness

98

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Anguttara (nd) Dana Generosity Retrieved from (Anguttara IV 57) httpwwwbuddhamindinfoleftsidelifestv-2danahtm

Annas J (1999) Aristotles Ethics Critical Essay (p 35- 56)Edited by Nancy Sherman United States of America Rowman amp Littlefield Publishers Inc

Bancroft A (ed) (1997) The Dhammapada USA Element Inc

BBC (2006) Buddhist worships Retrieved from httpwwwbbccoukreligionreligionsbuddhisrncustomsworship 1 shtml

Berenbaum H Raghavan C Le H Vernon L amp Gomez J (1999) Disturbances in emotion In Daniel Kahneman Ed Diener and Norbert Schwarz (Eds) Wellbeing The foundation ofhedonic psychology (pp 267-287) New York Russell Sage Foundation

Berzin A (2004) Dealing with Jealousy Retrieved from httpwwwberzinarchivescomwebenarchivessutraylevel3 loiong materialgen eraldealing iealousvhtmln9203d70b0a90c002

Bhutan Observer (2010) A GNH School httpwwwbhutanobserverbt201 Qbhutan-news01a-gnh-schoolhtml

Boonyakiat S (2009) A Christian Theology of Suffering in the Context of Theravada Buddhism in Thailand

Brooks AC (2008) Gross National Happiness Why Happiness Matters for America and How We Can Get More of It USA

Buddha Dharma Education Association (NA) Fundamentals of Buddhism Karma Retrieved from httpwwwbuddhanetnetfundbud9htm

Buddhist Faith Fellowship of Connecticut (nd) Buddhist Prayers Retrieved from httpbuddhistfaithtripodcompureland sanghaid 14html

Business Bhutan (April 172010) A meditating school Retrieved from httpwwwbusinessbhutanbtp= 1366

99

Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) (2008) Explanation of GNH Index Centre for Bhutan Studies Retrieved on June 12 2009 from httpwwwgrossnationalhappinesseomgnhIndexintruductionGNHaspx

Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) (2008) Dimension Psychological Wellbeing Retrieved from httpwwwgrossnationalhappinesseomgnhIndexgnhlndexVariablesaspx

Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) (2008) Psychological Wellbeing Report Retrieved from httpwwwgrossnationalhappinesscomsurvevReportspsvchologicaIpwellbeingr eportdavidpdf

Central Intelligent Agency (CIA) (2009) Bhutan Retrieved from httpswwwciagovlibrarvpublicationsthe-world-factbookgeosbthtml

Chophel S (2008) Cultural diversity and resilience Journal of Bhutan Studies Centre for Bhutan Studies Thimphu Bhutan

Chopra S (2010) An exclusive interview with His Holiness the Dalai Lama Retrieved from httpwwwlifepositivecomspiritworld-religionsbuddhismdalai-interviewasp

Colman R (2008a) Application of the Genuine Progress Index to Nova Scotia Measuring Genuine Progress Indicators Accounts and Policy Retrieved from httpwwwgpiatlanticorgpdfintegratedpolicvapppdf

ColmanR(2008b) Measuring Progress towards Gross National Happiness Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference Held in Bhutan Retrieved on 30th

September 2009 from httpwwwbhutanstudiesorgbtadminpubFilesGNH41 GNH4pdf

ColmanR amp SagebienJ (2004) Measuring Genuine Progress- Indicators for Enlightened Society Proceedings of the First International Seminar on Operationalization of Gross National Happiness (p252- 259) Centre for Bhutan Studies

ConnorS(2003) Can Buddhists transcend mental reservations Retrieved on 14th April 2010 from httpwwwbiopsvchiatrvcomhappinessbuddhisthtml

Creswell J W (2007) Qualitative inquiry and research design Choosing among five approaches (2nd ed) Thousand Oaks CA SAGE

Dalai Lama (1981) Four noble truths A teaching given in Dharamsala Retrieved from httpwww Iamaveshecomindex phpsect=articleampid=380

100

List of Tables

Table 1 Relating the Indicators with Buddhism

VI

List of Figures

Figure 1 Map of Bhutan (Source CIA Fact Book) 4

Figure 2 Suffering and its causes 53

Figure 3 Overcoming Suffering 54

vii

List of Abbreviations

CBS Centre for Bhutan Studies

CIA Central Intelligence Agency

DPT Druk Phuensum Tshogpa

FYP Five Year Plan

GDP - Gross Domestic Product

GHQ General Health Questionnaire

GNH Gross National Happiness

GNHC Gross National Happiness Commission

GPI Genuine Progress Index

HDI Human Development Index

MoA Ministry of Agriculture

MoHE Ministry of Health and Education

NEC National Environment Commission

NSB National Statistic Bureau

RGoB Royal Government of Bhutan

TCoB Tourism Council of Bhutan

UNDP United Nation Development Programme

viii

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

Measuring the wellbeing of people is important in determining whether peoples

lives are improving or worsening over time Many countries in the world today focus on

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as a basis to measure the economic wellbeing of the

people Although GDP mainly measures market production it has been treated as if it

measures economic wellbeing The focus on economic growth measures fails to capture

fully the overall wellbeing of the people (Kusago 2006 Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009)

Due to the failure of GDP to measure the non-economic aspect of human wellbeing

alternative measurements such as Genuine Progress Index (GPI) and Human

Development Index (HDI) have been introduced GPI and HDI include many important

factors that contribute to healthy living but they are still calculated based on monetary

values (Hargen 2002 Kusago 2006) and do not capture the Bhutanese concept of Gross

National Happiness

Gross National Happiness (GNH) is the central development philosophy of

Bhutan (Planning Commission 1999) This unique philosophy aims at maximizing

human wellbeing and minimizing human suffering by balancing economic needs with the

spiritual and emotional needs of people Bhutans fourth king Jigme Singye Wangchuck

coined the term Gross National Happiness in the late 1980s when he stated that Gross

National Happiness is more important than Gross Domestic Product (as cited by Ura

2008 para 1) His vision was to create a GNH society which means the creation of an

enlightened society in which happiness and wellbeing of all people and sentient beings is

the ultimate purpose of governance (as cited by Ura 2008 para2) Since it was difficult

1

for the government to list every factor that contributes to the happiness of its people four

major areas were identified as the pillars of GNH cultural promotion equitable

economic development good governance and environmental conservation (Planning

Commission 1999) These four pillars constitute the broad strategic framework through

which national development processes are actualized for the maximization of GNH

Since the adoption of the concept of GNH the government has consistently

sought to address development beyond income or economic growth The country lacked

however a specific and relevant development index that takes into account the core

principles and dimensions of GNH In November 2008 coinciding with the coronation

of the fifth King of Bhutan Jigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchuck the Government of

Bhutan adopted the GNH index The purpose of the GNH index is to reflect GNH

values set benchmarks and track policies and performances of the country (Ura 2008

pl) Seventy-two measurable indicators grouped under nine domains have been

identified as the GNH index The Government of Bhutan states that the country is now

ready with a set of mathematical formulae to measure human wellbeing and government

performances towards achieving GNH (as cited by Dorji 2009) The purpose of this

study is to analyze the GNH index to determine the extent to which it reflects Buddhist

principles and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH

This chapter is divided into eight sections The first section presents a brief

background of Bhutan its people economy and culture The second section presents

Bhutans political journey from monarchy to democracy The concept of Gross National

Happiness is discussed in the third section The fourth section explains the nine domains

of the GNH index and how the GNH index is administered in the country The fifth

2

section presents the research questions and objective of the study The sixth section

presents the methodology of the study The seventh section lays down the significance

and limitation of the study The summary of this chapter and the outline of the study are

presented in the eighth section

11 The Bhutanese Economy and Culture

Bhutan is a tiny landlocked kingdom with a population of 691141 (Central

Intelligent Agency [CIA] Factbook 2009) and having a total area of 38394 square

kilometres (National Statistical Bureau 2007) The country is sandwiched between two

leading economies India and China (Figure 1) Until the 1960s Bhutan was the most

isolated nation in the world Today about 69 of the population in Bhutan are

smallholder agrarian farmers and they practice mainly mixed (crop and livestock)

farming systems (Gross National Happiness Commission 2010) Of the population

945 represent people from the age group of 0-64 years while only 55 of the

population are 65 years and above (CIA Factbook 2009) Bhutans GDP per capita was

estimated at $2218 in 2009 (International Monetary Fund 2010) The country is almost

entirely mountainous with altitudes ranging from 240 meters to 7541 meters above sea

level About 725 of the country consists of forest land (National Statistical Bureau

2007) and the policy of the government is to maintain at least 60 forest cover (Ministry

of Agriculture 2002) Bhutan has been declared one of the ten global biodiversity

Hotspots (National Environment Commission 1999)

The Bhutanese culture and development policies are greatly influenced by

Buddhism The philosophy of GNH has its roots in Buddhism Under this unique

3

philosophy Bhutan has been able to balance modernization with its ancient culture and

traditions From the very beginning of the enthronement in 1972 the fourth king Jigme

Singye Wangchuck was very clear that Gross National Happiness is more important than

Gross Domestic Product According to him happiness is the ultimate common goal of

every human being and everything else is a means for fulfilling this wish He believed

that happiness is an indicator of good development and good society (Thinley 2005)

This led the country to adopt GNH as its development priority

25 SO Km

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S Gasa Ozong

Toogsa THIMPHU Paro

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Samdrup Jongkhar Phuntsholing

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BANGLADESH

Figure 1 Map of Bhutan (Source CIA Fact Book)

4

12 Political History and Transition to Democracy

Bhutanese polity is said to have begun in 1616 with the arrival of Zhabdrung

Ngawang Namgyal from Tibet Through the spread of Buddhism Zhabdrung was able to

unify the country Buddhism provided the ideological basis for unifying Bhutan

(Mancall 2004) Zhabdrung was both a religious and political figure in Bhutan He was

the head of theocratic state that he himself created (Ministry of Health amp Education

[MoHE] 1994) He started the dual system of governance known as the Choesi system

where political affairs were looked after by the Desi1 and religious affairs by the head

abbot called the Jekhenpo Zhabdrung died in the year 1651 The official announcement

of his death was however made only in the year 1705 There were several reasons for

this chief of which there was no clear successor to Zhabdrung During the period 1651 -

1706 the country was ruled in the name of Zhabdrung who was said to be in religious

retreat by various Desi appointed under the Choesi system established by the Zhabdrung

himself (MoHE 1994) The period between 1705 to 1907 was marked by internal

stability and external invasion Ultimately in the year 1907 Ugyen Wangchuck was

unanimously elected as the first hereditary king of Bhutan (MoHE 1994) Since then

visionary descendants of the Wangchuck dynasty have ruled the country

Bhutans political system however evolved from a monarchy into a constitutional

democracy Democracy did not come to Bhutan overnight the process of democratization

was going on long before but slowly and cautiously King Jigme Singye Wangchuck

continued the policy of controlled development with particular focus on the preservation

A title given to the person who looks after the political matters in the country

5

of the environment and Bhutans unique culture Yet during his reign there was a steady

decentralization of decision-making processes which aimed to enhance peoples

participation in the formulation of development policies and activities and to strengthen

the traditional local institutions This process started largely in 1981 with the

establishment of the District Development Committees (Dzongkhag Yargye

Tshogchungs) and in 1991 with the establishment of the Block Development Committees

(Geog Yargye Tshogchungs) The people democratically elect all members of these

committees The most momentous change came in 1998 when the executive powers

previously held by the King was granted to the Council of Ministers (GNHC 2008)

On 17 December 2005 King Jigme Singye Wangchuck announced to a stunned

nation that the first general elections would be held in 2008 and that he would abdicate

the throne in favor of his eldest son the crown prince Jigme Khesar Namgyal

Wangchuck Unlike other countries where people fight for democracy the opposite

occurred in Bhutan people were given power without having to fight for it The fifth king

was formally crowned on November 6 2008 becoming the worlds youngest reigning

monarch and head of the newest democracy The fifth King like his father proclaimed

that fulfilling the vision of GNH would be one of the main responsibilities of his reign

He said As the king of a Buddhist nation my duty is not only to ensure your happiness

today but to create the fertile ground from which you may gain the fruits of spiritual

pursuit and attain good Karma (Wangchuck 2008 para8) The newly elected

government Druk Phuensum Tshogpa (DPT) is also committed to the principles of GNH

6

13 Gross National Happiness the Development Philosophy of Bhutan

The notion that the emotional and spiritual wellbeing of humans should be

included into the development policies is gaining a lot of international support The

importance of the concept of GNH is articulated in the policy document Bhutan 2020-A

Vision for Peace Prosperity and Happiness (Planning Commission 1999) which states

that its aim is to maximize the happiness of all Bhutanese and to enable them to achieve

their full and innate potential as human beings (p41) Reflecting the importance of the

concept the promotion of enabling conditions for GNH has also been enshrined as an

important principle of state policy under Article 9 of the Constitution (Royal Government

of Bhutan [RGoB] 2008)

GNH is a noble and holistic approach towards development It seeks to

complement inner happiness with outer circumstances It addresses both material and

non-material wellbeing Although material wealth is associated with physical wellbeing

ones mental state or inner wellbeing is not conditioned by material needs alone GNH

supports the notion that happiness pursued and realized within the context of the greater

good of society offers the best possibility for the sustained happiness of the individual

The society as a whole cannot obtain happiness if individuals compete irresponsibly for

it To this end GNH recognizes that happiness can be realized as a collective goal it

cannot be left as an individual goal (Thinley 2005 Ura 2008) Prime Minister Jigme

YThinley (2005) in his speech at the 2nd Conference of GNH at Halifax stated GNH

stresses collective happiness to be addressed directly through public policies in which

happiness is an explicit criterion in projects and programmes (p7) If a governments

policy framework and its goals are adverse to happiness happiness will fail as a

7

collective goal (Ura 2008) In the GNH context a government concerned with the

happiness of its citizens must create an enabling environment for people to achieve

happiness

The concept of GNH is greatly influenced by Buddhism The Bhutanese

worldview including its social cultural and political ethos is rooted in Buddhism The

policymakers in Bhutan hold the view that simply imposing development models from

outside which do not take religion and tradition into account will not only serve to

diminish existing culture but will also meet with limited success (Planning

Commission 1992 p66) The Bhutan-Vision 2020 strongly reaffirms the notion of Gross

National Happiness as the central development concept for the country This vision

emphasizes a need and desire to balance economic development with cultural and

environmental conservation

14 Explanation of Gross National Happiness Index

Bhutan is not a GNH state at this moment it aspires to be one The Bhutanese

government is of the view that wellbeing arises in a society when sustainable and

equitable economic development is balanced with environmental and cultural

preservation and good governance (Rinzin 2006 Thinley 2005) These four pillars have

constantly guided the development policies in Bhutan This strategy has been referred to

as the middle path which is derived from Buddhist principles of avoiding extremism

and taking a balanced view (Planning Commission 1999) In November 2008 the

government adopted the GNH index as a means to measure GNH The government felt

the need for a GNH index for without some kind of measurement system GNH cannot

8

guide practical policies and programs (CBS 2008) Under the GNH index 72 indicators

were identified under the following nine domains psychological wellbeing cultural

resilience education health time use and balance good governance community vitality

ecological diversity and living standard The nine domains of Gross National Happiness

are explained below

1 Psychological wellbeing as an end includes satisfaction with all elements of life

life enjoyment and subjective wellbeing Under this domain there are 11 measurable

indicators (eg frequency of feeling of emotions such as jealousy compassion and

generosity) classified in three areas General psychological distress indicators Emotional

balance indicators and Spirituality practices indicators This study focuses on the

indicators under this domain

2 Time Use domain measures how individuals spend their time There are only two

indicators under this domain the sleeping hours and working hours The time spent

delivering voluntary and social service is also taken into account

3 Community Vitality refers to the quality of life in the community This domain

intends to measure how strong active and inclusive relationships are within communities

that work to foster individual and collective wellbeing It examines the nature of trust

belongingness vitality of caring relationships safety in the home and the community

and giving and volunteering The community vitality indicators are Family vitality

Safety Reciprocity Trust Social support Socialization and Kinship density

4 Cultural Diversity and Resilience This domain measures the diversity and

strength of cultural traditions The indicators study core values and perception of

changes in values and traditions Bhutanese tradition is a very broad term that

9

encompasses customs rituals religious ceremonies traditional dress sports music

dance poetry arts and code of behavior among other things The indicators of cultural

diversity and resilience are Dialect use Traditional sports Community festivity Artisan

skill Value transmission and Basic precept

5 Health Good health is said to have a significant positive effect on happiness The

GNH health domain assesses the health status of the population the determinants of

health and the health system Health status indicators show information on self-rated

health disabilities body mass index and number of healthy days experienced per month

Health indicators also measure the degree of knowledge about diseases and breast feeding

practices The health indicators are Health status Health knowledge and Barrier to

health

6 Education In a GNH society education should contribute to individual and

collective happiness The education domain assesses different types of knowledge and

skills that people have acquired in their lifetime It includes historical cultural civic

ecological and indigenous knowledge and skills which are mostly acquired informally

The education indicators are Education attainment Dzongkha (national) language and

Folk and historical literacy

7 Ecological Diversity and Resilience This indicator looks at peoples perception

of ecology The ecological diversity and resilience indicators are Ecological degradation

Ecological knowledge and Afforestation

8 Living standard The living standard indicators assess the levels of income at the

individual and household levels sense of financial security room ratio food security and

10

house ownership Thus the living standard indicators are Income Housing Food

security and Hardship

9 Good Governance The domain of good governance evaluates how people

perceive various government functions in terms of their efficacy honesty and quality

The indicators include human rights leadership at various levels of government

performance of government in delivering services and controlling inequality and

corruption peoples trust in media judiciary and police The indicators of good

governance are Government performance Freedom and Institutional trust indicator

A pilot survey was also carried out between September 2006 to January 2007 in

nine districts on 350 randomly chosen respondents to test the feasibility and robustness of

GNH pilot questionnaires The GNH index however was developed based on the result

of a final survey carried out in December 2007 to March 2008 (CBS 2008) A total of

950 respondents based on random sampling were interviewed in 12 districts by the CBS

in the final survey The questionnaires covered the key areas affecting the values and

principles of GNH roughly divided into the nine domains mentioned above CBS (2008)

states that the nine domains were selected on normative grounds and are equally

weighted because each dimension is considered relatively equal in terms of equal

intrinsic importance as a component of Gross National Happiness (pl) Within each

domain several indicators that seemed likely to remain informative across time had high

response rates and were relatively uncorrelated (CBS 2008 p 1) were selected For

example in the psychological wellbeing domain the respondents were asked how often

they felt emotions such as anger guilt selfishness pride calmness compassion

forgiveness disappointment jealousy and frustration Respondents were also given the

11

option to list other emotions that they often experienced From the survey results only

eleven indicators were selected under the psychological wellbeing domain In total 72

indicators under the nine domains were selected as the GNH index (See Appendix 1)

The GNH index is to be administered every two years in the country A survey is

currently being carried out by the CBS in all the twenty districts of Bhutan Tshoki

Zangmo a researcher at CBS states that the GNH survey will determine whether the

conditions leading to happiness have improved or not (Doiji 2010) Several structured

semi-structured and open-ended questions under each of the 72 indicators are asked of

the respondents to assess life satisfaction in each of the nine domains Any individual

having sufficient achievements in each of the nine domains is considered happy (CBS

2008) Unlike the GPI and HDI which uses GDP data the GNH index is measured based

on self-report assessment For example the GPI heavily relies on quantitative or

objective data produced by Statistics Canada as opposed to qualitative or subjective

survey data The GPI uses personal consumption expenditures as a starting point Those

elements which are regarded as regrettable are deducted mdash for example cost of crime

accidents and pollutions Values of leisure time unpaid housework parenting and

volunteer work are added back (Colman 2008a) All aggregation is done in terms of

monetary values The GNH index however is entirely depended on the self-report

survey data According to Diener and Lucas (1999) the self-report measurement of

subjective well being displays adequate levels of validity and reliability The GNH index

is calculated in two steps The first step involves setting a sufficiency cut off and

determining whether respondents have attained sufficiency in each of the nine domains

12

The final step involves aggregating the data using the formula GNH = 1 - Average

squared distance from cutoff

15 Research Questions and Objective of the Study

Measuring what really matters to people and framing policies in accordance with

the needs of people would help realize the goal of GNH The GNH index is an attempt by

the government to measure how well their citizens are doing economically socially and

emotionally The Centre for Bhutan Studies (2008) states that the nine domains identified

are regarded as the components of happiness and well-being in Bhutan However the

resulting question is To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do

the indicators reflect Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept

of GNH The objectives of my study are to analyze the indicators to determine to what

extent they reflect Buddhist principles and to determine the coherence of the indicators

with the concept of GNH

Although conducting an in-depth analysis of each of the 72 indicators would be

most beneficial due to the vastness of the indicators this study will focus only on the

indicators that fall under the domain of psychological wellbeing (see Appendix 1) I

choose this domain because many of the GNH indicators (for example education health

living standard time use ecology) are similar to those found in the conventional

economic measures like GDP Genuine Progress Indicators (GPI) Human Development

Index (HDI) and Quality of Life The psychological wellbeing indicator has not yet been

included in any of the national measures (CBS 2008) Since the measure of

13

psychological wellbeing is something new and unexplored as a development indicator it

would be a good place to begin assessing the indicators

16 Methodology

The main objective of this study is to determine the influence of Buddhist

principles and more specifically Buddhist principles of happiness on the indicators of

psychological wellbeing and the coherence of indicators with the concept of GNH This

policy analysis study uses the framework of Buddhist principles of happiness to analyze

the indicators Policy analysis research is associated with determining the nature causes

and effects of governmental decisions or policies designed to cope with specific social

problems Nagel (1980) points out four methods on which policy analysis focuses

determining what causes the policy determining what policies they are responsible for

determining what affects them and determining what policies will achieve or maximize a

given goal This study focuses on determining the influence of Buddhist principles on the

governments policy of measuring GNH and the consistency of the indicators with the

concept of GNH

Buddhism has long played an important role in the political economic and social

lives of Bhutanese It is in this context that Buddhism is used as a basis to assess the most

important development tool of Bhutan Gross National Happiness Index The intent is not

to prove that Buddhism is the best way to achieve GNH but to determine whether GNH

indicators reflect Buddhist principles of happiness This is done for three reasons First

the philosophy of GNH is understood to be engrained in Buddhism This study will

determine in part the extent to which this is the case (see chapter two) Second Bhutan is

14

a Buddhist country where the majority of the population is Buddhist (CIA 2009) As

such this study will determine the extent to which Buddhist principles have influenced

the indicators Third scholars such as Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and

Tashi (2004) have argued that Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH This study

attempts to analyze the psychological wellbeing indicators to determine the Buddhist

influence which then might support the notion put forth by them

Literature related to Gross National Happiness and the influence of Buddhism on

GNH are reviewed The origin of the concept of GNH and various discourses held on

GNH are explored Government documents and reports and secondary data sources such

as newspaper and research on GNH serve as important sources The primary data that are

used for the analysis are the eleven indicators of psychological wellbeing developed by

the CBS Each indicator is examined to see the degree to which it reflects Buddhist

principles of happiness

The indicators consist of positive emotions negative emotions and practices to

overcome negative emotions In a research design it is important to establish a

conceptual framework that acknowledges how the theoretical perspective will shape an

inquiry (Creswell 2007) To this end I will examine the Buddhist literature to find key

principles related to happiness Those principles and ideas that affect happiness will be

discussed In particular the key principles such as the four noble truths law of Karma

principle of interdependence and compassion will be discussed Further a theoretical

basis for happiness will be developed based on the Buddhist teachings of six paramitas

An understanding of these principles will assist the reader in gaining a sense of the scope

15

and direction of this study Overall the Buddhist principles of happiness framework will

serve as a basis for assessing the indicators

Since Bhutan is a Mahayana Buddhist country the key principles of Mahayana

Buddhist teachings will be examined The very popular Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse

Laglen will serve as a primary source This important Buddhist text on the thirty-seven

bodhisattva practices was written by the great Buddhist saint Thogme Zangpo (1245-

1369) The text is a summarization of the original teachings of Lord Buddha from

hundreds of volumes and contains all the key points of the vast and profound teachings

The text is used in all the schools of Bhutan In particular the six paramitas will be used

for the purpose of this study The thirty-seven practices were written to help every

sentient being achieve genuine happiness Therefore this study will examine the

teachings related to the six paramitas to determine the extent to which they are reflected

in the psychological wellbeing indicators Teachings by various Buddhist teachers such

as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will also be used

The Buddhist text Abhidhamma which is known as the higher teachings of the

Buddha and also called the ultimate teachings is also referenced for the analysis of the

indicators The text elucidates the working of mind or psyche thoughts thought-

processes and mental states The mind has been broken down into six primary and fifty-

one secondary consciousnesses representing the working of the psyche from an ethical

standpoint Abhidamma highlights wholesome and unwholesome emotions as well as

how they arise Since this study is on the analysis of the psychological wellbeing

indicators the text is appropriate However only those emotions which correspond to the

indicators are referred to for this study

16

17 Limitations and Significance of the study

There are three limitations recognized in this study First the theme of this study

focuses on the extent to which Buddhist principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH

indicators Happiness is a concept that can be viewed from a number of perspectives

Since the concept of GNH is inspired by Buddhism it is most appropriate that the

indicators be examined to determine the extent to which they reflect Buddhist principles

and then most specifically Mahayana Buddhist principles Further there are numerous

Buddhist teachings on happiness The teachings that are primarily used are those of

Master Thogme Zangpo the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche

Second the GNH index is still very new A survey was carried out to study the

indicators in twelve districts but the index has not yet been applied to the whole country

As such the GNH index is still in its infant stage and not many resources related to the

GNH index are available

The third limitation of this study is that only the indicators under the

psychological wellbeing domain are analyzed Findings from the preliminary survey of

the GNH index are not discussed

Exploring the psychological wellbeing domain is significant for various reasons

First there has been no study conducted on the indicators so far This is the first study

that analyzes the indicators and explores the relationship of the indicators to Buddhism

This study opens up a new perspective for future researchers Scholars interested in

studying the GNH index may use this study as a basis to analyze the other domains of

GNH Only one domain is explored in this study The remaining eight domains could be

an area of future research

17

Second the GNH index is the most important tool for guiding and analyzing the

government policy since the government will be designing policies based on the GNH

index The GNH index and its implementation will have a significant impact on the

design implementation and assessment of policy and the perceptions Bhutanese have of

the direction their society is taking Since what is measured affects what is done it is

important that the right indicators be used if measurements are flawed decisions can be

distorted (Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009) Therefore it is important to determine

whether the indicators cohere with the GNH concept

18 Summary

This chapter provides an overview of the study The chapter began by looking at

Bhutans culture economy and political history including its transition to democracy

The concept of Gross National Happiness and its indicators the objective the

methodology limitation and significance of study were also presented in this chapter

Chapter Two will provide the review of literature on the GNH It explores how

the concept of GNH first originated It then argues that the concept of GNH has been

influenced by key Buddhist principles based on the eightfold path which are linked to

each pillar of GNH Various workshops held on GNH that ultimately led to the

development of the GNH index are also discussed

Chapter Three will provide the framework to analyze the psychological

wellbeing indicators The key Buddhist principles related to happiness are examined

Specifically the four noble truths law of Karma principle of interdependence and

compassion are presented The Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse Lagin the 37 practices

18

of Bodhisattva are used to highlight Buddhist principles of happiness Specifically the

teachings on six paramitas are referenced to elucidate those principles

Chapter Four presents the core of the study The indicators of psychological

wellbeing are analyzed through the framework described in Chapter Three Each

indicator is examined from the perspective of Buddhist principles It highlights the extent

to which each indicator reflects the Buddhist principles of happiness and the consistency

of the indicators with the concept of GNH

Chapter Five concludes the study and offers some recommendations for future

studies

19

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW

There seems to be a unanimous agreement that Gross National Happiness (GNH)

is drawn from Buddhism but recognition of the influence of Buddhism on GNH is rather

implicit This may be due to the fact that Bhutan did not have the full academic

construction of GNH until recently When the concept of GNH was first pronounced in

the late 1980s it was just an abstract philosophy The concept has now gained more

depth and dimension through analysis and discourse While scholars such as Tashi (1999

2004) Priesner (1999) and Zangmo (2009) have linked Buddhism to GNH others have

argued for the importance of Buddhism in achieving the goal of GNH This chapter

reviews the influence of Buddhism on the concept of GNH Specifically the relationship

between the core concept of GNH and its four pillars to Buddhist principles is explored

Since this study uses Buddhism as the key lens in analyzing the extent to which Buddhist

principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH indicators the focus here is to

understand the centrality of Buddhism in the philosophy of GNH

The review is divided into four main sections The first section examines how the

core concept of GNH and the key teachings of Buddhism are related Literature points

out that key Buddhist principles such as interdependence Karma and the noble eightfold

path are linked to general themes that promote GNH The second section looks at how

the concept of GNH evolved Early Bhutanese history dating back to the 17th century

when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of living is explored This section

examines how Bhutan broke its isolationist policies and introduced planned development

giving priority to the preservation of its culture and environment thus giving birth to the

noble philosophy of GNH The third section discusses the various discourses held on 20

GNH that ultimately led to the development of the GNH index The final section of the

review discusses the idea of quantifying and measuring GNH The chapter concludes by

questioning whether the GNH index which is used as a basis to measure peoples

wellbeing in Bhutan captures the real essence of GNH

21 Buddhism and Gross National Happiness

Gross National Happiness is not a promise to make every individual happy This

is a common misconception The concept of GNH simply stresses the responsibility of

the government to create an environment for citizens to seek happiness Since all humans

value happiness the government of Bhutan takes the view that it cannot be left

exclusively to private individual devices and strivings (CBS 2008 pl) In the GNH

context the government should create by means of public policies addressing both

economic and emotional needs of the people an environment conducive for people to

pursue happiness Australian psychologist Suellen Donnelly (2004) defines happiness as

the sum of satisfaction with life domains and this satisfaction she states is judged against

the individuals and the societys values Happiness indeed depends on our social values

In Bhutan peoples social and cultural values are largely influenced by Buddhism GNH

thus places emphasis on happiness and wellbeing of people through promotion of social

and cultural values

Priesner (1999) Tashi (2004) and Zangmo (2009) argue that Buddhism and GNH

are intricately linked Zangmo (2009) points out that the concept of GNH is deeply rooted

in the rich traditions of Mahayana Buddhism Doiji and Pankaj (2004) state that GNH is

essentially a summarization of the basic tenets of Vajrayana Buddhism which embraces

21

harmony and compassion (p377) Vajrayana Buddhism is an offshoot of Mahayana

Buddhism The term Mahayana and Vajrayana is used interchangeably in Bhutan

Mahayana Buddhism emphasizes individual spiritual development rather than material

rewards compassion for others tolerance living in harmony with nature and the

importance of making the right choice Based on these values GNH seeks to achieve and

pave a middle path between material and spiritual aspects of life which are referred to as

peljor gongphel (economic development) and gakid (happiness and peace) (Zangmo

2009) Schumacher (1989) asserts that in a Buddhist society the lifestyle is strongly

influenced by Buddhist principles based on the Noble Eightfold Path The influence of

Buddhism is highly visible in every aspect of Bhutanese life Article 3(1) of the

Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan states Buddhism is the spiritual heritage of

Bhutan which promotes the principles and values of peace non-violence compassion

and tolerance (p 9) Buddhism here is seen as a spiritual practice

According to Buddhism the main purpose of life the heart of being human is

happiness what we all seek knowingly or unknowingly is happiness (Rabjam Rimpoche

as cited by Tourism Council of Bhutan [TCoB] 2008) The chief goal of Buddhism is to

remove sufferings and achieve genuine happiness Tashi (2004) points out that the

cultivation of happiness is central to Buddhism Buddhism states that wealth pleasure

and power are all sought for achieving happiness but these are all material and only the

means to achieve short-term happiness As humans strive for happiness the end goal is

often forgotten and people spend time pursuing the means for their own sake In the

process humans remain deeply unsatisfied because they place all their hopes and fears in

the material outer conditions and neglect inner condition for happiness Happiness in

22

Buddhism depends on our actions and how we view and interpret the world Rabjam

Rimpoche states that although it is difficult to change the world it is always possible to

change the way we look at it (as cited by TCoB 2008) Buddhist teachings stress the

importance of training the mind and developing a set of human qualities such as

altruistic love compassion inner peace and inner strength

Similarly the concept of GNH emphasizes that happiness is the end goal and

economic development is just a means to achieve happiness GNH claims happiness to be

a major focus in assessing the welfare of the people Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley

states that GNH is all about living with basic human values in a sustainable way (Bhutan

Observer 2010) This view is influenced by Buddhist principles Buddhism advocates

living in harmony with nature and respecting all forms of life Although GNH places

equal importance on both material and non-material wellbeing of the people the idea of

GNH essentially is to encourage a rethinking of what is important in peoples lives is it

the ability to produce and consume or is it the happiness of its people derived from its

social and cultural values When Bhutan opened up to the outside world in 1961 it was

overwhelmed to see that the world had achieved tremendous development in every field

(Doiji 2007a) In their pursuit of development however many countries had lost their

forests cultures and much more In the neighboring region of Nepal for example the

governments policy of promoting economic development through mass tourism led to

environmental and cultural degradation Pandey Chettri Kunwar amp Ghimire (1995)

argue that mass tourism in Nepal led to erosion of local customs increase in drug abuse

theft of antiques and cultural property and prostitution Kinley Doiji (2007a) states that

GNH is therefore a response to this realization

23

Tashi (2004) and Lokamitra (2004) argue that GNH cannot be achieved unless

Buddhist philosophy is fully incorporated and practiced by every citizen of Bhutan

Similarly Hewavitharana (2004) proposes a framework for operationalizing GNH from

the perspective of Buddhist ethics and values Lokamitra (2004) asserts that unless a

society is morally and psychologically strong GNH cannot be achieved He states that

this moral and psychological strength can come from Buddhism Tashi Prakke amp Chettri

(1999) argue that the use of Buddhist concepts does not make the discussions culture-

specific They state that Buddhist wisdom differs from actual Buddhist cultures Buddhist

values and ethics can be followed without necessarily being a Buddhist

Tashi Prakke and Chettri (1999) argue that Buddhist spiritual concepts can be

clearly linked to general themes for the promotion of GNH Overall the Buddhist belief

ofinterdependence has inspired the four pillars because environment culture economy

and governance are interwoven in reality (Thinley 2005) Maintaining a balance among

these enhances the quality of life for the individual for society and for the environment

(Rinzin 2006)

1 The First Pillar Environmental Preservation

Although it appears that environment and biodiversity are not strong correlates of

happiness few would deny the value of environment in everyday life and hence our

happiness our health and aesthetic experiences depend on the quality of the physical

environment around us (Thinley 2005) The impact of climate change because of the

uncompromising nature of humans towards the environment is causing a lot of panic in

the world

24

Buddhism emphasizes preserving nature and the sanctity of life (Planning

Commission 1999) Tashi et al (1999) state that Buddhist philosophy provides strong

arguments for the adoption of an environmentally sensitive development strategy The

relationship between human beings and the environment is seen in a fundamentally

different way The Buddhist concept of sunyata holds that no subject or object has an

independent existence rather they dissolve into a web of relationships with all

dimensions of environment The Buddhist principle of interconnectedness- the idea that

nature gives back what we give it- has influenced the Bhutanese with a strong ethic of

conservation which in turn influenced Bhutanese environmental policies (Thinley 2005)

Bhutanese people believe that high mountains deep ravines ancient trees and

rocks are the abode of spirits gods and demons Disturbing them would enrage the non-

human inhabitants and bring ill luck sickness and death to families Appeasing these

spirits will be rewarded with luck peace and prosperity (NEC 1998 Rinzin 2006)

These beliefs about the importance of protecting nature have permeated Bhutanese

consciousness and have become integral to the Bhutanese way of life and value system

The government therefore has adopted strong environmental policies As per the

constitution of Bhutan the country must always maintain 60 forest coverage

2 The Second Pillar- Cultural Preservation and Promotion

The conservation and promotion of tradition and culture has always been an

integral part of Bhutans development policies since the initiation of planned

development in the 1960s (Planning Commission 1999) The Bhutanese started their

policies from a well-defined set of values and culture which are typically Buddhist

Within such Buddhist cultural values there is a strong belief in the implications of the

25

doctrine of Karma (Gurung 1999) The overall Bhutanese culture is based on customary

rules norms indigenous knowledge systems and institutions in addition to a rich

religious heritage based on Buddhism It includes a code of conduct known as driglam

namzha which is designed to carve out a distinct Bhutanese identity In addition to

promoting national dress driglam namzha is built on strict observance of vows (tha-

damtshig) which are quintessential^ Buddhist and emphasize strong kinship loyalty

community-oriented behavior hospitality to guests respect for ones parents elders and

superiors and mutual cooperation between rulers and ruled parents and children and

teachers and students (MoHE 1994 Rinzin2006 Chophel 2008)

In a study conducted by Rinzin (2006) it was observed that the Bhutanese people

consider culture to be very important They fully support the preservation of Bhutanese

culture as a means to maintain national identity sense of security and conservation of a

way of life A unique Bhutanese culture is also a means to generate income through

tourism activities Since the happiness of the people also depends on their social and

cultural values the government of Bhutan is committed to preserving and strengthening

the Bhutanese culture and tradition

3 The Third Pillar - Sustainable and equitable socio-economic development

The concept of GNH does not neglect the importance of economic development

While economic development in many countries takes place at the expense of external

factors such as social coherence cultural diversity and environmental integrity the

concept of GNH limits the exploitation of social cultural ecological and human costs

(Priesner 1999) Economic development is just a means to achieve GNH and is not an

end itself If we look at the world today there are spiritual sufferings in terms of anxiety

26

insecurity stress and pain in every part of the world including Bhutan Economic

development can secure a livelihood and is vitally important to resolve poverty but it is

easier to identify and alleviate misery than to maximize happiness

Given the huge natural resource base that Bhutan enjoys the country could have

opted for mass economic development by making use of these resources However the

government does not overlook the difference between renewable and non-renewable

goods Keeping in view the negative impacts of exploiting natural resources and

exhaustibility of non-renewable goods the government has identified three avenues for

economic development These are hydropower tourism and agriculture (NEC 1998

Planning Commission 1999) All have minimal negative impact on the society and are

sustainable The use of nature in a sustainable way can be related to one of the

requirements for the Buddhas eightfold path called the Right Livelihood (Schumacher

1989) Right Livelihood entails that ones means of livelihood should not be dishonest or

cause suffering to other sentient beings Wrong Livelihood is anything that is based on

trickery or greed (Harvey 2000) This noble path teaches us to avoid extremism and

follow a balanced path Schumacher (1989) argues that Right Livelihood touches on

economic aspects of the Buddhist life and forms the basis of economic principles By

following the path of Right Livelihood the government is being cautious not to engage

in trades or occupations that result in harming its environment culture and society

4 The fourth Pillar - Good Governance

This last pillar stresses the kind of government that Bhutan needs to make it into a

GNH state Good governance means exercising of authority in managing a countrys

political social economic and administrative resources in a manner that is transparent

27

accountable and responsive to peoples needs (Gross National Happiness Commission

[GNHC] 2009 p56) The fourth king His Majesty Jigme Singye Wangchuck asserts

that good governance is an important prerequisite for strengthening the other pillars of

GNH During his reign decentralization and democratization have always been the most

important considerations All changes finally culminated in the evolution of democratic

government in 2008 The King in his wisdom decided that parliamentary democracy

would be the best path to good governance and that happiness comes from having the

freedom to choose Kinley Doiji (2007a) points out that this step by the king is a

Vajrayana Buddhist approach For the Bhutanese this came as an overwhelming surprise

Thus democracy in Bhutan sprang from the womb of GNH Democracy in Bhutan is the

path to good governance that leads to GNH

Chapter Two (clause 22) of the Bhutan Civil Service Rules and Regulations 2006

states that the government needs to maintain and promote the values of Tha-Damtshig

and Ley Jumdrey to serve the people and the country Tha Damtshig is a traditional

Buddhist belief of trust respect and cooperation between the government and its people

Ley Jumdrey is a very popular Buddhist belief referring to the cycle of Karma which

encourages us to follow the eightfold noble path Right View Right Intention Right

Action Right Speech Right Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right

Mindfulness The royal decree issued by the king in 1998 stated that the Bhutanese

judiciary system is based on the Buddhist 10 virtuous actions and 16 pure human laws

(as cited by Nishimizu 2008 p 40) The ten virtuous actions are 1 Avoid killing 2

Avoid Stealing 3 Avoid Sexual misconduct (the first three form the part of Right

Action) 4 Avoid lies 5 Avoid divisive talks 6 Avoid harsh speech 7 Avoid Gossip

28

(these four fall under Right Speech) 8 Avoid covetousness 9 Avoid harmful intent 10

Avoid wrong views (the last three are the part of Right Mindfulness) (Tshongkhapa as

cited by Powers 1995)

Tashi et al (1999) explain that in Buddhism there are three doors body speech

and mind (lii ngag yid) These three gates provide a basic categorization for policy

makers in recognizing that existence embraces more than physical aspects Any

individual or government that strives to enhance happiness must make the right use of the

three doors Right Mindfulness Right Speech and Right Action The three gates are like

the neutral ground which can be used for good neutral or bad action (Tashi et al 1999)

Right intention in the mind must spark right speech and right action because working

with the mind directly is considered too illusive With Right View one needs to

understand the nature of the world and embrace compassion Right View is the path that

refers to wisdom which means seeing emptiness realizing that appearances in the

relative world or the world in which things change lacking permanent existence

Embracing compassion and wisdom results in the accumulation of merit (Sonam) and

wisdom (Yeshe) Every government must embrace compassion and wisdom and work

with Right Mind Right Speech and Right Action The Bhutanese government strives to

nurture and manifest these qualities

22 Evolution of the Concept

The term GNH became popular in the late 1980s but the concept itself is very

old According to Priesner (1999) this concept evolved from the constituent features of

Bhutanese society before 1959 a socio-economic system based on a Buddhist and feudal

29

set of values Buddhism came to Bhutan in the 7th century AD but made little impact on

the lives of the people until the 9th century (Ministry of Health and Education [MoHE]

1994 Dargye 2008) Prior to the 7th century Bhutan was called the land of Monpas the

land of darkness or no religion Records show that people mainly practiced Bonism an

animistic and shamanistic belief system where nature is worshipped (Giri 2004) Bon

rituals are still included in some Buddhist festivals in Bhutan From the 10th century to

the beginning of the 17th century Buddhism started influencing peoples way of life

culture and customs During that period many Tibetan scholars came to teach Buddhism

in Bhutan They built monasteries and temples throughout the country but none of them

could establish a formal Buddhist community in Bhutan (MoHE 1994)

It was Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyel (1594-1651) a Tibetan monk who formally

instituted Buddhism in Bhutan in the 17th century (MoHE 1990 MoHE 1994)

Therefore the 17th century is the most important period in Bhutanese history Bhutanese

development policies stem from this period All the high-ranking officials during

Zhabdrungs era were monks and the governments primary function was to support the

religious establishment which in turn promoted Buddhist morality and ethics among the

lay population (MoHE 1994 Ura 1993 as cited by Priesner 1999) In other words the

government promoted the wellbeing of people through spiritual teachings based on

Buddhism The Bhutanese legal system codified in 1652 and based on principles of

Buddhism is the foundation of the contemporary Bhutanese law (Nishimizu 2008)

Since the concept of GNH emphasizes the importance of living with basic human values

giving equal importance to both economic and spiritual wellbeing this clearly indicates

30

that the seeds of GNH had been planted during Zhabdrungs reign Prime Minister Jigme

Y Thinley (2004) writes

Traditional polity in Bhutan drawing much on the Buddhist culture was certainly guided towards GNH A Buddhist equivalent of a Social Contract declared in Bhutan in 1675 said that happiness of sentient beings and teachings of the Buddha were mutually dependent The 1129 legal code of Bhutan stressed that laws should promote happiness of the sentient beings (p 2)

Until the 1960s Bhutan possessed very little of the infrastructure we see today in the

country (National Environment Commission [NEC] 1998 Planning Commission 1999)

Life was hard and conditions were very harsh There was no electricity telephones or

postal services to connect different parts of country or with the outside world There were

no motor roads and money was unknown The health infrastructure was poor life

expectancy was estimated to be an average of 35 years Western education was

considered unnecessary The vast majority of Bhutanese lived in isolation in the rugged

mountain terrains The Bhutanese were subsistence farmers totally dependent upon the

land and the forests for survival People exchanged goods among themselves and were

self sufficient for most purposes Bhutans traditional socio-economic system was based

on the principle of communal self-reliance which is related to the Buddhist doctrine of

the benevolent nature of small-scale (Priesner 1999 Gurung 1999)

Due to the lack of foreign influences Bhutan developed an extremely stable

social environment and traditional system of knowledge Self-reliance was the first

explicitly emphasized development objective in 1959 (as cited Priesner 1999) The

National Assembly in 1959 stated that its primary task was to maintain the sovereignty

of the kingdom through economic self-reliance (Kuensel Vol 2 No 9 [May 1-15

31

1968] p7 as cited by Priesner 1999) Modern development came to Bhutan in the early

1960s during the reign of the third king Jigme Doiji Wangchuck (1952-1972) (MoHE

1994) However Bhutans decision to embark on modern development was not

voluntary During a visit to Bhutan in September 1958 the Indian Prime Minister

expressed his concern about Bhutans security and emphasized the need for a road to link

Bhutan and India offering at the same time financial and technical assistance To avoid

increased dependence the government refused to accept the assistance Nevertheless

Bhutans attitude changed during 1959 a consequence of events in Tibet In 1959 the

Tibetan revolt was suppressed by the Chinese which resulted in the flow of several

thousand Tibetan refugees into Bhutan At the end of the same year Chinese actions

began to be directed against Bhutan A triangular shaped part of Tibetan territory between

the small Indian state of Sikkim and Bhutan through which the most important trade

route from Bhutan to India ran was sealed off (Galay 1999 Priesner 1999) In the

following National Assembly session the construction of roads became the main issue of

discussion As an underdeveloped country Bhutan lacked financial and labor resources

and India was the only possible source of aid Thus Bhutan took the first step towards

development cautiously Later when Chinese aggression declined measures of cultural

preservation were soon adopted to contain and counter-balance the negative effects of

modernization (Priesner 1999)

Since 1961 Bhutan plans its development every five years The third King

always expressed his priority as making the people prosperous and happy (Kuensel

1968 as cited by Priesner 1999 p7) Prosperity and happiness were highlighted in the

third kings address on the occasion of Bhutans admission to the United Nations in 1971

32

Further the preservation of environment and culture is the most consistently applied

principle from the start of the first Five Year Plan (FYP) and this is a major input for

GNH

The Bhutanese development concept thus evolved from the countrys socioshy

economic historic and political circumstances The concept of GNH is thus the

translation of cultural and social consciousness into development priorities (Priesner

1999) To sum up the influencing factors that caused Bhutan to have such a unique

development concept are the absence of foreign domination the desire to preserve

national identity Chinese invasion causing threat to the national security and deeply

embedded Buddhist beliefs The philosophy of GNH therefore evolved earlier than the

term Gross National Happiness was coined

23 GNH Discourses and Debates

The first official keynote speech on Gross National Happiness was delivered by

the current Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley at the United Nations Development

Programme (UNDP) Regional Millennium Meeting for Asia and the Pacific in 1998 His

keynote speech was later published in the countrys national newspaper Kuensel Many

scholars responded to the publication and this led to the first workshop in 1999 to explore

the conceptual foundations of human happiness During the workshop Prime Minister

Thinley raised three questions for deliberation First can an index be constructed for

GNH as it has been done for Human Development Second what are the main

ingredients of happiness Third what would be the main indicators of happiness if there

were any at all

33

Some participants proposed that GNH could be quantified Others suggested that

it would be a speculative exercise into what is essentially a subjective experience and

would defy any statistical device aimed at its quantification They expressed their

suspicion that the essence of conventional economic theories runs counter to GNH

Rinzin (2006) states that two schools of thought emerged one took a philosophical

approach and the other an empirical analytical approach of defining and measuring GNH

On the philosophical side scholars argued that GNH is a development philosophy and

there is no need to define and measure happiness For Stehlik (1999) the attempt even to

define happiness is unnecessary and even less to measure it The other school of thought

argued that in order for GNH to be applicable it should be measurable The first

workshop failed to come up with concrete results The discussion papers from this

workshop were published in June 1999 under the title Gross National Happiness A Set

of Discussion Papers

After a gap of five years the First International Conference on GNH

Operationalizing Gross National Happiness was held in Thimphu Bhutan from

February 18 to 20 2004 The conference intended to explore ways in which the concept

of happiness as an objective of economic and social development could be

operationalized in terms of both policy and evaluation of change The conference focused

largely on the concepts of happiness or wellbeing Dr Ron Colman and Dr Julia Sagebien

(2004) presented a paper on Nova Scotias Atlantic Genuine Progress Index or GPI

which assigns explicit value to environmental quality natural wealth population health

livelihood security equity free time and educational attainment The conference

discussed the relevance of GPI measures to Bhutan Colman and Sagebien suggested a

34

potential framework for measuring GNH proposing indicators such as education basic

security respect and care for all beings Although the conference did not come to any

definitive conclusions Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley (2007) stated that the conference

was a milestone in the history of international discourse as it opened up the discourse on

happiness Further the ripples from this seminar spread far and helped Bhutan develop

the indicators of GNH in a later period

The Second International Conference on GNH Rethinking Development Local

Pathways to Global Wellbeing was held in Nova Scotia Canada from June 20 to 24

2005 The conference focused on the exploration of practices the sharing of actual

experiences and the development of a framework to operationalize GNH The first and

second international conferences seemed to have convinced Bhutanese policy makers that

in order to make GNH practicable it must first become measurable By the time the third

international conference was held Bhutan was well on the way to constructing the GNH

Index

The Third International Conference held in Bangkok Thailand in 2007 focused

on the indicators of GNH The then Prime Minister of Bhutan Kinzang Doiji spoke on the

importance of good governance and highlighted the wellbeing of people as a priority in

developing government policies Just a week prior to the fourth international conference

Bhutan officially adopted the GNH Index

The theme for the Fourth International Conference (November 26 to 28 2008)

was Practice and Measurement of GNH indicating a step forward into a new phase

which focused more on how to reflect GNH in policies and how to grasp the current

situation and measure progress Discussions revolved around the GNH indicators

35

psychology environment community relations education health living standard

governance culture time use and economy Rosellini (2008) says that some of the

indicators of GNH would be relevant to the UNDP-Oxford initiative in understanding the

missing dimensions of poverty Rosellini (2008) further suggested that GNH should be

used as an alternative approach from an international perspective because none of the

methods that attempted to move beyond purely materialistic interpretations of human

progress have gained broad acceptance among academics and development practitioners

The fifth conference held in Brazil in 2009 (November 20-23) was a revelation

for the Bhutanese While the understanding of GNH had grown tremendously at the

international level the GNH conference held in Brazil made the Bhutanese government

realize that Bhutan is still lagging behind in implementing the philosophy of GNH

(Bhutan Broadcasting Service [BBS] 2009) There is no doubt that the policies are

framed in terms of the four pillars of GNH but the government failed to infuse GNH

values into the education system Further GNH values were not reflected in the day-to-

day working of the government institutions businesses and at the community level

Brazil had left Bhutan behind in terms of implementing GNH ethics Several business

establishments in Brazil practice the principle of GNH One pharmaceutical company is

believed to be implementing its ethics and modalities into the way the company

functions Likewise Brazilian villages at the community level are also practicing the

dimensions of GNH on a day-to-day basis (Kuensel 2009) This definitely was a

revelation for Bhutan

On his return from the GNH conference in Brazil the prime minister expressed

his sense of the urgency and immediacy of bringing GNH principles and values into the

36

education system Following this a workshop was conducted on how to achieve a GNH

infused education system (Kuensel 2009) The education ministry has come up with a

road map and an action plan to begin the process of bringing GNH values and principles

into the school system starting in 2010 The education minister stated that every school in

the country will now develop GNH-inspired curriculum material The latest reports state

that many schools in Bhutan have now infused GNH values into their curriculum

Students in most schools meditate for a few minutes before starting any lesson Many

schools are now working towards becoming green (Bhutan Observer March 2010)

Many students were quoted as saying that Meditation somehow helps to relax and

concentrate more on their studies (Business Bhutan 17 April 2010) This is a very

practical move by the government towards enhancing GNH Bhutan has learned a lot

through seminars and debates held at the national and international level The idea of

measuring and quantifying GNH has however raised many questions

24 Quantifying Gross National Happiness

Initially due to the absence of a specific and relevant development index that

takes into account the core principles and dimensions of GNH the United Nations

Human Development concept and its measurement the Human Development Index

(HDI) was used as an interim tool to assess all-round development in Bhutan (Gross

National Happiness Commission [GNHC] 2008) The HDI fails however to capture the

overall essence of the concept of GNH because only three variables are used in HDI

health (life expectancy) education (adult literacy) and wealth (GDP per capita) Owing

to the number of discourses and questions raised regarding the applicability of the

37

philosophy of GNH Bhutan has now adopted the GNH Index Karma Ura (2008)

president of the Centre for Bhutan Studies writes that as many contemporary indicators

of progress and development do not reflect GNH adequately the Royal Government of

Bhutan directed the Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) to develop GNH index which will

provide appropriate indicators for Bhutanese development (pl)

In his first international speech the Prime Minister of Bhutan Jigme Y Thinley

(1998) stated that the trends of happiness of people are unknown Although people

perceive their wellbeing subjectively their subjective views are not incorporated well

into the design of economic and social policy (Kusago 2006) Similarly Mark (2008)

argues that as a direct consequence of different governments collecting and analyzing

economic data (and social and environmental data to a lesser extent) much is known

about the material conditions of peoples lives but little about their actual lived

experience and their sense of personal and social wellbeing It is to address this lacunae

that the government needs to adopt indicators for measuring the wellbeing of its people

Former Minister Kinzang Dorji (2007b) points out that indicators can be useful in

revealing institutional and human conditions to show both the potential and result of

policy decisions (p 2) He argues that the use of indicators reflecting GNH values will

enable policy makers to locate those principles in determining GNH policy and tracking

GNH processes

Many are skeptical however and wonder whether quantifying such a noble

philosophy is justifiable Reducing real people and real lives to numerical values does not

do justice to the emotional and spiritual depth of the human experience (Doiji 2007b)

There is much doubt as to whether the indicators capture the real essence of human

38

happiness Nonetheless if the government wants to promote the wellbeing or happiness

of its citizens it needs to know the happiness trend of its citizens and find out if its

policies contribute to both subjective and objective wellbeing Even if Gross National

Happiness cannot be quantified as precisely as Gross Domestic Product is currently

quantified Daly amp Farley (2004) state that It is better to be vaguely right than precisely

wrong (p243) The policy makers will at least get an idea of peoples state of wellbeing

Measuring GNH is indeed a milestone in Bhutanese history as it will always

remind Bhutanese of their founding ideals A GNH Index would help citizens know if

they are improving as a nation in protecting and exercising their right to pursue happiness

(Brooks 2008) The adoption of the GNH Index shows the seriousness of the Bhutanese

government in pursuing the goal of GNH Lastly there is hope that Gross National

Happiness will not remain as a mere catchphrase

25 Summary

This chapter presented a review of the literature on GNH and the influence of

Buddhism on the concept of GNH The aim of this review is to get a better understanding

of the centrality of Buddhism in the concept of GNH and to highlight issues that emerged

in the GNH discourses The key principle of GNH which focuses on happiness is

influenced by the core teachings of Buddhism which states that the main purpose of life

the heart of being human is happiness The four pillars of GNH reflect traditional

Bhutanese beliefs and values inspired by Buddhism The law of Karma the principle of

interdependence and the noble eightfold path has certainly influenced the Bhutanese way

39

of living and thus the concept of GNH The Buddhist values of interdependence equality

and compassion are inherent in GNH

History reveals that the basic philosophy of GNH emerged between the 10th and

17th centuries when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of life Buddhism

therefore is the backbone of the concept of GNH Bhutan however is not a Utopian state

because it advocates GNH Like many developing countries Bhutan is grappling with

problems of increased rural urban migration poverty and unemployment thus

challenging the goals of GNH The government is continuing to reflect GNH objectives

in its policy and programmes Through the effective use of the four pillars of GNH

Bhutan never placed excessive emphasis on economic development The country did not

opt for economic activities which promised huge financial gain but caused damage to

health environment and culture Bhutan therefore is said to have one of the best policies

in the world (Priesner 1999) However it is important to know if the policies are

promoting happiness and wellbeing among the people The government has rightly

adopted the GNH Index because only through the use of the indicators will policymakers

know if their policies are in reality promoting happiness The question remains however

as to whether these indicators capture the real essence of GNH and whether they are

influenced by Buddhist principles

40

CHAPTER THREE THE BUDDHIST PRINCIPLES OF HAPPINESS

We all want happiness and do not want suffering Many of us support the

importance of moral values in making our lives happier Buddhist principles emphasize

that human values and principles are necessary to lead a happy life Yet there is a general

assumption that income and happiness are directly related Happiness research findings

defy this generalization and show that increasing incomes are not accompanied by

increasing happiness (Hirata 2006)

The Buddha discovered this 2500 years ago The Buddha did not reject the idea of

possessing wealth but taught that wealth does not guarantee happiness He rejected greed

in accumulating wealth being enslaved to materialism and treating wealth as the

ultimate goal (Wijeyawansa 2009) The Buddhas teachings are based on the key

problem ofsuffering Since Buddhism focuses so much on suffering it is often

criticized as being pessimistic But Buddhism does not deny the presence of happiness in

our lives It teaches the way out of suffering and shows the path towards genuine

happiness Buddhism understands that not everyone can lead an ascetic life and accepts

that for a layperson a certain degree of wealth is essential to live a happy life Living an

ethical and moral life is said to bring genuine happiness in Buddhism The objective of

this chapter is to understand happiness from a Buddhist perspective by laying down some

key Buddhist principles related to happiness

Understanding Buddhist principles and values that underpin the Buddhist

worldview will provide a framework that will be the lens through which the

psychological wellbeing indicators of GNH will be analyzed in the following chapter

The principles that will be discussed here are however not definitive boundaries because

41

Buddhism teaches innumerable ways to achieve ultimate happiness In this chapter the

framework of happiness is based on a specific Buddhist teachings called the six

paramitas Nonetheless the entire Buddhist teachings have the same essence and arise

out of the four noble truths and eightfold noble path

This chapter is divided into three sections The first section begins with a brief

introduction to the Buddhist view of happiness Buddhism in Bhutan belongs to the

Mahayana tradition and therefore this study is limited to the context of Mahayana

Buddhism The second section looks at key foundational doctrines such as the four noble

truths Karmamdashthe law of cause and effect the principle of interdependence and

compassion The third section constructs a framework for happiness based on the

Mahayana Buddhist principle using the six perfections or paramitas Paramita refers to

crossing over from the sea of suffering to the shore of happiness The paramitas are the

six kinds of virtuous practice required for skillfully serving the welfare of oneself and

others and a path to achieve genuine happiness For the purpose of this study Thogme

Zangpos text on Thirty-Seven Practices of Bodhisattava (Gyalse Laglin) and teachings

by Buddhist teachers such as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will

serve as sources for constructing this framework

31 Buddhist View of Happiness

Buddhism was founded in the 5th century and has over 365 million followers

worldwide (Ontario Consultants 2009) The term religion is often associated with the

concept of creator or a god but Buddhism rejects the idea of creator god as well as the

notion of a permanent self or a indestructible soul (Flanagan 2007) Therefore it is

42

commonly said that Buddhism is non-theistic or atheistic Buddhism is a series of

practices and a way of life based on the teachings of the Buddha Buddhists are strongly

influenced by Karma the law of cause and effect with the implication that there is no

creator (interview with the Dalai Lama by Chopra 2010)

The word Buddha means to awaken from the sleep of ignorance and to spread

ones intelligence to everything that can be known (Dalai Lama 2000 p2) The Buddha

was like any other human being before he attained nirvana at the age of thirty-seven The

lessons that the Buddha learned while in search of truth is the foundation of Buddhism

chief among which is the pursuit of happiness

In his book An Open Heart Practicing Compassion in Everyday Lifethe Dalai

Lama (2001) states that the purpose of spiritual practice is to fulfill our desire for

happiness (p30) Buddhism indeed has much to say about happiness Sogyal Rimpoche

a renowned Buddhist teacher states there are two kinds of happiness one based on

material comfort and pleasures the other on inner contentment and peace (Doiji 2010)

The two are the physical and mental components of happiness The mental experience or

the inner force plays a more powerful role For example in a very pleasant environment

if we are mentally depressed the surroundings will not make a difference Similarly if

we have inner peace or mental happiness it will be easier to face any challenge This

indicates our mind and thoughts play a powerful role in experiencing happiness (Dalai

Lama 2001) Khenpo Phuntsho Tashi (2004) asserts that in Mahayana Buddhism

happiness springs from an altruistic or compassionate mind Since human minds are often

agitated by afflictive emotions the results frequently are negative actions which in turn

cause suffering The essence of Buddhism therefore is to tame to transform to conquer

43

the human mind for it is the root of everythingmdash it is the creator of happiness and

suffering The Buddha has said in Dhammapada (as cited by Bancroft 1997 p41)

Such a Wandering mind is weak and unsteady Attracted here there and everywhere How good it is to control it and know the happiness of Freedom (Verse 35)

And yet how unruly still how subtle the delusion of the thoughts To quiet them and master them is the true way of happiness (Verse 36)

There is a significant similarity between the Buddhas teachings and Aristotles

ethic Eudiamonia the Aristotelian term for happiness is very similar to Buddhism

Aristotle states that if we want to be happy we should cultivate and practice virtues

through wisdom He also mentions that happiness is vulnerable to external hazards

sudden disaster can reverse happiness no matter how virtuous ones life has been

(Annas 1999) This is exactly what the Buddha preached 2500 years ago The Buddhas

teachings are based on the impermanent nature of life and the importance of virtuous and

righteous deeds Most of Aristotles ethic is devoted to an account of virtuous activities

that he states constitute happiness Aristotle describes happiness as doing well combined

with virtue or self sufficiency of life or the pleasantest life with safety or prosperity of

possessions and bodies with power to protect then and use them in action (Irwin 1999

p3) Aristotle believes that power and fortune are also parts of happiness because they

are the best providers of safety This idea that happiness requires fortune contradicts the

Buddhas teachings The Buddha preached that fortune power possession are all

materials and subject to change They are therefore not a source of genuine happiness but

a cause of suffering

44

His Holiness the Dalai Lama states that Buddhists aim not merely for temporary

happiness but for long-term results They are concerned with life after life This means

that ultimate happiness in Buddhism is Nirvana the cessation of suffering the end of the

cycle of birth-and-death He further adds that spiritual practice the practice of dharma

can bring both long-term happiness and more inner strength day by day (Dalai Lama amp

Hopkins 2000) Buddhist teaching employs innumerable skillful means through which

happiness can be achieved at the individual and collective levels Being on the

Bodhisattva path the path on which all sentient beings can receive help can bring us

happiness Powers (1995 p91) defines a Bodhisattva as someone who is progressing

towards the state of enlightenment Bodhisattva symbolizes compassion Bodhisattvas are

also called jangchup sempa which means a compassionate heart in Tibetan and

Bhutanese

32 Key Mahayana Buddhist Principles

321 The four noble truths

In his search for the meaning of life the Buddha discovered the four noble truths

which are the very foundation of all Buddhist beliefs The Buddhas four noble truths

explain the truth of suffering and the way to overcome it The first noble truth recognizes

that suffering is the essence of human existence suffering from birth old age sickness

and death as well as the pain from separation grief and despair The second noble truth

explains that desire or craving is the cause of all suffering craving for pleasure for

individual existence and for release from our present situation The third noble truth

states that suffering can cease by overcoming craving or desire The fourth noble truth

45

prescribes the way to overcome desire by following the eightfold noble path (Bancroft

1997)

A closer understanding of the four noble truths leads to the realization that no

person can achieve constant and prolonged happiness because as the first noble truth

states Life is suffering This means that as long as humans exist there will be no end

to suffering Suffering in Buddhism has generally been categorized into three types First

is the suffering of misery which includes physical and mental sufferings Second is the

suffering of change where we achieve happiness only for a brief period because all

phenomena are subject to change Third is compositional suffering the suffering which is

endemic to cyclic existence because humans are under the influence of afflictive

emotions (Dalai Lama as cited in Powers 1984 amp 1995 Negi 1999)

The cause of all suffering is the desire and aversion arising out of ignorance

which is called Klesha Klesha literally means afflictive emotions or delusions and refers

to wide range of mental states (Negi 1999) Bhutanese call it nyong mong meaning

distorted or confused By following the eightfold noble path one can overcome the

afflictive emotions and thus achieve genuine happiness Light Party (1996) asserts that

the main map the Buddha offered for the trip to happiness and contentment is the

Eightfold Path Right Understanding Right Intention Right Action Right Speech Right

Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right Mindfulness Buddhist

teachings are all centered on one or more steps of the eightfold noble path The eight

steps are usually divided into three main practices Morality (Sila) which also means

ethics or virtues Concentration (Samadhv meditation) and Wisdom (Prajnaj (Dalai

Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2000 Gomes 2004) Right Understanding and Right

46

Intention pertain to wisdom (Sanskrit panna) Right Action Right Speech and Right

Livelihood pertain to moral virtues or ethics Right Effort Right Concentration and

Right Mindfulness pertain to meditative cultivation of heart and mind

Moral virtue meditation and wisdom form part of the six perfections which

are the core teachings of Mahayana Buddhism The six perfections are the six qualities to

the Bodhisattvas path the state of genuine happiness This study uses the six perfections

as a framework for happiness which will be explored in depth in the third section

322 The Law of Karma Principle of Interdependence and Compassion

The most common belief among Buddhists is that we can never escape from our

own Karma (Sanskrit Kamma) Karma (the law of cause and effect) states that nothing

comes into being without a cause The law of Karma can be simply related to Newtons

Third Law which states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction The

same holds according to the law of Karma though it is not known whether the reaction

will occur in this life or beyond this life Since Buddhism supports the idea of rebirth

certain key aspects of a persons next rebirth are thought to be karmically determined

These include the family into which one is born ones social status physical appearance

character and personality Karma does not however claim that everything that happens

to a person is karmically determined Karma does not determine precisely what will

happen or how anyone will react to what happen Individuals are always free to resist

previous conditioning and establish new patterns of behavior

The belief in Karma sometimes degenerates into a form of fatalism but fate and

Karma are different Humans have freedom to choose and their present action is not the

47

entire result of their past Karma action It does however influence a persons action

because of the character a person has developed (Harvey 2005)

The belief that one has to bear the Karma of ones act is deeply rooted in the

Buddhist psyche It is a very common belief among Buddhists that depending on ones

Karmic consequences (or accumulated positivenegative merits) one will experience

happinesssufferings of various types (Gaylag 2004) good action leads to pleasant

effects and bad deeds lead to unpleasant results Harvey (2005) asserts that the cycle of

Karma provides a perspective on life which is supportive of compassion and respect for

other beings In Buddhism if you want happiness you need to sow the seed of good

merit

Buddhist philosophy explains innumerable ways to achieve positive Karma

Actions motivated by greed hatred and delusion result in bad Karma while actions

motivated by their opposites - non-attachment loving kindness and right understanding-

- result in positive Karma Good intentions therefore must find expression in right

actions and right actions are basically those that are wholesome and do no harm either

oneself or others Tashi (2004) states that in order to accumulate merits and to be happy

our actions can be summed up under three principle causes 1) Developing the attitude of

not harming others (this is being mindful and awakening oneself from ignorance) 2)

Cultivating the attitude of helping others and 3) Being Content

The principle of dependent origination also known as the principle of

interdependence is one of the important principles of Buddhism This principle is actually

an elaboration of the law of Karma which states that all things are interdependent and

48

everything that happens depends on other things happening (Negi 1999 Flanagan 2007

Doiji 2009) In other words since a whole is dependent on its parts any existent thing is

composed of its parts therefore its very existence depends on its parts Buddhism states

that human beings in particular are the combination of the five groups of existence or

five aggregates The physical body is the material aggregate and the mental aspect is

made up of feeling perception (awareness recognition through senses) mental

formations or thoughts and consciousness (knowing the object through our senses)

(Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2005) Since we are made of these five aggregates

and these aggregates themselves have no permanent existence there exists no permanent

self Buddhist teachings assert that humans do not comprehend this reality and assume

that all things including human beings have permanent selves As we are all

interdependent there are no existing phenomena which is not the effect of this What we

do affects those around us and vice versa People should therefore not think only of

themselves but should also take into consideration those around them To create

happiness it is important that we not only reflect on the interrelationship of all things but

also see ourselves clearly as a part of one system of causal relationships

The Buddhist belief is that genuine happiness can be generated from developing a

compassionate heart a heart focused not only on itself but which also helps and benefits

all beings Compassion is defined as the wish to free all beings from suffering (Dalai

Lama 2001) Gyatso (1984) and the Dalai Lama (2000 amp 2001) assert that the root of all

Buddhist practices is the heart of loving kindness and compassion In Buddhism it is

normally said that a person who lacks compassion does not have a good heart It is

49

through a compassionate attitude that Buddhists are motivated to have concern for all

humans animals and the environment because they are all part of the same world

Although it is not easy to free all beings from suffering Buddhism states that we can

develop virtuous minds and thereby help others to do the same (Dalai Lama 2001) It is

through the force of compassion that a person engages in accumulating the merit and

wisdom that make Buddhahood possible (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) and in that sense

also makes happiness possible The four noble truths the law of Karma the principle of

interdependence and the idea of compassion form the key components of a Buddhist

worldview The next section develops a framework for the Buddhist view of happiness

which extends from these key Buddhist doctrines

33 The Buddhist Happiness Framework

This section constructs a happiness framework based on the Mahayana

Buddhisms teachings on the six perfections paramitas) Thogme Zangpos 12th century

text on the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva especially his verses on the six

practices were referenced ( Hopkins 1989) The six perfections or paramitas are

1 Dana Paramita (generosity) 2 Sila Paramita (ethicsvirtuesmorality) 3 Kshanti

Paramita (patiencetolerance) 4 Virya Paramita (perseverance) 5 Dhayana paramita

(meditative concentration) 6 Prajna Paramita (wisdom) These six teachings are a way

for an inner cultivation which implies a kind of ethics that focuses directly on daily life

through which one accomplishes genuine happiness (Wright 2009) The first five are

methods or practices and the last wisdom is necessary for any of them to function The

first three practices are usually recommended for lay people Joyous effort and

concentration mainly refer to meditation normally practiced in monastic communities

50

However meditation is now becoming increasingly popular and is practiced also by lay

people

The opening verse of Thogme Zangpos (nd) text begins with the following

statement

The perfect Buddhas the sources of benefit and happiness arise from having practiced the excellent doctrine That in turn depends on knowing its practices Therefore I will explain the practices of Bodhisattva (p 1)

The Buddha is a symbol and a source of genuine happiness for the Buddhist The

Buddha achieved the state of eternal bliss through his practice of virtues Thogme

Zangpo states that one needs to understand that the source of all happiness whether

worldly or ultimate happiness comes from the practice of Dharma which means the

practice of virtues Geshey Kelsang Gyatso (1984) states that in general Dharma refers

to the teachings of the Buddha but the actual Dharma is the inner realizations which

directly protect living beings from their sufferings He further explains that there are

three kinds of meaning to be achieved through the practice of Dharma The highest is to

reach full enlightenment Buddhahood in this life The middle is to achieve self-

liberation from cyclic fears and sufferings The lowest is to achieve happiness in this life

by overcoming the inner problems and thus avoiding being reborn in the lower realms in

the next life Thus Buddhists aim at one of these three Lay Buddhists usually aim to

lead a happy virtuous life and to be reborn in the higher realms

Thogme Zangpos teachings stress committing oneself to virtues as much as

possible and not engaging in ill deeds Virtues are actions that bear the fruit of happiness

Ill deeds are those actions that cause suffering and unhappiness to oneself and to other

beings Everyone wants to achieve happiness the Dalai Lama defines happiness as a

51

blissful state devoid of all suffering Since the law of cause and effect binds Buddhism it

is necessary to examine phenomena that cause happiness and suffering According to

Buddhism ignorance desire and hatred are the main cause of suffering Our own

afflictive emotions and actions cause suffering

The famous Buddhist painting of a wheel with 21 parts outlines the meaning of

life in Buddhism The diagram designed by the Buddha himself depicts an inner

psychological cosmology This painting can be found at the doorway of every temple in

Bhutan The center of the wheel shows the picture of a pig rooster and snake These

three animals depict the root cause of suffering represented as ignorance desire and

hatred (anger) respectively They are known as the three poisons in Buddhism (Dalai

Lama 2000) Buddhism states that it is possible to overcome suffering since it depends

on causes which are within oneself When one understands the nature of suffering one

will work towards ending such causes However Mahayana Buddhism stresses that this

understanding must be extended to other sentient beings Others similarly want happiness

and not suffering Mahayana Buddhists therefore emphasizes developing compassion and

engaging in the practices of the six paramitas to overcome suffering

Ignorance is not just the absence of knowledge of the real status of phenomenon

but the inability to understand truth misconception of inherent existence of permanent

self (Dalai Lama 2000) The principle of dependent origination (Section 322) as

explained above shows that we do not exist independently on our own Thogme Zangpos

fourth verse states the following

Long-associated companions will part from each other Wealth and possessions obtained with effort will be left behind Consciousness the guest will cast aside

52

the guest-house of the bodv Letting go of this life is the bodhisattvas practice (pl)

The above verse states that our body is not ours The mind or consciousness leaves the

body at death as a guest leaves the guesthouse However we live as if we are going to

live forever and this ignorance draws us into afflictive desire and hatred Ignorance thus

comes out as greed and hatred Greed and hatred in turn promote ignorance The Dalai

Lama (2000) states without ignorance desire and anger are impossible These disturbing

emotions and attitudes are said to be true causes of suffering as are the karmic impulses

that arise under the power of these disturbing emotions Figure 2 below illustrates how

Buddhists perceive suffering and happiness It shows that the root causes of suffering are

ignorance desire and hatred These emerge through three doorsmdash body speech and

mindmdashas non-virtuous action generating negative Karma which causes suffering to

oneself and to others

Figure 2 Suffering and its causes

53

Gyatso (1984) points out that even though the body is like a guest house we will

receive many fruits if we practice Dharma meaning the practice of virtue which results in

the fruit of good Karma However all sentient beings are subject to the three poisons and

the question is how do we overcome them to practice virtue Buddhist teaching states

that the three poisons can be resisted and virtues cultivated through training in the six

practices When a person wants to reduce weight heshe goes through physical training

and dieting Similarly in Buddhism if one wants happiness one must practice the six

paramitas This will naturally generate virtuous actions leading to happiness This is

represented by Figure 3 below

Figure 3 Overcoming Suffering

54

331 Generosity

Mahayanists maintain that happiness comes from a compassionate and altruistic

mind The practice of compassion is training oneself in the perfection of generosity In

the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva the 25th verse states

If it is necessary to give away even ones body while aspiring to enlightenment what need is there to mention external objects Therefore practicing generosity without hope of reciprocation or positive karmic results is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)

The perfection of generosity is the first principle of happiness Generosity can be

practiced by anyone This practice refers to unconditional love a selfless generosity and

giving which is completely free from attachment and expectation Internally it means

overcoming our emotions (greed and hatred) and being generous with others voluntarily

giving ones material goods time or wisdom to others (Das 1995) Generosity is a cure

for the afflictions of greed miserliness and possessiveness The Anguttara Nikaya

(Anguttara Verse 34 and 35) a collection of Buddhist scriptures points out that there are

five blessings that result from the practice of generosity the person will be liked and

admired by everyone will have a good reputation will have lots of self confidence and

will have a heavenly rebirth Buddhists believe that giving without seeking anything in

return leads to greater spiritual wealth Generosity therefore is a very important virtue

bringing happiness to oneself and others

332 Ethics

The second practice is that of Sila which literally means ethics moralityvirtue

Right speech Right action and Right livelihood which form the part of Eightfold Noble

Path fall under ethical practice This perfection of ethics or Sila Paramita stresses quality

55

of virtuous and ethical behavior morality self-discipline personal integrity and never

having the thought to harm any sentient beings The Dalai Lama (2001) states that for

Buddhists ethics means avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions acts done by the body

speech and mind (p34) It is important that our practice of generosity is supported by

our practice of ethics Buddhists therefore abstain from the ten non-virtuous actions

killing stealing sexual misconduct lying divisive speech harsh speech gossip greed

malice and wrong views The first three (killing stealing sexual misconduct) correspond

to bodily action The fourth fifth sixth and seventh (lying malicious words harsh

language useless talk) correspond to verbal action The last three (covetousness ill will

wrong view) occur through the mind (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) The ten non-virtuous

actions lead to bad Karma and suffering Avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and

cultivating a compassionate heart brings good Karma and happiness We can enjoy

greater freedom happiness and security in our lives because through our virtuous

behavior we are no longer creating suffering for ourselves and others we basically

become virtuous and harmless in our thoughts speech and actions Thus in the 26th

verse Thogme Zangpo writes

If lacking ethical conduct one fails to achieve ones own purpose the wish to accomplish others purpose is laughable Therefore guarding ethics devoid of aspirations for worldly existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)

Thogme Zangpo points out that with unethical behavior one cannot achieve

happiness Unethical behavior is always the cause of suffering and unhappiness For

example a person who speaks ill of another person will disturb their mind and later will

56

be a cause of suffering for himself or herself His 34th verse stresses the importance of

avoiding harsh words

Harsh words disturb others minds and cause the mode of a Bodhisattvas behavior to deteriorate Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to abandon harsh words about the unpleasantness of others (p 3)

By cultivating ethical behavior we do not cause harm to others and we are free of

negativity we cause no harm by our actions our speech is kind and compassionate and

our thoughts are free of anger malice and wrong views Through the practice of ethics

we gain confidence because we are not carrying any underlying sense of guilt or remorse

for our actions we have nothing to hide Being ethical and moral is the cause of all

goodness and happiness This practice of ethical conduct is the very foundation for

progressing in any practice of meditation and for attaining all higher realizations on the

path The Dalai Lama states that the aim of ethical practice is to transform motivation and

mental disposition this is how we become better human beings The more we succeed in

training our hearts and minds the more we will be able to cope with adversity and our

actions will be naturally ethical Thus we will experience happiness

333 Patience and Tolerance

The third practice is that of patience and tolerance It is called the perfection of

patience (Bhutanese Bzod pa) Thogme Zangpos 27th verse states the importance of

patience

For bodhisattvas who desire the pleasures of virtue all those who do harm are like a precious treasure Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to cultivate patience without anger or resentment for anyone (p3)

57

Patience in Buddhism refers to having the strength to face the challenges and

difficulties of life without losing our composure and inner tranquility Bodhisattvas are

challenged to endure tolerate and bear any hardship without retaliation or negative

thoughts Through endurance and tolerance we gain strength to overcome any afflictive

emotions The Dalai Lama states that this enlightened quality comes from having our

heart open and our mind deeply concentrated upon the Dharma He states that endurance

and tolerance do not imply defeat but make the mind stronger When the Buddha was

deep in meditation demon Mara and his daughters tried to tempt and distract him

Through his patience however the Buddha remained calm and undistracted and finally

attained nirvana The ability to endure is therefore integral to Buddhism With the

strength of patience we can overcome anything The mind will be calm and clear and

this enables us to make better decisions Through the practice of patience we maintain

inner peace under all circumstances and thus experience genuine happiness

334 Perseverance

The fourth practice is the perfection of joyous effort or enthusiastic perseverance

It is called Virya Paramita in Sanskrit and is the quality of persistent effort or working

hard towards achieving a goal The 28th verse of Thogme Zangpos teaching states

Even hearers and solitary realizers who accomplish only their own welfare strive as if putting out a fire on their heads Seeing this taking up diligent effort -the source of good qualities - for the sake of all beings is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)

Thogme Zangpo points out that just as one makes an effort to put out the fire on

ones own head one must strive diligently to free oneself and all sentient beings from

58

suffering Our body speech and mind should put in effort to the best of our ability

Without putting in right effort we can be disillusioned and thus fail to achieve any goal

The Dalai Lama states that with joyous effort and enthusiastic perseverance we regard

failure as simply another step towards success danger as an inspiration for courage and

affliction as another opportunity to practice wisdom and compassion Thus to achieve

happiness one must put in right effort to be compassionate to be virtuous and ethical at

all times

335 Meditative Concentration

The fifth practice is that of meditative concentration It is called Dhyana

Paramita Meditative concentration is very important in developing mental qualities and

overcoming the three poisons The content of the very first verse of thirty-seven practices

of Bodhisattva is on meditation

At this time when the difficult-to-gain ship of leisure andfortune has been obtained ceaselessly hearing pondering and meditating day and night in order to liberate oneself and others from the ocean of cyclic existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)

The ship of leisure and fortune refers to the human body In Buddhism there are six

realms god2 demi-god human animals hungry ghost hell beings The humans in

comparison to the other realm is very rare It is therefore fortunate enough to be born as a

human Thogme Zangpo indicates that through hearing the dharma teachings meditating

day and night and developing a heart of loving kindness and compassion sentient beings

2 Gods in Buddhism are beings who are born into higher realms because of their positive Karma accumulated in their past lives Their lifespan eventually ends When their life ends they will be reborn in one of the six realms depending on their Karma

59

can be liberated from suffering Buddhism greatly stresses the taming of the mind

because the mind can be transformed and meditation is the means to transform it Tashi

(2004) explains the usefulness of meditation in destroying the root causes of suffering

and providing an antidote to them Meditation also plays an important role in achieiving

happiness at the individual national and global levels The perfection of meditative

concentration thus aims at taming the mind so that it does what we want it to do We

stabilize our mind and emotions by practicing meditation by being mindful and aware in

everything we do When we train the mind in this way all mental distortions and

misperceptions are eliminated We achieve focus composure and tranquility

Concentrating deeply makes us realize the cause of confusion and suffering and helps us

directly experience inner joy Thus Thogme Zangpos 29th verse states

Having understood that disturbing emotions are destroyed by insight possessed with tranquil abiding to cultivate meditative concentration which perfectly transcends the four formless absorptions is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)

336 Wisdom

The last practice is the perfection of wisdom called Prajna Parmaita in Sanskrit

Wisdom is the key to everything Wisdom will help us find the path to happiness

Without wisdom one will not understand the reality of phenomena and thus be

disillusioned by the three poisons Wisdom is therefore necessary to cultivate other

practices Thogme Zangpos 30th verse points out

If one lacks wisdom it is impossible to attain perfect enlightenment through the other five perfections Thus cultivating skillful means with the wisdom that doesnt discriminate among the three spheres is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)

60

Wisdom does not refer to mere intellectual understanding It is beyond that Ron

Liefer (1997) states that a mere intellectual understanding of reality will not change our

habitual negative patterns of thoughts speech and action because the intellect serves the

ego He further adds we cannot achieve wisdom without seeing through the trickery of

ego Wisdom refers to Right understanding and Right view (two of the eightfold noble

paths) of reality This entails getting rid of those wrong views which manifest the three

poisons Through wisdom one will be able to distinguish between what is ethical and

unethical or virtuous and non-virtuous We see the essential nature of reality with utmost

clarity our perception goes beyond the illusive and deceptive veils of material existence

Wisdom clears the delusion that envelops the mind It overturns ignorance and the

attitudes that lead to non-virtuous actions and ultimately shows us the path to happiness

(Rink 2010) Thus overcoming the three poisons by understanding the true nature of

reality and developing qualities of generosity morality patience and meditating with

joyous effort is said to generate the highest level of happiness in Buddhism

34 Summary

Buddhist teachings show the true cause of suffering as ignorance desire and

hatred enveloping the mind The teachings on the Four Noble Truths open our eyes to

various perspectives and send us the message that happiness is beyond material

wellbeing They make us realize that the real essence of happiness lies within us It is

only through taming the mind that we can experience happiness Whether we want to be

happy or not depends on how we perceive things and how we act John Milton said The

mind is its own place and in itself can make heaven of hell and a hell of heaven (as

61

cited by Williams 2008 p24) Buddhism teaches that if we can overcome the three

poisons and practice generosity patience mediation and morality we can experience

inner joy in this life This can even be extended to the next life with the possibility of

attaining nirvana The idea of reward for virtuous action (Karma) creates a healthy fear

and pushes the Buddhist to be ethical and practice virtues at all time Buddhism thus

accords the highest authority to experience with reason second and scripture third

(Flanagan 2007) Some may wonder however whether a focus exclusively on getting

rid of desire would inhibit worldly progress The path to overcoming attachment and

achieving worldly progress such as accumulating wealth are indeed poles apart

Buddhism does not necessarily say that we have to give up the material life It stresses

more the importance of having a good heart of never harming others of being

compassionate of being morally disciplined and of possessing loving kindness

generosity patience and a joyful desire to practice virtues These positive qualities can

reduce ones suffering and give happiness to oneself and others

62

CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING

INDICATORS

People always experience moods and emotions which have an enormous range of

effects on their wellbeing To know about peoples psychological state something must

be known about their subjective experiences The psychological wellbeing domain of the

GNH index thus assesses peoples subjective experience based on eleven indicators

Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking account of Karma Jealousy Selfishness

Frustration Generosity Calmness Compassion Suicidal Thought and General Mental

Health The government measures psychological wellbeing by assessing the socially

destructive attitudes and symptoms of psychological distress and the prevalence of

practices to avoid negative emotions The main purpose of this study is to determine to

what extent the indicators under the psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of

happiness and their coherence with the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH This

chapter analyzes each of these indicators to determine the extent to which they reflect

Buddhist principles of happiness using the conceptual framework laid down in Chapter

Three and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH

This chapter is divided into five sections The first section briefly highlights the

meaning of psychological wellbeing and the importance of measuring it It also highlights

similarities between the views of some modern psychologists and the Buddhist view on

the understanding of psychological wellbeing The second third and fourth sections

analyze the indicators of psychological wellbeing by grouping them into three broad

categories Emotional Balance Spirituality Practices and General Mental Health The

chapter concludes with an overview of the overall findings

63

41 Psychological Wellbeing Measures

Psychological wellbeing as the term denotes refers to the wellbeing of a persons

mental state It deals with emotions and feelings which are subjective experiences The

measure of the psychological wellbeing of its citizens is extremely important in a country

pursuing GNH because the mental or the psychological state influences the overall

wellbeing of people A GNH state therefore needs to minimize those mental conditions

that can be disruptive As Larsen amp Fredrickson (1999) point out the content of a

persons emotional life strongly influences his or her judgments of the quality of that life

(p40)

From the Buddhist perspective happiness depends on our mind Buddhist

teachings are directly or indirectly based on the workings of the mind Buddhism strongly

holds that it is the emotional and mental state of people that influence their wellbeing or

happiness The term ishepa which means the mind refers to all aspects of subjective

experiences In the Buddhist diction mind shepa) awareness (rigpa) and consciousness

(lo) are synonyms (Abhidhamma 1987 Negi 1999) The mind in Buddhism includes

all perceptual conceptual and emotional states both conscious and unconscious (Negi

1999) The emotional mental states therefore are all mind related subjective experiences

As explained in Chapter Three Buddhism is concerned with taming the mind

this entails understanding the types of mental activity that are truly conducive to

wellbeing and the ones that are harmful In this sense it would be justifiable to say that

Buddhism is all about achieving happiness mentally or psychologically Ekman

Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) agree that psychologists and Buddhists alike

64

believe that emotions strongly influence peoples thoughts words and actions and that

they help people in their pursuit of transient pleasures and satisfactions

The measurement of a persons psychological state is commonly based on the

self-report assessment Within the discipline of psychology there is a strong view that

self-reports on how well life is going can convey important information on underlying

emotional states and in measuring peoples subjective wellbeing Earlier psychologists

who were mainly interested in negative emotional states such as depression and anxiety

are now interested in positive emotions to evaluate peoples overall wellbeing (Ryff amp

Singer 1998) Indeed to get empirical clues of happiness establishing the absence of

negative experiences would not be enough positive feelings must also be present (Hirata

2006) The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index similarly includes

both positive and negative emotions

Structured questionnaires are used to collect data for each indicator A

sufficiency cut off or a threshold is set for each indicator A person is said to have met the

sufficiency cut-off if hisher evaluation in that indicator meets or exceeds the cut-off

point If the respondent meets or exceeds the sufficiency cut off heshe is given the full

score This means a person is psychologically well if heshe makes sufficient

achievement in each of the indicators Any shortfall from sufficiency that any

respondents experience in any indicator is considered to depress Gross National

Happiness The depth of insufficiency will rise if any person drops further away from

sufficiency cut-off This means that the distance from the cut-off or the sufficiency gap is

sensitive only if the achievements are below the sufficiency level This indicates that the

GNH index is sensitive to an unhappy or a poor persons experience Overall this method

65

is similar to poverty measurement where a poverty line is set to distinguish people who

are materially poor from non-poor (Millet 2010) However there is not much

information available on how the sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From

the information available on the CBS website it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut

off is set at a level that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises

questions because there is not any literature or research conducted on how the sufficiency

cut off has actually been set Arbitrarily setting cut-offs without any basis or setting it

based on some assumptions can lead to questionable results

42 Emotional Balance

The Centre for Bhutan Studies has grouped seven indicators under the category of

emotional balance The indicators can be further grouped into two categories negative

emotions and positive emotions The indicators under this index include emotions or

feelings related to wellbeing because these affect a persons evaluation of life Four of the

seven indicators pertain to negative emotions jealousy selfishness frustration and

suicidal thought and three pertain to positive emotion generosity calmness and

compassion Diener amp Lucas (1999) state that although the emotions are momentary

influences and would not reflect a stable state of happiness they do provide information

about the state of a persons life Research shows that a variety of etiological factors

contribute to these emotions (Berenbaum Raghavan Le Vernon amp Gomez 1999)

Buddhist teaching similarly maintains that these emotions do not occur on their own

there are causal factors associated with them

66

Buddhism places the mind at the centre of all experiences The Buddhist tradition

therefore places emotions at the core of individual and universal happiness In the

Abhidhamma Buddhist text the mind is presented in context to its primary and secondary

consciousnesses Primary consciousness refers to the content of mind which illuminates

merely the general nature of the content Secondary consciousness refers to the aspect of

mind that illuminates the particular nature of that content Both the primary and

secondary consciousnesses operate as one entity (Negi 1999) The Abhidhamma lists

fifty-one secondary consciousnesses All the positive and negative emotions fall under

the fifty-one secondary consciousnesses

a Negative Emotion

Chapter Three explained that negative emotions in Buddhism arise out of

ignorance desire and hatred Humans suffer because of their own negative emotions

These are negative because they harm oneself and others As we ignore the reality around

us and cling to the self or I we get angry for things we do not like jealous when others

succeed frustrated when we fail The extreme reaction is suicidal thoughts and action

All of these negative emotions from the Buddhist perspective fall under unethical

action action that occurs through the mind They are called nyong mongs meaning

distorted or confused or klesha translated as afflictive emotions Jealousy selfishness

frustration and suicidal thoughts arise due to covetousness ill will and wrong view The

four negative indicators form part of the ten non-virtuous actions and are afflictive

regardless of their degree or the context in which they arise These emotions are similarly

considered negative under the GNH index

67

1 Jealousy

Jealousy is often defined as a feeling of resentment when others succeed Harris

(2004) points out that jealousy is likely to arise over perceptions that a potential rival

poses a threat to what one perceives to be valuable in oneself and in an important

relationship In Buddhism jealousy is called dhrag-dog The Buddhist Abhidhamma text

classifies jealousy as part of hostility and calls it immoral Jealousy in Buddhism is

defined as a disturbing emotion that focuses on other peoples accomplishments such as

their good qualities possessions or success and is the inability to bear their

accomplishments due to excessive attachment to our own gain or to the respect we

receive (Berzin 2004 p 1) Jealousy in Buddhism is therefore related to attachment

Jealousy and envy have slightly different meanings in Buddhism Envy adds to what

jealousy means in Buddhism In addition to the inability to bear others accomplishments

envy is the wish to have these accomplishments for ourselves Therefore envy has the

element of what Buddhism calls covetousness (Bnab sem) Berzin (2004) points out that

envy as a combination of jealousy and covetousness leads to competitiveness Jealousy

is thus a disturbing emotion that drives us to become highly competitive and to work

fanatically to outdo others or ourselves Failure can cause much pain and success can lead

to further greed Jealousy has elements of resentment and hostility In addition it has

strong elements of insecurity and mistrust (Berzin 2004)

In the Abhidhamma text jealousy is opposite to compassion and appreciative joy

Lama Zopa Rinpoche (1973) states that rejoicing is the best remedy for jealousy and

envy (pl) Buddhist teaching maintains that we must rejoice for others success and

68

happiness and think that they created their own cause for their happiness Similarly in a

GNH society we must rejoice for others success and happiness Jealousy disturbs our

peace of mind and causes much suffering We cannot achieve GNH if we are all jealous

of others Jealousy is therefore opposed to GNH values

Mullen (1995) points out that men and women experience different types of

emotions when they are jealous These include pain distress oppression anxiety

sadness apprehension anger restless distress humiliation shame agitation and

betrayal All of these are negative and against happiness or wellbeing In order to

achieve GNH it is important to rule out the presence of such negative emotions Since

jealousy is directly opposed to the psychological wellbeing of people it is appropriate

that it be an indicator of GNH

In order to collect the data for this indicator the following question is asked of the

respondents (Box 1) The sufficiency cut off is set at never which means that

respondents are given full score when they answer never In a GNH state it is hoped or

expected that a person would never feel jealous Buddhism similarly marks jealousy as

non-virtuous and afflictive regardless of their degree in which they arise The sufficiency

cut-off which is set at never therefore also corresponds to Buddhist principles

How often do you experience jealousy

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 1 Survey question of Jealousy Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

69

2 Selfishness

The second indicator selfishness refers to an unwillingness to share because of

craving something for oneself Selfishness in Buddhism originates from attachment and

greed In Buddhism selfishness is closely related to the Buddhist term Serna (Negi

1999) Serna in the Abhidhamma text is termed as immoral consciousness (p96) and

appears as delusion arising out of a wrong view attachment and greed Negi (1999)

states that it is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity (p93)

Selfishness is also synonymous with the Tibetan Buddhist terms Rangdoed and lNoe

zirtwhich literally mean self-centered desire and material attachment respectively

Buddhist teachings condemn the idea of self or I from which selfishness arises As

explained in Chapter Three Buddhism teaches no-self (anatta) as an essential

principle The doctrine of no-self is to help us let go of our attachment and ego In one

of his interviews with FOR Atv the Dalai Lama (2008) narrates an incident in which a

rich couple asked him for a blessing He replied to them You are wealthy share your

wealth with the needy ones this will be the real blessing for you This indicates that

Buddhists believe in replacing selfishness with generosity to attain inner joy In

particular the paramita of ethics (see Chapter Three) emphasizes restraining self-

centeredness and to rooting it out completely The Dalai Lama (2000) states that the

ethic of restraining self-centeredness is crucial (p 101) A selfish attitude according to

Buddhism obstructs the path towards achieving Bodhisattva and thus genuine happiness

Selfishness gives rise to negative Karma leading one to be reborn in the lower realms

70

Similarly since the concept of GNH supports the idea of interdependence selfishness is

opposed to the GNH values

Under the selfishness indicator of GNH the participants are asked the following

question (See Box 2) For the answer never a full score is given which means that a

person should never feel selfish to get a positive GNH score This indicates that

selfishness is against the GNH essence Consistent with the Buddhist teachings the GNH

index similarly marks selfishness as a negative trait

How often do you experience selfishness

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 2 Survey question of Selfishness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

3 Frustration The American Heritage Stedmans Medical Dictionary defines frustration as a

condition that results when an impulse or an action is thwarted by an external or an

internal force There is no exact term for frustration in Buddhism but it can be related to

the term gopa which is translated as agitation Negi (1999) describes gopa as a

mental factor that disturbs the inner calm and focus of the mind (p44) Gopa forms

part of the twenty secondary delusions in the Abhidhamma In the Bhutanese national

language Ouggam1 holds equivalent meaning to frustration Ouggam literally means

pressurizing the breath Oug is breath and gam means pressure When we pressurize our

self we get frustrated and this comes out as anger causing suffering to others and

ourselves

71

Frustration is without doubt a negative emotion because it disturbs the peace of

mind causing anxiety and stress Like jealousy and selfishness frustration arises out

of attachment and desire In Buddhism any emotion that arises out of ignorance desire

and hatred is afflictive and non-virtuous Similarly in a GNH society that seeks to

maximize the happiness and wellbeing of people frustration is a negative trait and

opposed to the concept of GNH because it obstructs the path towards happiness Since

frustration has a negative impact on wellbeing it is necessary to determine if such

emotions occur frequently among people Therefore it is appropriate to have it as a

negative indicator of psychological wellbeing

The question (Box 3) how often do you experience frustration is asked of

respondents Since frustration hampers wellbeing respondents who never experience

frustration are given a full GNH score Respondents who often or sometimes

experience frustration are given a negative score

How often do you experience frustration

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 3 Survey question of Frustration Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

4 Suicidal Thoughts

Suicidal thoughts usually occur when one is no longer able to bear suffering in

life According to Buddhism suicide is an unwholesome act since it is encouraged by a

mind filled with greed hatred and delusion (Dhammananda nd) Killing is one of the ten

non-virtuous actions in Buddhism so any act of killing is unwholesome and suicide is

72

therefore an unwholesome act The Buddhist teachings on Karma maintain that death by

suicide only leads to another cycle of rebirth in the same condition Buddha Dharma

Education Association (nd) explains that in order for the act of killing to have its

complete and unmitigated power five conditions must be present a living being the

awareness of the existence of a living being the intention to kill the living being the

effort or action of killing the living being and the consequent death of the living being

Suicide will always lack the last element of a complete Karma because the one who

commits the act will already be dead at the time of the completion of the action

Therefore suicide becomes a defective action and is not completed as an act of killing

leading to rebirth in the same condition (Sopa 2005) The Dalai Lama (1981) states that

even if we take our own life we will have to take another body that again will be the

basis of suffering In order to get rid of all the difficulties we experience we need to get

rid of the fundamental cause (greed hatred and delusion) that gives rise to the aggregates

that are the basis of all suffering He adds that killing yourself is not going to solve your

problems Suicide in Buddhism is therefore a non-virtuous act that arises because of

afflictive emotion

According to Buddhism suicide does not end the problem The famous Buddhist

painting of truth depicts that death is only the beginning of another cycle of pain and

suffering Buddhists therefore do not support suicide and instead encourage constructive

living using this life to diligently practice virtuous action thus changing the present and

the future for the better

Research indicates that suicide and attempted suicide are associated with

elevated levels of anger anxiety guilt sadness and shame (Berenbaum Raghavan Le

73

Vernon Gomez 1999 p 279) Depression is found to be the main cause of suicides The

most common factors that push youth to commit suicide according to Bhutanese

psychiatrist Dr Nirola are peer and parental pressures competitive scenarios and failure

to get a job among others (as cited by Dorji 2010) This indicates that suicidal thoughts

occur because of what Buddhism calls the three poisons leading to further afflictive

emotions

Suicidal thoughts similarly are against the essence of GNH and therefore a

negative indicator of psychological wellbeing Under the GNH index a person who has

never thought of committing suicide (See Box 4) is given a foil GNH score while

respondents who have thought of committing suicide are given negative scores Overall

the indicator of suicidal thought finds groundings in Buddhist teachings

Have you ever seriously thought of committing suicide

1 Yes 2 No

Box 4 Survey question of Suicidal Thought Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Jealousy frustration selfishness and suicidal thoughts are negative emotions that

affect individuals and the societys wellbeing Satya Dev Negi (1996) asserts that the

distorted emotional states have achieved such a pervasive status that our era may become

known to history as the Age of Emotional Epidemic (p2) The effects of negative

emotions are clearly visible in society increasing crime substance abuse suicide and

divorce are all symptoms of emotional dysfunction

The entire Buddhist tradition evolved as a study of mental and emotional states

and ways to transform the negative emotions into positive ones Although Buddhism sees

74

ignorance desire and hatred as the main causes of suffering the three poisons come out

in the form of various negative emotions which include jealousy frustration and

selfishness Scientific research has revealed the role emotions play in affecting health the

immune system blood pressure and cardiovascular functions Research also indicates

that individuals with emotional disturbances are prone to induce negative effects upon

those with whom they have ongoing relationships (Berenbaum et al 1999) Besides

evaluation of the frequency of negative emotions it is important for the government to

know the reasons or the conditions that give rise to these negative emotions GNH as

policy must attend to it them

Overall all of the four indicators are directly opposed to the essence of GNH and

therefore it is appropriate to have them as indicators in order to minimize or eliminate

the presence of such negative emotions in a country Further all of these indicators are

rooted in Buddhism

b Positive Emotions

The process for accomplishing happiness in Buddhism involves uprooting the

negative emotions and enhancing the positive ones The three indicatorsmdashgenerosity

calmness and compassionmdashare positive because these emotions bring happiness to

oneself and others The practice of paramitas as explained in Chapter Three encourages

replacing the three poisons by practicing generosity ethics compassion and meditative

concentration Similarly generosity calmness and compassion are considered positive

indicators of psychological wellbeing

75

5 Generosity

Generosity is the act of giving and a means to overcome greed and selfishness In

Buddhism the practice of generosity (Dana Paramita- jinba) as laid down in Chapter

Three is one of the six paramitas and a way to practice compassion Buddhism maintains

that the practice of generosity in addition to the fivefold benefit to the one practicing it

brings happiness to others too Generosity is a moral practice that relates to positive

virtues such as compassion and loving kindness the cultivation of which leads to mental

development and spiritual happiness Through generosity we are able to extend ourselves

and help others The whole idea of generosity supports the concept of interdependence

which is the core principle of GNH and Buddhism The Centre for Bhutan Studies terms

generosity a positive emotion of great importance and a desirable habit Generosity as

an indicator is therefore coherent with the GNH principle as it promotes happiness for

oneself and others The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 5) for the

collection of data

How often do you experience generosity

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 5 Survey question of Generosity Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

The sufficiency cut off has been set as often which means a person should

frequently experience the feeling of generosity to get the full GNH score In a GNH

3 See Chapter Three

76

society people must help each other and promote a healthy environment Helping does

not necessarily mean giving all your possessions to others but it does entail sharing a part

of your wealth and being helpful in many ways An example would be a voluntary

service to society and charity Happiness derived by the act of generosity which does not

get included in the Gross Domestic Product (Hewavitharana 2004) should be included in

the evaluation of GNH Therefore generosity as an indicator of psychological

wellbeing is coherent with and appropriate to the concept of GNH

6 Calmness

Calmness refers to the clarity of mind and it entails patience and tolerance

Calmness is opposed to anger which is one of the three poisons in Buddhism The

Buddhist practice of Kshanita paramita the practice of patience and tolerance stresses

the importance of having a calm and composed mind at all times Patience in Buddhism

as seen in Chapter Three refers to having the strength to face the challenges and

difficulties of life without losing composure and inner tranquility In the Abhidhamma

text equanimity (long nyom) which is synonymous with calmness is listed as the

tenth positive secondary consciousness and a wholesome mental factor (Negi 1999)

Any mind that experiences such emotion becomes automatically positive states Negi

(1999) When we are calm we develop a tendency not to harm others and we are usually

at our best when we are calm Tranquility gives rise to clarity from which understanding

and wisdom grow (Graham 2007) A calm mind is therefore very essential for living a

happy and healthy life On the other hand constant fear and anger affect our own health

and overall wellbeing Horton (2010) states that through mental calmness one can

77

experience inner peace and as a result success too Calmness is therefore a virtue

consistent with GNH ideals

The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 6) for the collection of

data

How often do you experience calmness

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 6 Survey question of Calmness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Respondents who often feel calm are given the full GNH score which means in a GNH

society people should experience calmness frequently Overall this indicator can be

linked to Buddhist teachings and is coherent with GNH values as well

7 Compassion

Compassion is a wish to relieve the suffering of others and is central to Buddhist

practice As mentioned earlier in Chapter Three it is the most essential and important

trait for bodhisattvas within Mahayana Buddhism Mahayanists maintain that only

through developing a compassionate heart can one practice the other essential virtues

For example without being compassionate we will not develop a genuine sense of

generosity The compassion in Buddhism not only arises out of empathy towards the

suffering of others but from understanding and realizing the meaning of emptiness the

law of Karma and interdependence viewing self and others as devoid of inherent

meaning Compassion thus leads to the practice of loving kindness and helps to

78

overcome afflictive emotions such as hatred jealousy and selfishness which are

considered negative under the psychological wellbeing indicators

Compassion a profound human emotion can be a powerful means to creating a

GNH society When one is compassionate the thought of harming others does not arise

and this attitude cultivates a genuine sense to work toward everyones benefit The CBS

(2008) similarly holds compassion as an approach to sympathy for the suffering of

others which is necessary to establish a compassionate society Thinking about the

suffering of others and not just ones own is important for a GNH society Further

scientific studies suggest that individuals including children who may engage in

bullying people and society in general could benefit from practices of compassion (Lutz

Lewis Johnstone Davidson 2008) Therefore compassion as an indicator is very much

coherent with the GNH values

The following question (Box 7) is asked of respondents to find out how

compassionate they are The sufficiency cut off similar to the indicator of generosity

and calmness has been set at often which means a person should frequently

experience compassion to get the full GNH score

How often do you experience compassion

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 7 Survey question of Compassion Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Overall the presence of emotions such as compassion calmness and generosity

have a positive impact on physical wellbeing on decision-making process and on the

79

potential for leading a happy life Further each of the three indicators is clearly related to

the Buddhist practice of paramitas

43 Spiritual Practices

From the Buddhist perspective the indicators under this section consist of

practices to overcome negative or afflictive emotions Practicising them with sincerity

can hold negative emotions at bay

8 Frequency of Meditation

The Buddhists consider meditation a very important method to calm the mind

The eightfold noble path and the paramita of meditative concentration emphasizes the

importance of meditation as a means to destroy the three root causes of suffering (desire

hatred and ignorance) Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) states that the Buddhist meditative

practice does not merely suppress the destructive mental states but trains the mind to see

directly and concretely how the mind functions and using this understanding tames and

masters our own mind freeing it from afflictive states Many Buddhist masters prescribe

meditation as the key to finding happiness and peace of mind Tashi (2004) points out

that the important egalitarian aspects of meditation are its accessibility to everybody with

little or no cost involved Researchers have shown that Buddhists who meditate may be

able to train their minds to feel genuine happiness and control aggressive instincts

(Connor 2003) Another study of Buddhist meditation by scientists at the University of

California has found that meditation might tame the amygdale the part of the brain

involved with fear and anger Studies have also shown that even brief courses of

80

meditation with very short periods of the simplest meditative practices are associated

with better psychological and physical health (Levenson etal 2004) The CBS does not

link meditation to Buddhism but it is implicit that the indicators are inspired by Buddhist

teachings

Aside from the spiritual connotations meditation is a powerful method to calm

our mind (Connor 2003) Research has shown that practicing meditation regularly has

beneficial effects for a range of conditions These include stress anxiety depression

poor sleep and coping with chronic pain It also has other health benefits such as reduced

inflammation improved immunity and lower blood pressure A study conducted by three

universities (University of Wisconsin West Virginia University and University of

Reading) found that calmness and compassion could be developed through the practice of

meditation Lutz Lewis Johnstone and Davidson (2008) state that the long-term goal of

meditation is to weaken egocentric traits so that altruistic behaviors might arise more

frequently and spontaneously Meditation is indeed the best method to make the mind

relaxed and peaceful Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) maintains that the gift of learning to

meditate is the greatest gift you can gift yourself in this life (p58) He adds for it is

only through meditation that you can undertake the journey to discover your true nature

and so find the stability and confidence you will need to live and die well (p58)

The benefits of meditation as pointed out by the Buddhist teachings and supported

by modern research are immense The practice of meditation thus surely will have a

positive impact on the wellbeing of people which directly contributes to the essence of

GNH Having meditation as a GNH indicator signifies the importance the government is

putting on the benefits it provides The following question (Box 8) is asked of

respondents regarding the practice of meditation

Do you practice meditation

1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all

Box 8 Survey question of meditation Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

The sufficiency cut-off for meditation has been set as occasionally which means

one must practice meditation occasionally to get a full GNH score Although meditation

is considered a very important practice in Buddhism meditation among the lay

population is not popular in Bhutan According to the survey conducted by CBS (2008)

904 of respondents do not meditate at all This may arise from the fact that Bhutan

still does not have any meditation centre for lay people This may also be the reason why

the sufficiency cut-off has been set as occasionally instead of daily Very recently

meditation has been introduced in Bhutanese schools It however needs to be introduced

among lay population too Overall the indicator of mediation is coherent with GNH

values Further since Buddhism greatly stresses the importance of meditation the

indicator seems to have been influenced by Buddhism

9 Prayer Recitation

Prayer is a form of religious practice that seeks to connect to some greater power

Most religions involve prayer in one way or another The purpose of Buddhist prayer is to

awaken the inherent inner capacities of strength compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)

The translation for the word prayer in Bhutanese national language is thuen which

82

literally means the recitation of mantras Buddhism emphasizes the recitation of prayershy

like mantras A mantra is a word a syllable a phrase or a short prayer that is spoken

once or repeated over and over again (either aloud or in a persons head) and that is

thought to have a profound spiritual effect on the person (BBC 2006 p 1) Mantra

literally means that which protects the mind from negativity (Sogyal Rimpoche 2002

p71) Mantra Sogyal Rimpoche states is the essence of sound and embodiment of the

truth in the form of sound Each syllable contains spiritual power and vibrates with the

blessing of the speech of the Buddha There are mantras that are thought to subtly alter

ones mind and make a connection with a particular Buddha or enlightened being

Buddhists believe that when certain mantras are said many times they arouse good

vibrations within the person they awaken our inherent inner capacities of strength

compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)

A prayer can be silent meditation or a full chorus of chanting (Hanh 2006) In

Buddhism praying involves two important aspects the first is establishing a relationship

between ourselves and the one to whom we are praying This refers to reflecting on the

great qualities of the Buddha which involves visualization The second is regarding

effective prayer which is the idea of cultivating the energy of love mindfulness and

right concentration in prayer To pray effectively our body and mind must dwell

peacefully in the present moment (Hanh 2006) It is common that Buddhists lay prostrate

while praying This is a position that diminishes the ego opens one up and brings one

close to the earth (Hanh 2006 p 63) Since reciting prayers requires mindfulness and

concentration the paramita of meditative concentration extends to prayers too The

83

Buddhist Faith Fellowship of Connecticut asserts that Buddhist prayer is a form of

meditation and practice of inner reconditioning Similarly Sogyal Rimpoche (2002)

explains that reciting mantras is one of the meditation techniques He calls it uniting the

mind with the sound of mantra When one is nervous disoriented or emotionally fragile

reciting a mantra inspiringly can change the state of the mind completely by transforming

its energy and atmosphere He also mentions that mind rides on the subtle energy of

breath and when you chant a mantra you are charging your breath and energy with the

energy of the mantra so working directly on the mind and subtle body (p71) The

practice of reciting mantra for inner reconditioning is distinctively Buddhist

In addition to reciting mantras a majority of the Bhutanese Buddhists pray to

local deities It is a very popular belief in Bhutan that deities can protect us from evil

forces In a real sense this is not Buddhism because the Buddha never prayed to anyone

Buddhism stresses the recitation of mantras to awaken our inner qualities As mentioned

earlier Bhutan was largely a Bon country prior to the entry of Buddhism Bonism

emphasized worshipping the deities Buddhism in many countries flourished with

polytheistic features For example in Japan Buddhism mixed with Shinto which

worships kamis (nature spirits) created a tradition of praying to the kamis Bhutans

national newspaper Kuensel reported that Bonism mixed with Buddhism is still prevalent

in the country (Wangchuk 2005) The rituals of the Bon often include animal sacrifices

but animal sacrifices are discouraged in the country However many pray and perform

rituals to appease the local deities (yu-lha) For example in the village of Bongo under

Chukha district people worship and pray to two sister deities They also summon other

84

deities and spirits residing in mountains valleys lakes forests streams and cliffs

invoking them to assist and protect people from misfortunes (as cited by Wangchuk

2005) Similarly people in the capital Thimphu pray to a local deity located in the upper

valley Although this is not distinctively Buddhism (Powers 1995) it is an age-old

tradition that has been absorbed by Bhutanese Buddhists long ago This is now

considered an integral part of Bhutanese Buddhist culture

The following question (Box 9) is asked of respondents A person who prays

daily meets the sufficiency cutoff which means heshe is given a full GNH score

Do you sayrecite prayers

1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all

Box 9 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Although reciting prayers in Buddhism is seen as a method ofmeditation both

are given different sufficiency cut offs A person who meditates occasionally is given a

full score while a person who prays occasionally is not given a full score The different

sufficiency cut offs for the two different practices indicates that the prayer recitation

indicator is intended to be different from meditation However prayer recitation in

Buddhism itself is a form of meditation CBS mentions that those indicators which are

highly uncorrelated were selected but from a pure Buddhist perspective the two seem to

be closely related since both fall under the paramita of meditative concentration The

CBS does not mention how prayer recitation is consistent with GNH values

Nevertheless the benefits of prayer recitation and meditation maybe the same because

85

both practices require mindfulness and concentration In this sense prayer recitation too

is coherent with GNH To conclude prayer in the form of mantra accords with Buddhist

principles while prayer to deities is a local Buddhist practice Therefore the indicator of

prayer recitation seems to have been influenced by Buddhism with traces of local beliefs

10 Taking account of Karma

As seen in chapter three Karma is a very important Buddhist principle that guides

the Buddhist psyche The law of Karma provides the basis to practice the paramita of

ethics (sila) Karma as one of the GNH indicators clearly implies that Buddhism has

influenced the indicator The literal meaning of taking account of Karma is being

morally responsible for our own actions When a person takes account of Karma in daily

life heshe is being aware and morally responsible for their actions on which the result

depends When we understand the law of Karma we are discouraged from performing

non-virtuous or unwholesome actions which cause suffering Realizing that Karma

conditions and determines our happiness we will refrain from unwholesome behavior to

avoid the negative effects of these actions Similarly understanding that virtuous actions

bear the fruit of happiness one is encouraged to practice wholesome actions The law of

causality therefore promotes moral and ethical life

The sufficiency cutoff for taking account of Karma (Box 10) has been set as

daily indicating that a person who takes account of Karma daily is given a full GNH

score

86

Do you consider Karma in the course of your daily life

1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all

Box 10 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

For a country pursing GNH it is important to take account of Karma on a daily

basis because Karma promotes healthy and ethical living ideal for a GNH state

According to CBS for Bhutanese an understanding of the dynamics between causes

and effects are critical to each individuals pursuit for happiness as it tends to provide a

clearer understanding and cultivation of GNH values (pl) Understanding that the real

reason for our sufferings is our own Karma (action through body speech and mind)

serves as an antidote to all our afflictive emotions Karma promotes the sense of helping

each other and living in harmony with all forms of life It is therefore important that a

GNH society take account of Karma daily to promote wholesome actions for a happy

society The indicator of taking account of Karma daily is thus a reflection of Buddhist

principles and is consistent with GNH values

43 General Mental Health (GMH)

11 General Mental Health

The general mental health indicator assesses the mental health of people using the

General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) that would provide a possible indication of

depression anxiety low confidence and concentration levels Unlike the other indicators

under the psychological wellbeing domain the General Mental Health indicator consists

87

of fifteen questions (See Appendix 2) Questions related to ones stress level ability to

concentrate anxiety depression feeling of happiness and unhappiness are asked of the

respondents The questions are calculated and interpreted using the Likert scale with

lowest score at 0 and highest possible score at 36 A lower score between the ranges of 0-

15 indicates normal mental wellbeing a median score between 16-20 indicates some

mental distress and a high score of 21-36 indicates severe mental distress (CBS 2008)

The sufficiency cut-off is set as normal mental wellbeing which means people should

not experience any mental distress to get a full GNH score

The CBS (2008) asserts that mental health is an important indicator for the health

status of a population Studies have revealed that mental stress can negatively affect

wellbeing Studies also point out that stress may alter the immune system and increase

susceptibility to disease (CBS 2008)

From the Buddhist perspective psychological distress such as depression lack of

confidence and anxiety are the result of our own afflictive emotions Gyatso (2009)

points out that the overriding cause of mental stress is self-cherishingmdashseeing ones own

physical and mental pleasure as more important than anybody elses People who have

the tendency to use more self-referential terms (I me myself) tend to have more health

problems and earlier deaths (Dalai Lama 2009) According to Buddhism it is our own

ego the focus on the notion of I that cause us to suffer The causes of mental distress

thus lie within us Since cause is within us the cure is also in our own mind Buddhist

teachings maintain that meditating on emptiness4 can get rid of the notion of T Thus

4 A meditation technique

88

mental distress similar to other negative emotions are a result of ignorance desire and

hatred

Ven Thubten Gyatso (2009) a Buddhist teacher points out two reasons why

selfishness can cause mental illness The first is that unhappiness arising from

selfishness is cumulative When we do not obtain what we want we often over-react to a

ridiculous extent and our selfish behavior isolates us from others The accumulation of

small failures in life erodes our self-confidence and we fall into depression The second

reason he points out is that selfishness prevents us from doing the one thing that is

guaranteed to bring happiness - cherishing others being compassionate and generous

Self-obsession and self-centered thoughts blind us and we do nothing to help others In

Buddhism self-centeredness never brings real joy and satisfaction but instead causes

suffering

The mind drives every action that occurs through the body speech and mind

The causal factor therefore lies within us It is our ability to deal with emotions that

influences the mental state Since mental stress obstructs the path towards happiness it

opposes the goal of GNH It is therefore important to assess the stress levels of the

population to identify the risk group Intervention by government and offering remedy

(for example offering counseling) and monitoring changes over time can help people

pursue happiness

44 Summary

The purpose of this study is to determine to what extent the indicators under the

psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with

89

the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH Findings in this chapter reveal the following

The four indicators related to negative emotionsmdashjealousy selfishness frustration

suicidal thoughtmdashdo appear in Buddhism Jealousy (dhrag-dog) is clearly stated as an

afflictive emotion while the Buddhist teachings condemn the idea ofself through

which selfishness arises Although the exact term does not appear in Buddhism

frustration is closely related to the meaning of gopa or agitation which arises as a result

of the three poisons Buddhism holds that lack of wisdom or holding on to wrong views

leads to suicidal thoughts Jealousy selfishness frustration and suicidal thought thus

arise out of the three poisons ignorance desire and hatred All four indicators are what

Buddhism calls Klesha afflictive emotions that disturb the mind of oneself and others

thus obstructing the path towards happiness Similarly general mental health distress is a

result of afflictive emotion Buddhist teachings particularly points out that holding on to

the idea of self leads to mental stress

The indicators related to the three positive emotions (Generosity Compassion

and Calmness) and three spiritual practices (Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking

account of Karma) are clearly related to the Buddhist teachings on six paramitas

Generosity is the first paramita a practice towards achieving genuine happiness

Compassion is the root of all Mahayana Buddhist practices and an essential component of

the practice of six paramitas The indicator of calmness is related to Kshanti paramita

which entails the practice of patience tolerance and endurance Similarly the indicator

of meditation and prayer recitation is related to the Buddhist practice of meditative

concentration which is the fourth practice Dhayana paramita Prayer recitation

however does have elements of Bon practices which have been deeply absorbed by the

90

local Buddhist culture The indicator of taking account of Karma is clearly influenced by

Buddhism Karma promotes the practice of ethics which is sila paramita that stresses

avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and engaging in virtuous action Overall all of the

positive emotions and practices require wisdom which is prajna paramita The core

teachings of Buddhism thus find a place in each of the indicators Thus it would be

appropriate to conclude that the indicators have been influenced by Buddhism

Each of indicators either contributes to or negatively affects GNH In a GNH

society it is important to establish that people not only experience positive emotions but

also rule out the presence of negative emotions that can cause mental distress It is also

important to determine if people take up spiritual practices to keep the negative emotions

at bay Therefore each indicator under psychological wellbeing relates positively or

negatively with the concept of GNH It can thus be concluded that the indicators of

psychological wellbeing are consistent with GNH values

91

CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMMENDATIONS

From the very beginning of its development plan Bhutan chose to ensure the

preservation of its culture tradition and natural resources This came to be called the

philosophy of GNH where peoples spiritual and emotional wellbeing is afforded equal

importance to economic wellbeing GNH recognizes that economic development without

spiritual and emotional wellbeing will not bring happiness to people Several workshops

and discourses held on GNH led to the adoption of the GNH Index a set of indicators to

measure whether Bhutanese society is progressing towards GNH The index comprises

72 indicators grouped under nine domains that go beyond material values and incorporate

all values relevant to a happy life The GNH index is now the most important tool in

guiding the performance of the government towards achieving the goal of GNH The

purpose of this study was to determine to what extent the indicators under the

psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with

the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH The three questions that drove this study are

To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do the indicators reflect

Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept of GNH which does

reflect Buddhist principles The primary data that were used are the eleven indicators and

survey questionnaires developed by the Centre for Bhutan Studies The findings from the laquo

study reveal that each of the indicators under psychological wellbeing reflects Buddhist

principles The ultimate goal in Buddhism is to achieve genuine happiness Inspired by

this belief Bhutan is the only country in the world that officially pursues the state of

happiness The government believes that happiness is in the end what matters the most

92

The government has taken the utmost responsibility to create an enabling condition for

people to pursue happiness The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index

measures peoples psychological state which influences the overall wellbeing of people

Since the purpose of this study is to determine the extent to which indicators

reflected Buddhist principles it was necessary to highlight the key Buddhist principles

related to happiness Chapter Three examined the key Buddhist principles related to

happiness Specifically Thogme Zangpos teachings on the six paramitas were used as a

basis to develop the framework of happiness It was observed that happiness is not only

worldly pleasure derived from physical comfort but also an innate state of mind which

can be cultivated through the practice of compassion generosity ethics meditative

concentration patience and wisdom This can bring happiness to the individual and to

the society Although GNH stresses collective happiness Buddhism states that peace

must first be developed in the individual mind before it can contribute to others and the

happiness of the society Thus in the words of Master Shantideva it is not primarily the

outer conditions of our life that determine our happiness or suffering it is our own mind

that creates the cause for happiness or success

Humans experience many emotions and narrowing them down to eleven

indicators is not an easy task There is a strong relationship between emotions and

wellbeing The intensity of pleasant and unpleasant emotions influences the degree of

psychological wellbeing Studies have also shown that emotions play an integral role in

affecting the overall physical health Emotions also have powerful effects in shaping and

regulating social interactions and influencing how one appears to others Like the mind-

93

transforming practices in Buddhism the key to a nations progress lies in tracing

problems and solutions to the root causes

The indicators under the psychological wellbeing domain measure peoples

emotional state and the frequency of spiritual practices to eliminate negative emotion

Findings in Chapter Four reveal that each of the indicators of psychological wellbeing

correlates to Buddhist principles on happiness The relationship between the indicators of

psychological wellbeing and Buddhist principles are presented in the table below

Indicators Buddhist Principles

1 Jealousy Dhrag Dhog- Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

2 Selfishness Serna - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

3 Frustration Gopa - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

4 Suicidal Thought Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

5 Generosity Dana Paramita (Bjin ba) Generosity

6 Compassion The root of all Buddhist practices

7 Calmness Kshanti Paramita (Bzod pa) Patience tolerance endurance

8 Meditation Dhyana Parmto Meditative Concentration

9 Prayer Recitation Dhyana ParmitaMeditative Concentration

10 Karma Sila Paramita (Tshul khrim) virtue morality ethics

11 General Mental Health Klesha (Afflictive emotions) causes mental distress

Table 1 Relating the Indicators with Buddhism

The four negative emotion indicatorsmdashselfishness frustration jealousy and

suicidal thoughtmdashare found in Buddhism as afflictive emotions (klesha) arising out of the

three poisons Jealousy (dharg dhog) appears in the Abhidhamma text as an immoral and

94

deluded mental factor that feels displeasure in seeing others succeed Similarly

selfishness (sema) is listed as an immoral consciousness in the Abhidhamma Selfishness

is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity Buddhism teaches no-

self (anatta) as an essential principle and therefore strongly condemns the notion of I

through which selfishness arises Frustration in Buddhism is closely related to the term

gopa which is actually translated as agitation Gopa falls under the twenty secondary

immoral delusions in the Abhidhamma text Suicides and suicidal thought in Buddhism

are the result of wrong view Suicide is an unwholesome action and does not end the

problem Suicidal thought occurs because of afflictive emotions (klesha) All these

negative emotions (klesha) cause mental distress

The positive emotion and spiritual practice indicators such as compassion

calmness generosity meditation prayer recitation and taking account of Karma are the

replication of the six paramitas The positive emotions which Buddhists call virtuous

action such as generosity compassion and calmness tend to increase happiness in oneself

and others while negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration affect

psychological health and decrease happiness Since each of the indicators can be clearly

related to Buddhist principles of happiness it can thus be concluded that the

psychological wellbeing indicators are influenced by Buddhism and are consistent with

the concept of GNH One may argue that indicators such as compassion generosity and

calmness are universal values and ethics and may not necessarily be influenced by

Buddhism However in the case of Bhutan the Bhutanese worldview and its political

ethos are largely influenced by Buddhism The philosophy of GNH is also rooted in

Buddhism It is also evident that the government is seeking to measure and cater to long-

95

term rather than short-term happiness From the Buddhist perspective short-term

happiness is delivered chiefly by material goods while long-term happiness is derived

from spiritual cultural and social values

This study reveals that Buddhism stresses gaining control over our mind and

cultivating the right kind of habit which is said to be the root of all forms of joy and

happiness Buddhism in the original sense encourages exercises to tame and calm the

mind This study therefore partly seems to support the claims made by scholars such as

Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and Tashi (2004) who have argued that

Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH

Overall this study indicates that if the government creates good policies and

conditions for people GNH cannot be achieved if its citizens are not psychologically

strong For example if citizens are mentally stressed or filled with jealousy they will not

contribute to collective happiness In that sense happiness is inextricably linked to the

inner conditions of ones own mind

Measuring the psychological state of people will help the policy makers make

better decisions The emotional and psychological needs of people therefore must be

considered by the policy makers in order to achieve GNH A study by Sheldon Ryan

Deci and Kasser (2004) found that people pursuing intrinsic goals (emotional intimacy

community contribution and personal growth) had higher happiness expectancies than

those pursuing extrinsic goals (financial success attractive image and famepopularity)

By emphasizing human values of compassion generosity calmness and selflessness as

necessary indicators of GNH the government of Bhutan is providing the basis for

developing policies that focus on these values The domain of psychological wellbeing

96

thus focuses on the inner emotional development Within the concept of GNH inner non-

material development is equally important as external material development

Recommendations for Future Studies

The biggest challenge for the government is to combat the negative emotions of

the people The findings of this study reveal that Buddhist teachings are all geared

towards taming the mind and cultivating values that promote happiness Further

Buddhism does not emphasize individualism but emphasizes equality and cooperation

aimed at collective happiness It emphasizes individual effort geared towards universal

happiness Buddhist teachings and method to calm the mind can contribute to GNH

Ekman Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) suggest that Buddhist practices offer a

therapy not just for the disturbed but for all who seek to improve the quality of their

lives Although the majority of the population in Bhutan is Buddhist 25 are non-

Buddhist (CIA fact book 2009) Some scholars have argued however that Buddhism

can also be taught as education on human values (Mancall 2004 amp Lokamitra 2004)

Therefore extensive research on how this might be done could provide valuable lessons

insights and guidelines for the purpose of promoting GNH values

As pointed out earlier there is not much information available on how the

sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From the information available on the

CBS website however it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut off is set at a level

that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises questions because

there is not any literature or studies conducted on how the sufficiency cut off has actually

been set Arbitrarily setting a cut off without any basis or setting it based on some

assumptions can lead to questionable results Therefore an in-depth study on the basis

97

for setting the sufficiency cut off seems necessary to avoid misinterpretation by policy

makers

This study analyzed the indicators to determine the extent to which they reflected

Buddhist principles However it was observed that indicators of psychological wellbeing

were measured by questionnaires that only examined the frequency of occurrence of

emotions and the spiritual practices It is important that the government not only

recognize peoples suffering but identify its causes as well For example the questionnaire

notes the frequency of negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration but

does not identify their causes In order for the policy makers to identify effective

solutions the cause must be noted also Further the key terms such as generosity

compassion frustration and prayer recitation were not clearly defined For example the

term generosity could imply the practice rather than the emotional state of generosity

One can practice generosity yet not feel emotionally generous a practice can differ from

an emotional state Similarly the choices of answers such as often sometimes daily have

not been defined These terms can mean different things to different people To avoid

misinterpretation it is necessary that the key terms be clearly defined and nuanced

This study focused only on one of the domains of GNH index Although a similar

study needs to be carried out for the other eight domains there is a need for further

investigation into many of the issues related to the GNH index such as How would the

GNH index affect the government policies Does the index give equal importance to the

emotional spiritual and economical wellbeing of the people Does the index capture the

real essence of human happiness

98

References

A Manual of Abhidhamma (1987) Edited by Narada Maha Thera Malaysia Buddhist Missionary Society Retrieved from httpwwwbuddhanetnetpdf fileabhidhammapdf

Anguttara (nd) Dana Generosity Retrieved from (Anguttara IV 57) httpwwwbuddhamindinfoleftsidelifestv-2danahtm

Annas J (1999) Aristotles Ethics Critical Essay (p 35- 56)Edited by Nancy Sherman United States of America Rowman amp Littlefield Publishers Inc

Bancroft A (ed) (1997) The Dhammapada USA Element Inc

BBC (2006) Buddhist worships Retrieved from httpwwwbbccoukreligionreligionsbuddhisrncustomsworship 1 shtml

Berenbaum H Raghavan C Le H Vernon L amp Gomez J (1999) Disturbances in emotion In Daniel Kahneman Ed Diener and Norbert Schwarz (Eds) Wellbeing The foundation ofhedonic psychology (pp 267-287) New York Russell Sage Foundation

Berzin A (2004) Dealing with Jealousy Retrieved from httpwwwberzinarchivescomwebenarchivessutraylevel3 loiong materialgen eraldealing iealousvhtmln9203d70b0a90c002

Bhutan Observer (2010) A GNH School httpwwwbhutanobserverbt201 Qbhutan-news01a-gnh-schoolhtml

Boonyakiat S (2009) A Christian Theology of Suffering in the Context of Theravada Buddhism in Thailand

Brooks AC (2008) Gross National Happiness Why Happiness Matters for America and How We Can Get More of It USA

Buddha Dharma Education Association (NA) Fundamentals of Buddhism Karma Retrieved from httpwwwbuddhanetnetfundbud9htm

Buddhist Faith Fellowship of Connecticut (nd) Buddhist Prayers Retrieved from httpbuddhistfaithtripodcompureland sanghaid 14html

Business Bhutan (April 172010) A meditating school Retrieved from httpwwwbusinessbhutanbtp= 1366

99

Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) (2008) Explanation of GNH Index Centre for Bhutan Studies Retrieved on June 12 2009 from httpwwwgrossnationalhappinesseomgnhIndexintruductionGNHaspx

Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) (2008) Dimension Psychological Wellbeing Retrieved from httpwwwgrossnationalhappinesseomgnhIndexgnhlndexVariablesaspx

Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) (2008) Psychological Wellbeing Report Retrieved from httpwwwgrossnationalhappinesscomsurvevReportspsvchologicaIpwellbeingr eportdavidpdf

Central Intelligent Agency (CIA) (2009) Bhutan Retrieved from httpswwwciagovlibrarvpublicationsthe-world-factbookgeosbthtml

Chophel S (2008) Cultural diversity and resilience Journal of Bhutan Studies Centre for Bhutan Studies Thimphu Bhutan

Chopra S (2010) An exclusive interview with His Holiness the Dalai Lama Retrieved from httpwwwlifepositivecomspiritworld-religionsbuddhismdalai-interviewasp

Colman R (2008a) Application of the Genuine Progress Index to Nova Scotia Measuring Genuine Progress Indicators Accounts and Policy Retrieved from httpwwwgpiatlanticorgpdfintegratedpolicvapppdf

ColmanR(2008b) Measuring Progress towards Gross National Happiness Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference Held in Bhutan Retrieved on 30th

September 2009 from httpwwwbhutanstudiesorgbtadminpubFilesGNH41 GNH4pdf

ColmanR amp SagebienJ (2004) Measuring Genuine Progress- Indicators for Enlightened Society Proceedings of the First International Seminar on Operationalization of Gross National Happiness (p252- 259) Centre for Bhutan Studies

ConnorS(2003) Can Buddhists transcend mental reservations Retrieved on 14th April 2010 from httpwwwbiopsvchiatrvcomhappinessbuddhisthtml

Creswell J W (2007) Qualitative inquiry and research design Choosing among five approaches (2nd ed) Thousand Oaks CA SAGE

Dalai Lama (1981) Four noble truths A teaching given in Dharamsala Retrieved from httpwww Iamaveshecomindex phpsect=articleampid=380

100

List of Figures

Figure 1 Map of Bhutan (Source CIA Fact Book) 4

Figure 2 Suffering and its causes 53

Figure 3 Overcoming Suffering 54

vii

List of Abbreviations

CBS Centre for Bhutan Studies

CIA Central Intelligence Agency

DPT Druk Phuensum Tshogpa

FYP Five Year Plan

GDP - Gross Domestic Product

GHQ General Health Questionnaire

GNH Gross National Happiness

GNHC Gross National Happiness Commission

GPI Genuine Progress Index

HDI Human Development Index

MoA Ministry of Agriculture

MoHE Ministry of Health and Education

NEC National Environment Commission

NSB National Statistic Bureau

RGoB Royal Government of Bhutan

TCoB Tourism Council of Bhutan

UNDP United Nation Development Programme

viii

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

Measuring the wellbeing of people is important in determining whether peoples

lives are improving or worsening over time Many countries in the world today focus on

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as a basis to measure the economic wellbeing of the

people Although GDP mainly measures market production it has been treated as if it

measures economic wellbeing The focus on economic growth measures fails to capture

fully the overall wellbeing of the people (Kusago 2006 Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009)

Due to the failure of GDP to measure the non-economic aspect of human wellbeing

alternative measurements such as Genuine Progress Index (GPI) and Human

Development Index (HDI) have been introduced GPI and HDI include many important

factors that contribute to healthy living but they are still calculated based on monetary

values (Hargen 2002 Kusago 2006) and do not capture the Bhutanese concept of Gross

National Happiness

Gross National Happiness (GNH) is the central development philosophy of

Bhutan (Planning Commission 1999) This unique philosophy aims at maximizing

human wellbeing and minimizing human suffering by balancing economic needs with the

spiritual and emotional needs of people Bhutans fourth king Jigme Singye Wangchuck

coined the term Gross National Happiness in the late 1980s when he stated that Gross

National Happiness is more important than Gross Domestic Product (as cited by Ura

2008 para 1) His vision was to create a GNH society which means the creation of an

enlightened society in which happiness and wellbeing of all people and sentient beings is

the ultimate purpose of governance (as cited by Ura 2008 para2) Since it was difficult

1

for the government to list every factor that contributes to the happiness of its people four

major areas were identified as the pillars of GNH cultural promotion equitable

economic development good governance and environmental conservation (Planning

Commission 1999) These four pillars constitute the broad strategic framework through

which national development processes are actualized for the maximization of GNH

Since the adoption of the concept of GNH the government has consistently

sought to address development beyond income or economic growth The country lacked

however a specific and relevant development index that takes into account the core

principles and dimensions of GNH In November 2008 coinciding with the coronation

of the fifth King of Bhutan Jigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchuck the Government of

Bhutan adopted the GNH index The purpose of the GNH index is to reflect GNH

values set benchmarks and track policies and performances of the country (Ura 2008

pl) Seventy-two measurable indicators grouped under nine domains have been

identified as the GNH index The Government of Bhutan states that the country is now

ready with a set of mathematical formulae to measure human wellbeing and government

performances towards achieving GNH (as cited by Dorji 2009) The purpose of this

study is to analyze the GNH index to determine the extent to which it reflects Buddhist

principles and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH

This chapter is divided into eight sections The first section presents a brief

background of Bhutan its people economy and culture The second section presents

Bhutans political journey from monarchy to democracy The concept of Gross National

Happiness is discussed in the third section The fourth section explains the nine domains

of the GNH index and how the GNH index is administered in the country The fifth

2

section presents the research questions and objective of the study The sixth section

presents the methodology of the study The seventh section lays down the significance

and limitation of the study The summary of this chapter and the outline of the study are

presented in the eighth section

11 The Bhutanese Economy and Culture

Bhutan is a tiny landlocked kingdom with a population of 691141 (Central

Intelligent Agency [CIA] Factbook 2009) and having a total area of 38394 square

kilometres (National Statistical Bureau 2007) The country is sandwiched between two

leading economies India and China (Figure 1) Until the 1960s Bhutan was the most

isolated nation in the world Today about 69 of the population in Bhutan are

smallholder agrarian farmers and they practice mainly mixed (crop and livestock)

farming systems (Gross National Happiness Commission 2010) Of the population

945 represent people from the age group of 0-64 years while only 55 of the

population are 65 years and above (CIA Factbook 2009) Bhutans GDP per capita was

estimated at $2218 in 2009 (International Monetary Fund 2010) The country is almost

entirely mountainous with altitudes ranging from 240 meters to 7541 meters above sea

level About 725 of the country consists of forest land (National Statistical Bureau

2007) and the policy of the government is to maintain at least 60 forest cover (Ministry

of Agriculture 2002) Bhutan has been declared one of the ten global biodiversity

Hotspots (National Environment Commission 1999)

The Bhutanese culture and development policies are greatly influenced by

Buddhism The philosophy of GNH has its roots in Buddhism Under this unique

3

philosophy Bhutan has been able to balance modernization with its ancient culture and

traditions From the very beginning of the enthronement in 1972 the fourth king Jigme

Singye Wangchuck was very clear that Gross National Happiness is more important than

Gross Domestic Product According to him happiness is the ultimate common goal of

every human being and everything else is a means for fulfilling this wish He believed

that happiness is an indicator of good development and good society (Thinley 2005)

This led the country to adopt GNH as its development priority

25 SO Km

50 25

G r e a

S Gasa Ozong

Toogsa THIMPHU Paro

Tashigang

Samdrup Jongkhar Phuntsholing

r~

BANGLADESH

Figure 1 Map of Bhutan (Source CIA Fact Book)

4

12 Political History and Transition to Democracy

Bhutanese polity is said to have begun in 1616 with the arrival of Zhabdrung

Ngawang Namgyal from Tibet Through the spread of Buddhism Zhabdrung was able to

unify the country Buddhism provided the ideological basis for unifying Bhutan

(Mancall 2004) Zhabdrung was both a religious and political figure in Bhutan He was

the head of theocratic state that he himself created (Ministry of Health amp Education

[MoHE] 1994) He started the dual system of governance known as the Choesi system

where political affairs were looked after by the Desi1 and religious affairs by the head

abbot called the Jekhenpo Zhabdrung died in the year 1651 The official announcement

of his death was however made only in the year 1705 There were several reasons for

this chief of which there was no clear successor to Zhabdrung During the period 1651 -

1706 the country was ruled in the name of Zhabdrung who was said to be in religious

retreat by various Desi appointed under the Choesi system established by the Zhabdrung

himself (MoHE 1994) The period between 1705 to 1907 was marked by internal

stability and external invasion Ultimately in the year 1907 Ugyen Wangchuck was

unanimously elected as the first hereditary king of Bhutan (MoHE 1994) Since then

visionary descendants of the Wangchuck dynasty have ruled the country

Bhutans political system however evolved from a monarchy into a constitutional

democracy Democracy did not come to Bhutan overnight the process of democratization

was going on long before but slowly and cautiously King Jigme Singye Wangchuck

continued the policy of controlled development with particular focus on the preservation

A title given to the person who looks after the political matters in the country

5

of the environment and Bhutans unique culture Yet during his reign there was a steady

decentralization of decision-making processes which aimed to enhance peoples

participation in the formulation of development policies and activities and to strengthen

the traditional local institutions This process started largely in 1981 with the

establishment of the District Development Committees (Dzongkhag Yargye

Tshogchungs) and in 1991 with the establishment of the Block Development Committees

(Geog Yargye Tshogchungs) The people democratically elect all members of these

committees The most momentous change came in 1998 when the executive powers

previously held by the King was granted to the Council of Ministers (GNHC 2008)

On 17 December 2005 King Jigme Singye Wangchuck announced to a stunned

nation that the first general elections would be held in 2008 and that he would abdicate

the throne in favor of his eldest son the crown prince Jigme Khesar Namgyal

Wangchuck Unlike other countries where people fight for democracy the opposite

occurred in Bhutan people were given power without having to fight for it The fifth king

was formally crowned on November 6 2008 becoming the worlds youngest reigning

monarch and head of the newest democracy The fifth King like his father proclaimed

that fulfilling the vision of GNH would be one of the main responsibilities of his reign

He said As the king of a Buddhist nation my duty is not only to ensure your happiness

today but to create the fertile ground from which you may gain the fruits of spiritual

pursuit and attain good Karma (Wangchuck 2008 para8) The newly elected

government Druk Phuensum Tshogpa (DPT) is also committed to the principles of GNH

6

13 Gross National Happiness the Development Philosophy of Bhutan

The notion that the emotional and spiritual wellbeing of humans should be

included into the development policies is gaining a lot of international support The

importance of the concept of GNH is articulated in the policy document Bhutan 2020-A

Vision for Peace Prosperity and Happiness (Planning Commission 1999) which states

that its aim is to maximize the happiness of all Bhutanese and to enable them to achieve

their full and innate potential as human beings (p41) Reflecting the importance of the

concept the promotion of enabling conditions for GNH has also been enshrined as an

important principle of state policy under Article 9 of the Constitution (Royal Government

of Bhutan [RGoB] 2008)

GNH is a noble and holistic approach towards development It seeks to

complement inner happiness with outer circumstances It addresses both material and

non-material wellbeing Although material wealth is associated with physical wellbeing

ones mental state or inner wellbeing is not conditioned by material needs alone GNH

supports the notion that happiness pursued and realized within the context of the greater

good of society offers the best possibility for the sustained happiness of the individual

The society as a whole cannot obtain happiness if individuals compete irresponsibly for

it To this end GNH recognizes that happiness can be realized as a collective goal it

cannot be left as an individual goal (Thinley 2005 Ura 2008) Prime Minister Jigme

YThinley (2005) in his speech at the 2nd Conference of GNH at Halifax stated GNH

stresses collective happiness to be addressed directly through public policies in which

happiness is an explicit criterion in projects and programmes (p7) If a governments

policy framework and its goals are adverse to happiness happiness will fail as a

7

collective goal (Ura 2008) In the GNH context a government concerned with the

happiness of its citizens must create an enabling environment for people to achieve

happiness

The concept of GNH is greatly influenced by Buddhism The Bhutanese

worldview including its social cultural and political ethos is rooted in Buddhism The

policymakers in Bhutan hold the view that simply imposing development models from

outside which do not take religion and tradition into account will not only serve to

diminish existing culture but will also meet with limited success (Planning

Commission 1992 p66) The Bhutan-Vision 2020 strongly reaffirms the notion of Gross

National Happiness as the central development concept for the country This vision

emphasizes a need and desire to balance economic development with cultural and

environmental conservation

14 Explanation of Gross National Happiness Index

Bhutan is not a GNH state at this moment it aspires to be one The Bhutanese

government is of the view that wellbeing arises in a society when sustainable and

equitable economic development is balanced with environmental and cultural

preservation and good governance (Rinzin 2006 Thinley 2005) These four pillars have

constantly guided the development policies in Bhutan This strategy has been referred to

as the middle path which is derived from Buddhist principles of avoiding extremism

and taking a balanced view (Planning Commission 1999) In November 2008 the

government adopted the GNH index as a means to measure GNH The government felt

the need for a GNH index for without some kind of measurement system GNH cannot

8

guide practical policies and programs (CBS 2008) Under the GNH index 72 indicators

were identified under the following nine domains psychological wellbeing cultural

resilience education health time use and balance good governance community vitality

ecological diversity and living standard The nine domains of Gross National Happiness

are explained below

1 Psychological wellbeing as an end includes satisfaction with all elements of life

life enjoyment and subjective wellbeing Under this domain there are 11 measurable

indicators (eg frequency of feeling of emotions such as jealousy compassion and

generosity) classified in three areas General psychological distress indicators Emotional

balance indicators and Spirituality practices indicators This study focuses on the

indicators under this domain

2 Time Use domain measures how individuals spend their time There are only two

indicators under this domain the sleeping hours and working hours The time spent

delivering voluntary and social service is also taken into account

3 Community Vitality refers to the quality of life in the community This domain

intends to measure how strong active and inclusive relationships are within communities

that work to foster individual and collective wellbeing It examines the nature of trust

belongingness vitality of caring relationships safety in the home and the community

and giving and volunteering The community vitality indicators are Family vitality

Safety Reciprocity Trust Social support Socialization and Kinship density

4 Cultural Diversity and Resilience This domain measures the diversity and

strength of cultural traditions The indicators study core values and perception of

changes in values and traditions Bhutanese tradition is a very broad term that

9

encompasses customs rituals religious ceremonies traditional dress sports music

dance poetry arts and code of behavior among other things The indicators of cultural

diversity and resilience are Dialect use Traditional sports Community festivity Artisan

skill Value transmission and Basic precept

5 Health Good health is said to have a significant positive effect on happiness The

GNH health domain assesses the health status of the population the determinants of

health and the health system Health status indicators show information on self-rated

health disabilities body mass index and number of healthy days experienced per month

Health indicators also measure the degree of knowledge about diseases and breast feeding

practices The health indicators are Health status Health knowledge and Barrier to

health

6 Education In a GNH society education should contribute to individual and

collective happiness The education domain assesses different types of knowledge and

skills that people have acquired in their lifetime It includes historical cultural civic

ecological and indigenous knowledge and skills which are mostly acquired informally

The education indicators are Education attainment Dzongkha (national) language and

Folk and historical literacy

7 Ecological Diversity and Resilience This indicator looks at peoples perception

of ecology The ecological diversity and resilience indicators are Ecological degradation

Ecological knowledge and Afforestation

8 Living standard The living standard indicators assess the levels of income at the

individual and household levels sense of financial security room ratio food security and

10

house ownership Thus the living standard indicators are Income Housing Food

security and Hardship

9 Good Governance The domain of good governance evaluates how people

perceive various government functions in terms of their efficacy honesty and quality

The indicators include human rights leadership at various levels of government

performance of government in delivering services and controlling inequality and

corruption peoples trust in media judiciary and police The indicators of good

governance are Government performance Freedom and Institutional trust indicator

A pilot survey was also carried out between September 2006 to January 2007 in

nine districts on 350 randomly chosen respondents to test the feasibility and robustness of

GNH pilot questionnaires The GNH index however was developed based on the result

of a final survey carried out in December 2007 to March 2008 (CBS 2008) A total of

950 respondents based on random sampling were interviewed in 12 districts by the CBS

in the final survey The questionnaires covered the key areas affecting the values and

principles of GNH roughly divided into the nine domains mentioned above CBS (2008)

states that the nine domains were selected on normative grounds and are equally

weighted because each dimension is considered relatively equal in terms of equal

intrinsic importance as a component of Gross National Happiness (pl) Within each

domain several indicators that seemed likely to remain informative across time had high

response rates and were relatively uncorrelated (CBS 2008 p 1) were selected For

example in the psychological wellbeing domain the respondents were asked how often

they felt emotions such as anger guilt selfishness pride calmness compassion

forgiveness disappointment jealousy and frustration Respondents were also given the

11

option to list other emotions that they often experienced From the survey results only

eleven indicators were selected under the psychological wellbeing domain In total 72

indicators under the nine domains were selected as the GNH index (See Appendix 1)

The GNH index is to be administered every two years in the country A survey is

currently being carried out by the CBS in all the twenty districts of Bhutan Tshoki

Zangmo a researcher at CBS states that the GNH survey will determine whether the

conditions leading to happiness have improved or not (Doiji 2010) Several structured

semi-structured and open-ended questions under each of the 72 indicators are asked of

the respondents to assess life satisfaction in each of the nine domains Any individual

having sufficient achievements in each of the nine domains is considered happy (CBS

2008) Unlike the GPI and HDI which uses GDP data the GNH index is measured based

on self-report assessment For example the GPI heavily relies on quantitative or

objective data produced by Statistics Canada as opposed to qualitative or subjective

survey data The GPI uses personal consumption expenditures as a starting point Those

elements which are regarded as regrettable are deducted mdash for example cost of crime

accidents and pollutions Values of leisure time unpaid housework parenting and

volunteer work are added back (Colman 2008a) All aggregation is done in terms of

monetary values The GNH index however is entirely depended on the self-report

survey data According to Diener and Lucas (1999) the self-report measurement of

subjective well being displays adequate levels of validity and reliability The GNH index

is calculated in two steps The first step involves setting a sufficiency cut off and

determining whether respondents have attained sufficiency in each of the nine domains

12

The final step involves aggregating the data using the formula GNH = 1 - Average

squared distance from cutoff

15 Research Questions and Objective of the Study

Measuring what really matters to people and framing policies in accordance with

the needs of people would help realize the goal of GNH The GNH index is an attempt by

the government to measure how well their citizens are doing economically socially and

emotionally The Centre for Bhutan Studies (2008) states that the nine domains identified

are regarded as the components of happiness and well-being in Bhutan However the

resulting question is To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do

the indicators reflect Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept

of GNH The objectives of my study are to analyze the indicators to determine to what

extent they reflect Buddhist principles and to determine the coherence of the indicators

with the concept of GNH

Although conducting an in-depth analysis of each of the 72 indicators would be

most beneficial due to the vastness of the indicators this study will focus only on the

indicators that fall under the domain of psychological wellbeing (see Appendix 1) I

choose this domain because many of the GNH indicators (for example education health

living standard time use ecology) are similar to those found in the conventional

economic measures like GDP Genuine Progress Indicators (GPI) Human Development

Index (HDI) and Quality of Life The psychological wellbeing indicator has not yet been

included in any of the national measures (CBS 2008) Since the measure of

13

psychological wellbeing is something new and unexplored as a development indicator it

would be a good place to begin assessing the indicators

16 Methodology

The main objective of this study is to determine the influence of Buddhist

principles and more specifically Buddhist principles of happiness on the indicators of

psychological wellbeing and the coherence of indicators with the concept of GNH This

policy analysis study uses the framework of Buddhist principles of happiness to analyze

the indicators Policy analysis research is associated with determining the nature causes

and effects of governmental decisions or policies designed to cope with specific social

problems Nagel (1980) points out four methods on which policy analysis focuses

determining what causes the policy determining what policies they are responsible for

determining what affects them and determining what policies will achieve or maximize a

given goal This study focuses on determining the influence of Buddhist principles on the

governments policy of measuring GNH and the consistency of the indicators with the

concept of GNH

Buddhism has long played an important role in the political economic and social

lives of Bhutanese It is in this context that Buddhism is used as a basis to assess the most

important development tool of Bhutan Gross National Happiness Index The intent is not

to prove that Buddhism is the best way to achieve GNH but to determine whether GNH

indicators reflect Buddhist principles of happiness This is done for three reasons First

the philosophy of GNH is understood to be engrained in Buddhism This study will

determine in part the extent to which this is the case (see chapter two) Second Bhutan is

14

a Buddhist country where the majority of the population is Buddhist (CIA 2009) As

such this study will determine the extent to which Buddhist principles have influenced

the indicators Third scholars such as Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and

Tashi (2004) have argued that Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH This study

attempts to analyze the psychological wellbeing indicators to determine the Buddhist

influence which then might support the notion put forth by them

Literature related to Gross National Happiness and the influence of Buddhism on

GNH are reviewed The origin of the concept of GNH and various discourses held on

GNH are explored Government documents and reports and secondary data sources such

as newspaper and research on GNH serve as important sources The primary data that are

used for the analysis are the eleven indicators of psychological wellbeing developed by

the CBS Each indicator is examined to see the degree to which it reflects Buddhist

principles of happiness

The indicators consist of positive emotions negative emotions and practices to

overcome negative emotions In a research design it is important to establish a

conceptual framework that acknowledges how the theoretical perspective will shape an

inquiry (Creswell 2007) To this end I will examine the Buddhist literature to find key

principles related to happiness Those principles and ideas that affect happiness will be

discussed In particular the key principles such as the four noble truths law of Karma

principle of interdependence and compassion will be discussed Further a theoretical

basis for happiness will be developed based on the Buddhist teachings of six paramitas

An understanding of these principles will assist the reader in gaining a sense of the scope

15

and direction of this study Overall the Buddhist principles of happiness framework will

serve as a basis for assessing the indicators

Since Bhutan is a Mahayana Buddhist country the key principles of Mahayana

Buddhist teachings will be examined The very popular Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse

Laglen will serve as a primary source This important Buddhist text on the thirty-seven

bodhisattva practices was written by the great Buddhist saint Thogme Zangpo (1245-

1369) The text is a summarization of the original teachings of Lord Buddha from

hundreds of volumes and contains all the key points of the vast and profound teachings

The text is used in all the schools of Bhutan In particular the six paramitas will be used

for the purpose of this study The thirty-seven practices were written to help every

sentient being achieve genuine happiness Therefore this study will examine the

teachings related to the six paramitas to determine the extent to which they are reflected

in the psychological wellbeing indicators Teachings by various Buddhist teachers such

as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will also be used

The Buddhist text Abhidhamma which is known as the higher teachings of the

Buddha and also called the ultimate teachings is also referenced for the analysis of the

indicators The text elucidates the working of mind or psyche thoughts thought-

processes and mental states The mind has been broken down into six primary and fifty-

one secondary consciousnesses representing the working of the psyche from an ethical

standpoint Abhidamma highlights wholesome and unwholesome emotions as well as

how they arise Since this study is on the analysis of the psychological wellbeing

indicators the text is appropriate However only those emotions which correspond to the

indicators are referred to for this study

16

17 Limitations and Significance of the study

There are three limitations recognized in this study First the theme of this study

focuses on the extent to which Buddhist principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH

indicators Happiness is a concept that can be viewed from a number of perspectives

Since the concept of GNH is inspired by Buddhism it is most appropriate that the

indicators be examined to determine the extent to which they reflect Buddhist principles

and then most specifically Mahayana Buddhist principles Further there are numerous

Buddhist teachings on happiness The teachings that are primarily used are those of

Master Thogme Zangpo the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche

Second the GNH index is still very new A survey was carried out to study the

indicators in twelve districts but the index has not yet been applied to the whole country

As such the GNH index is still in its infant stage and not many resources related to the

GNH index are available

The third limitation of this study is that only the indicators under the

psychological wellbeing domain are analyzed Findings from the preliminary survey of

the GNH index are not discussed

Exploring the psychological wellbeing domain is significant for various reasons

First there has been no study conducted on the indicators so far This is the first study

that analyzes the indicators and explores the relationship of the indicators to Buddhism

This study opens up a new perspective for future researchers Scholars interested in

studying the GNH index may use this study as a basis to analyze the other domains of

GNH Only one domain is explored in this study The remaining eight domains could be

an area of future research

17

Second the GNH index is the most important tool for guiding and analyzing the

government policy since the government will be designing policies based on the GNH

index The GNH index and its implementation will have a significant impact on the

design implementation and assessment of policy and the perceptions Bhutanese have of

the direction their society is taking Since what is measured affects what is done it is

important that the right indicators be used if measurements are flawed decisions can be

distorted (Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009) Therefore it is important to determine

whether the indicators cohere with the GNH concept

18 Summary

This chapter provides an overview of the study The chapter began by looking at

Bhutans culture economy and political history including its transition to democracy

The concept of Gross National Happiness and its indicators the objective the

methodology limitation and significance of study were also presented in this chapter

Chapter Two will provide the review of literature on the GNH It explores how

the concept of GNH first originated It then argues that the concept of GNH has been

influenced by key Buddhist principles based on the eightfold path which are linked to

each pillar of GNH Various workshops held on GNH that ultimately led to the

development of the GNH index are also discussed

Chapter Three will provide the framework to analyze the psychological

wellbeing indicators The key Buddhist principles related to happiness are examined

Specifically the four noble truths law of Karma principle of interdependence and

compassion are presented The Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse Lagin the 37 practices

18

of Bodhisattva are used to highlight Buddhist principles of happiness Specifically the

teachings on six paramitas are referenced to elucidate those principles

Chapter Four presents the core of the study The indicators of psychological

wellbeing are analyzed through the framework described in Chapter Three Each

indicator is examined from the perspective of Buddhist principles It highlights the extent

to which each indicator reflects the Buddhist principles of happiness and the consistency

of the indicators with the concept of GNH

Chapter Five concludes the study and offers some recommendations for future

studies

19

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW

There seems to be a unanimous agreement that Gross National Happiness (GNH)

is drawn from Buddhism but recognition of the influence of Buddhism on GNH is rather

implicit This may be due to the fact that Bhutan did not have the full academic

construction of GNH until recently When the concept of GNH was first pronounced in

the late 1980s it was just an abstract philosophy The concept has now gained more

depth and dimension through analysis and discourse While scholars such as Tashi (1999

2004) Priesner (1999) and Zangmo (2009) have linked Buddhism to GNH others have

argued for the importance of Buddhism in achieving the goal of GNH This chapter

reviews the influence of Buddhism on the concept of GNH Specifically the relationship

between the core concept of GNH and its four pillars to Buddhist principles is explored

Since this study uses Buddhism as the key lens in analyzing the extent to which Buddhist

principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH indicators the focus here is to

understand the centrality of Buddhism in the philosophy of GNH

The review is divided into four main sections The first section examines how the

core concept of GNH and the key teachings of Buddhism are related Literature points

out that key Buddhist principles such as interdependence Karma and the noble eightfold

path are linked to general themes that promote GNH The second section looks at how

the concept of GNH evolved Early Bhutanese history dating back to the 17th century

when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of living is explored This section

examines how Bhutan broke its isolationist policies and introduced planned development

giving priority to the preservation of its culture and environment thus giving birth to the

noble philosophy of GNH The third section discusses the various discourses held on 20

GNH that ultimately led to the development of the GNH index The final section of the

review discusses the idea of quantifying and measuring GNH The chapter concludes by

questioning whether the GNH index which is used as a basis to measure peoples

wellbeing in Bhutan captures the real essence of GNH

21 Buddhism and Gross National Happiness

Gross National Happiness is not a promise to make every individual happy This

is a common misconception The concept of GNH simply stresses the responsibility of

the government to create an environment for citizens to seek happiness Since all humans

value happiness the government of Bhutan takes the view that it cannot be left

exclusively to private individual devices and strivings (CBS 2008 pl) In the GNH

context the government should create by means of public policies addressing both

economic and emotional needs of the people an environment conducive for people to

pursue happiness Australian psychologist Suellen Donnelly (2004) defines happiness as

the sum of satisfaction with life domains and this satisfaction she states is judged against

the individuals and the societys values Happiness indeed depends on our social values

In Bhutan peoples social and cultural values are largely influenced by Buddhism GNH

thus places emphasis on happiness and wellbeing of people through promotion of social

and cultural values

Priesner (1999) Tashi (2004) and Zangmo (2009) argue that Buddhism and GNH

are intricately linked Zangmo (2009) points out that the concept of GNH is deeply rooted

in the rich traditions of Mahayana Buddhism Doiji and Pankaj (2004) state that GNH is

essentially a summarization of the basic tenets of Vajrayana Buddhism which embraces

21

harmony and compassion (p377) Vajrayana Buddhism is an offshoot of Mahayana

Buddhism The term Mahayana and Vajrayana is used interchangeably in Bhutan

Mahayana Buddhism emphasizes individual spiritual development rather than material

rewards compassion for others tolerance living in harmony with nature and the

importance of making the right choice Based on these values GNH seeks to achieve and

pave a middle path between material and spiritual aspects of life which are referred to as

peljor gongphel (economic development) and gakid (happiness and peace) (Zangmo

2009) Schumacher (1989) asserts that in a Buddhist society the lifestyle is strongly

influenced by Buddhist principles based on the Noble Eightfold Path The influence of

Buddhism is highly visible in every aspect of Bhutanese life Article 3(1) of the

Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan states Buddhism is the spiritual heritage of

Bhutan which promotes the principles and values of peace non-violence compassion

and tolerance (p 9) Buddhism here is seen as a spiritual practice

According to Buddhism the main purpose of life the heart of being human is

happiness what we all seek knowingly or unknowingly is happiness (Rabjam Rimpoche

as cited by Tourism Council of Bhutan [TCoB] 2008) The chief goal of Buddhism is to

remove sufferings and achieve genuine happiness Tashi (2004) points out that the

cultivation of happiness is central to Buddhism Buddhism states that wealth pleasure

and power are all sought for achieving happiness but these are all material and only the

means to achieve short-term happiness As humans strive for happiness the end goal is

often forgotten and people spend time pursuing the means for their own sake In the

process humans remain deeply unsatisfied because they place all their hopes and fears in

the material outer conditions and neglect inner condition for happiness Happiness in

22

Buddhism depends on our actions and how we view and interpret the world Rabjam

Rimpoche states that although it is difficult to change the world it is always possible to

change the way we look at it (as cited by TCoB 2008) Buddhist teachings stress the

importance of training the mind and developing a set of human qualities such as

altruistic love compassion inner peace and inner strength

Similarly the concept of GNH emphasizes that happiness is the end goal and

economic development is just a means to achieve happiness GNH claims happiness to be

a major focus in assessing the welfare of the people Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley

states that GNH is all about living with basic human values in a sustainable way (Bhutan

Observer 2010) This view is influenced by Buddhist principles Buddhism advocates

living in harmony with nature and respecting all forms of life Although GNH places

equal importance on both material and non-material wellbeing of the people the idea of

GNH essentially is to encourage a rethinking of what is important in peoples lives is it

the ability to produce and consume or is it the happiness of its people derived from its

social and cultural values When Bhutan opened up to the outside world in 1961 it was

overwhelmed to see that the world had achieved tremendous development in every field

(Doiji 2007a) In their pursuit of development however many countries had lost their

forests cultures and much more In the neighboring region of Nepal for example the

governments policy of promoting economic development through mass tourism led to

environmental and cultural degradation Pandey Chettri Kunwar amp Ghimire (1995)

argue that mass tourism in Nepal led to erosion of local customs increase in drug abuse

theft of antiques and cultural property and prostitution Kinley Doiji (2007a) states that

GNH is therefore a response to this realization

23

Tashi (2004) and Lokamitra (2004) argue that GNH cannot be achieved unless

Buddhist philosophy is fully incorporated and practiced by every citizen of Bhutan

Similarly Hewavitharana (2004) proposes a framework for operationalizing GNH from

the perspective of Buddhist ethics and values Lokamitra (2004) asserts that unless a

society is morally and psychologically strong GNH cannot be achieved He states that

this moral and psychological strength can come from Buddhism Tashi Prakke amp Chettri

(1999) argue that the use of Buddhist concepts does not make the discussions culture-

specific They state that Buddhist wisdom differs from actual Buddhist cultures Buddhist

values and ethics can be followed without necessarily being a Buddhist

Tashi Prakke and Chettri (1999) argue that Buddhist spiritual concepts can be

clearly linked to general themes for the promotion of GNH Overall the Buddhist belief

ofinterdependence has inspired the four pillars because environment culture economy

and governance are interwoven in reality (Thinley 2005) Maintaining a balance among

these enhances the quality of life for the individual for society and for the environment

(Rinzin 2006)

1 The First Pillar Environmental Preservation

Although it appears that environment and biodiversity are not strong correlates of

happiness few would deny the value of environment in everyday life and hence our

happiness our health and aesthetic experiences depend on the quality of the physical

environment around us (Thinley 2005) The impact of climate change because of the

uncompromising nature of humans towards the environment is causing a lot of panic in

the world

24

Buddhism emphasizes preserving nature and the sanctity of life (Planning

Commission 1999) Tashi et al (1999) state that Buddhist philosophy provides strong

arguments for the adoption of an environmentally sensitive development strategy The

relationship between human beings and the environment is seen in a fundamentally

different way The Buddhist concept of sunyata holds that no subject or object has an

independent existence rather they dissolve into a web of relationships with all

dimensions of environment The Buddhist principle of interconnectedness- the idea that

nature gives back what we give it- has influenced the Bhutanese with a strong ethic of

conservation which in turn influenced Bhutanese environmental policies (Thinley 2005)

Bhutanese people believe that high mountains deep ravines ancient trees and

rocks are the abode of spirits gods and demons Disturbing them would enrage the non-

human inhabitants and bring ill luck sickness and death to families Appeasing these

spirits will be rewarded with luck peace and prosperity (NEC 1998 Rinzin 2006)

These beliefs about the importance of protecting nature have permeated Bhutanese

consciousness and have become integral to the Bhutanese way of life and value system

The government therefore has adopted strong environmental policies As per the

constitution of Bhutan the country must always maintain 60 forest coverage

2 The Second Pillar- Cultural Preservation and Promotion

The conservation and promotion of tradition and culture has always been an

integral part of Bhutans development policies since the initiation of planned

development in the 1960s (Planning Commission 1999) The Bhutanese started their

policies from a well-defined set of values and culture which are typically Buddhist

Within such Buddhist cultural values there is a strong belief in the implications of the

25

doctrine of Karma (Gurung 1999) The overall Bhutanese culture is based on customary

rules norms indigenous knowledge systems and institutions in addition to a rich

religious heritage based on Buddhism It includes a code of conduct known as driglam

namzha which is designed to carve out a distinct Bhutanese identity In addition to

promoting national dress driglam namzha is built on strict observance of vows (tha-

damtshig) which are quintessential^ Buddhist and emphasize strong kinship loyalty

community-oriented behavior hospitality to guests respect for ones parents elders and

superiors and mutual cooperation between rulers and ruled parents and children and

teachers and students (MoHE 1994 Rinzin2006 Chophel 2008)

In a study conducted by Rinzin (2006) it was observed that the Bhutanese people

consider culture to be very important They fully support the preservation of Bhutanese

culture as a means to maintain national identity sense of security and conservation of a

way of life A unique Bhutanese culture is also a means to generate income through

tourism activities Since the happiness of the people also depends on their social and

cultural values the government of Bhutan is committed to preserving and strengthening

the Bhutanese culture and tradition

3 The Third Pillar - Sustainable and equitable socio-economic development

The concept of GNH does not neglect the importance of economic development

While economic development in many countries takes place at the expense of external

factors such as social coherence cultural diversity and environmental integrity the

concept of GNH limits the exploitation of social cultural ecological and human costs

(Priesner 1999) Economic development is just a means to achieve GNH and is not an

end itself If we look at the world today there are spiritual sufferings in terms of anxiety

26

insecurity stress and pain in every part of the world including Bhutan Economic

development can secure a livelihood and is vitally important to resolve poverty but it is

easier to identify and alleviate misery than to maximize happiness

Given the huge natural resource base that Bhutan enjoys the country could have

opted for mass economic development by making use of these resources However the

government does not overlook the difference between renewable and non-renewable

goods Keeping in view the negative impacts of exploiting natural resources and

exhaustibility of non-renewable goods the government has identified three avenues for

economic development These are hydropower tourism and agriculture (NEC 1998

Planning Commission 1999) All have minimal negative impact on the society and are

sustainable The use of nature in a sustainable way can be related to one of the

requirements for the Buddhas eightfold path called the Right Livelihood (Schumacher

1989) Right Livelihood entails that ones means of livelihood should not be dishonest or

cause suffering to other sentient beings Wrong Livelihood is anything that is based on

trickery or greed (Harvey 2000) This noble path teaches us to avoid extremism and

follow a balanced path Schumacher (1989) argues that Right Livelihood touches on

economic aspects of the Buddhist life and forms the basis of economic principles By

following the path of Right Livelihood the government is being cautious not to engage

in trades or occupations that result in harming its environment culture and society

4 The fourth Pillar - Good Governance

This last pillar stresses the kind of government that Bhutan needs to make it into a

GNH state Good governance means exercising of authority in managing a countrys

political social economic and administrative resources in a manner that is transparent

27

accountable and responsive to peoples needs (Gross National Happiness Commission

[GNHC] 2009 p56) The fourth king His Majesty Jigme Singye Wangchuck asserts

that good governance is an important prerequisite for strengthening the other pillars of

GNH During his reign decentralization and democratization have always been the most

important considerations All changes finally culminated in the evolution of democratic

government in 2008 The King in his wisdom decided that parliamentary democracy

would be the best path to good governance and that happiness comes from having the

freedom to choose Kinley Doiji (2007a) points out that this step by the king is a

Vajrayana Buddhist approach For the Bhutanese this came as an overwhelming surprise

Thus democracy in Bhutan sprang from the womb of GNH Democracy in Bhutan is the

path to good governance that leads to GNH

Chapter Two (clause 22) of the Bhutan Civil Service Rules and Regulations 2006

states that the government needs to maintain and promote the values of Tha-Damtshig

and Ley Jumdrey to serve the people and the country Tha Damtshig is a traditional

Buddhist belief of trust respect and cooperation between the government and its people

Ley Jumdrey is a very popular Buddhist belief referring to the cycle of Karma which

encourages us to follow the eightfold noble path Right View Right Intention Right

Action Right Speech Right Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right

Mindfulness The royal decree issued by the king in 1998 stated that the Bhutanese

judiciary system is based on the Buddhist 10 virtuous actions and 16 pure human laws

(as cited by Nishimizu 2008 p 40) The ten virtuous actions are 1 Avoid killing 2

Avoid Stealing 3 Avoid Sexual misconduct (the first three form the part of Right

Action) 4 Avoid lies 5 Avoid divisive talks 6 Avoid harsh speech 7 Avoid Gossip

28

(these four fall under Right Speech) 8 Avoid covetousness 9 Avoid harmful intent 10

Avoid wrong views (the last three are the part of Right Mindfulness) (Tshongkhapa as

cited by Powers 1995)

Tashi et al (1999) explain that in Buddhism there are three doors body speech

and mind (lii ngag yid) These three gates provide a basic categorization for policy

makers in recognizing that existence embraces more than physical aspects Any

individual or government that strives to enhance happiness must make the right use of the

three doors Right Mindfulness Right Speech and Right Action The three gates are like

the neutral ground which can be used for good neutral or bad action (Tashi et al 1999)

Right intention in the mind must spark right speech and right action because working

with the mind directly is considered too illusive With Right View one needs to

understand the nature of the world and embrace compassion Right View is the path that

refers to wisdom which means seeing emptiness realizing that appearances in the

relative world or the world in which things change lacking permanent existence

Embracing compassion and wisdom results in the accumulation of merit (Sonam) and

wisdom (Yeshe) Every government must embrace compassion and wisdom and work

with Right Mind Right Speech and Right Action The Bhutanese government strives to

nurture and manifest these qualities

22 Evolution of the Concept

The term GNH became popular in the late 1980s but the concept itself is very

old According to Priesner (1999) this concept evolved from the constituent features of

Bhutanese society before 1959 a socio-economic system based on a Buddhist and feudal

29

set of values Buddhism came to Bhutan in the 7th century AD but made little impact on

the lives of the people until the 9th century (Ministry of Health and Education [MoHE]

1994 Dargye 2008) Prior to the 7th century Bhutan was called the land of Monpas the

land of darkness or no religion Records show that people mainly practiced Bonism an

animistic and shamanistic belief system where nature is worshipped (Giri 2004) Bon

rituals are still included in some Buddhist festivals in Bhutan From the 10th century to

the beginning of the 17th century Buddhism started influencing peoples way of life

culture and customs During that period many Tibetan scholars came to teach Buddhism

in Bhutan They built monasteries and temples throughout the country but none of them

could establish a formal Buddhist community in Bhutan (MoHE 1994)

It was Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyel (1594-1651) a Tibetan monk who formally

instituted Buddhism in Bhutan in the 17th century (MoHE 1990 MoHE 1994)

Therefore the 17th century is the most important period in Bhutanese history Bhutanese

development policies stem from this period All the high-ranking officials during

Zhabdrungs era were monks and the governments primary function was to support the

religious establishment which in turn promoted Buddhist morality and ethics among the

lay population (MoHE 1994 Ura 1993 as cited by Priesner 1999) In other words the

government promoted the wellbeing of people through spiritual teachings based on

Buddhism The Bhutanese legal system codified in 1652 and based on principles of

Buddhism is the foundation of the contemporary Bhutanese law (Nishimizu 2008)

Since the concept of GNH emphasizes the importance of living with basic human values

giving equal importance to both economic and spiritual wellbeing this clearly indicates

30

that the seeds of GNH had been planted during Zhabdrungs reign Prime Minister Jigme

Y Thinley (2004) writes

Traditional polity in Bhutan drawing much on the Buddhist culture was certainly guided towards GNH A Buddhist equivalent of a Social Contract declared in Bhutan in 1675 said that happiness of sentient beings and teachings of the Buddha were mutually dependent The 1129 legal code of Bhutan stressed that laws should promote happiness of the sentient beings (p 2)

Until the 1960s Bhutan possessed very little of the infrastructure we see today in the

country (National Environment Commission [NEC] 1998 Planning Commission 1999)

Life was hard and conditions were very harsh There was no electricity telephones or

postal services to connect different parts of country or with the outside world There were

no motor roads and money was unknown The health infrastructure was poor life

expectancy was estimated to be an average of 35 years Western education was

considered unnecessary The vast majority of Bhutanese lived in isolation in the rugged

mountain terrains The Bhutanese were subsistence farmers totally dependent upon the

land and the forests for survival People exchanged goods among themselves and were

self sufficient for most purposes Bhutans traditional socio-economic system was based

on the principle of communal self-reliance which is related to the Buddhist doctrine of

the benevolent nature of small-scale (Priesner 1999 Gurung 1999)

Due to the lack of foreign influences Bhutan developed an extremely stable

social environment and traditional system of knowledge Self-reliance was the first

explicitly emphasized development objective in 1959 (as cited Priesner 1999) The

National Assembly in 1959 stated that its primary task was to maintain the sovereignty

of the kingdom through economic self-reliance (Kuensel Vol 2 No 9 [May 1-15

31

1968] p7 as cited by Priesner 1999) Modern development came to Bhutan in the early

1960s during the reign of the third king Jigme Doiji Wangchuck (1952-1972) (MoHE

1994) However Bhutans decision to embark on modern development was not

voluntary During a visit to Bhutan in September 1958 the Indian Prime Minister

expressed his concern about Bhutans security and emphasized the need for a road to link

Bhutan and India offering at the same time financial and technical assistance To avoid

increased dependence the government refused to accept the assistance Nevertheless

Bhutans attitude changed during 1959 a consequence of events in Tibet In 1959 the

Tibetan revolt was suppressed by the Chinese which resulted in the flow of several

thousand Tibetan refugees into Bhutan At the end of the same year Chinese actions

began to be directed against Bhutan A triangular shaped part of Tibetan territory between

the small Indian state of Sikkim and Bhutan through which the most important trade

route from Bhutan to India ran was sealed off (Galay 1999 Priesner 1999) In the

following National Assembly session the construction of roads became the main issue of

discussion As an underdeveloped country Bhutan lacked financial and labor resources

and India was the only possible source of aid Thus Bhutan took the first step towards

development cautiously Later when Chinese aggression declined measures of cultural

preservation were soon adopted to contain and counter-balance the negative effects of

modernization (Priesner 1999)

Since 1961 Bhutan plans its development every five years The third King

always expressed his priority as making the people prosperous and happy (Kuensel

1968 as cited by Priesner 1999 p7) Prosperity and happiness were highlighted in the

third kings address on the occasion of Bhutans admission to the United Nations in 1971

32

Further the preservation of environment and culture is the most consistently applied

principle from the start of the first Five Year Plan (FYP) and this is a major input for

GNH

The Bhutanese development concept thus evolved from the countrys socioshy

economic historic and political circumstances The concept of GNH is thus the

translation of cultural and social consciousness into development priorities (Priesner

1999) To sum up the influencing factors that caused Bhutan to have such a unique

development concept are the absence of foreign domination the desire to preserve

national identity Chinese invasion causing threat to the national security and deeply

embedded Buddhist beliefs The philosophy of GNH therefore evolved earlier than the

term Gross National Happiness was coined

23 GNH Discourses and Debates

The first official keynote speech on Gross National Happiness was delivered by

the current Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley at the United Nations Development

Programme (UNDP) Regional Millennium Meeting for Asia and the Pacific in 1998 His

keynote speech was later published in the countrys national newspaper Kuensel Many

scholars responded to the publication and this led to the first workshop in 1999 to explore

the conceptual foundations of human happiness During the workshop Prime Minister

Thinley raised three questions for deliberation First can an index be constructed for

GNH as it has been done for Human Development Second what are the main

ingredients of happiness Third what would be the main indicators of happiness if there

were any at all

33

Some participants proposed that GNH could be quantified Others suggested that

it would be a speculative exercise into what is essentially a subjective experience and

would defy any statistical device aimed at its quantification They expressed their

suspicion that the essence of conventional economic theories runs counter to GNH

Rinzin (2006) states that two schools of thought emerged one took a philosophical

approach and the other an empirical analytical approach of defining and measuring GNH

On the philosophical side scholars argued that GNH is a development philosophy and

there is no need to define and measure happiness For Stehlik (1999) the attempt even to

define happiness is unnecessary and even less to measure it The other school of thought

argued that in order for GNH to be applicable it should be measurable The first

workshop failed to come up with concrete results The discussion papers from this

workshop were published in June 1999 under the title Gross National Happiness A Set

of Discussion Papers

After a gap of five years the First International Conference on GNH

Operationalizing Gross National Happiness was held in Thimphu Bhutan from

February 18 to 20 2004 The conference intended to explore ways in which the concept

of happiness as an objective of economic and social development could be

operationalized in terms of both policy and evaluation of change The conference focused

largely on the concepts of happiness or wellbeing Dr Ron Colman and Dr Julia Sagebien

(2004) presented a paper on Nova Scotias Atlantic Genuine Progress Index or GPI

which assigns explicit value to environmental quality natural wealth population health

livelihood security equity free time and educational attainment The conference

discussed the relevance of GPI measures to Bhutan Colman and Sagebien suggested a

34

potential framework for measuring GNH proposing indicators such as education basic

security respect and care for all beings Although the conference did not come to any

definitive conclusions Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley (2007) stated that the conference

was a milestone in the history of international discourse as it opened up the discourse on

happiness Further the ripples from this seminar spread far and helped Bhutan develop

the indicators of GNH in a later period

The Second International Conference on GNH Rethinking Development Local

Pathways to Global Wellbeing was held in Nova Scotia Canada from June 20 to 24

2005 The conference focused on the exploration of practices the sharing of actual

experiences and the development of a framework to operationalize GNH The first and

second international conferences seemed to have convinced Bhutanese policy makers that

in order to make GNH practicable it must first become measurable By the time the third

international conference was held Bhutan was well on the way to constructing the GNH

Index

The Third International Conference held in Bangkok Thailand in 2007 focused

on the indicators of GNH The then Prime Minister of Bhutan Kinzang Doiji spoke on the

importance of good governance and highlighted the wellbeing of people as a priority in

developing government policies Just a week prior to the fourth international conference

Bhutan officially adopted the GNH Index

The theme for the Fourth International Conference (November 26 to 28 2008)

was Practice and Measurement of GNH indicating a step forward into a new phase

which focused more on how to reflect GNH in policies and how to grasp the current

situation and measure progress Discussions revolved around the GNH indicators

35

psychology environment community relations education health living standard

governance culture time use and economy Rosellini (2008) says that some of the

indicators of GNH would be relevant to the UNDP-Oxford initiative in understanding the

missing dimensions of poverty Rosellini (2008) further suggested that GNH should be

used as an alternative approach from an international perspective because none of the

methods that attempted to move beyond purely materialistic interpretations of human

progress have gained broad acceptance among academics and development practitioners

The fifth conference held in Brazil in 2009 (November 20-23) was a revelation

for the Bhutanese While the understanding of GNH had grown tremendously at the

international level the GNH conference held in Brazil made the Bhutanese government

realize that Bhutan is still lagging behind in implementing the philosophy of GNH

(Bhutan Broadcasting Service [BBS] 2009) There is no doubt that the policies are

framed in terms of the four pillars of GNH but the government failed to infuse GNH

values into the education system Further GNH values were not reflected in the day-to-

day working of the government institutions businesses and at the community level

Brazil had left Bhutan behind in terms of implementing GNH ethics Several business

establishments in Brazil practice the principle of GNH One pharmaceutical company is

believed to be implementing its ethics and modalities into the way the company

functions Likewise Brazilian villages at the community level are also practicing the

dimensions of GNH on a day-to-day basis (Kuensel 2009) This definitely was a

revelation for Bhutan

On his return from the GNH conference in Brazil the prime minister expressed

his sense of the urgency and immediacy of bringing GNH principles and values into the

36

education system Following this a workshop was conducted on how to achieve a GNH

infused education system (Kuensel 2009) The education ministry has come up with a

road map and an action plan to begin the process of bringing GNH values and principles

into the school system starting in 2010 The education minister stated that every school in

the country will now develop GNH-inspired curriculum material The latest reports state

that many schools in Bhutan have now infused GNH values into their curriculum

Students in most schools meditate for a few minutes before starting any lesson Many

schools are now working towards becoming green (Bhutan Observer March 2010)

Many students were quoted as saying that Meditation somehow helps to relax and

concentrate more on their studies (Business Bhutan 17 April 2010) This is a very

practical move by the government towards enhancing GNH Bhutan has learned a lot

through seminars and debates held at the national and international level The idea of

measuring and quantifying GNH has however raised many questions

24 Quantifying Gross National Happiness

Initially due to the absence of a specific and relevant development index that

takes into account the core principles and dimensions of GNH the United Nations

Human Development concept and its measurement the Human Development Index

(HDI) was used as an interim tool to assess all-round development in Bhutan (Gross

National Happiness Commission [GNHC] 2008) The HDI fails however to capture the

overall essence of the concept of GNH because only three variables are used in HDI

health (life expectancy) education (adult literacy) and wealth (GDP per capita) Owing

to the number of discourses and questions raised regarding the applicability of the

37

philosophy of GNH Bhutan has now adopted the GNH Index Karma Ura (2008)

president of the Centre for Bhutan Studies writes that as many contemporary indicators

of progress and development do not reflect GNH adequately the Royal Government of

Bhutan directed the Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) to develop GNH index which will

provide appropriate indicators for Bhutanese development (pl)

In his first international speech the Prime Minister of Bhutan Jigme Y Thinley

(1998) stated that the trends of happiness of people are unknown Although people

perceive their wellbeing subjectively their subjective views are not incorporated well

into the design of economic and social policy (Kusago 2006) Similarly Mark (2008)

argues that as a direct consequence of different governments collecting and analyzing

economic data (and social and environmental data to a lesser extent) much is known

about the material conditions of peoples lives but little about their actual lived

experience and their sense of personal and social wellbeing It is to address this lacunae

that the government needs to adopt indicators for measuring the wellbeing of its people

Former Minister Kinzang Dorji (2007b) points out that indicators can be useful in

revealing institutional and human conditions to show both the potential and result of

policy decisions (p 2) He argues that the use of indicators reflecting GNH values will

enable policy makers to locate those principles in determining GNH policy and tracking

GNH processes

Many are skeptical however and wonder whether quantifying such a noble

philosophy is justifiable Reducing real people and real lives to numerical values does not

do justice to the emotional and spiritual depth of the human experience (Doiji 2007b)

There is much doubt as to whether the indicators capture the real essence of human

38

happiness Nonetheless if the government wants to promote the wellbeing or happiness

of its citizens it needs to know the happiness trend of its citizens and find out if its

policies contribute to both subjective and objective wellbeing Even if Gross National

Happiness cannot be quantified as precisely as Gross Domestic Product is currently

quantified Daly amp Farley (2004) state that It is better to be vaguely right than precisely

wrong (p243) The policy makers will at least get an idea of peoples state of wellbeing

Measuring GNH is indeed a milestone in Bhutanese history as it will always

remind Bhutanese of their founding ideals A GNH Index would help citizens know if

they are improving as a nation in protecting and exercising their right to pursue happiness

(Brooks 2008) The adoption of the GNH Index shows the seriousness of the Bhutanese

government in pursuing the goal of GNH Lastly there is hope that Gross National

Happiness will not remain as a mere catchphrase

25 Summary

This chapter presented a review of the literature on GNH and the influence of

Buddhism on the concept of GNH The aim of this review is to get a better understanding

of the centrality of Buddhism in the concept of GNH and to highlight issues that emerged

in the GNH discourses The key principle of GNH which focuses on happiness is

influenced by the core teachings of Buddhism which states that the main purpose of life

the heart of being human is happiness The four pillars of GNH reflect traditional

Bhutanese beliefs and values inspired by Buddhism The law of Karma the principle of

interdependence and the noble eightfold path has certainly influenced the Bhutanese way

39

of living and thus the concept of GNH The Buddhist values of interdependence equality

and compassion are inherent in GNH

History reveals that the basic philosophy of GNH emerged between the 10th and

17th centuries when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of life Buddhism

therefore is the backbone of the concept of GNH Bhutan however is not a Utopian state

because it advocates GNH Like many developing countries Bhutan is grappling with

problems of increased rural urban migration poverty and unemployment thus

challenging the goals of GNH The government is continuing to reflect GNH objectives

in its policy and programmes Through the effective use of the four pillars of GNH

Bhutan never placed excessive emphasis on economic development The country did not

opt for economic activities which promised huge financial gain but caused damage to

health environment and culture Bhutan therefore is said to have one of the best policies

in the world (Priesner 1999) However it is important to know if the policies are

promoting happiness and wellbeing among the people The government has rightly

adopted the GNH Index because only through the use of the indicators will policymakers

know if their policies are in reality promoting happiness The question remains however

as to whether these indicators capture the real essence of GNH and whether they are

influenced by Buddhist principles

40

CHAPTER THREE THE BUDDHIST PRINCIPLES OF HAPPINESS

We all want happiness and do not want suffering Many of us support the

importance of moral values in making our lives happier Buddhist principles emphasize

that human values and principles are necessary to lead a happy life Yet there is a general

assumption that income and happiness are directly related Happiness research findings

defy this generalization and show that increasing incomes are not accompanied by

increasing happiness (Hirata 2006)

The Buddha discovered this 2500 years ago The Buddha did not reject the idea of

possessing wealth but taught that wealth does not guarantee happiness He rejected greed

in accumulating wealth being enslaved to materialism and treating wealth as the

ultimate goal (Wijeyawansa 2009) The Buddhas teachings are based on the key

problem ofsuffering Since Buddhism focuses so much on suffering it is often

criticized as being pessimistic But Buddhism does not deny the presence of happiness in

our lives It teaches the way out of suffering and shows the path towards genuine

happiness Buddhism understands that not everyone can lead an ascetic life and accepts

that for a layperson a certain degree of wealth is essential to live a happy life Living an

ethical and moral life is said to bring genuine happiness in Buddhism The objective of

this chapter is to understand happiness from a Buddhist perspective by laying down some

key Buddhist principles related to happiness

Understanding Buddhist principles and values that underpin the Buddhist

worldview will provide a framework that will be the lens through which the

psychological wellbeing indicators of GNH will be analyzed in the following chapter

The principles that will be discussed here are however not definitive boundaries because

41

Buddhism teaches innumerable ways to achieve ultimate happiness In this chapter the

framework of happiness is based on a specific Buddhist teachings called the six

paramitas Nonetheless the entire Buddhist teachings have the same essence and arise

out of the four noble truths and eightfold noble path

This chapter is divided into three sections The first section begins with a brief

introduction to the Buddhist view of happiness Buddhism in Bhutan belongs to the

Mahayana tradition and therefore this study is limited to the context of Mahayana

Buddhism The second section looks at key foundational doctrines such as the four noble

truths Karmamdashthe law of cause and effect the principle of interdependence and

compassion The third section constructs a framework for happiness based on the

Mahayana Buddhist principle using the six perfections or paramitas Paramita refers to

crossing over from the sea of suffering to the shore of happiness The paramitas are the

six kinds of virtuous practice required for skillfully serving the welfare of oneself and

others and a path to achieve genuine happiness For the purpose of this study Thogme

Zangpos text on Thirty-Seven Practices of Bodhisattava (Gyalse Laglin) and teachings

by Buddhist teachers such as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will

serve as sources for constructing this framework

31 Buddhist View of Happiness

Buddhism was founded in the 5th century and has over 365 million followers

worldwide (Ontario Consultants 2009) The term religion is often associated with the

concept of creator or a god but Buddhism rejects the idea of creator god as well as the

notion of a permanent self or a indestructible soul (Flanagan 2007) Therefore it is

42

commonly said that Buddhism is non-theistic or atheistic Buddhism is a series of

practices and a way of life based on the teachings of the Buddha Buddhists are strongly

influenced by Karma the law of cause and effect with the implication that there is no

creator (interview with the Dalai Lama by Chopra 2010)

The word Buddha means to awaken from the sleep of ignorance and to spread

ones intelligence to everything that can be known (Dalai Lama 2000 p2) The Buddha

was like any other human being before he attained nirvana at the age of thirty-seven The

lessons that the Buddha learned while in search of truth is the foundation of Buddhism

chief among which is the pursuit of happiness

In his book An Open Heart Practicing Compassion in Everyday Lifethe Dalai

Lama (2001) states that the purpose of spiritual practice is to fulfill our desire for

happiness (p30) Buddhism indeed has much to say about happiness Sogyal Rimpoche

a renowned Buddhist teacher states there are two kinds of happiness one based on

material comfort and pleasures the other on inner contentment and peace (Doiji 2010)

The two are the physical and mental components of happiness The mental experience or

the inner force plays a more powerful role For example in a very pleasant environment

if we are mentally depressed the surroundings will not make a difference Similarly if

we have inner peace or mental happiness it will be easier to face any challenge This

indicates our mind and thoughts play a powerful role in experiencing happiness (Dalai

Lama 2001) Khenpo Phuntsho Tashi (2004) asserts that in Mahayana Buddhism

happiness springs from an altruistic or compassionate mind Since human minds are often

agitated by afflictive emotions the results frequently are negative actions which in turn

cause suffering The essence of Buddhism therefore is to tame to transform to conquer

43

the human mind for it is the root of everythingmdash it is the creator of happiness and

suffering The Buddha has said in Dhammapada (as cited by Bancroft 1997 p41)

Such a Wandering mind is weak and unsteady Attracted here there and everywhere How good it is to control it and know the happiness of Freedom (Verse 35)

And yet how unruly still how subtle the delusion of the thoughts To quiet them and master them is the true way of happiness (Verse 36)

There is a significant similarity between the Buddhas teachings and Aristotles

ethic Eudiamonia the Aristotelian term for happiness is very similar to Buddhism

Aristotle states that if we want to be happy we should cultivate and practice virtues

through wisdom He also mentions that happiness is vulnerable to external hazards

sudden disaster can reverse happiness no matter how virtuous ones life has been

(Annas 1999) This is exactly what the Buddha preached 2500 years ago The Buddhas

teachings are based on the impermanent nature of life and the importance of virtuous and

righteous deeds Most of Aristotles ethic is devoted to an account of virtuous activities

that he states constitute happiness Aristotle describes happiness as doing well combined

with virtue or self sufficiency of life or the pleasantest life with safety or prosperity of

possessions and bodies with power to protect then and use them in action (Irwin 1999

p3) Aristotle believes that power and fortune are also parts of happiness because they

are the best providers of safety This idea that happiness requires fortune contradicts the

Buddhas teachings The Buddha preached that fortune power possession are all

materials and subject to change They are therefore not a source of genuine happiness but

a cause of suffering

44

His Holiness the Dalai Lama states that Buddhists aim not merely for temporary

happiness but for long-term results They are concerned with life after life This means

that ultimate happiness in Buddhism is Nirvana the cessation of suffering the end of the

cycle of birth-and-death He further adds that spiritual practice the practice of dharma

can bring both long-term happiness and more inner strength day by day (Dalai Lama amp

Hopkins 2000) Buddhist teaching employs innumerable skillful means through which

happiness can be achieved at the individual and collective levels Being on the

Bodhisattva path the path on which all sentient beings can receive help can bring us

happiness Powers (1995 p91) defines a Bodhisattva as someone who is progressing

towards the state of enlightenment Bodhisattva symbolizes compassion Bodhisattvas are

also called jangchup sempa which means a compassionate heart in Tibetan and

Bhutanese

32 Key Mahayana Buddhist Principles

321 The four noble truths

In his search for the meaning of life the Buddha discovered the four noble truths

which are the very foundation of all Buddhist beliefs The Buddhas four noble truths

explain the truth of suffering and the way to overcome it The first noble truth recognizes

that suffering is the essence of human existence suffering from birth old age sickness

and death as well as the pain from separation grief and despair The second noble truth

explains that desire or craving is the cause of all suffering craving for pleasure for

individual existence and for release from our present situation The third noble truth

states that suffering can cease by overcoming craving or desire The fourth noble truth

45

prescribes the way to overcome desire by following the eightfold noble path (Bancroft

1997)

A closer understanding of the four noble truths leads to the realization that no

person can achieve constant and prolonged happiness because as the first noble truth

states Life is suffering This means that as long as humans exist there will be no end

to suffering Suffering in Buddhism has generally been categorized into three types First

is the suffering of misery which includes physical and mental sufferings Second is the

suffering of change where we achieve happiness only for a brief period because all

phenomena are subject to change Third is compositional suffering the suffering which is

endemic to cyclic existence because humans are under the influence of afflictive

emotions (Dalai Lama as cited in Powers 1984 amp 1995 Negi 1999)

The cause of all suffering is the desire and aversion arising out of ignorance

which is called Klesha Klesha literally means afflictive emotions or delusions and refers

to wide range of mental states (Negi 1999) Bhutanese call it nyong mong meaning

distorted or confused By following the eightfold noble path one can overcome the

afflictive emotions and thus achieve genuine happiness Light Party (1996) asserts that

the main map the Buddha offered for the trip to happiness and contentment is the

Eightfold Path Right Understanding Right Intention Right Action Right Speech Right

Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right Mindfulness Buddhist

teachings are all centered on one or more steps of the eightfold noble path The eight

steps are usually divided into three main practices Morality (Sila) which also means

ethics or virtues Concentration (Samadhv meditation) and Wisdom (Prajnaj (Dalai

Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2000 Gomes 2004) Right Understanding and Right

46

Intention pertain to wisdom (Sanskrit panna) Right Action Right Speech and Right

Livelihood pertain to moral virtues or ethics Right Effort Right Concentration and

Right Mindfulness pertain to meditative cultivation of heart and mind

Moral virtue meditation and wisdom form part of the six perfections which

are the core teachings of Mahayana Buddhism The six perfections are the six qualities to

the Bodhisattvas path the state of genuine happiness This study uses the six perfections

as a framework for happiness which will be explored in depth in the third section

322 The Law of Karma Principle of Interdependence and Compassion

The most common belief among Buddhists is that we can never escape from our

own Karma (Sanskrit Kamma) Karma (the law of cause and effect) states that nothing

comes into being without a cause The law of Karma can be simply related to Newtons

Third Law which states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction The

same holds according to the law of Karma though it is not known whether the reaction

will occur in this life or beyond this life Since Buddhism supports the idea of rebirth

certain key aspects of a persons next rebirth are thought to be karmically determined

These include the family into which one is born ones social status physical appearance

character and personality Karma does not however claim that everything that happens

to a person is karmically determined Karma does not determine precisely what will

happen or how anyone will react to what happen Individuals are always free to resist

previous conditioning and establish new patterns of behavior

The belief in Karma sometimes degenerates into a form of fatalism but fate and

Karma are different Humans have freedom to choose and their present action is not the

47

entire result of their past Karma action It does however influence a persons action

because of the character a person has developed (Harvey 2005)

The belief that one has to bear the Karma of ones act is deeply rooted in the

Buddhist psyche It is a very common belief among Buddhists that depending on ones

Karmic consequences (or accumulated positivenegative merits) one will experience

happinesssufferings of various types (Gaylag 2004) good action leads to pleasant

effects and bad deeds lead to unpleasant results Harvey (2005) asserts that the cycle of

Karma provides a perspective on life which is supportive of compassion and respect for

other beings In Buddhism if you want happiness you need to sow the seed of good

merit

Buddhist philosophy explains innumerable ways to achieve positive Karma

Actions motivated by greed hatred and delusion result in bad Karma while actions

motivated by their opposites - non-attachment loving kindness and right understanding-

- result in positive Karma Good intentions therefore must find expression in right

actions and right actions are basically those that are wholesome and do no harm either

oneself or others Tashi (2004) states that in order to accumulate merits and to be happy

our actions can be summed up under three principle causes 1) Developing the attitude of

not harming others (this is being mindful and awakening oneself from ignorance) 2)

Cultivating the attitude of helping others and 3) Being Content

The principle of dependent origination also known as the principle of

interdependence is one of the important principles of Buddhism This principle is actually

an elaboration of the law of Karma which states that all things are interdependent and

48

everything that happens depends on other things happening (Negi 1999 Flanagan 2007

Doiji 2009) In other words since a whole is dependent on its parts any existent thing is

composed of its parts therefore its very existence depends on its parts Buddhism states

that human beings in particular are the combination of the five groups of existence or

five aggregates The physical body is the material aggregate and the mental aspect is

made up of feeling perception (awareness recognition through senses) mental

formations or thoughts and consciousness (knowing the object through our senses)

(Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2005) Since we are made of these five aggregates

and these aggregates themselves have no permanent existence there exists no permanent

self Buddhist teachings assert that humans do not comprehend this reality and assume

that all things including human beings have permanent selves As we are all

interdependent there are no existing phenomena which is not the effect of this What we

do affects those around us and vice versa People should therefore not think only of

themselves but should also take into consideration those around them To create

happiness it is important that we not only reflect on the interrelationship of all things but

also see ourselves clearly as a part of one system of causal relationships

The Buddhist belief is that genuine happiness can be generated from developing a

compassionate heart a heart focused not only on itself but which also helps and benefits

all beings Compassion is defined as the wish to free all beings from suffering (Dalai

Lama 2001) Gyatso (1984) and the Dalai Lama (2000 amp 2001) assert that the root of all

Buddhist practices is the heart of loving kindness and compassion In Buddhism it is

normally said that a person who lacks compassion does not have a good heart It is

49

through a compassionate attitude that Buddhists are motivated to have concern for all

humans animals and the environment because they are all part of the same world

Although it is not easy to free all beings from suffering Buddhism states that we can

develop virtuous minds and thereby help others to do the same (Dalai Lama 2001) It is

through the force of compassion that a person engages in accumulating the merit and

wisdom that make Buddhahood possible (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) and in that sense

also makes happiness possible The four noble truths the law of Karma the principle of

interdependence and the idea of compassion form the key components of a Buddhist

worldview The next section develops a framework for the Buddhist view of happiness

which extends from these key Buddhist doctrines

33 The Buddhist Happiness Framework

This section constructs a happiness framework based on the Mahayana

Buddhisms teachings on the six perfections paramitas) Thogme Zangpos 12th century

text on the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva especially his verses on the six

practices were referenced ( Hopkins 1989) The six perfections or paramitas are

1 Dana Paramita (generosity) 2 Sila Paramita (ethicsvirtuesmorality) 3 Kshanti

Paramita (patiencetolerance) 4 Virya Paramita (perseverance) 5 Dhayana paramita

(meditative concentration) 6 Prajna Paramita (wisdom) These six teachings are a way

for an inner cultivation which implies a kind of ethics that focuses directly on daily life

through which one accomplishes genuine happiness (Wright 2009) The first five are

methods or practices and the last wisdom is necessary for any of them to function The

first three practices are usually recommended for lay people Joyous effort and

concentration mainly refer to meditation normally practiced in monastic communities

50

However meditation is now becoming increasingly popular and is practiced also by lay

people

The opening verse of Thogme Zangpos (nd) text begins with the following

statement

The perfect Buddhas the sources of benefit and happiness arise from having practiced the excellent doctrine That in turn depends on knowing its practices Therefore I will explain the practices of Bodhisattva (p 1)

The Buddha is a symbol and a source of genuine happiness for the Buddhist The

Buddha achieved the state of eternal bliss through his practice of virtues Thogme

Zangpo states that one needs to understand that the source of all happiness whether

worldly or ultimate happiness comes from the practice of Dharma which means the

practice of virtues Geshey Kelsang Gyatso (1984) states that in general Dharma refers

to the teachings of the Buddha but the actual Dharma is the inner realizations which

directly protect living beings from their sufferings He further explains that there are

three kinds of meaning to be achieved through the practice of Dharma The highest is to

reach full enlightenment Buddhahood in this life The middle is to achieve self-

liberation from cyclic fears and sufferings The lowest is to achieve happiness in this life

by overcoming the inner problems and thus avoiding being reborn in the lower realms in

the next life Thus Buddhists aim at one of these three Lay Buddhists usually aim to

lead a happy virtuous life and to be reborn in the higher realms

Thogme Zangpos teachings stress committing oneself to virtues as much as

possible and not engaging in ill deeds Virtues are actions that bear the fruit of happiness

Ill deeds are those actions that cause suffering and unhappiness to oneself and to other

beings Everyone wants to achieve happiness the Dalai Lama defines happiness as a

51

blissful state devoid of all suffering Since the law of cause and effect binds Buddhism it

is necessary to examine phenomena that cause happiness and suffering According to

Buddhism ignorance desire and hatred are the main cause of suffering Our own

afflictive emotions and actions cause suffering

The famous Buddhist painting of a wheel with 21 parts outlines the meaning of

life in Buddhism The diagram designed by the Buddha himself depicts an inner

psychological cosmology This painting can be found at the doorway of every temple in

Bhutan The center of the wheel shows the picture of a pig rooster and snake These

three animals depict the root cause of suffering represented as ignorance desire and

hatred (anger) respectively They are known as the three poisons in Buddhism (Dalai

Lama 2000) Buddhism states that it is possible to overcome suffering since it depends

on causes which are within oneself When one understands the nature of suffering one

will work towards ending such causes However Mahayana Buddhism stresses that this

understanding must be extended to other sentient beings Others similarly want happiness

and not suffering Mahayana Buddhists therefore emphasizes developing compassion and

engaging in the practices of the six paramitas to overcome suffering

Ignorance is not just the absence of knowledge of the real status of phenomenon

but the inability to understand truth misconception of inherent existence of permanent

self (Dalai Lama 2000) The principle of dependent origination (Section 322) as

explained above shows that we do not exist independently on our own Thogme Zangpos

fourth verse states the following

Long-associated companions will part from each other Wealth and possessions obtained with effort will be left behind Consciousness the guest will cast aside

52

the guest-house of the bodv Letting go of this life is the bodhisattvas practice (pl)

The above verse states that our body is not ours The mind or consciousness leaves the

body at death as a guest leaves the guesthouse However we live as if we are going to

live forever and this ignorance draws us into afflictive desire and hatred Ignorance thus

comes out as greed and hatred Greed and hatred in turn promote ignorance The Dalai

Lama (2000) states without ignorance desire and anger are impossible These disturbing

emotions and attitudes are said to be true causes of suffering as are the karmic impulses

that arise under the power of these disturbing emotions Figure 2 below illustrates how

Buddhists perceive suffering and happiness It shows that the root causes of suffering are

ignorance desire and hatred These emerge through three doorsmdash body speech and

mindmdashas non-virtuous action generating negative Karma which causes suffering to

oneself and to others

Figure 2 Suffering and its causes

53

Gyatso (1984) points out that even though the body is like a guest house we will

receive many fruits if we practice Dharma meaning the practice of virtue which results in

the fruit of good Karma However all sentient beings are subject to the three poisons and

the question is how do we overcome them to practice virtue Buddhist teaching states

that the three poisons can be resisted and virtues cultivated through training in the six

practices When a person wants to reduce weight heshe goes through physical training

and dieting Similarly in Buddhism if one wants happiness one must practice the six

paramitas This will naturally generate virtuous actions leading to happiness This is

represented by Figure 3 below

Figure 3 Overcoming Suffering

54

331 Generosity

Mahayanists maintain that happiness comes from a compassionate and altruistic

mind The practice of compassion is training oneself in the perfection of generosity In

the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva the 25th verse states

If it is necessary to give away even ones body while aspiring to enlightenment what need is there to mention external objects Therefore practicing generosity without hope of reciprocation or positive karmic results is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)

The perfection of generosity is the first principle of happiness Generosity can be

practiced by anyone This practice refers to unconditional love a selfless generosity and

giving which is completely free from attachment and expectation Internally it means

overcoming our emotions (greed and hatred) and being generous with others voluntarily

giving ones material goods time or wisdom to others (Das 1995) Generosity is a cure

for the afflictions of greed miserliness and possessiveness The Anguttara Nikaya

(Anguttara Verse 34 and 35) a collection of Buddhist scriptures points out that there are

five blessings that result from the practice of generosity the person will be liked and

admired by everyone will have a good reputation will have lots of self confidence and

will have a heavenly rebirth Buddhists believe that giving without seeking anything in

return leads to greater spiritual wealth Generosity therefore is a very important virtue

bringing happiness to oneself and others

332 Ethics

The second practice is that of Sila which literally means ethics moralityvirtue

Right speech Right action and Right livelihood which form the part of Eightfold Noble

Path fall under ethical practice This perfection of ethics or Sila Paramita stresses quality

55

of virtuous and ethical behavior morality self-discipline personal integrity and never

having the thought to harm any sentient beings The Dalai Lama (2001) states that for

Buddhists ethics means avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions acts done by the body

speech and mind (p34) It is important that our practice of generosity is supported by

our practice of ethics Buddhists therefore abstain from the ten non-virtuous actions

killing stealing sexual misconduct lying divisive speech harsh speech gossip greed

malice and wrong views The first three (killing stealing sexual misconduct) correspond

to bodily action The fourth fifth sixth and seventh (lying malicious words harsh

language useless talk) correspond to verbal action The last three (covetousness ill will

wrong view) occur through the mind (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) The ten non-virtuous

actions lead to bad Karma and suffering Avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and

cultivating a compassionate heart brings good Karma and happiness We can enjoy

greater freedom happiness and security in our lives because through our virtuous

behavior we are no longer creating suffering for ourselves and others we basically

become virtuous and harmless in our thoughts speech and actions Thus in the 26th

verse Thogme Zangpo writes

If lacking ethical conduct one fails to achieve ones own purpose the wish to accomplish others purpose is laughable Therefore guarding ethics devoid of aspirations for worldly existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)

Thogme Zangpo points out that with unethical behavior one cannot achieve

happiness Unethical behavior is always the cause of suffering and unhappiness For

example a person who speaks ill of another person will disturb their mind and later will

56

be a cause of suffering for himself or herself His 34th verse stresses the importance of

avoiding harsh words

Harsh words disturb others minds and cause the mode of a Bodhisattvas behavior to deteriorate Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to abandon harsh words about the unpleasantness of others (p 3)

By cultivating ethical behavior we do not cause harm to others and we are free of

negativity we cause no harm by our actions our speech is kind and compassionate and

our thoughts are free of anger malice and wrong views Through the practice of ethics

we gain confidence because we are not carrying any underlying sense of guilt or remorse

for our actions we have nothing to hide Being ethical and moral is the cause of all

goodness and happiness This practice of ethical conduct is the very foundation for

progressing in any practice of meditation and for attaining all higher realizations on the

path The Dalai Lama states that the aim of ethical practice is to transform motivation and

mental disposition this is how we become better human beings The more we succeed in

training our hearts and minds the more we will be able to cope with adversity and our

actions will be naturally ethical Thus we will experience happiness

333 Patience and Tolerance

The third practice is that of patience and tolerance It is called the perfection of

patience (Bhutanese Bzod pa) Thogme Zangpos 27th verse states the importance of

patience

For bodhisattvas who desire the pleasures of virtue all those who do harm are like a precious treasure Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to cultivate patience without anger or resentment for anyone (p3)

57

Patience in Buddhism refers to having the strength to face the challenges and

difficulties of life without losing our composure and inner tranquility Bodhisattvas are

challenged to endure tolerate and bear any hardship without retaliation or negative

thoughts Through endurance and tolerance we gain strength to overcome any afflictive

emotions The Dalai Lama states that this enlightened quality comes from having our

heart open and our mind deeply concentrated upon the Dharma He states that endurance

and tolerance do not imply defeat but make the mind stronger When the Buddha was

deep in meditation demon Mara and his daughters tried to tempt and distract him

Through his patience however the Buddha remained calm and undistracted and finally

attained nirvana The ability to endure is therefore integral to Buddhism With the

strength of patience we can overcome anything The mind will be calm and clear and

this enables us to make better decisions Through the practice of patience we maintain

inner peace under all circumstances and thus experience genuine happiness

334 Perseverance

The fourth practice is the perfection of joyous effort or enthusiastic perseverance

It is called Virya Paramita in Sanskrit and is the quality of persistent effort or working

hard towards achieving a goal The 28th verse of Thogme Zangpos teaching states

Even hearers and solitary realizers who accomplish only their own welfare strive as if putting out a fire on their heads Seeing this taking up diligent effort -the source of good qualities - for the sake of all beings is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)

Thogme Zangpo points out that just as one makes an effort to put out the fire on

ones own head one must strive diligently to free oneself and all sentient beings from

58

suffering Our body speech and mind should put in effort to the best of our ability

Without putting in right effort we can be disillusioned and thus fail to achieve any goal

The Dalai Lama states that with joyous effort and enthusiastic perseverance we regard

failure as simply another step towards success danger as an inspiration for courage and

affliction as another opportunity to practice wisdom and compassion Thus to achieve

happiness one must put in right effort to be compassionate to be virtuous and ethical at

all times

335 Meditative Concentration

The fifth practice is that of meditative concentration It is called Dhyana

Paramita Meditative concentration is very important in developing mental qualities and

overcoming the three poisons The content of the very first verse of thirty-seven practices

of Bodhisattva is on meditation

At this time when the difficult-to-gain ship of leisure andfortune has been obtained ceaselessly hearing pondering and meditating day and night in order to liberate oneself and others from the ocean of cyclic existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)

The ship of leisure and fortune refers to the human body In Buddhism there are six

realms god2 demi-god human animals hungry ghost hell beings The humans in

comparison to the other realm is very rare It is therefore fortunate enough to be born as a

human Thogme Zangpo indicates that through hearing the dharma teachings meditating

day and night and developing a heart of loving kindness and compassion sentient beings

2 Gods in Buddhism are beings who are born into higher realms because of their positive Karma accumulated in their past lives Their lifespan eventually ends When their life ends they will be reborn in one of the six realms depending on their Karma

59

can be liberated from suffering Buddhism greatly stresses the taming of the mind

because the mind can be transformed and meditation is the means to transform it Tashi

(2004) explains the usefulness of meditation in destroying the root causes of suffering

and providing an antidote to them Meditation also plays an important role in achieiving

happiness at the individual national and global levels The perfection of meditative

concentration thus aims at taming the mind so that it does what we want it to do We

stabilize our mind and emotions by practicing meditation by being mindful and aware in

everything we do When we train the mind in this way all mental distortions and

misperceptions are eliminated We achieve focus composure and tranquility

Concentrating deeply makes us realize the cause of confusion and suffering and helps us

directly experience inner joy Thus Thogme Zangpos 29th verse states

Having understood that disturbing emotions are destroyed by insight possessed with tranquil abiding to cultivate meditative concentration which perfectly transcends the four formless absorptions is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)

336 Wisdom

The last practice is the perfection of wisdom called Prajna Parmaita in Sanskrit

Wisdom is the key to everything Wisdom will help us find the path to happiness

Without wisdom one will not understand the reality of phenomena and thus be

disillusioned by the three poisons Wisdom is therefore necessary to cultivate other

practices Thogme Zangpos 30th verse points out

If one lacks wisdom it is impossible to attain perfect enlightenment through the other five perfections Thus cultivating skillful means with the wisdom that doesnt discriminate among the three spheres is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)

60

Wisdom does not refer to mere intellectual understanding It is beyond that Ron

Liefer (1997) states that a mere intellectual understanding of reality will not change our

habitual negative patterns of thoughts speech and action because the intellect serves the

ego He further adds we cannot achieve wisdom without seeing through the trickery of

ego Wisdom refers to Right understanding and Right view (two of the eightfold noble

paths) of reality This entails getting rid of those wrong views which manifest the three

poisons Through wisdom one will be able to distinguish between what is ethical and

unethical or virtuous and non-virtuous We see the essential nature of reality with utmost

clarity our perception goes beyond the illusive and deceptive veils of material existence

Wisdom clears the delusion that envelops the mind It overturns ignorance and the

attitudes that lead to non-virtuous actions and ultimately shows us the path to happiness

(Rink 2010) Thus overcoming the three poisons by understanding the true nature of

reality and developing qualities of generosity morality patience and meditating with

joyous effort is said to generate the highest level of happiness in Buddhism

34 Summary

Buddhist teachings show the true cause of suffering as ignorance desire and

hatred enveloping the mind The teachings on the Four Noble Truths open our eyes to

various perspectives and send us the message that happiness is beyond material

wellbeing They make us realize that the real essence of happiness lies within us It is

only through taming the mind that we can experience happiness Whether we want to be

happy or not depends on how we perceive things and how we act John Milton said The

mind is its own place and in itself can make heaven of hell and a hell of heaven (as

61

cited by Williams 2008 p24) Buddhism teaches that if we can overcome the three

poisons and practice generosity patience mediation and morality we can experience

inner joy in this life This can even be extended to the next life with the possibility of

attaining nirvana The idea of reward for virtuous action (Karma) creates a healthy fear

and pushes the Buddhist to be ethical and practice virtues at all time Buddhism thus

accords the highest authority to experience with reason second and scripture third

(Flanagan 2007) Some may wonder however whether a focus exclusively on getting

rid of desire would inhibit worldly progress The path to overcoming attachment and

achieving worldly progress such as accumulating wealth are indeed poles apart

Buddhism does not necessarily say that we have to give up the material life It stresses

more the importance of having a good heart of never harming others of being

compassionate of being morally disciplined and of possessing loving kindness

generosity patience and a joyful desire to practice virtues These positive qualities can

reduce ones suffering and give happiness to oneself and others

62

CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING

INDICATORS

People always experience moods and emotions which have an enormous range of

effects on their wellbeing To know about peoples psychological state something must

be known about their subjective experiences The psychological wellbeing domain of the

GNH index thus assesses peoples subjective experience based on eleven indicators

Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking account of Karma Jealousy Selfishness

Frustration Generosity Calmness Compassion Suicidal Thought and General Mental

Health The government measures psychological wellbeing by assessing the socially

destructive attitudes and symptoms of psychological distress and the prevalence of

practices to avoid negative emotions The main purpose of this study is to determine to

what extent the indicators under the psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of

happiness and their coherence with the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH This

chapter analyzes each of these indicators to determine the extent to which they reflect

Buddhist principles of happiness using the conceptual framework laid down in Chapter

Three and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH

This chapter is divided into five sections The first section briefly highlights the

meaning of psychological wellbeing and the importance of measuring it It also highlights

similarities between the views of some modern psychologists and the Buddhist view on

the understanding of psychological wellbeing The second third and fourth sections

analyze the indicators of psychological wellbeing by grouping them into three broad

categories Emotional Balance Spirituality Practices and General Mental Health The

chapter concludes with an overview of the overall findings

63

41 Psychological Wellbeing Measures

Psychological wellbeing as the term denotes refers to the wellbeing of a persons

mental state It deals with emotions and feelings which are subjective experiences The

measure of the psychological wellbeing of its citizens is extremely important in a country

pursuing GNH because the mental or the psychological state influences the overall

wellbeing of people A GNH state therefore needs to minimize those mental conditions

that can be disruptive As Larsen amp Fredrickson (1999) point out the content of a

persons emotional life strongly influences his or her judgments of the quality of that life

(p40)

From the Buddhist perspective happiness depends on our mind Buddhist

teachings are directly or indirectly based on the workings of the mind Buddhism strongly

holds that it is the emotional and mental state of people that influence their wellbeing or

happiness The term ishepa which means the mind refers to all aspects of subjective

experiences In the Buddhist diction mind shepa) awareness (rigpa) and consciousness

(lo) are synonyms (Abhidhamma 1987 Negi 1999) The mind in Buddhism includes

all perceptual conceptual and emotional states both conscious and unconscious (Negi

1999) The emotional mental states therefore are all mind related subjective experiences

As explained in Chapter Three Buddhism is concerned with taming the mind

this entails understanding the types of mental activity that are truly conducive to

wellbeing and the ones that are harmful In this sense it would be justifiable to say that

Buddhism is all about achieving happiness mentally or psychologically Ekman

Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) agree that psychologists and Buddhists alike

64

believe that emotions strongly influence peoples thoughts words and actions and that

they help people in their pursuit of transient pleasures and satisfactions

The measurement of a persons psychological state is commonly based on the

self-report assessment Within the discipline of psychology there is a strong view that

self-reports on how well life is going can convey important information on underlying

emotional states and in measuring peoples subjective wellbeing Earlier psychologists

who were mainly interested in negative emotional states such as depression and anxiety

are now interested in positive emotions to evaluate peoples overall wellbeing (Ryff amp

Singer 1998) Indeed to get empirical clues of happiness establishing the absence of

negative experiences would not be enough positive feelings must also be present (Hirata

2006) The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index similarly includes

both positive and negative emotions

Structured questionnaires are used to collect data for each indicator A

sufficiency cut off or a threshold is set for each indicator A person is said to have met the

sufficiency cut-off if hisher evaluation in that indicator meets or exceeds the cut-off

point If the respondent meets or exceeds the sufficiency cut off heshe is given the full

score This means a person is psychologically well if heshe makes sufficient

achievement in each of the indicators Any shortfall from sufficiency that any

respondents experience in any indicator is considered to depress Gross National

Happiness The depth of insufficiency will rise if any person drops further away from

sufficiency cut-off This means that the distance from the cut-off or the sufficiency gap is

sensitive only if the achievements are below the sufficiency level This indicates that the

GNH index is sensitive to an unhappy or a poor persons experience Overall this method

65

is similar to poverty measurement where a poverty line is set to distinguish people who

are materially poor from non-poor (Millet 2010) However there is not much

information available on how the sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From

the information available on the CBS website it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut

off is set at a level that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises

questions because there is not any literature or research conducted on how the sufficiency

cut off has actually been set Arbitrarily setting cut-offs without any basis or setting it

based on some assumptions can lead to questionable results

42 Emotional Balance

The Centre for Bhutan Studies has grouped seven indicators under the category of

emotional balance The indicators can be further grouped into two categories negative

emotions and positive emotions The indicators under this index include emotions or

feelings related to wellbeing because these affect a persons evaluation of life Four of the

seven indicators pertain to negative emotions jealousy selfishness frustration and

suicidal thought and three pertain to positive emotion generosity calmness and

compassion Diener amp Lucas (1999) state that although the emotions are momentary

influences and would not reflect a stable state of happiness they do provide information

about the state of a persons life Research shows that a variety of etiological factors

contribute to these emotions (Berenbaum Raghavan Le Vernon amp Gomez 1999)

Buddhist teaching similarly maintains that these emotions do not occur on their own

there are causal factors associated with them

66

Buddhism places the mind at the centre of all experiences The Buddhist tradition

therefore places emotions at the core of individual and universal happiness In the

Abhidhamma Buddhist text the mind is presented in context to its primary and secondary

consciousnesses Primary consciousness refers to the content of mind which illuminates

merely the general nature of the content Secondary consciousness refers to the aspect of

mind that illuminates the particular nature of that content Both the primary and

secondary consciousnesses operate as one entity (Negi 1999) The Abhidhamma lists

fifty-one secondary consciousnesses All the positive and negative emotions fall under

the fifty-one secondary consciousnesses

a Negative Emotion

Chapter Three explained that negative emotions in Buddhism arise out of

ignorance desire and hatred Humans suffer because of their own negative emotions

These are negative because they harm oneself and others As we ignore the reality around

us and cling to the self or I we get angry for things we do not like jealous when others

succeed frustrated when we fail The extreme reaction is suicidal thoughts and action

All of these negative emotions from the Buddhist perspective fall under unethical

action action that occurs through the mind They are called nyong mongs meaning

distorted or confused or klesha translated as afflictive emotions Jealousy selfishness

frustration and suicidal thoughts arise due to covetousness ill will and wrong view The

four negative indicators form part of the ten non-virtuous actions and are afflictive

regardless of their degree or the context in which they arise These emotions are similarly

considered negative under the GNH index

67

1 Jealousy

Jealousy is often defined as a feeling of resentment when others succeed Harris

(2004) points out that jealousy is likely to arise over perceptions that a potential rival

poses a threat to what one perceives to be valuable in oneself and in an important

relationship In Buddhism jealousy is called dhrag-dog The Buddhist Abhidhamma text

classifies jealousy as part of hostility and calls it immoral Jealousy in Buddhism is

defined as a disturbing emotion that focuses on other peoples accomplishments such as

their good qualities possessions or success and is the inability to bear their

accomplishments due to excessive attachment to our own gain or to the respect we

receive (Berzin 2004 p 1) Jealousy in Buddhism is therefore related to attachment

Jealousy and envy have slightly different meanings in Buddhism Envy adds to what

jealousy means in Buddhism In addition to the inability to bear others accomplishments

envy is the wish to have these accomplishments for ourselves Therefore envy has the

element of what Buddhism calls covetousness (Bnab sem) Berzin (2004) points out that

envy as a combination of jealousy and covetousness leads to competitiveness Jealousy

is thus a disturbing emotion that drives us to become highly competitive and to work

fanatically to outdo others or ourselves Failure can cause much pain and success can lead

to further greed Jealousy has elements of resentment and hostility In addition it has

strong elements of insecurity and mistrust (Berzin 2004)

In the Abhidhamma text jealousy is opposite to compassion and appreciative joy

Lama Zopa Rinpoche (1973) states that rejoicing is the best remedy for jealousy and

envy (pl) Buddhist teaching maintains that we must rejoice for others success and

68

happiness and think that they created their own cause for their happiness Similarly in a

GNH society we must rejoice for others success and happiness Jealousy disturbs our

peace of mind and causes much suffering We cannot achieve GNH if we are all jealous

of others Jealousy is therefore opposed to GNH values

Mullen (1995) points out that men and women experience different types of

emotions when they are jealous These include pain distress oppression anxiety

sadness apprehension anger restless distress humiliation shame agitation and

betrayal All of these are negative and against happiness or wellbeing In order to

achieve GNH it is important to rule out the presence of such negative emotions Since

jealousy is directly opposed to the psychological wellbeing of people it is appropriate

that it be an indicator of GNH

In order to collect the data for this indicator the following question is asked of the

respondents (Box 1) The sufficiency cut off is set at never which means that

respondents are given full score when they answer never In a GNH state it is hoped or

expected that a person would never feel jealous Buddhism similarly marks jealousy as

non-virtuous and afflictive regardless of their degree in which they arise The sufficiency

cut-off which is set at never therefore also corresponds to Buddhist principles

How often do you experience jealousy

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 1 Survey question of Jealousy Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

69

2 Selfishness

The second indicator selfishness refers to an unwillingness to share because of

craving something for oneself Selfishness in Buddhism originates from attachment and

greed In Buddhism selfishness is closely related to the Buddhist term Serna (Negi

1999) Serna in the Abhidhamma text is termed as immoral consciousness (p96) and

appears as delusion arising out of a wrong view attachment and greed Negi (1999)

states that it is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity (p93)

Selfishness is also synonymous with the Tibetan Buddhist terms Rangdoed and lNoe

zirtwhich literally mean self-centered desire and material attachment respectively

Buddhist teachings condemn the idea of self or I from which selfishness arises As

explained in Chapter Three Buddhism teaches no-self (anatta) as an essential

principle The doctrine of no-self is to help us let go of our attachment and ego In one

of his interviews with FOR Atv the Dalai Lama (2008) narrates an incident in which a

rich couple asked him for a blessing He replied to them You are wealthy share your

wealth with the needy ones this will be the real blessing for you This indicates that

Buddhists believe in replacing selfishness with generosity to attain inner joy In

particular the paramita of ethics (see Chapter Three) emphasizes restraining self-

centeredness and to rooting it out completely The Dalai Lama (2000) states that the

ethic of restraining self-centeredness is crucial (p 101) A selfish attitude according to

Buddhism obstructs the path towards achieving Bodhisattva and thus genuine happiness

Selfishness gives rise to negative Karma leading one to be reborn in the lower realms

70

Similarly since the concept of GNH supports the idea of interdependence selfishness is

opposed to the GNH values

Under the selfishness indicator of GNH the participants are asked the following

question (See Box 2) For the answer never a full score is given which means that a

person should never feel selfish to get a positive GNH score This indicates that

selfishness is against the GNH essence Consistent with the Buddhist teachings the GNH

index similarly marks selfishness as a negative trait

How often do you experience selfishness

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 2 Survey question of Selfishness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

3 Frustration The American Heritage Stedmans Medical Dictionary defines frustration as a

condition that results when an impulse or an action is thwarted by an external or an

internal force There is no exact term for frustration in Buddhism but it can be related to

the term gopa which is translated as agitation Negi (1999) describes gopa as a

mental factor that disturbs the inner calm and focus of the mind (p44) Gopa forms

part of the twenty secondary delusions in the Abhidhamma In the Bhutanese national

language Ouggam1 holds equivalent meaning to frustration Ouggam literally means

pressurizing the breath Oug is breath and gam means pressure When we pressurize our

self we get frustrated and this comes out as anger causing suffering to others and

ourselves

71

Frustration is without doubt a negative emotion because it disturbs the peace of

mind causing anxiety and stress Like jealousy and selfishness frustration arises out

of attachment and desire In Buddhism any emotion that arises out of ignorance desire

and hatred is afflictive and non-virtuous Similarly in a GNH society that seeks to

maximize the happiness and wellbeing of people frustration is a negative trait and

opposed to the concept of GNH because it obstructs the path towards happiness Since

frustration has a negative impact on wellbeing it is necessary to determine if such

emotions occur frequently among people Therefore it is appropriate to have it as a

negative indicator of psychological wellbeing

The question (Box 3) how often do you experience frustration is asked of

respondents Since frustration hampers wellbeing respondents who never experience

frustration are given a full GNH score Respondents who often or sometimes

experience frustration are given a negative score

How often do you experience frustration

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 3 Survey question of Frustration Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

4 Suicidal Thoughts

Suicidal thoughts usually occur when one is no longer able to bear suffering in

life According to Buddhism suicide is an unwholesome act since it is encouraged by a

mind filled with greed hatred and delusion (Dhammananda nd) Killing is one of the ten

non-virtuous actions in Buddhism so any act of killing is unwholesome and suicide is

72

therefore an unwholesome act The Buddhist teachings on Karma maintain that death by

suicide only leads to another cycle of rebirth in the same condition Buddha Dharma

Education Association (nd) explains that in order for the act of killing to have its

complete and unmitigated power five conditions must be present a living being the

awareness of the existence of a living being the intention to kill the living being the

effort or action of killing the living being and the consequent death of the living being

Suicide will always lack the last element of a complete Karma because the one who

commits the act will already be dead at the time of the completion of the action

Therefore suicide becomes a defective action and is not completed as an act of killing

leading to rebirth in the same condition (Sopa 2005) The Dalai Lama (1981) states that

even if we take our own life we will have to take another body that again will be the

basis of suffering In order to get rid of all the difficulties we experience we need to get

rid of the fundamental cause (greed hatred and delusion) that gives rise to the aggregates

that are the basis of all suffering He adds that killing yourself is not going to solve your

problems Suicide in Buddhism is therefore a non-virtuous act that arises because of

afflictive emotion

According to Buddhism suicide does not end the problem The famous Buddhist

painting of truth depicts that death is only the beginning of another cycle of pain and

suffering Buddhists therefore do not support suicide and instead encourage constructive

living using this life to diligently practice virtuous action thus changing the present and

the future for the better

Research indicates that suicide and attempted suicide are associated with

elevated levels of anger anxiety guilt sadness and shame (Berenbaum Raghavan Le

73

Vernon Gomez 1999 p 279) Depression is found to be the main cause of suicides The

most common factors that push youth to commit suicide according to Bhutanese

psychiatrist Dr Nirola are peer and parental pressures competitive scenarios and failure

to get a job among others (as cited by Dorji 2010) This indicates that suicidal thoughts

occur because of what Buddhism calls the three poisons leading to further afflictive

emotions

Suicidal thoughts similarly are against the essence of GNH and therefore a

negative indicator of psychological wellbeing Under the GNH index a person who has

never thought of committing suicide (See Box 4) is given a foil GNH score while

respondents who have thought of committing suicide are given negative scores Overall

the indicator of suicidal thought finds groundings in Buddhist teachings

Have you ever seriously thought of committing suicide

1 Yes 2 No

Box 4 Survey question of Suicidal Thought Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Jealousy frustration selfishness and suicidal thoughts are negative emotions that

affect individuals and the societys wellbeing Satya Dev Negi (1996) asserts that the

distorted emotional states have achieved such a pervasive status that our era may become

known to history as the Age of Emotional Epidemic (p2) The effects of negative

emotions are clearly visible in society increasing crime substance abuse suicide and

divorce are all symptoms of emotional dysfunction

The entire Buddhist tradition evolved as a study of mental and emotional states

and ways to transform the negative emotions into positive ones Although Buddhism sees

74

ignorance desire and hatred as the main causes of suffering the three poisons come out

in the form of various negative emotions which include jealousy frustration and

selfishness Scientific research has revealed the role emotions play in affecting health the

immune system blood pressure and cardiovascular functions Research also indicates

that individuals with emotional disturbances are prone to induce negative effects upon

those with whom they have ongoing relationships (Berenbaum et al 1999) Besides

evaluation of the frequency of negative emotions it is important for the government to

know the reasons or the conditions that give rise to these negative emotions GNH as

policy must attend to it them

Overall all of the four indicators are directly opposed to the essence of GNH and

therefore it is appropriate to have them as indicators in order to minimize or eliminate

the presence of such negative emotions in a country Further all of these indicators are

rooted in Buddhism

b Positive Emotions

The process for accomplishing happiness in Buddhism involves uprooting the

negative emotions and enhancing the positive ones The three indicatorsmdashgenerosity

calmness and compassionmdashare positive because these emotions bring happiness to

oneself and others The practice of paramitas as explained in Chapter Three encourages

replacing the three poisons by practicing generosity ethics compassion and meditative

concentration Similarly generosity calmness and compassion are considered positive

indicators of psychological wellbeing

75

5 Generosity

Generosity is the act of giving and a means to overcome greed and selfishness In

Buddhism the practice of generosity (Dana Paramita- jinba) as laid down in Chapter

Three is one of the six paramitas and a way to practice compassion Buddhism maintains

that the practice of generosity in addition to the fivefold benefit to the one practicing it

brings happiness to others too Generosity is a moral practice that relates to positive

virtues such as compassion and loving kindness the cultivation of which leads to mental

development and spiritual happiness Through generosity we are able to extend ourselves

and help others The whole idea of generosity supports the concept of interdependence

which is the core principle of GNH and Buddhism The Centre for Bhutan Studies terms

generosity a positive emotion of great importance and a desirable habit Generosity as

an indicator is therefore coherent with the GNH principle as it promotes happiness for

oneself and others The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 5) for the

collection of data

How often do you experience generosity

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 5 Survey question of Generosity Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

The sufficiency cut off has been set as often which means a person should

frequently experience the feeling of generosity to get the full GNH score In a GNH

3 See Chapter Three

76

society people must help each other and promote a healthy environment Helping does

not necessarily mean giving all your possessions to others but it does entail sharing a part

of your wealth and being helpful in many ways An example would be a voluntary

service to society and charity Happiness derived by the act of generosity which does not

get included in the Gross Domestic Product (Hewavitharana 2004) should be included in

the evaluation of GNH Therefore generosity as an indicator of psychological

wellbeing is coherent with and appropriate to the concept of GNH

6 Calmness

Calmness refers to the clarity of mind and it entails patience and tolerance

Calmness is opposed to anger which is one of the three poisons in Buddhism The

Buddhist practice of Kshanita paramita the practice of patience and tolerance stresses

the importance of having a calm and composed mind at all times Patience in Buddhism

as seen in Chapter Three refers to having the strength to face the challenges and

difficulties of life without losing composure and inner tranquility In the Abhidhamma

text equanimity (long nyom) which is synonymous with calmness is listed as the

tenth positive secondary consciousness and a wholesome mental factor (Negi 1999)

Any mind that experiences such emotion becomes automatically positive states Negi

(1999) When we are calm we develop a tendency not to harm others and we are usually

at our best when we are calm Tranquility gives rise to clarity from which understanding

and wisdom grow (Graham 2007) A calm mind is therefore very essential for living a

happy and healthy life On the other hand constant fear and anger affect our own health

and overall wellbeing Horton (2010) states that through mental calmness one can

77

experience inner peace and as a result success too Calmness is therefore a virtue

consistent with GNH ideals

The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 6) for the collection of

data

How often do you experience calmness

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 6 Survey question of Calmness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Respondents who often feel calm are given the full GNH score which means in a GNH

society people should experience calmness frequently Overall this indicator can be

linked to Buddhist teachings and is coherent with GNH values as well

7 Compassion

Compassion is a wish to relieve the suffering of others and is central to Buddhist

practice As mentioned earlier in Chapter Three it is the most essential and important

trait for bodhisattvas within Mahayana Buddhism Mahayanists maintain that only

through developing a compassionate heart can one practice the other essential virtues

For example without being compassionate we will not develop a genuine sense of

generosity The compassion in Buddhism not only arises out of empathy towards the

suffering of others but from understanding and realizing the meaning of emptiness the

law of Karma and interdependence viewing self and others as devoid of inherent

meaning Compassion thus leads to the practice of loving kindness and helps to

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overcome afflictive emotions such as hatred jealousy and selfishness which are

considered negative under the psychological wellbeing indicators

Compassion a profound human emotion can be a powerful means to creating a

GNH society When one is compassionate the thought of harming others does not arise

and this attitude cultivates a genuine sense to work toward everyones benefit The CBS

(2008) similarly holds compassion as an approach to sympathy for the suffering of

others which is necessary to establish a compassionate society Thinking about the

suffering of others and not just ones own is important for a GNH society Further

scientific studies suggest that individuals including children who may engage in

bullying people and society in general could benefit from practices of compassion (Lutz

Lewis Johnstone Davidson 2008) Therefore compassion as an indicator is very much

coherent with the GNH values

The following question (Box 7) is asked of respondents to find out how

compassionate they are The sufficiency cut off similar to the indicator of generosity

and calmness has been set at often which means a person should frequently

experience compassion to get the full GNH score

How often do you experience compassion

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 7 Survey question of Compassion Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Overall the presence of emotions such as compassion calmness and generosity

have a positive impact on physical wellbeing on decision-making process and on the

79

potential for leading a happy life Further each of the three indicators is clearly related to

the Buddhist practice of paramitas

43 Spiritual Practices

From the Buddhist perspective the indicators under this section consist of

practices to overcome negative or afflictive emotions Practicising them with sincerity

can hold negative emotions at bay

8 Frequency of Meditation

The Buddhists consider meditation a very important method to calm the mind

The eightfold noble path and the paramita of meditative concentration emphasizes the

importance of meditation as a means to destroy the three root causes of suffering (desire

hatred and ignorance) Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) states that the Buddhist meditative

practice does not merely suppress the destructive mental states but trains the mind to see

directly and concretely how the mind functions and using this understanding tames and

masters our own mind freeing it from afflictive states Many Buddhist masters prescribe

meditation as the key to finding happiness and peace of mind Tashi (2004) points out

that the important egalitarian aspects of meditation are its accessibility to everybody with

little or no cost involved Researchers have shown that Buddhists who meditate may be

able to train their minds to feel genuine happiness and control aggressive instincts

(Connor 2003) Another study of Buddhist meditation by scientists at the University of

California has found that meditation might tame the amygdale the part of the brain

involved with fear and anger Studies have also shown that even brief courses of

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meditation with very short periods of the simplest meditative practices are associated

with better psychological and physical health (Levenson etal 2004) The CBS does not

link meditation to Buddhism but it is implicit that the indicators are inspired by Buddhist

teachings

Aside from the spiritual connotations meditation is a powerful method to calm

our mind (Connor 2003) Research has shown that practicing meditation regularly has

beneficial effects for a range of conditions These include stress anxiety depression

poor sleep and coping with chronic pain It also has other health benefits such as reduced

inflammation improved immunity and lower blood pressure A study conducted by three

universities (University of Wisconsin West Virginia University and University of

Reading) found that calmness and compassion could be developed through the practice of

meditation Lutz Lewis Johnstone and Davidson (2008) state that the long-term goal of

meditation is to weaken egocentric traits so that altruistic behaviors might arise more

frequently and spontaneously Meditation is indeed the best method to make the mind

relaxed and peaceful Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) maintains that the gift of learning to

meditate is the greatest gift you can gift yourself in this life (p58) He adds for it is

only through meditation that you can undertake the journey to discover your true nature

and so find the stability and confidence you will need to live and die well (p58)

The benefits of meditation as pointed out by the Buddhist teachings and supported

by modern research are immense The practice of meditation thus surely will have a

positive impact on the wellbeing of people which directly contributes to the essence of

GNH Having meditation as a GNH indicator signifies the importance the government is

putting on the benefits it provides The following question (Box 8) is asked of

respondents regarding the practice of meditation

Do you practice meditation

1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all

Box 8 Survey question of meditation Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

The sufficiency cut-off for meditation has been set as occasionally which means

one must practice meditation occasionally to get a full GNH score Although meditation

is considered a very important practice in Buddhism meditation among the lay

population is not popular in Bhutan According to the survey conducted by CBS (2008)

904 of respondents do not meditate at all This may arise from the fact that Bhutan

still does not have any meditation centre for lay people This may also be the reason why

the sufficiency cut-off has been set as occasionally instead of daily Very recently

meditation has been introduced in Bhutanese schools It however needs to be introduced

among lay population too Overall the indicator of mediation is coherent with GNH

values Further since Buddhism greatly stresses the importance of meditation the

indicator seems to have been influenced by Buddhism

9 Prayer Recitation

Prayer is a form of religious practice that seeks to connect to some greater power

Most religions involve prayer in one way or another The purpose of Buddhist prayer is to

awaken the inherent inner capacities of strength compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)

The translation for the word prayer in Bhutanese national language is thuen which

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literally means the recitation of mantras Buddhism emphasizes the recitation of prayershy

like mantras A mantra is a word a syllable a phrase or a short prayer that is spoken

once or repeated over and over again (either aloud or in a persons head) and that is

thought to have a profound spiritual effect on the person (BBC 2006 p 1) Mantra

literally means that which protects the mind from negativity (Sogyal Rimpoche 2002

p71) Mantra Sogyal Rimpoche states is the essence of sound and embodiment of the

truth in the form of sound Each syllable contains spiritual power and vibrates with the

blessing of the speech of the Buddha There are mantras that are thought to subtly alter

ones mind and make a connection with a particular Buddha or enlightened being

Buddhists believe that when certain mantras are said many times they arouse good

vibrations within the person they awaken our inherent inner capacities of strength

compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)

A prayer can be silent meditation or a full chorus of chanting (Hanh 2006) In

Buddhism praying involves two important aspects the first is establishing a relationship

between ourselves and the one to whom we are praying This refers to reflecting on the

great qualities of the Buddha which involves visualization The second is regarding

effective prayer which is the idea of cultivating the energy of love mindfulness and

right concentration in prayer To pray effectively our body and mind must dwell

peacefully in the present moment (Hanh 2006) It is common that Buddhists lay prostrate

while praying This is a position that diminishes the ego opens one up and brings one

close to the earth (Hanh 2006 p 63) Since reciting prayers requires mindfulness and

concentration the paramita of meditative concentration extends to prayers too The

83

Buddhist Faith Fellowship of Connecticut asserts that Buddhist prayer is a form of

meditation and practice of inner reconditioning Similarly Sogyal Rimpoche (2002)

explains that reciting mantras is one of the meditation techniques He calls it uniting the

mind with the sound of mantra When one is nervous disoriented or emotionally fragile

reciting a mantra inspiringly can change the state of the mind completely by transforming

its energy and atmosphere He also mentions that mind rides on the subtle energy of

breath and when you chant a mantra you are charging your breath and energy with the

energy of the mantra so working directly on the mind and subtle body (p71) The

practice of reciting mantra for inner reconditioning is distinctively Buddhist

In addition to reciting mantras a majority of the Bhutanese Buddhists pray to

local deities It is a very popular belief in Bhutan that deities can protect us from evil

forces In a real sense this is not Buddhism because the Buddha never prayed to anyone

Buddhism stresses the recitation of mantras to awaken our inner qualities As mentioned

earlier Bhutan was largely a Bon country prior to the entry of Buddhism Bonism

emphasized worshipping the deities Buddhism in many countries flourished with

polytheistic features For example in Japan Buddhism mixed with Shinto which

worships kamis (nature spirits) created a tradition of praying to the kamis Bhutans

national newspaper Kuensel reported that Bonism mixed with Buddhism is still prevalent

in the country (Wangchuk 2005) The rituals of the Bon often include animal sacrifices

but animal sacrifices are discouraged in the country However many pray and perform

rituals to appease the local deities (yu-lha) For example in the village of Bongo under

Chukha district people worship and pray to two sister deities They also summon other

84

deities and spirits residing in mountains valleys lakes forests streams and cliffs

invoking them to assist and protect people from misfortunes (as cited by Wangchuk

2005) Similarly people in the capital Thimphu pray to a local deity located in the upper

valley Although this is not distinctively Buddhism (Powers 1995) it is an age-old

tradition that has been absorbed by Bhutanese Buddhists long ago This is now

considered an integral part of Bhutanese Buddhist culture

The following question (Box 9) is asked of respondents A person who prays

daily meets the sufficiency cutoff which means heshe is given a full GNH score

Do you sayrecite prayers

1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all

Box 9 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Although reciting prayers in Buddhism is seen as a method ofmeditation both

are given different sufficiency cut offs A person who meditates occasionally is given a

full score while a person who prays occasionally is not given a full score The different

sufficiency cut offs for the two different practices indicates that the prayer recitation

indicator is intended to be different from meditation However prayer recitation in

Buddhism itself is a form of meditation CBS mentions that those indicators which are

highly uncorrelated were selected but from a pure Buddhist perspective the two seem to

be closely related since both fall under the paramita of meditative concentration The

CBS does not mention how prayer recitation is consistent with GNH values

Nevertheless the benefits of prayer recitation and meditation maybe the same because

85

both practices require mindfulness and concentration In this sense prayer recitation too

is coherent with GNH To conclude prayer in the form of mantra accords with Buddhist

principles while prayer to deities is a local Buddhist practice Therefore the indicator of

prayer recitation seems to have been influenced by Buddhism with traces of local beliefs

10 Taking account of Karma

As seen in chapter three Karma is a very important Buddhist principle that guides

the Buddhist psyche The law of Karma provides the basis to practice the paramita of

ethics (sila) Karma as one of the GNH indicators clearly implies that Buddhism has

influenced the indicator The literal meaning of taking account of Karma is being

morally responsible for our own actions When a person takes account of Karma in daily

life heshe is being aware and morally responsible for their actions on which the result

depends When we understand the law of Karma we are discouraged from performing

non-virtuous or unwholesome actions which cause suffering Realizing that Karma

conditions and determines our happiness we will refrain from unwholesome behavior to

avoid the negative effects of these actions Similarly understanding that virtuous actions

bear the fruit of happiness one is encouraged to practice wholesome actions The law of

causality therefore promotes moral and ethical life

The sufficiency cutoff for taking account of Karma (Box 10) has been set as

daily indicating that a person who takes account of Karma daily is given a full GNH

score

86

Do you consider Karma in the course of your daily life

1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all

Box 10 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

For a country pursing GNH it is important to take account of Karma on a daily

basis because Karma promotes healthy and ethical living ideal for a GNH state

According to CBS for Bhutanese an understanding of the dynamics between causes

and effects are critical to each individuals pursuit for happiness as it tends to provide a

clearer understanding and cultivation of GNH values (pl) Understanding that the real

reason for our sufferings is our own Karma (action through body speech and mind)

serves as an antidote to all our afflictive emotions Karma promotes the sense of helping

each other and living in harmony with all forms of life It is therefore important that a

GNH society take account of Karma daily to promote wholesome actions for a happy

society The indicator of taking account of Karma daily is thus a reflection of Buddhist

principles and is consistent with GNH values

43 General Mental Health (GMH)

11 General Mental Health

The general mental health indicator assesses the mental health of people using the

General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) that would provide a possible indication of

depression anxiety low confidence and concentration levels Unlike the other indicators

under the psychological wellbeing domain the General Mental Health indicator consists

87

of fifteen questions (See Appendix 2) Questions related to ones stress level ability to

concentrate anxiety depression feeling of happiness and unhappiness are asked of the

respondents The questions are calculated and interpreted using the Likert scale with

lowest score at 0 and highest possible score at 36 A lower score between the ranges of 0-

15 indicates normal mental wellbeing a median score between 16-20 indicates some

mental distress and a high score of 21-36 indicates severe mental distress (CBS 2008)

The sufficiency cut-off is set as normal mental wellbeing which means people should

not experience any mental distress to get a full GNH score

The CBS (2008) asserts that mental health is an important indicator for the health

status of a population Studies have revealed that mental stress can negatively affect

wellbeing Studies also point out that stress may alter the immune system and increase

susceptibility to disease (CBS 2008)

From the Buddhist perspective psychological distress such as depression lack of

confidence and anxiety are the result of our own afflictive emotions Gyatso (2009)

points out that the overriding cause of mental stress is self-cherishingmdashseeing ones own

physical and mental pleasure as more important than anybody elses People who have

the tendency to use more self-referential terms (I me myself) tend to have more health

problems and earlier deaths (Dalai Lama 2009) According to Buddhism it is our own

ego the focus on the notion of I that cause us to suffer The causes of mental distress

thus lie within us Since cause is within us the cure is also in our own mind Buddhist

teachings maintain that meditating on emptiness4 can get rid of the notion of T Thus

4 A meditation technique

88

mental distress similar to other negative emotions are a result of ignorance desire and

hatred

Ven Thubten Gyatso (2009) a Buddhist teacher points out two reasons why

selfishness can cause mental illness The first is that unhappiness arising from

selfishness is cumulative When we do not obtain what we want we often over-react to a

ridiculous extent and our selfish behavior isolates us from others The accumulation of

small failures in life erodes our self-confidence and we fall into depression The second

reason he points out is that selfishness prevents us from doing the one thing that is

guaranteed to bring happiness - cherishing others being compassionate and generous

Self-obsession and self-centered thoughts blind us and we do nothing to help others In

Buddhism self-centeredness never brings real joy and satisfaction but instead causes

suffering

The mind drives every action that occurs through the body speech and mind

The causal factor therefore lies within us It is our ability to deal with emotions that

influences the mental state Since mental stress obstructs the path towards happiness it

opposes the goal of GNH It is therefore important to assess the stress levels of the

population to identify the risk group Intervention by government and offering remedy

(for example offering counseling) and monitoring changes over time can help people

pursue happiness

44 Summary

The purpose of this study is to determine to what extent the indicators under the

psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with

89

the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH Findings in this chapter reveal the following

The four indicators related to negative emotionsmdashjealousy selfishness frustration

suicidal thoughtmdashdo appear in Buddhism Jealousy (dhrag-dog) is clearly stated as an

afflictive emotion while the Buddhist teachings condemn the idea ofself through

which selfishness arises Although the exact term does not appear in Buddhism

frustration is closely related to the meaning of gopa or agitation which arises as a result

of the three poisons Buddhism holds that lack of wisdom or holding on to wrong views

leads to suicidal thoughts Jealousy selfishness frustration and suicidal thought thus

arise out of the three poisons ignorance desire and hatred All four indicators are what

Buddhism calls Klesha afflictive emotions that disturb the mind of oneself and others

thus obstructing the path towards happiness Similarly general mental health distress is a

result of afflictive emotion Buddhist teachings particularly points out that holding on to

the idea of self leads to mental stress

The indicators related to the three positive emotions (Generosity Compassion

and Calmness) and three spiritual practices (Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking

account of Karma) are clearly related to the Buddhist teachings on six paramitas

Generosity is the first paramita a practice towards achieving genuine happiness

Compassion is the root of all Mahayana Buddhist practices and an essential component of

the practice of six paramitas The indicator of calmness is related to Kshanti paramita

which entails the practice of patience tolerance and endurance Similarly the indicator

of meditation and prayer recitation is related to the Buddhist practice of meditative

concentration which is the fourth practice Dhayana paramita Prayer recitation

however does have elements of Bon practices which have been deeply absorbed by the

90

local Buddhist culture The indicator of taking account of Karma is clearly influenced by

Buddhism Karma promotes the practice of ethics which is sila paramita that stresses

avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and engaging in virtuous action Overall all of the

positive emotions and practices require wisdom which is prajna paramita The core

teachings of Buddhism thus find a place in each of the indicators Thus it would be

appropriate to conclude that the indicators have been influenced by Buddhism

Each of indicators either contributes to or negatively affects GNH In a GNH

society it is important to establish that people not only experience positive emotions but

also rule out the presence of negative emotions that can cause mental distress It is also

important to determine if people take up spiritual practices to keep the negative emotions

at bay Therefore each indicator under psychological wellbeing relates positively or

negatively with the concept of GNH It can thus be concluded that the indicators of

psychological wellbeing are consistent with GNH values

91

CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMMENDATIONS

From the very beginning of its development plan Bhutan chose to ensure the

preservation of its culture tradition and natural resources This came to be called the

philosophy of GNH where peoples spiritual and emotional wellbeing is afforded equal

importance to economic wellbeing GNH recognizes that economic development without

spiritual and emotional wellbeing will not bring happiness to people Several workshops

and discourses held on GNH led to the adoption of the GNH Index a set of indicators to

measure whether Bhutanese society is progressing towards GNH The index comprises

72 indicators grouped under nine domains that go beyond material values and incorporate

all values relevant to a happy life The GNH index is now the most important tool in

guiding the performance of the government towards achieving the goal of GNH The

purpose of this study was to determine to what extent the indicators under the

psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with

the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH The three questions that drove this study are

To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do the indicators reflect

Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept of GNH which does

reflect Buddhist principles The primary data that were used are the eleven indicators and

survey questionnaires developed by the Centre for Bhutan Studies The findings from the laquo

study reveal that each of the indicators under psychological wellbeing reflects Buddhist

principles The ultimate goal in Buddhism is to achieve genuine happiness Inspired by

this belief Bhutan is the only country in the world that officially pursues the state of

happiness The government believes that happiness is in the end what matters the most

92

The government has taken the utmost responsibility to create an enabling condition for

people to pursue happiness The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index

measures peoples psychological state which influences the overall wellbeing of people

Since the purpose of this study is to determine the extent to which indicators

reflected Buddhist principles it was necessary to highlight the key Buddhist principles

related to happiness Chapter Three examined the key Buddhist principles related to

happiness Specifically Thogme Zangpos teachings on the six paramitas were used as a

basis to develop the framework of happiness It was observed that happiness is not only

worldly pleasure derived from physical comfort but also an innate state of mind which

can be cultivated through the practice of compassion generosity ethics meditative

concentration patience and wisdom This can bring happiness to the individual and to

the society Although GNH stresses collective happiness Buddhism states that peace

must first be developed in the individual mind before it can contribute to others and the

happiness of the society Thus in the words of Master Shantideva it is not primarily the

outer conditions of our life that determine our happiness or suffering it is our own mind

that creates the cause for happiness or success

Humans experience many emotions and narrowing them down to eleven

indicators is not an easy task There is a strong relationship between emotions and

wellbeing The intensity of pleasant and unpleasant emotions influences the degree of

psychological wellbeing Studies have also shown that emotions play an integral role in

affecting the overall physical health Emotions also have powerful effects in shaping and

regulating social interactions and influencing how one appears to others Like the mind-

93

transforming practices in Buddhism the key to a nations progress lies in tracing

problems and solutions to the root causes

The indicators under the psychological wellbeing domain measure peoples

emotional state and the frequency of spiritual practices to eliminate negative emotion

Findings in Chapter Four reveal that each of the indicators of psychological wellbeing

correlates to Buddhist principles on happiness The relationship between the indicators of

psychological wellbeing and Buddhist principles are presented in the table below

Indicators Buddhist Principles

1 Jealousy Dhrag Dhog- Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

2 Selfishness Serna - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

3 Frustration Gopa - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

4 Suicidal Thought Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

5 Generosity Dana Paramita (Bjin ba) Generosity

6 Compassion The root of all Buddhist practices

7 Calmness Kshanti Paramita (Bzod pa) Patience tolerance endurance

8 Meditation Dhyana Parmto Meditative Concentration

9 Prayer Recitation Dhyana ParmitaMeditative Concentration

10 Karma Sila Paramita (Tshul khrim) virtue morality ethics

11 General Mental Health Klesha (Afflictive emotions) causes mental distress

Table 1 Relating the Indicators with Buddhism

The four negative emotion indicatorsmdashselfishness frustration jealousy and

suicidal thoughtmdashare found in Buddhism as afflictive emotions (klesha) arising out of the

three poisons Jealousy (dharg dhog) appears in the Abhidhamma text as an immoral and

94

deluded mental factor that feels displeasure in seeing others succeed Similarly

selfishness (sema) is listed as an immoral consciousness in the Abhidhamma Selfishness

is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity Buddhism teaches no-

self (anatta) as an essential principle and therefore strongly condemns the notion of I

through which selfishness arises Frustration in Buddhism is closely related to the term

gopa which is actually translated as agitation Gopa falls under the twenty secondary

immoral delusions in the Abhidhamma text Suicides and suicidal thought in Buddhism

are the result of wrong view Suicide is an unwholesome action and does not end the

problem Suicidal thought occurs because of afflictive emotions (klesha) All these

negative emotions (klesha) cause mental distress

The positive emotion and spiritual practice indicators such as compassion

calmness generosity meditation prayer recitation and taking account of Karma are the

replication of the six paramitas The positive emotions which Buddhists call virtuous

action such as generosity compassion and calmness tend to increase happiness in oneself

and others while negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration affect

psychological health and decrease happiness Since each of the indicators can be clearly

related to Buddhist principles of happiness it can thus be concluded that the

psychological wellbeing indicators are influenced by Buddhism and are consistent with

the concept of GNH One may argue that indicators such as compassion generosity and

calmness are universal values and ethics and may not necessarily be influenced by

Buddhism However in the case of Bhutan the Bhutanese worldview and its political

ethos are largely influenced by Buddhism The philosophy of GNH is also rooted in

Buddhism It is also evident that the government is seeking to measure and cater to long-

95

term rather than short-term happiness From the Buddhist perspective short-term

happiness is delivered chiefly by material goods while long-term happiness is derived

from spiritual cultural and social values

This study reveals that Buddhism stresses gaining control over our mind and

cultivating the right kind of habit which is said to be the root of all forms of joy and

happiness Buddhism in the original sense encourages exercises to tame and calm the

mind This study therefore partly seems to support the claims made by scholars such as

Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and Tashi (2004) who have argued that

Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH

Overall this study indicates that if the government creates good policies and

conditions for people GNH cannot be achieved if its citizens are not psychologically

strong For example if citizens are mentally stressed or filled with jealousy they will not

contribute to collective happiness In that sense happiness is inextricably linked to the

inner conditions of ones own mind

Measuring the psychological state of people will help the policy makers make

better decisions The emotional and psychological needs of people therefore must be

considered by the policy makers in order to achieve GNH A study by Sheldon Ryan

Deci and Kasser (2004) found that people pursuing intrinsic goals (emotional intimacy

community contribution and personal growth) had higher happiness expectancies than

those pursuing extrinsic goals (financial success attractive image and famepopularity)

By emphasizing human values of compassion generosity calmness and selflessness as

necessary indicators of GNH the government of Bhutan is providing the basis for

developing policies that focus on these values The domain of psychological wellbeing

96

thus focuses on the inner emotional development Within the concept of GNH inner non-

material development is equally important as external material development

Recommendations for Future Studies

The biggest challenge for the government is to combat the negative emotions of

the people The findings of this study reveal that Buddhist teachings are all geared

towards taming the mind and cultivating values that promote happiness Further

Buddhism does not emphasize individualism but emphasizes equality and cooperation

aimed at collective happiness It emphasizes individual effort geared towards universal

happiness Buddhist teachings and method to calm the mind can contribute to GNH

Ekman Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) suggest that Buddhist practices offer a

therapy not just for the disturbed but for all who seek to improve the quality of their

lives Although the majority of the population in Bhutan is Buddhist 25 are non-

Buddhist (CIA fact book 2009) Some scholars have argued however that Buddhism

can also be taught as education on human values (Mancall 2004 amp Lokamitra 2004)

Therefore extensive research on how this might be done could provide valuable lessons

insights and guidelines for the purpose of promoting GNH values

As pointed out earlier there is not much information available on how the

sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From the information available on the

CBS website however it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut off is set at a level

that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises questions because

there is not any literature or studies conducted on how the sufficiency cut off has actually

been set Arbitrarily setting a cut off without any basis or setting it based on some

assumptions can lead to questionable results Therefore an in-depth study on the basis

97

for setting the sufficiency cut off seems necessary to avoid misinterpretation by policy

makers

This study analyzed the indicators to determine the extent to which they reflected

Buddhist principles However it was observed that indicators of psychological wellbeing

were measured by questionnaires that only examined the frequency of occurrence of

emotions and the spiritual practices It is important that the government not only

recognize peoples suffering but identify its causes as well For example the questionnaire

notes the frequency of negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration but

does not identify their causes In order for the policy makers to identify effective

solutions the cause must be noted also Further the key terms such as generosity

compassion frustration and prayer recitation were not clearly defined For example the

term generosity could imply the practice rather than the emotional state of generosity

One can practice generosity yet not feel emotionally generous a practice can differ from

an emotional state Similarly the choices of answers such as often sometimes daily have

not been defined These terms can mean different things to different people To avoid

misinterpretation it is necessary that the key terms be clearly defined and nuanced

This study focused only on one of the domains of GNH index Although a similar

study needs to be carried out for the other eight domains there is a need for further

investigation into many of the issues related to the GNH index such as How would the

GNH index affect the government policies Does the index give equal importance to the

emotional spiritual and economical wellbeing of the people Does the index capture the

real essence of human happiness

98

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Anguttara (nd) Dana Generosity Retrieved from (Anguttara IV 57) httpwwwbuddhamindinfoleftsidelifestv-2danahtm

Annas J (1999) Aristotles Ethics Critical Essay (p 35- 56)Edited by Nancy Sherman United States of America Rowman amp Littlefield Publishers Inc

Bancroft A (ed) (1997) The Dhammapada USA Element Inc

BBC (2006) Buddhist worships Retrieved from httpwwwbbccoukreligionreligionsbuddhisrncustomsworship 1 shtml

Berenbaum H Raghavan C Le H Vernon L amp Gomez J (1999) Disturbances in emotion In Daniel Kahneman Ed Diener and Norbert Schwarz (Eds) Wellbeing The foundation ofhedonic psychology (pp 267-287) New York Russell Sage Foundation

Berzin A (2004) Dealing with Jealousy Retrieved from httpwwwberzinarchivescomwebenarchivessutraylevel3 loiong materialgen eraldealing iealousvhtmln9203d70b0a90c002

Bhutan Observer (2010) A GNH School httpwwwbhutanobserverbt201 Qbhutan-news01a-gnh-schoolhtml

Boonyakiat S (2009) A Christian Theology of Suffering in the Context of Theravada Buddhism in Thailand

Brooks AC (2008) Gross National Happiness Why Happiness Matters for America and How We Can Get More of It USA

Buddha Dharma Education Association (NA) Fundamentals of Buddhism Karma Retrieved from httpwwwbuddhanetnetfundbud9htm

Buddhist Faith Fellowship of Connecticut (nd) Buddhist Prayers Retrieved from httpbuddhistfaithtripodcompureland sanghaid 14html

Business Bhutan (April 172010) A meditating school Retrieved from httpwwwbusinessbhutanbtp= 1366

99

Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) (2008) Explanation of GNH Index Centre for Bhutan Studies Retrieved on June 12 2009 from httpwwwgrossnationalhappinesseomgnhIndexintruductionGNHaspx

Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) (2008) Dimension Psychological Wellbeing Retrieved from httpwwwgrossnationalhappinesseomgnhIndexgnhlndexVariablesaspx

Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) (2008) Psychological Wellbeing Report Retrieved from httpwwwgrossnationalhappinesscomsurvevReportspsvchologicaIpwellbeingr eportdavidpdf

Central Intelligent Agency (CIA) (2009) Bhutan Retrieved from httpswwwciagovlibrarvpublicationsthe-world-factbookgeosbthtml

Chophel S (2008) Cultural diversity and resilience Journal of Bhutan Studies Centre for Bhutan Studies Thimphu Bhutan

Chopra S (2010) An exclusive interview with His Holiness the Dalai Lama Retrieved from httpwwwlifepositivecomspiritworld-religionsbuddhismdalai-interviewasp

Colman R (2008a) Application of the Genuine Progress Index to Nova Scotia Measuring Genuine Progress Indicators Accounts and Policy Retrieved from httpwwwgpiatlanticorgpdfintegratedpolicvapppdf

ColmanR(2008b) Measuring Progress towards Gross National Happiness Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference Held in Bhutan Retrieved on 30th

September 2009 from httpwwwbhutanstudiesorgbtadminpubFilesGNH41 GNH4pdf

ColmanR amp SagebienJ (2004) Measuring Genuine Progress- Indicators for Enlightened Society Proceedings of the First International Seminar on Operationalization of Gross National Happiness (p252- 259) Centre for Bhutan Studies

ConnorS(2003) Can Buddhists transcend mental reservations Retrieved on 14th April 2010 from httpwwwbiopsvchiatrvcomhappinessbuddhisthtml

Creswell J W (2007) Qualitative inquiry and research design Choosing among five approaches (2nd ed) Thousand Oaks CA SAGE

Dalai Lama (1981) Four noble truths A teaching given in Dharamsala Retrieved from httpwww Iamaveshecomindex phpsect=articleampid=380

100

List of Abbreviations

CBS Centre for Bhutan Studies

CIA Central Intelligence Agency

DPT Druk Phuensum Tshogpa

FYP Five Year Plan

GDP - Gross Domestic Product

GHQ General Health Questionnaire

GNH Gross National Happiness

GNHC Gross National Happiness Commission

GPI Genuine Progress Index

HDI Human Development Index

MoA Ministry of Agriculture

MoHE Ministry of Health and Education

NEC National Environment Commission

NSB National Statistic Bureau

RGoB Royal Government of Bhutan

TCoB Tourism Council of Bhutan

UNDP United Nation Development Programme

viii

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

Measuring the wellbeing of people is important in determining whether peoples

lives are improving or worsening over time Many countries in the world today focus on

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as a basis to measure the economic wellbeing of the

people Although GDP mainly measures market production it has been treated as if it

measures economic wellbeing The focus on economic growth measures fails to capture

fully the overall wellbeing of the people (Kusago 2006 Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009)

Due to the failure of GDP to measure the non-economic aspect of human wellbeing

alternative measurements such as Genuine Progress Index (GPI) and Human

Development Index (HDI) have been introduced GPI and HDI include many important

factors that contribute to healthy living but they are still calculated based on monetary

values (Hargen 2002 Kusago 2006) and do not capture the Bhutanese concept of Gross

National Happiness

Gross National Happiness (GNH) is the central development philosophy of

Bhutan (Planning Commission 1999) This unique philosophy aims at maximizing

human wellbeing and minimizing human suffering by balancing economic needs with the

spiritual and emotional needs of people Bhutans fourth king Jigme Singye Wangchuck

coined the term Gross National Happiness in the late 1980s when he stated that Gross

National Happiness is more important than Gross Domestic Product (as cited by Ura

2008 para 1) His vision was to create a GNH society which means the creation of an

enlightened society in which happiness and wellbeing of all people and sentient beings is

the ultimate purpose of governance (as cited by Ura 2008 para2) Since it was difficult

1

for the government to list every factor that contributes to the happiness of its people four

major areas were identified as the pillars of GNH cultural promotion equitable

economic development good governance and environmental conservation (Planning

Commission 1999) These four pillars constitute the broad strategic framework through

which national development processes are actualized for the maximization of GNH

Since the adoption of the concept of GNH the government has consistently

sought to address development beyond income or economic growth The country lacked

however a specific and relevant development index that takes into account the core

principles and dimensions of GNH In November 2008 coinciding with the coronation

of the fifth King of Bhutan Jigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchuck the Government of

Bhutan adopted the GNH index The purpose of the GNH index is to reflect GNH

values set benchmarks and track policies and performances of the country (Ura 2008

pl) Seventy-two measurable indicators grouped under nine domains have been

identified as the GNH index The Government of Bhutan states that the country is now

ready with a set of mathematical formulae to measure human wellbeing and government

performances towards achieving GNH (as cited by Dorji 2009) The purpose of this

study is to analyze the GNH index to determine the extent to which it reflects Buddhist

principles and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH

This chapter is divided into eight sections The first section presents a brief

background of Bhutan its people economy and culture The second section presents

Bhutans political journey from monarchy to democracy The concept of Gross National

Happiness is discussed in the third section The fourth section explains the nine domains

of the GNH index and how the GNH index is administered in the country The fifth

2

section presents the research questions and objective of the study The sixth section

presents the methodology of the study The seventh section lays down the significance

and limitation of the study The summary of this chapter and the outline of the study are

presented in the eighth section

11 The Bhutanese Economy and Culture

Bhutan is a tiny landlocked kingdom with a population of 691141 (Central

Intelligent Agency [CIA] Factbook 2009) and having a total area of 38394 square

kilometres (National Statistical Bureau 2007) The country is sandwiched between two

leading economies India and China (Figure 1) Until the 1960s Bhutan was the most

isolated nation in the world Today about 69 of the population in Bhutan are

smallholder agrarian farmers and they practice mainly mixed (crop and livestock)

farming systems (Gross National Happiness Commission 2010) Of the population

945 represent people from the age group of 0-64 years while only 55 of the

population are 65 years and above (CIA Factbook 2009) Bhutans GDP per capita was

estimated at $2218 in 2009 (International Monetary Fund 2010) The country is almost

entirely mountainous with altitudes ranging from 240 meters to 7541 meters above sea

level About 725 of the country consists of forest land (National Statistical Bureau

2007) and the policy of the government is to maintain at least 60 forest cover (Ministry

of Agriculture 2002) Bhutan has been declared one of the ten global biodiversity

Hotspots (National Environment Commission 1999)

The Bhutanese culture and development policies are greatly influenced by

Buddhism The philosophy of GNH has its roots in Buddhism Under this unique

3

philosophy Bhutan has been able to balance modernization with its ancient culture and

traditions From the very beginning of the enthronement in 1972 the fourth king Jigme

Singye Wangchuck was very clear that Gross National Happiness is more important than

Gross Domestic Product According to him happiness is the ultimate common goal of

every human being and everything else is a means for fulfilling this wish He believed

that happiness is an indicator of good development and good society (Thinley 2005)

This led the country to adopt GNH as its development priority

25 SO Km

50 25

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S Gasa Ozong

Toogsa THIMPHU Paro

Tashigang

Samdrup Jongkhar Phuntsholing

r~

BANGLADESH

Figure 1 Map of Bhutan (Source CIA Fact Book)

4

12 Political History and Transition to Democracy

Bhutanese polity is said to have begun in 1616 with the arrival of Zhabdrung

Ngawang Namgyal from Tibet Through the spread of Buddhism Zhabdrung was able to

unify the country Buddhism provided the ideological basis for unifying Bhutan

(Mancall 2004) Zhabdrung was both a religious and political figure in Bhutan He was

the head of theocratic state that he himself created (Ministry of Health amp Education

[MoHE] 1994) He started the dual system of governance known as the Choesi system

where political affairs were looked after by the Desi1 and religious affairs by the head

abbot called the Jekhenpo Zhabdrung died in the year 1651 The official announcement

of his death was however made only in the year 1705 There were several reasons for

this chief of which there was no clear successor to Zhabdrung During the period 1651 -

1706 the country was ruled in the name of Zhabdrung who was said to be in religious

retreat by various Desi appointed under the Choesi system established by the Zhabdrung

himself (MoHE 1994) The period between 1705 to 1907 was marked by internal

stability and external invasion Ultimately in the year 1907 Ugyen Wangchuck was

unanimously elected as the first hereditary king of Bhutan (MoHE 1994) Since then

visionary descendants of the Wangchuck dynasty have ruled the country

Bhutans political system however evolved from a monarchy into a constitutional

democracy Democracy did not come to Bhutan overnight the process of democratization

was going on long before but slowly and cautiously King Jigme Singye Wangchuck

continued the policy of controlled development with particular focus on the preservation

A title given to the person who looks after the political matters in the country

5

of the environment and Bhutans unique culture Yet during his reign there was a steady

decentralization of decision-making processes which aimed to enhance peoples

participation in the formulation of development policies and activities and to strengthen

the traditional local institutions This process started largely in 1981 with the

establishment of the District Development Committees (Dzongkhag Yargye

Tshogchungs) and in 1991 with the establishment of the Block Development Committees

(Geog Yargye Tshogchungs) The people democratically elect all members of these

committees The most momentous change came in 1998 when the executive powers

previously held by the King was granted to the Council of Ministers (GNHC 2008)

On 17 December 2005 King Jigme Singye Wangchuck announced to a stunned

nation that the first general elections would be held in 2008 and that he would abdicate

the throne in favor of his eldest son the crown prince Jigme Khesar Namgyal

Wangchuck Unlike other countries where people fight for democracy the opposite

occurred in Bhutan people were given power without having to fight for it The fifth king

was formally crowned on November 6 2008 becoming the worlds youngest reigning

monarch and head of the newest democracy The fifth King like his father proclaimed

that fulfilling the vision of GNH would be one of the main responsibilities of his reign

He said As the king of a Buddhist nation my duty is not only to ensure your happiness

today but to create the fertile ground from which you may gain the fruits of spiritual

pursuit and attain good Karma (Wangchuck 2008 para8) The newly elected

government Druk Phuensum Tshogpa (DPT) is also committed to the principles of GNH

6

13 Gross National Happiness the Development Philosophy of Bhutan

The notion that the emotional and spiritual wellbeing of humans should be

included into the development policies is gaining a lot of international support The

importance of the concept of GNH is articulated in the policy document Bhutan 2020-A

Vision for Peace Prosperity and Happiness (Planning Commission 1999) which states

that its aim is to maximize the happiness of all Bhutanese and to enable them to achieve

their full and innate potential as human beings (p41) Reflecting the importance of the

concept the promotion of enabling conditions for GNH has also been enshrined as an

important principle of state policy under Article 9 of the Constitution (Royal Government

of Bhutan [RGoB] 2008)

GNH is a noble and holistic approach towards development It seeks to

complement inner happiness with outer circumstances It addresses both material and

non-material wellbeing Although material wealth is associated with physical wellbeing

ones mental state or inner wellbeing is not conditioned by material needs alone GNH

supports the notion that happiness pursued and realized within the context of the greater

good of society offers the best possibility for the sustained happiness of the individual

The society as a whole cannot obtain happiness if individuals compete irresponsibly for

it To this end GNH recognizes that happiness can be realized as a collective goal it

cannot be left as an individual goal (Thinley 2005 Ura 2008) Prime Minister Jigme

YThinley (2005) in his speech at the 2nd Conference of GNH at Halifax stated GNH

stresses collective happiness to be addressed directly through public policies in which

happiness is an explicit criterion in projects and programmes (p7) If a governments

policy framework and its goals are adverse to happiness happiness will fail as a

7

collective goal (Ura 2008) In the GNH context a government concerned with the

happiness of its citizens must create an enabling environment for people to achieve

happiness

The concept of GNH is greatly influenced by Buddhism The Bhutanese

worldview including its social cultural and political ethos is rooted in Buddhism The

policymakers in Bhutan hold the view that simply imposing development models from

outside which do not take religion and tradition into account will not only serve to

diminish existing culture but will also meet with limited success (Planning

Commission 1992 p66) The Bhutan-Vision 2020 strongly reaffirms the notion of Gross

National Happiness as the central development concept for the country This vision

emphasizes a need and desire to balance economic development with cultural and

environmental conservation

14 Explanation of Gross National Happiness Index

Bhutan is not a GNH state at this moment it aspires to be one The Bhutanese

government is of the view that wellbeing arises in a society when sustainable and

equitable economic development is balanced with environmental and cultural

preservation and good governance (Rinzin 2006 Thinley 2005) These four pillars have

constantly guided the development policies in Bhutan This strategy has been referred to

as the middle path which is derived from Buddhist principles of avoiding extremism

and taking a balanced view (Planning Commission 1999) In November 2008 the

government adopted the GNH index as a means to measure GNH The government felt

the need for a GNH index for without some kind of measurement system GNH cannot

8

guide practical policies and programs (CBS 2008) Under the GNH index 72 indicators

were identified under the following nine domains psychological wellbeing cultural

resilience education health time use and balance good governance community vitality

ecological diversity and living standard The nine domains of Gross National Happiness

are explained below

1 Psychological wellbeing as an end includes satisfaction with all elements of life

life enjoyment and subjective wellbeing Under this domain there are 11 measurable

indicators (eg frequency of feeling of emotions such as jealousy compassion and

generosity) classified in three areas General psychological distress indicators Emotional

balance indicators and Spirituality practices indicators This study focuses on the

indicators under this domain

2 Time Use domain measures how individuals spend their time There are only two

indicators under this domain the sleeping hours and working hours The time spent

delivering voluntary and social service is also taken into account

3 Community Vitality refers to the quality of life in the community This domain

intends to measure how strong active and inclusive relationships are within communities

that work to foster individual and collective wellbeing It examines the nature of trust

belongingness vitality of caring relationships safety in the home and the community

and giving and volunteering The community vitality indicators are Family vitality

Safety Reciprocity Trust Social support Socialization and Kinship density

4 Cultural Diversity and Resilience This domain measures the diversity and

strength of cultural traditions The indicators study core values and perception of

changes in values and traditions Bhutanese tradition is a very broad term that

9

encompasses customs rituals religious ceremonies traditional dress sports music

dance poetry arts and code of behavior among other things The indicators of cultural

diversity and resilience are Dialect use Traditional sports Community festivity Artisan

skill Value transmission and Basic precept

5 Health Good health is said to have a significant positive effect on happiness The

GNH health domain assesses the health status of the population the determinants of

health and the health system Health status indicators show information on self-rated

health disabilities body mass index and number of healthy days experienced per month

Health indicators also measure the degree of knowledge about diseases and breast feeding

practices The health indicators are Health status Health knowledge and Barrier to

health

6 Education In a GNH society education should contribute to individual and

collective happiness The education domain assesses different types of knowledge and

skills that people have acquired in their lifetime It includes historical cultural civic

ecological and indigenous knowledge and skills which are mostly acquired informally

The education indicators are Education attainment Dzongkha (national) language and

Folk and historical literacy

7 Ecological Diversity and Resilience This indicator looks at peoples perception

of ecology The ecological diversity and resilience indicators are Ecological degradation

Ecological knowledge and Afforestation

8 Living standard The living standard indicators assess the levels of income at the

individual and household levels sense of financial security room ratio food security and

10

house ownership Thus the living standard indicators are Income Housing Food

security and Hardship

9 Good Governance The domain of good governance evaluates how people

perceive various government functions in terms of their efficacy honesty and quality

The indicators include human rights leadership at various levels of government

performance of government in delivering services and controlling inequality and

corruption peoples trust in media judiciary and police The indicators of good

governance are Government performance Freedom and Institutional trust indicator

A pilot survey was also carried out between September 2006 to January 2007 in

nine districts on 350 randomly chosen respondents to test the feasibility and robustness of

GNH pilot questionnaires The GNH index however was developed based on the result

of a final survey carried out in December 2007 to March 2008 (CBS 2008) A total of

950 respondents based on random sampling were interviewed in 12 districts by the CBS

in the final survey The questionnaires covered the key areas affecting the values and

principles of GNH roughly divided into the nine domains mentioned above CBS (2008)

states that the nine domains were selected on normative grounds and are equally

weighted because each dimension is considered relatively equal in terms of equal

intrinsic importance as a component of Gross National Happiness (pl) Within each

domain several indicators that seemed likely to remain informative across time had high

response rates and were relatively uncorrelated (CBS 2008 p 1) were selected For

example in the psychological wellbeing domain the respondents were asked how often

they felt emotions such as anger guilt selfishness pride calmness compassion

forgiveness disappointment jealousy and frustration Respondents were also given the

11

option to list other emotions that they often experienced From the survey results only

eleven indicators were selected under the psychological wellbeing domain In total 72

indicators under the nine domains were selected as the GNH index (See Appendix 1)

The GNH index is to be administered every two years in the country A survey is

currently being carried out by the CBS in all the twenty districts of Bhutan Tshoki

Zangmo a researcher at CBS states that the GNH survey will determine whether the

conditions leading to happiness have improved or not (Doiji 2010) Several structured

semi-structured and open-ended questions under each of the 72 indicators are asked of

the respondents to assess life satisfaction in each of the nine domains Any individual

having sufficient achievements in each of the nine domains is considered happy (CBS

2008) Unlike the GPI and HDI which uses GDP data the GNH index is measured based

on self-report assessment For example the GPI heavily relies on quantitative or

objective data produced by Statistics Canada as opposed to qualitative or subjective

survey data The GPI uses personal consumption expenditures as a starting point Those

elements which are regarded as regrettable are deducted mdash for example cost of crime

accidents and pollutions Values of leisure time unpaid housework parenting and

volunteer work are added back (Colman 2008a) All aggregation is done in terms of

monetary values The GNH index however is entirely depended on the self-report

survey data According to Diener and Lucas (1999) the self-report measurement of

subjective well being displays adequate levels of validity and reliability The GNH index

is calculated in two steps The first step involves setting a sufficiency cut off and

determining whether respondents have attained sufficiency in each of the nine domains

12

The final step involves aggregating the data using the formula GNH = 1 - Average

squared distance from cutoff

15 Research Questions and Objective of the Study

Measuring what really matters to people and framing policies in accordance with

the needs of people would help realize the goal of GNH The GNH index is an attempt by

the government to measure how well their citizens are doing economically socially and

emotionally The Centre for Bhutan Studies (2008) states that the nine domains identified

are regarded as the components of happiness and well-being in Bhutan However the

resulting question is To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do

the indicators reflect Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept

of GNH The objectives of my study are to analyze the indicators to determine to what

extent they reflect Buddhist principles and to determine the coherence of the indicators

with the concept of GNH

Although conducting an in-depth analysis of each of the 72 indicators would be

most beneficial due to the vastness of the indicators this study will focus only on the

indicators that fall under the domain of psychological wellbeing (see Appendix 1) I

choose this domain because many of the GNH indicators (for example education health

living standard time use ecology) are similar to those found in the conventional

economic measures like GDP Genuine Progress Indicators (GPI) Human Development

Index (HDI) and Quality of Life The psychological wellbeing indicator has not yet been

included in any of the national measures (CBS 2008) Since the measure of

13

psychological wellbeing is something new and unexplored as a development indicator it

would be a good place to begin assessing the indicators

16 Methodology

The main objective of this study is to determine the influence of Buddhist

principles and more specifically Buddhist principles of happiness on the indicators of

psychological wellbeing and the coherence of indicators with the concept of GNH This

policy analysis study uses the framework of Buddhist principles of happiness to analyze

the indicators Policy analysis research is associated with determining the nature causes

and effects of governmental decisions or policies designed to cope with specific social

problems Nagel (1980) points out four methods on which policy analysis focuses

determining what causes the policy determining what policies they are responsible for

determining what affects them and determining what policies will achieve or maximize a

given goal This study focuses on determining the influence of Buddhist principles on the

governments policy of measuring GNH and the consistency of the indicators with the

concept of GNH

Buddhism has long played an important role in the political economic and social

lives of Bhutanese It is in this context that Buddhism is used as a basis to assess the most

important development tool of Bhutan Gross National Happiness Index The intent is not

to prove that Buddhism is the best way to achieve GNH but to determine whether GNH

indicators reflect Buddhist principles of happiness This is done for three reasons First

the philosophy of GNH is understood to be engrained in Buddhism This study will

determine in part the extent to which this is the case (see chapter two) Second Bhutan is

14

a Buddhist country where the majority of the population is Buddhist (CIA 2009) As

such this study will determine the extent to which Buddhist principles have influenced

the indicators Third scholars such as Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and

Tashi (2004) have argued that Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH This study

attempts to analyze the psychological wellbeing indicators to determine the Buddhist

influence which then might support the notion put forth by them

Literature related to Gross National Happiness and the influence of Buddhism on

GNH are reviewed The origin of the concept of GNH and various discourses held on

GNH are explored Government documents and reports and secondary data sources such

as newspaper and research on GNH serve as important sources The primary data that are

used for the analysis are the eleven indicators of psychological wellbeing developed by

the CBS Each indicator is examined to see the degree to which it reflects Buddhist

principles of happiness

The indicators consist of positive emotions negative emotions and practices to

overcome negative emotions In a research design it is important to establish a

conceptual framework that acknowledges how the theoretical perspective will shape an

inquiry (Creswell 2007) To this end I will examine the Buddhist literature to find key

principles related to happiness Those principles and ideas that affect happiness will be

discussed In particular the key principles such as the four noble truths law of Karma

principle of interdependence and compassion will be discussed Further a theoretical

basis for happiness will be developed based on the Buddhist teachings of six paramitas

An understanding of these principles will assist the reader in gaining a sense of the scope

15

and direction of this study Overall the Buddhist principles of happiness framework will

serve as a basis for assessing the indicators

Since Bhutan is a Mahayana Buddhist country the key principles of Mahayana

Buddhist teachings will be examined The very popular Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse

Laglen will serve as a primary source This important Buddhist text on the thirty-seven

bodhisattva practices was written by the great Buddhist saint Thogme Zangpo (1245-

1369) The text is a summarization of the original teachings of Lord Buddha from

hundreds of volumes and contains all the key points of the vast and profound teachings

The text is used in all the schools of Bhutan In particular the six paramitas will be used

for the purpose of this study The thirty-seven practices were written to help every

sentient being achieve genuine happiness Therefore this study will examine the

teachings related to the six paramitas to determine the extent to which they are reflected

in the psychological wellbeing indicators Teachings by various Buddhist teachers such

as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will also be used

The Buddhist text Abhidhamma which is known as the higher teachings of the

Buddha and also called the ultimate teachings is also referenced for the analysis of the

indicators The text elucidates the working of mind or psyche thoughts thought-

processes and mental states The mind has been broken down into six primary and fifty-

one secondary consciousnesses representing the working of the psyche from an ethical

standpoint Abhidamma highlights wholesome and unwholesome emotions as well as

how they arise Since this study is on the analysis of the psychological wellbeing

indicators the text is appropriate However only those emotions which correspond to the

indicators are referred to for this study

16

17 Limitations and Significance of the study

There are three limitations recognized in this study First the theme of this study

focuses on the extent to which Buddhist principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH

indicators Happiness is a concept that can be viewed from a number of perspectives

Since the concept of GNH is inspired by Buddhism it is most appropriate that the

indicators be examined to determine the extent to which they reflect Buddhist principles

and then most specifically Mahayana Buddhist principles Further there are numerous

Buddhist teachings on happiness The teachings that are primarily used are those of

Master Thogme Zangpo the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche

Second the GNH index is still very new A survey was carried out to study the

indicators in twelve districts but the index has not yet been applied to the whole country

As such the GNH index is still in its infant stage and not many resources related to the

GNH index are available

The third limitation of this study is that only the indicators under the

psychological wellbeing domain are analyzed Findings from the preliminary survey of

the GNH index are not discussed

Exploring the psychological wellbeing domain is significant for various reasons

First there has been no study conducted on the indicators so far This is the first study

that analyzes the indicators and explores the relationship of the indicators to Buddhism

This study opens up a new perspective for future researchers Scholars interested in

studying the GNH index may use this study as a basis to analyze the other domains of

GNH Only one domain is explored in this study The remaining eight domains could be

an area of future research

17

Second the GNH index is the most important tool for guiding and analyzing the

government policy since the government will be designing policies based on the GNH

index The GNH index and its implementation will have a significant impact on the

design implementation and assessment of policy and the perceptions Bhutanese have of

the direction their society is taking Since what is measured affects what is done it is

important that the right indicators be used if measurements are flawed decisions can be

distorted (Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009) Therefore it is important to determine

whether the indicators cohere with the GNH concept

18 Summary

This chapter provides an overview of the study The chapter began by looking at

Bhutans culture economy and political history including its transition to democracy

The concept of Gross National Happiness and its indicators the objective the

methodology limitation and significance of study were also presented in this chapter

Chapter Two will provide the review of literature on the GNH It explores how

the concept of GNH first originated It then argues that the concept of GNH has been

influenced by key Buddhist principles based on the eightfold path which are linked to

each pillar of GNH Various workshops held on GNH that ultimately led to the

development of the GNH index are also discussed

Chapter Three will provide the framework to analyze the psychological

wellbeing indicators The key Buddhist principles related to happiness are examined

Specifically the four noble truths law of Karma principle of interdependence and

compassion are presented The Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse Lagin the 37 practices

18

of Bodhisattva are used to highlight Buddhist principles of happiness Specifically the

teachings on six paramitas are referenced to elucidate those principles

Chapter Four presents the core of the study The indicators of psychological

wellbeing are analyzed through the framework described in Chapter Three Each

indicator is examined from the perspective of Buddhist principles It highlights the extent

to which each indicator reflects the Buddhist principles of happiness and the consistency

of the indicators with the concept of GNH

Chapter Five concludes the study and offers some recommendations for future

studies

19

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW

There seems to be a unanimous agreement that Gross National Happiness (GNH)

is drawn from Buddhism but recognition of the influence of Buddhism on GNH is rather

implicit This may be due to the fact that Bhutan did not have the full academic

construction of GNH until recently When the concept of GNH was first pronounced in

the late 1980s it was just an abstract philosophy The concept has now gained more

depth and dimension through analysis and discourse While scholars such as Tashi (1999

2004) Priesner (1999) and Zangmo (2009) have linked Buddhism to GNH others have

argued for the importance of Buddhism in achieving the goal of GNH This chapter

reviews the influence of Buddhism on the concept of GNH Specifically the relationship

between the core concept of GNH and its four pillars to Buddhist principles is explored

Since this study uses Buddhism as the key lens in analyzing the extent to which Buddhist

principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH indicators the focus here is to

understand the centrality of Buddhism in the philosophy of GNH

The review is divided into four main sections The first section examines how the

core concept of GNH and the key teachings of Buddhism are related Literature points

out that key Buddhist principles such as interdependence Karma and the noble eightfold

path are linked to general themes that promote GNH The second section looks at how

the concept of GNH evolved Early Bhutanese history dating back to the 17th century

when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of living is explored This section

examines how Bhutan broke its isolationist policies and introduced planned development

giving priority to the preservation of its culture and environment thus giving birth to the

noble philosophy of GNH The third section discusses the various discourses held on 20

GNH that ultimately led to the development of the GNH index The final section of the

review discusses the idea of quantifying and measuring GNH The chapter concludes by

questioning whether the GNH index which is used as a basis to measure peoples

wellbeing in Bhutan captures the real essence of GNH

21 Buddhism and Gross National Happiness

Gross National Happiness is not a promise to make every individual happy This

is a common misconception The concept of GNH simply stresses the responsibility of

the government to create an environment for citizens to seek happiness Since all humans

value happiness the government of Bhutan takes the view that it cannot be left

exclusively to private individual devices and strivings (CBS 2008 pl) In the GNH

context the government should create by means of public policies addressing both

economic and emotional needs of the people an environment conducive for people to

pursue happiness Australian psychologist Suellen Donnelly (2004) defines happiness as

the sum of satisfaction with life domains and this satisfaction she states is judged against

the individuals and the societys values Happiness indeed depends on our social values

In Bhutan peoples social and cultural values are largely influenced by Buddhism GNH

thus places emphasis on happiness and wellbeing of people through promotion of social

and cultural values

Priesner (1999) Tashi (2004) and Zangmo (2009) argue that Buddhism and GNH

are intricately linked Zangmo (2009) points out that the concept of GNH is deeply rooted

in the rich traditions of Mahayana Buddhism Doiji and Pankaj (2004) state that GNH is

essentially a summarization of the basic tenets of Vajrayana Buddhism which embraces

21

harmony and compassion (p377) Vajrayana Buddhism is an offshoot of Mahayana

Buddhism The term Mahayana and Vajrayana is used interchangeably in Bhutan

Mahayana Buddhism emphasizes individual spiritual development rather than material

rewards compassion for others tolerance living in harmony with nature and the

importance of making the right choice Based on these values GNH seeks to achieve and

pave a middle path between material and spiritual aspects of life which are referred to as

peljor gongphel (economic development) and gakid (happiness and peace) (Zangmo

2009) Schumacher (1989) asserts that in a Buddhist society the lifestyle is strongly

influenced by Buddhist principles based on the Noble Eightfold Path The influence of

Buddhism is highly visible in every aspect of Bhutanese life Article 3(1) of the

Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan states Buddhism is the spiritual heritage of

Bhutan which promotes the principles and values of peace non-violence compassion

and tolerance (p 9) Buddhism here is seen as a spiritual practice

According to Buddhism the main purpose of life the heart of being human is

happiness what we all seek knowingly or unknowingly is happiness (Rabjam Rimpoche

as cited by Tourism Council of Bhutan [TCoB] 2008) The chief goal of Buddhism is to

remove sufferings and achieve genuine happiness Tashi (2004) points out that the

cultivation of happiness is central to Buddhism Buddhism states that wealth pleasure

and power are all sought for achieving happiness but these are all material and only the

means to achieve short-term happiness As humans strive for happiness the end goal is

often forgotten and people spend time pursuing the means for their own sake In the

process humans remain deeply unsatisfied because they place all their hopes and fears in

the material outer conditions and neglect inner condition for happiness Happiness in

22

Buddhism depends on our actions and how we view and interpret the world Rabjam

Rimpoche states that although it is difficult to change the world it is always possible to

change the way we look at it (as cited by TCoB 2008) Buddhist teachings stress the

importance of training the mind and developing a set of human qualities such as

altruistic love compassion inner peace and inner strength

Similarly the concept of GNH emphasizes that happiness is the end goal and

economic development is just a means to achieve happiness GNH claims happiness to be

a major focus in assessing the welfare of the people Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley

states that GNH is all about living with basic human values in a sustainable way (Bhutan

Observer 2010) This view is influenced by Buddhist principles Buddhism advocates

living in harmony with nature and respecting all forms of life Although GNH places

equal importance on both material and non-material wellbeing of the people the idea of

GNH essentially is to encourage a rethinking of what is important in peoples lives is it

the ability to produce and consume or is it the happiness of its people derived from its

social and cultural values When Bhutan opened up to the outside world in 1961 it was

overwhelmed to see that the world had achieved tremendous development in every field

(Doiji 2007a) In their pursuit of development however many countries had lost their

forests cultures and much more In the neighboring region of Nepal for example the

governments policy of promoting economic development through mass tourism led to

environmental and cultural degradation Pandey Chettri Kunwar amp Ghimire (1995)

argue that mass tourism in Nepal led to erosion of local customs increase in drug abuse

theft of antiques and cultural property and prostitution Kinley Doiji (2007a) states that

GNH is therefore a response to this realization

23

Tashi (2004) and Lokamitra (2004) argue that GNH cannot be achieved unless

Buddhist philosophy is fully incorporated and practiced by every citizen of Bhutan

Similarly Hewavitharana (2004) proposes a framework for operationalizing GNH from

the perspective of Buddhist ethics and values Lokamitra (2004) asserts that unless a

society is morally and psychologically strong GNH cannot be achieved He states that

this moral and psychological strength can come from Buddhism Tashi Prakke amp Chettri

(1999) argue that the use of Buddhist concepts does not make the discussions culture-

specific They state that Buddhist wisdom differs from actual Buddhist cultures Buddhist

values and ethics can be followed without necessarily being a Buddhist

Tashi Prakke and Chettri (1999) argue that Buddhist spiritual concepts can be

clearly linked to general themes for the promotion of GNH Overall the Buddhist belief

ofinterdependence has inspired the four pillars because environment culture economy

and governance are interwoven in reality (Thinley 2005) Maintaining a balance among

these enhances the quality of life for the individual for society and for the environment

(Rinzin 2006)

1 The First Pillar Environmental Preservation

Although it appears that environment and biodiversity are not strong correlates of

happiness few would deny the value of environment in everyday life and hence our

happiness our health and aesthetic experiences depend on the quality of the physical

environment around us (Thinley 2005) The impact of climate change because of the

uncompromising nature of humans towards the environment is causing a lot of panic in

the world

24

Buddhism emphasizes preserving nature and the sanctity of life (Planning

Commission 1999) Tashi et al (1999) state that Buddhist philosophy provides strong

arguments for the adoption of an environmentally sensitive development strategy The

relationship between human beings and the environment is seen in a fundamentally

different way The Buddhist concept of sunyata holds that no subject or object has an

independent existence rather they dissolve into a web of relationships with all

dimensions of environment The Buddhist principle of interconnectedness- the idea that

nature gives back what we give it- has influenced the Bhutanese with a strong ethic of

conservation which in turn influenced Bhutanese environmental policies (Thinley 2005)

Bhutanese people believe that high mountains deep ravines ancient trees and

rocks are the abode of spirits gods and demons Disturbing them would enrage the non-

human inhabitants and bring ill luck sickness and death to families Appeasing these

spirits will be rewarded with luck peace and prosperity (NEC 1998 Rinzin 2006)

These beliefs about the importance of protecting nature have permeated Bhutanese

consciousness and have become integral to the Bhutanese way of life and value system

The government therefore has adopted strong environmental policies As per the

constitution of Bhutan the country must always maintain 60 forest coverage

2 The Second Pillar- Cultural Preservation and Promotion

The conservation and promotion of tradition and culture has always been an

integral part of Bhutans development policies since the initiation of planned

development in the 1960s (Planning Commission 1999) The Bhutanese started their

policies from a well-defined set of values and culture which are typically Buddhist

Within such Buddhist cultural values there is a strong belief in the implications of the

25

doctrine of Karma (Gurung 1999) The overall Bhutanese culture is based on customary

rules norms indigenous knowledge systems and institutions in addition to a rich

religious heritage based on Buddhism It includes a code of conduct known as driglam

namzha which is designed to carve out a distinct Bhutanese identity In addition to

promoting national dress driglam namzha is built on strict observance of vows (tha-

damtshig) which are quintessential^ Buddhist and emphasize strong kinship loyalty

community-oriented behavior hospitality to guests respect for ones parents elders and

superiors and mutual cooperation between rulers and ruled parents and children and

teachers and students (MoHE 1994 Rinzin2006 Chophel 2008)

In a study conducted by Rinzin (2006) it was observed that the Bhutanese people

consider culture to be very important They fully support the preservation of Bhutanese

culture as a means to maintain national identity sense of security and conservation of a

way of life A unique Bhutanese culture is also a means to generate income through

tourism activities Since the happiness of the people also depends on their social and

cultural values the government of Bhutan is committed to preserving and strengthening

the Bhutanese culture and tradition

3 The Third Pillar - Sustainable and equitable socio-economic development

The concept of GNH does not neglect the importance of economic development

While economic development in many countries takes place at the expense of external

factors such as social coherence cultural diversity and environmental integrity the

concept of GNH limits the exploitation of social cultural ecological and human costs

(Priesner 1999) Economic development is just a means to achieve GNH and is not an

end itself If we look at the world today there are spiritual sufferings in terms of anxiety

26

insecurity stress and pain in every part of the world including Bhutan Economic

development can secure a livelihood and is vitally important to resolve poverty but it is

easier to identify and alleviate misery than to maximize happiness

Given the huge natural resource base that Bhutan enjoys the country could have

opted for mass economic development by making use of these resources However the

government does not overlook the difference between renewable and non-renewable

goods Keeping in view the negative impacts of exploiting natural resources and

exhaustibility of non-renewable goods the government has identified three avenues for

economic development These are hydropower tourism and agriculture (NEC 1998

Planning Commission 1999) All have minimal negative impact on the society and are

sustainable The use of nature in a sustainable way can be related to one of the

requirements for the Buddhas eightfold path called the Right Livelihood (Schumacher

1989) Right Livelihood entails that ones means of livelihood should not be dishonest or

cause suffering to other sentient beings Wrong Livelihood is anything that is based on

trickery or greed (Harvey 2000) This noble path teaches us to avoid extremism and

follow a balanced path Schumacher (1989) argues that Right Livelihood touches on

economic aspects of the Buddhist life and forms the basis of economic principles By

following the path of Right Livelihood the government is being cautious not to engage

in trades or occupations that result in harming its environment culture and society

4 The fourth Pillar - Good Governance

This last pillar stresses the kind of government that Bhutan needs to make it into a

GNH state Good governance means exercising of authority in managing a countrys

political social economic and administrative resources in a manner that is transparent

27

accountable and responsive to peoples needs (Gross National Happiness Commission

[GNHC] 2009 p56) The fourth king His Majesty Jigme Singye Wangchuck asserts

that good governance is an important prerequisite for strengthening the other pillars of

GNH During his reign decentralization and democratization have always been the most

important considerations All changes finally culminated in the evolution of democratic

government in 2008 The King in his wisdom decided that parliamentary democracy

would be the best path to good governance and that happiness comes from having the

freedom to choose Kinley Doiji (2007a) points out that this step by the king is a

Vajrayana Buddhist approach For the Bhutanese this came as an overwhelming surprise

Thus democracy in Bhutan sprang from the womb of GNH Democracy in Bhutan is the

path to good governance that leads to GNH

Chapter Two (clause 22) of the Bhutan Civil Service Rules and Regulations 2006

states that the government needs to maintain and promote the values of Tha-Damtshig

and Ley Jumdrey to serve the people and the country Tha Damtshig is a traditional

Buddhist belief of trust respect and cooperation between the government and its people

Ley Jumdrey is a very popular Buddhist belief referring to the cycle of Karma which

encourages us to follow the eightfold noble path Right View Right Intention Right

Action Right Speech Right Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right

Mindfulness The royal decree issued by the king in 1998 stated that the Bhutanese

judiciary system is based on the Buddhist 10 virtuous actions and 16 pure human laws

(as cited by Nishimizu 2008 p 40) The ten virtuous actions are 1 Avoid killing 2

Avoid Stealing 3 Avoid Sexual misconduct (the first three form the part of Right

Action) 4 Avoid lies 5 Avoid divisive talks 6 Avoid harsh speech 7 Avoid Gossip

28

(these four fall under Right Speech) 8 Avoid covetousness 9 Avoid harmful intent 10

Avoid wrong views (the last three are the part of Right Mindfulness) (Tshongkhapa as

cited by Powers 1995)

Tashi et al (1999) explain that in Buddhism there are three doors body speech

and mind (lii ngag yid) These three gates provide a basic categorization for policy

makers in recognizing that existence embraces more than physical aspects Any

individual or government that strives to enhance happiness must make the right use of the

three doors Right Mindfulness Right Speech and Right Action The three gates are like

the neutral ground which can be used for good neutral or bad action (Tashi et al 1999)

Right intention in the mind must spark right speech and right action because working

with the mind directly is considered too illusive With Right View one needs to

understand the nature of the world and embrace compassion Right View is the path that

refers to wisdom which means seeing emptiness realizing that appearances in the

relative world or the world in which things change lacking permanent existence

Embracing compassion and wisdom results in the accumulation of merit (Sonam) and

wisdom (Yeshe) Every government must embrace compassion and wisdom and work

with Right Mind Right Speech and Right Action The Bhutanese government strives to

nurture and manifest these qualities

22 Evolution of the Concept

The term GNH became popular in the late 1980s but the concept itself is very

old According to Priesner (1999) this concept evolved from the constituent features of

Bhutanese society before 1959 a socio-economic system based on a Buddhist and feudal

29

set of values Buddhism came to Bhutan in the 7th century AD but made little impact on

the lives of the people until the 9th century (Ministry of Health and Education [MoHE]

1994 Dargye 2008) Prior to the 7th century Bhutan was called the land of Monpas the

land of darkness or no religion Records show that people mainly practiced Bonism an

animistic and shamanistic belief system where nature is worshipped (Giri 2004) Bon

rituals are still included in some Buddhist festivals in Bhutan From the 10th century to

the beginning of the 17th century Buddhism started influencing peoples way of life

culture and customs During that period many Tibetan scholars came to teach Buddhism

in Bhutan They built monasteries and temples throughout the country but none of them

could establish a formal Buddhist community in Bhutan (MoHE 1994)

It was Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyel (1594-1651) a Tibetan monk who formally

instituted Buddhism in Bhutan in the 17th century (MoHE 1990 MoHE 1994)

Therefore the 17th century is the most important period in Bhutanese history Bhutanese

development policies stem from this period All the high-ranking officials during

Zhabdrungs era were monks and the governments primary function was to support the

religious establishment which in turn promoted Buddhist morality and ethics among the

lay population (MoHE 1994 Ura 1993 as cited by Priesner 1999) In other words the

government promoted the wellbeing of people through spiritual teachings based on

Buddhism The Bhutanese legal system codified in 1652 and based on principles of

Buddhism is the foundation of the contemporary Bhutanese law (Nishimizu 2008)

Since the concept of GNH emphasizes the importance of living with basic human values

giving equal importance to both economic and spiritual wellbeing this clearly indicates

30

that the seeds of GNH had been planted during Zhabdrungs reign Prime Minister Jigme

Y Thinley (2004) writes

Traditional polity in Bhutan drawing much on the Buddhist culture was certainly guided towards GNH A Buddhist equivalent of a Social Contract declared in Bhutan in 1675 said that happiness of sentient beings and teachings of the Buddha were mutually dependent The 1129 legal code of Bhutan stressed that laws should promote happiness of the sentient beings (p 2)

Until the 1960s Bhutan possessed very little of the infrastructure we see today in the

country (National Environment Commission [NEC] 1998 Planning Commission 1999)

Life was hard and conditions were very harsh There was no electricity telephones or

postal services to connect different parts of country or with the outside world There were

no motor roads and money was unknown The health infrastructure was poor life

expectancy was estimated to be an average of 35 years Western education was

considered unnecessary The vast majority of Bhutanese lived in isolation in the rugged

mountain terrains The Bhutanese were subsistence farmers totally dependent upon the

land and the forests for survival People exchanged goods among themselves and were

self sufficient for most purposes Bhutans traditional socio-economic system was based

on the principle of communal self-reliance which is related to the Buddhist doctrine of

the benevolent nature of small-scale (Priesner 1999 Gurung 1999)

Due to the lack of foreign influences Bhutan developed an extremely stable

social environment and traditional system of knowledge Self-reliance was the first

explicitly emphasized development objective in 1959 (as cited Priesner 1999) The

National Assembly in 1959 stated that its primary task was to maintain the sovereignty

of the kingdom through economic self-reliance (Kuensel Vol 2 No 9 [May 1-15

31

1968] p7 as cited by Priesner 1999) Modern development came to Bhutan in the early

1960s during the reign of the third king Jigme Doiji Wangchuck (1952-1972) (MoHE

1994) However Bhutans decision to embark on modern development was not

voluntary During a visit to Bhutan in September 1958 the Indian Prime Minister

expressed his concern about Bhutans security and emphasized the need for a road to link

Bhutan and India offering at the same time financial and technical assistance To avoid

increased dependence the government refused to accept the assistance Nevertheless

Bhutans attitude changed during 1959 a consequence of events in Tibet In 1959 the

Tibetan revolt was suppressed by the Chinese which resulted in the flow of several

thousand Tibetan refugees into Bhutan At the end of the same year Chinese actions

began to be directed against Bhutan A triangular shaped part of Tibetan territory between

the small Indian state of Sikkim and Bhutan through which the most important trade

route from Bhutan to India ran was sealed off (Galay 1999 Priesner 1999) In the

following National Assembly session the construction of roads became the main issue of

discussion As an underdeveloped country Bhutan lacked financial and labor resources

and India was the only possible source of aid Thus Bhutan took the first step towards

development cautiously Later when Chinese aggression declined measures of cultural

preservation were soon adopted to contain and counter-balance the negative effects of

modernization (Priesner 1999)

Since 1961 Bhutan plans its development every five years The third King

always expressed his priority as making the people prosperous and happy (Kuensel

1968 as cited by Priesner 1999 p7) Prosperity and happiness were highlighted in the

third kings address on the occasion of Bhutans admission to the United Nations in 1971

32

Further the preservation of environment and culture is the most consistently applied

principle from the start of the first Five Year Plan (FYP) and this is a major input for

GNH

The Bhutanese development concept thus evolved from the countrys socioshy

economic historic and political circumstances The concept of GNH is thus the

translation of cultural and social consciousness into development priorities (Priesner

1999) To sum up the influencing factors that caused Bhutan to have such a unique

development concept are the absence of foreign domination the desire to preserve

national identity Chinese invasion causing threat to the national security and deeply

embedded Buddhist beliefs The philosophy of GNH therefore evolved earlier than the

term Gross National Happiness was coined

23 GNH Discourses and Debates

The first official keynote speech on Gross National Happiness was delivered by

the current Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley at the United Nations Development

Programme (UNDP) Regional Millennium Meeting for Asia and the Pacific in 1998 His

keynote speech was later published in the countrys national newspaper Kuensel Many

scholars responded to the publication and this led to the first workshop in 1999 to explore

the conceptual foundations of human happiness During the workshop Prime Minister

Thinley raised three questions for deliberation First can an index be constructed for

GNH as it has been done for Human Development Second what are the main

ingredients of happiness Third what would be the main indicators of happiness if there

were any at all

33

Some participants proposed that GNH could be quantified Others suggested that

it would be a speculative exercise into what is essentially a subjective experience and

would defy any statistical device aimed at its quantification They expressed their

suspicion that the essence of conventional economic theories runs counter to GNH

Rinzin (2006) states that two schools of thought emerged one took a philosophical

approach and the other an empirical analytical approach of defining and measuring GNH

On the philosophical side scholars argued that GNH is a development philosophy and

there is no need to define and measure happiness For Stehlik (1999) the attempt even to

define happiness is unnecessary and even less to measure it The other school of thought

argued that in order for GNH to be applicable it should be measurable The first

workshop failed to come up with concrete results The discussion papers from this

workshop were published in June 1999 under the title Gross National Happiness A Set

of Discussion Papers

After a gap of five years the First International Conference on GNH

Operationalizing Gross National Happiness was held in Thimphu Bhutan from

February 18 to 20 2004 The conference intended to explore ways in which the concept

of happiness as an objective of economic and social development could be

operationalized in terms of both policy and evaluation of change The conference focused

largely on the concepts of happiness or wellbeing Dr Ron Colman and Dr Julia Sagebien

(2004) presented a paper on Nova Scotias Atlantic Genuine Progress Index or GPI

which assigns explicit value to environmental quality natural wealth population health

livelihood security equity free time and educational attainment The conference

discussed the relevance of GPI measures to Bhutan Colman and Sagebien suggested a

34

potential framework for measuring GNH proposing indicators such as education basic

security respect and care for all beings Although the conference did not come to any

definitive conclusions Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley (2007) stated that the conference

was a milestone in the history of international discourse as it opened up the discourse on

happiness Further the ripples from this seminar spread far and helped Bhutan develop

the indicators of GNH in a later period

The Second International Conference on GNH Rethinking Development Local

Pathways to Global Wellbeing was held in Nova Scotia Canada from June 20 to 24

2005 The conference focused on the exploration of practices the sharing of actual

experiences and the development of a framework to operationalize GNH The first and

second international conferences seemed to have convinced Bhutanese policy makers that

in order to make GNH practicable it must first become measurable By the time the third

international conference was held Bhutan was well on the way to constructing the GNH

Index

The Third International Conference held in Bangkok Thailand in 2007 focused

on the indicators of GNH The then Prime Minister of Bhutan Kinzang Doiji spoke on the

importance of good governance and highlighted the wellbeing of people as a priority in

developing government policies Just a week prior to the fourth international conference

Bhutan officially adopted the GNH Index

The theme for the Fourth International Conference (November 26 to 28 2008)

was Practice and Measurement of GNH indicating a step forward into a new phase

which focused more on how to reflect GNH in policies and how to grasp the current

situation and measure progress Discussions revolved around the GNH indicators

35

psychology environment community relations education health living standard

governance culture time use and economy Rosellini (2008) says that some of the

indicators of GNH would be relevant to the UNDP-Oxford initiative in understanding the

missing dimensions of poverty Rosellini (2008) further suggested that GNH should be

used as an alternative approach from an international perspective because none of the

methods that attempted to move beyond purely materialistic interpretations of human

progress have gained broad acceptance among academics and development practitioners

The fifth conference held in Brazil in 2009 (November 20-23) was a revelation

for the Bhutanese While the understanding of GNH had grown tremendously at the

international level the GNH conference held in Brazil made the Bhutanese government

realize that Bhutan is still lagging behind in implementing the philosophy of GNH

(Bhutan Broadcasting Service [BBS] 2009) There is no doubt that the policies are

framed in terms of the four pillars of GNH but the government failed to infuse GNH

values into the education system Further GNH values were not reflected in the day-to-

day working of the government institutions businesses and at the community level

Brazil had left Bhutan behind in terms of implementing GNH ethics Several business

establishments in Brazil practice the principle of GNH One pharmaceutical company is

believed to be implementing its ethics and modalities into the way the company

functions Likewise Brazilian villages at the community level are also practicing the

dimensions of GNH on a day-to-day basis (Kuensel 2009) This definitely was a

revelation for Bhutan

On his return from the GNH conference in Brazil the prime minister expressed

his sense of the urgency and immediacy of bringing GNH principles and values into the

36

education system Following this a workshop was conducted on how to achieve a GNH

infused education system (Kuensel 2009) The education ministry has come up with a

road map and an action plan to begin the process of bringing GNH values and principles

into the school system starting in 2010 The education minister stated that every school in

the country will now develop GNH-inspired curriculum material The latest reports state

that many schools in Bhutan have now infused GNH values into their curriculum

Students in most schools meditate for a few minutes before starting any lesson Many

schools are now working towards becoming green (Bhutan Observer March 2010)

Many students were quoted as saying that Meditation somehow helps to relax and

concentrate more on their studies (Business Bhutan 17 April 2010) This is a very

practical move by the government towards enhancing GNH Bhutan has learned a lot

through seminars and debates held at the national and international level The idea of

measuring and quantifying GNH has however raised many questions

24 Quantifying Gross National Happiness

Initially due to the absence of a specific and relevant development index that

takes into account the core principles and dimensions of GNH the United Nations

Human Development concept and its measurement the Human Development Index

(HDI) was used as an interim tool to assess all-round development in Bhutan (Gross

National Happiness Commission [GNHC] 2008) The HDI fails however to capture the

overall essence of the concept of GNH because only three variables are used in HDI

health (life expectancy) education (adult literacy) and wealth (GDP per capita) Owing

to the number of discourses and questions raised regarding the applicability of the

37

philosophy of GNH Bhutan has now adopted the GNH Index Karma Ura (2008)

president of the Centre for Bhutan Studies writes that as many contemporary indicators

of progress and development do not reflect GNH adequately the Royal Government of

Bhutan directed the Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) to develop GNH index which will

provide appropriate indicators for Bhutanese development (pl)

In his first international speech the Prime Minister of Bhutan Jigme Y Thinley

(1998) stated that the trends of happiness of people are unknown Although people

perceive their wellbeing subjectively their subjective views are not incorporated well

into the design of economic and social policy (Kusago 2006) Similarly Mark (2008)

argues that as a direct consequence of different governments collecting and analyzing

economic data (and social and environmental data to a lesser extent) much is known

about the material conditions of peoples lives but little about their actual lived

experience and their sense of personal and social wellbeing It is to address this lacunae

that the government needs to adopt indicators for measuring the wellbeing of its people

Former Minister Kinzang Dorji (2007b) points out that indicators can be useful in

revealing institutional and human conditions to show both the potential and result of

policy decisions (p 2) He argues that the use of indicators reflecting GNH values will

enable policy makers to locate those principles in determining GNH policy and tracking

GNH processes

Many are skeptical however and wonder whether quantifying such a noble

philosophy is justifiable Reducing real people and real lives to numerical values does not

do justice to the emotional and spiritual depth of the human experience (Doiji 2007b)

There is much doubt as to whether the indicators capture the real essence of human

38

happiness Nonetheless if the government wants to promote the wellbeing or happiness

of its citizens it needs to know the happiness trend of its citizens and find out if its

policies contribute to both subjective and objective wellbeing Even if Gross National

Happiness cannot be quantified as precisely as Gross Domestic Product is currently

quantified Daly amp Farley (2004) state that It is better to be vaguely right than precisely

wrong (p243) The policy makers will at least get an idea of peoples state of wellbeing

Measuring GNH is indeed a milestone in Bhutanese history as it will always

remind Bhutanese of their founding ideals A GNH Index would help citizens know if

they are improving as a nation in protecting and exercising their right to pursue happiness

(Brooks 2008) The adoption of the GNH Index shows the seriousness of the Bhutanese

government in pursuing the goal of GNH Lastly there is hope that Gross National

Happiness will not remain as a mere catchphrase

25 Summary

This chapter presented a review of the literature on GNH and the influence of

Buddhism on the concept of GNH The aim of this review is to get a better understanding

of the centrality of Buddhism in the concept of GNH and to highlight issues that emerged

in the GNH discourses The key principle of GNH which focuses on happiness is

influenced by the core teachings of Buddhism which states that the main purpose of life

the heart of being human is happiness The four pillars of GNH reflect traditional

Bhutanese beliefs and values inspired by Buddhism The law of Karma the principle of

interdependence and the noble eightfold path has certainly influenced the Bhutanese way

39

of living and thus the concept of GNH The Buddhist values of interdependence equality

and compassion are inherent in GNH

History reveals that the basic philosophy of GNH emerged between the 10th and

17th centuries when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of life Buddhism

therefore is the backbone of the concept of GNH Bhutan however is not a Utopian state

because it advocates GNH Like many developing countries Bhutan is grappling with

problems of increased rural urban migration poverty and unemployment thus

challenging the goals of GNH The government is continuing to reflect GNH objectives

in its policy and programmes Through the effective use of the four pillars of GNH

Bhutan never placed excessive emphasis on economic development The country did not

opt for economic activities which promised huge financial gain but caused damage to

health environment and culture Bhutan therefore is said to have one of the best policies

in the world (Priesner 1999) However it is important to know if the policies are

promoting happiness and wellbeing among the people The government has rightly

adopted the GNH Index because only through the use of the indicators will policymakers

know if their policies are in reality promoting happiness The question remains however

as to whether these indicators capture the real essence of GNH and whether they are

influenced by Buddhist principles

40

CHAPTER THREE THE BUDDHIST PRINCIPLES OF HAPPINESS

We all want happiness and do not want suffering Many of us support the

importance of moral values in making our lives happier Buddhist principles emphasize

that human values and principles are necessary to lead a happy life Yet there is a general

assumption that income and happiness are directly related Happiness research findings

defy this generalization and show that increasing incomes are not accompanied by

increasing happiness (Hirata 2006)

The Buddha discovered this 2500 years ago The Buddha did not reject the idea of

possessing wealth but taught that wealth does not guarantee happiness He rejected greed

in accumulating wealth being enslaved to materialism and treating wealth as the

ultimate goal (Wijeyawansa 2009) The Buddhas teachings are based on the key

problem ofsuffering Since Buddhism focuses so much on suffering it is often

criticized as being pessimistic But Buddhism does not deny the presence of happiness in

our lives It teaches the way out of suffering and shows the path towards genuine

happiness Buddhism understands that not everyone can lead an ascetic life and accepts

that for a layperson a certain degree of wealth is essential to live a happy life Living an

ethical and moral life is said to bring genuine happiness in Buddhism The objective of

this chapter is to understand happiness from a Buddhist perspective by laying down some

key Buddhist principles related to happiness

Understanding Buddhist principles and values that underpin the Buddhist

worldview will provide a framework that will be the lens through which the

psychological wellbeing indicators of GNH will be analyzed in the following chapter

The principles that will be discussed here are however not definitive boundaries because

41

Buddhism teaches innumerable ways to achieve ultimate happiness In this chapter the

framework of happiness is based on a specific Buddhist teachings called the six

paramitas Nonetheless the entire Buddhist teachings have the same essence and arise

out of the four noble truths and eightfold noble path

This chapter is divided into three sections The first section begins with a brief

introduction to the Buddhist view of happiness Buddhism in Bhutan belongs to the

Mahayana tradition and therefore this study is limited to the context of Mahayana

Buddhism The second section looks at key foundational doctrines such as the four noble

truths Karmamdashthe law of cause and effect the principle of interdependence and

compassion The third section constructs a framework for happiness based on the

Mahayana Buddhist principle using the six perfections or paramitas Paramita refers to

crossing over from the sea of suffering to the shore of happiness The paramitas are the

six kinds of virtuous practice required for skillfully serving the welfare of oneself and

others and a path to achieve genuine happiness For the purpose of this study Thogme

Zangpos text on Thirty-Seven Practices of Bodhisattava (Gyalse Laglin) and teachings

by Buddhist teachers such as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will

serve as sources for constructing this framework

31 Buddhist View of Happiness

Buddhism was founded in the 5th century and has over 365 million followers

worldwide (Ontario Consultants 2009) The term religion is often associated with the

concept of creator or a god but Buddhism rejects the idea of creator god as well as the

notion of a permanent self or a indestructible soul (Flanagan 2007) Therefore it is

42

commonly said that Buddhism is non-theistic or atheistic Buddhism is a series of

practices and a way of life based on the teachings of the Buddha Buddhists are strongly

influenced by Karma the law of cause and effect with the implication that there is no

creator (interview with the Dalai Lama by Chopra 2010)

The word Buddha means to awaken from the sleep of ignorance and to spread

ones intelligence to everything that can be known (Dalai Lama 2000 p2) The Buddha

was like any other human being before he attained nirvana at the age of thirty-seven The

lessons that the Buddha learned while in search of truth is the foundation of Buddhism

chief among which is the pursuit of happiness

In his book An Open Heart Practicing Compassion in Everyday Lifethe Dalai

Lama (2001) states that the purpose of spiritual practice is to fulfill our desire for

happiness (p30) Buddhism indeed has much to say about happiness Sogyal Rimpoche

a renowned Buddhist teacher states there are two kinds of happiness one based on

material comfort and pleasures the other on inner contentment and peace (Doiji 2010)

The two are the physical and mental components of happiness The mental experience or

the inner force plays a more powerful role For example in a very pleasant environment

if we are mentally depressed the surroundings will not make a difference Similarly if

we have inner peace or mental happiness it will be easier to face any challenge This

indicates our mind and thoughts play a powerful role in experiencing happiness (Dalai

Lama 2001) Khenpo Phuntsho Tashi (2004) asserts that in Mahayana Buddhism

happiness springs from an altruistic or compassionate mind Since human minds are often

agitated by afflictive emotions the results frequently are negative actions which in turn

cause suffering The essence of Buddhism therefore is to tame to transform to conquer

43

the human mind for it is the root of everythingmdash it is the creator of happiness and

suffering The Buddha has said in Dhammapada (as cited by Bancroft 1997 p41)

Such a Wandering mind is weak and unsteady Attracted here there and everywhere How good it is to control it and know the happiness of Freedom (Verse 35)

And yet how unruly still how subtle the delusion of the thoughts To quiet them and master them is the true way of happiness (Verse 36)

There is a significant similarity between the Buddhas teachings and Aristotles

ethic Eudiamonia the Aristotelian term for happiness is very similar to Buddhism

Aristotle states that if we want to be happy we should cultivate and practice virtues

through wisdom He also mentions that happiness is vulnerable to external hazards

sudden disaster can reverse happiness no matter how virtuous ones life has been

(Annas 1999) This is exactly what the Buddha preached 2500 years ago The Buddhas

teachings are based on the impermanent nature of life and the importance of virtuous and

righteous deeds Most of Aristotles ethic is devoted to an account of virtuous activities

that he states constitute happiness Aristotle describes happiness as doing well combined

with virtue or self sufficiency of life or the pleasantest life with safety or prosperity of

possessions and bodies with power to protect then and use them in action (Irwin 1999

p3) Aristotle believes that power and fortune are also parts of happiness because they

are the best providers of safety This idea that happiness requires fortune contradicts the

Buddhas teachings The Buddha preached that fortune power possession are all

materials and subject to change They are therefore not a source of genuine happiness but

a cause of suffering

44

His Holiness the Dalai Lama states that Buddhists aim not merely for temporary

happiness but for long-term results They are concerned with life after life This means

that ultimate happiness in Buddhism is Nirvana the cessation of suffering the end of the

cycle of birth-and-death He further adds that spiritual practice the practice of dharma

can bring both long-term happiness and more inner strength day by day (Dalai Lama amp

Hopkins 2000) Buddhist teaching employs innumerable skillful means through which

happiness can be achieved at the individual and collective levels Being on the

Bodhisattva path the path on which all sentient beings can receive help can bring us

happiness Powers (1995 p91) defines a Bodhisattva as someone who is progressing

towards the state of enlightenment Bodhisattva symbolizes compassion Bodhisattvas are

also called jangchup sempa which means a compassionate heart in Tibetan and

Bhutanese

32 Key Mahayana Buddhist Principles

321 The four noble truths

In his search for the meaning of life the Buddha discovered the four noble truths

which are the very foundation of all Buddhist beliefs The Buddhas four noble truths

explain the truth of suffering and the way to overcome it The first noble truth recognizes

that suffering is the essence of human existence suffering from birth old age sickness

and death as well as the pain from separation grief and despair The second noble truth

explains that desire or craving is the cause of all suffering craving for pleasure for

individual existence and for release from our present situation The third noble truth

states that suffering can cease by overcoming craving or desire The fourth noble truth

45

prescribes the way to overcome desire by following the eightfold noble path (Bancroft

1997)

A closer understanding of the four noble truths leads to the realization that no

person can achieve constant and prolonged happiness because as the first noble truth

states Life is suffering This means that as long as humans exist there will be no end

to suffering Suffering in Buddhism has generally been categorized into three types First

is the suffering of misery which includes physical and mental sufferings Second is the

suffering of change where we achieve happiness only for a brief period because all

phenomena are subject to change Third is compositional suffering the suffering which is

endemic to cyclic existence because humans are under the influence of afflictive

emotions (Dalai Lama as cited in Powers 1984 amp 1995 Negi 1999)

The cause of all suffering is the desire and aversion arising out of ignorance

which is called Klesha Klesha literally means afflictive emotions or delusions and refers

to wide range of mental states (Negi 1999) Bhutanese call it nyong mong meaning

distorted or confused By following the eightfold noble path one can overcome the

afflictive emotions and thus achieve genuine happiness Light Party (1996) asserts that

the main map the Buddha offered for the trip to happiness and contentment is the

Eightfold Path Right Understanding Right Intention Right Action Right Speech Right

Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right Mindfulness Buddhist

teachings are all centered on one or more steps of the eightfold noble path The eight

steps are usually divided into three main practices Morality (Sila) which also means

ethics or virtues Concentration (Samadhv meditation) and Wisdom (Prajnaj (Dalai

Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2000 Gomes 2004) Right Understanding and Right

46

Intention pertain to wisdom (Sanskrit panna) Right Action Right Speech and Right

Livelihood pertain to moral virtues or ethics Right Effort Right Concentration and

Right Mindfulness pertain to meditative cultivation of heart and mind

Moral virtue meditation and wisdom form part of the six perfections which

are the core teachings of Mahayana Buddhism The six perfections are the six qualities to

the Bodhisattvas path the state of genuine happiness This study uses the six perfections

as a framework for happiness which will be explored in depth in the third section

322 The Law of Karma Principle of Interdependence and Compassion

The most common belief among Buddhists is that we can never escape from our

own Karma (Sanskrit Kamma) Karma (the law of cause and effect) states that nothing

comes into being without a cause The law of Karma can be simply related to Newtons

Third Law which states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction The

same holds according to the law of Karma though it is not known whether the reaction

will occur in this life or beyond this life Since Buddhism supports the idea of rebirth

certain key aspects of a persons next rebirth are thought to be karmically determined

These include the family into which one is born ones social status physical appearance

character and personality Karma does not however claim that everything that happens

to a person is karmically determined Karma does not determine precisely what will

happen or how anyone will react to what happen Individuals are always free to resist

previous conditioning and establish new patterns of behavior

The belief in Karma sometimes degenerates into a form of fatalism but fate and

Karma are different Humans have freedom to choose and their present action is not the

47

entire result of their past Karma action It does however influence a persons action

because of the character a person has developed (Harvey 2005)

The belief that one has to bear the Karma of ones act is deeply rooted in the

Buddhist psyche It is a very common belief among Buddhists that depending on ones

Karmic consequences (or accumulated positivenegative merits) one will experience

happinesssufferings of various types (Gaylag 2004) good action leads to pleasant

effects and bad deeds lead to unpleasant results Harvey (2005) asserts that the cycle of

Karma provides a perspective on life which is supportive of compassion and respect for

other beings In Buddhism if you want happiness you need to sow the seed of good

merit

Buddhist philosophy explains innumerable ways to achieve positive Karma

Actions motivated by greed hatred and delusion result in bad Karma while actions

motivated by their opposites - non-attachment loving kindness and right understanding-

- result in positive Karma Good intentions therefore must find expression in right

actions and right actions are basically those that are wholesome and do no harm either

oneself or others Tashi (2004) states that in order to accumulate merits and to be happy

our actions can be summed up under three principle causes 1) Developing the attitude of

not harming others (this is being mindful and awakening oneself from ignorance) 2)

Cultivating the attitude of helping others and 3) Being Content

The principle of dependent origination also known as the principle of

interdependence is one of the important principles of Buddhism This principle is actually

an elaboration of the law of Karma which states that all things are interdependent and

48

everything that happens depends on other things happening (Negi 1999 Flanagan 2007

Doiji 2009) In other words since a whole is dependent on its parts any existent thing is

composed of its parts therefore its very existence depends on its parts Buddhism states

that human beings in particular are the combination of the five groups of existence or

five aggregates The physical body is the material aggregate and the mental aspect is

made up of feeling perception (awareness recognition through senses) mental

formations or thoughts and consciousness (knowing the object through our senses)

(Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2005) Since we are made of these five aggregates

and these aggregates themselves have no permanent existence there exists no permanent

self Buddhist teachings assert that humans do not comprehend this reality and assume

that all things including human beings have permanent selves As we are all

interdependent there are no existing phenomena which is not the effect of this What we

do affects those around us and vice versa People should therefore not think only of

themselves but should also take into consideration those around them To create

happiness it is important that we not only reflect on the interrelationship of all things but

also see ourselves clearly as a part of one system of causal relationships

The Buddhist belief is that genuine happiness can be generated from developing a

compassionate heart a heart focused not only on itself but which also helps and benefits

all beings Compassion is defined as the wish to free all beings from suffering (Dalai

Lama 2001) Gyatso (1984) and the Dalai Lama (2000 amp 2001) assert that the root of all

Buddhist practices is the heart of loving kindness and compassion In Buddhism it is

normally said that a person who lacks compassion does not have a good heart It is

49

through a compassionate attitude that Buddhists are motivated to have concern for all

humans animals and the environment because they are all part of the same world

Although it is not easy to free all beings from suffering Buddhism states that we can

develop virtuous minds and thereby help others to do the same (Dalai Lama 2001) It is

through the force of compassion that a person engages in accumulating the merit and

wisdom that make Buddhahood possible (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) and in that sense

also makes happiness possible The four noble truths the law of Karma the principle of

interdependence and the idea of compassion form the key components of a Buddhist

worldview The next section develops a framework for the Buddhist view of happiness

which extends from these key Buddhist doctrines

33 The Buddhist Happiness Framework

This section constructs a happiness framework based on the Mahayana

Buddhisms teachings on the six perfections paramitas) Thogme Zangpos 12th century

text on the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva especially his verses on the six

practices were referenced ( Hopkins 1989) The six perfections or paramitas are

1 Dana Paramita (generosity) 2 Sila Paramita (ethicsvirtuesmorality) 3 Kshanti

Paramita (patiencetolerance) 4 Virya Paramita (perseverance) 5 Dhayana paramita

(meditative concentration) 6 Prajna Paramita (wisdom) These six teachings are a way

for an inner cultivation which implies a kind of ethics that focuses directly on daily life

through which one accomplishes genuine happiness (Wright 2009) The first five are

methods or practices and the last wisdom is necessary for any of them to function The

first three practices are usually recommended for lay people Joyous effort and

concentration mainly refer to meditation normally practiced in monastic communities

50

However meditation is now becoming increasingly popular and is practiced also by lay

people

The opening verse of Thogme Zangpos (nd) text begins with the following

statement

The perfect Buddhas the sources of benefit and happiness arise from having practiced the excellent doctrine That in turn depends on knowing its practices Therefore I will explain the practices of Bodhisattva (p 1)

The Buddha is a symbol and a source of genuine happiness for the Buddhist The

Buddha achieved the state of eternal bliss through his practice of virtues Thogme

Zangpo states that one needs to understand that the source of all happiness whether

worldly or ultimate happiness comes from the practice of Dharma which means the

practice of virtues Geshey Kelsang Gyatso (1984) states that in general Dharma refers

to the teachings of the Buddha but the actual Dharma is the inner realizations which

directly protect living beings from their sufferings He further explains that there are

three kinds of meaning to be achieved through the practice of Dharma The highest is to

reach full enlightenment Buddhahood in this life The middle is to achieve self-

liberation from cyclic fears and sufferings The lowest is to achieve happiness in this life

by overcoming the inner problems and thus avoiding being reborn in the lower realms in

the next life Thus Buddhists aim at one of these three Lay Buddhists usually aim to

lead a happy virtuous life and to be reborn in the higher realms

Thogme Zangpos teachings stress committing oneself to virtues as much as

possible and not engaging in ill deeds Virtues are actions that bear the fruit of happiness

Ill deeds are those actions that cause suffering and unhappiness to oneself and to other

beings Everyone wants to achieve happiness the Dalai Lama defines happiness as a

51

blissful state devoid of all suffering Since the law of cause and effect binds Buddhism it

is necessary to examine phenomena that cause happiness and suffering According to

Buddhism ignorance desire and hatred are the main cause of suffering Our own

afflictive emotions and actions cause suffering

The famous Buddhist painting of a wheel with 21 parts outlines the meaning of

life in Buddhism The diagram designed by the Buddha himself depicts an inner

psychological cosmology This painting can be found at the doorway of every temple in

Bhutan The center of the wheel shows the picture of a pig rooster and snake These

three animals depict the root cause of suffering represented as ignorance desire and

hatred (anger) respectively They are known as the three poisons in Buddhism (Dalai

Lama 2000) Buddhism states that it is possible to overcome suffering since it depends

on causes which are within oneself When one understands the nature of suffering one

will work towards ending such causes However Mahayana Buddhism stresses that this

understanding must be extended to other sentient beings Others similarly want happiness

and not suffering Mahayana Buddhists therefore emphasizes developing compassion and

engaging in the practices of the six paramitas to overcome suffering

Ignorance is not just the absence of knowledge of the real status of phenomenon

but the inability to understand truth misconception of inherent existence of permanent

self (Dalai Lama 2000) The principle of dependent origination (Section 322) as

explained above shows that we do not exist independently on our own Thogme Zangpos

fourth verse states the following

Long-associated companions will part from each other Wealth and possessions obtained with effort will be left behind Consciousness the guest will cast aside

52

the guest-house of the bodv Letting go of this life is the bodhisattvas practice (pl)

The above verse states that our body is not ours The mind or consciousness leaves the

body at death as a guest leaves the guesthouse However we live as if we are going to

live forever and this ignorance draws us into afflictive desire and hatred Ignorance thus

comes out as greed and hatred Greed and hatred in turn promote ignorance The Dalai

Lama (2000) states without ignorance desire and anger are impossible These disturbing

emotions and attitudes are said to be true causes of suffering as are the karmic impulses

that arise under the power of these disturbing emotions Figure 2 below illustrates how

Buddhists perceive suffering and happiness It shows that the root causes of suffering are

ignorance desire and hatred These emerge through three doorsmdash body speech and

mindmdashas non-virtuous action generating negative Karma which causes suffering to

oneself and to others

Figure 2 Suffering and its causes

53

Gyatso (1984) points out that even though the body is like a guest house we will

receive many fruits if we practice Dharma meaning the practice of virtue which results in

the fruit of good Karma However all sentient beings are subject to the three poisons and

the question is how do we overcome them to practice virtue Buddhist teaching states

that the three poisons can be resisted and virtues cultivated through training in the six

practices When a person wants to reduce weight heshe goes through physical training

and dieting Similarly in Buddhism if one wants happiness one must practice the six

paramitas This will naturally generate virtuous actions leading to happiness This is

represented by Figure 3 below

Figure 3 Overcoming Suffering

54

331 Generosity

Mahayanists maintain that happiness comes from a compassionate and altruistic

mind The practice of compassion is training oneself in the perfection of generosity In

the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva the 25th verse states

If it is necessary to give away even ones body while aspiring to enlightenment what need is there to mention external objects Therefore practicing generosity without hope of reciprocation or positive karmic results is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)

The perfection of generosity is the first principle of happiness Generosity can be

practiced by anyone This practice refers to unconditional love a selfless generosity and

giving which is completely free from attachment and expectation Internally it means

overcoming our emotions (greed and hatred) and being generous with others voluntarily

giving ones material goods time or wisdom to others (Das 1995) Generosity is a cure

for the afflictions of greed miserliness and possessiveness The Anguttara Nikaya

(Anguttara Verse 34 and 35) a collection of Buddhist scriptures points out that there are

five blessings that result from the practice of generosity the person will be liked and

admired by everyone will have a good reputation will have lots of self confidence and

will have a heavenly rebirth Buddhists believe that giving without seeking anything in

return leads to greater spiritual wealth Generosity therefore is a very important virtue

bringing happiness to oneself and others

332 Ethics

The second practice is that of Sila which literally means ethics moralityvirtue

Right speech Right action and Right livelihood which form the part of Eightfold Noble

Path fall under ethical practice This perfection of ethics or Sila Paramita stresses quality

55

of virtuous and ethical behavior morality self-discipline personal integrity and never

having the thought to harm any sentient beings The Dalai Lama (2001) states that for

Buddhists ethics means avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions acts done by the body

speech and mind (p34) It is important that our practice of generosity is supported by

our practice of ethics Buddhists therefore abstain from the ten non-virtuous actions

killing stealing sexual misconduct lying divisive speech harsh speech gossip greed

malice and wrong views The first three (killing stealing sexual misconduct) correspond

to bodily action The fourth fifth sixth and seventh (lying malicious words harsh

language useless talk) correspond to verbal action The last three (covetousness ill will

wrong view) occur through the mind (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) The ten non-virtuous

actions lead to bad Karma and suffering Avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and

cultivating a compassionate heart brings good Karma and happiness We can enjoy

greater freedom happiness and security in our lives because through our virtuous

behavior we are no longer creating suffering for ourselves and others we basically

become virtuous and harmless in our thoughts speech and actions Thus in the 26th

verse Thogme Zangpo writes

If lacking ethical conduct one fails to achieve ones own purpose the wish to accomplish others purpose is laughable Therefore guarding ethics devoid of aspirations for worldly existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)

Thogme Zangpo points out that with unethical behavior one cannot achieve

happiness Unethical behavior is always the cause of suffering and unhappiness For

example a person who speaks ill of another person will disturb their mind and later will

56

be a cause of suffering for himself or herself His 34th verse stresses the importance of

avoiding harsh words

Harsh words disturb others minds and cause the mode of a Bodhisattvas behavior to deteriorate Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to abandon harsh words about the unpleasantness of others (p 3)

By cultivating ethical behavior we do not cause harm to others and we are free of

negativity we cause no harm by our actions our speech is kind and compassionate and

our thoughts are free of anger malice and wrong views Through the practice of ethics

we gain confidence because we are not carrying any underlying sense of guilt or remorse

for our actions we have nothing to hide Being ethical and moral is the cause of all

goodness and happiness This practice of ethical conduct is the very foundation for

progressing in any practice of meditation and for attaining all higher realizations on the

path The Dalai Lama states that the aim of ethical practice is to transform motivation and

mental disposition this is how we become better human beings The more we succeed in

training our hearts and minds the more we will be able to cope with adversity and our

actions will be naturally ethical Thus we will experience happiness

333 Patience and Tolerance

The third practice is that of patience and tolerance It is called the perfection of

patience (Bhutanese Bzod pa) Thogme Zangpos 27th verse states the importance of

patience

For bodhisattvas who desire the pleasures of virtue all those who do harm are like a precious treasure Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to cultivate patience without anger or resentment for anyone (p3)

57

Patience in Buddhism refers to having the strength to face the challenges and

difficulties of life without losing our composure and inner tranquility Bodhisattvas are

challenged to endure tolerate and bear any hardship without retaliation or negative

thoughts Through endurance and tolerance we gain strength to overcome any afflictive

emotions The Dalai Lama states that this enlightened quality comes from having our

heart open and our mind deeply concentrated upon the Dharma He states that endurance

and tolerance do not imply defeat but make the mind stronger When the Buddha was

deep in meditation demon Mara and his daughters tried to tempt and distract him

Through his patience however the Buddha remained calm and undistracted and finally

attained nirvana The ability to endure is therefore integral to Buddhism With the

strength of patience we can overcome anything The mind will be calm and clear and

this enables us to make better decisions Through the practice of patience we maintain

inner peace under all circumstances and thus experience genuine happiness

334 Perseverance

The fourth practice is the perfection of joyous effort or enthusiastic perseverance

It is called Virya Paramita in Sanskrit and is the quality of persistent effort or working

hard towards achieving a goal The 28th verse of Thogme Zangpos teaching states

Even hearers and solitary realizers who accomplish only their own welfare strive as if putting out a fire on their heads Seeing this taking up diligent effort -the source of good qualities - for the sake of all beings is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)

Thogme Zangpo points out that just as one makes an effort to put out the fire on

ones own head one must strive diligently to free oneself and all sentient beings from

58

suffering Our body speech and mind should put in effort to the best of our ability

Without putting in right effort we can be disillusioned and thus fail to achieve any goal

The Dalai Lama states that with joyous effort and enthusiastic perseverance we regard

failure as simply another step towards success danger as an inspiration for courage and

affliction as another opportunity to practice wisdom and compassion Thus to achieve

happiness one must put in right effort to be compassionate to be virtuous and ethical at

all times

335 Meditative Concentration

The fifth practice is that of meditative concentration It is called Dhyana

Paramita Meditative concentration is very important in developing mental qualities and

overcoming the three poisons The content of the very first verse of thirty-seven practices

of Bodhisattva is on meditation

At this time when the difficult-to-gain ship of leisure andfortune has been obtained ceaselessly hearing pondering and meditating day and night in order to liberate oneself and others from the ocean of cyclic existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)

The ship of leisure and fortune refers to the human body In Buddhism there are six

realms god2 demi-god human animals hungry ghost hell beings The humans in

comparison to the other realm is very rare It is therefore fortunate enough to be born as a

human Thogme Zangpo indicates that through hearing the dharma teachings meditating

day and night and developing a heart of loving kindness and compassion sentient beings

2 Gods in Buddhism are beings who are born into higher realms because of their positive Karma accumulated in their past lives Their lifespan eventually ends When their life ends they will be reborn in one of the six realms depending on their Karma

59

can be liberated from suffering Buddhism greatly stresses the taming of the mind

because the mind can be transformed and meditation is the means to transform it Tashi

(2004) explains the usefulness of meditation in destroying the root causes of suffering

and providing an antidote to them Meditation also plays an important role in achieiving

happiness at the individual national and global levels The perfection of meditative

concentration thus aims at taming the mind so that it does what we want it to do We

stabilize our mind and emotions by practicing meditation by being mindful and aware in

everything we do When we train the mind in this way all mental distortions and

misperceptions are eliminated We achieve focus composure and tranquility

Concentrating deeply makes us realize the cause of confusion and suffering and helps us

directly experience inner joy Thus Thogme Zangpos 29th verse states

Having understood that disturbing emotions are destroyed by insight possessed with tranquil abiding to cultivate meditative concentration which perfectly transcends the four formless absorptions is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)

336 Wisdom

The last practice is the perfection of wisdom called Prajna Parmaita in Sanskrit

Wisdom is the key to everything Wisdom will help us find the path to happiness

Without wisdom one will not understand the reality of phenomena and thus be

disillusioned by the three poisons Wisdom is therefore necessary to cultivate other

practices Thogme Zangpos 30th verse points out

If one lacks wisdom it is impossible to attain perfect enlightenment through the other five perfections Thus cultivating skillful means with the wisdom that doesnt discriminate among the three spheres is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)

60

Wisdom does not refer to mere intellectual understanding It is beyond that Ron

Liefer (1997) states that a mere intellectual understanding of reality will not change our

habitual negative patterns of thoughts speech and action because the intellect serves the

ego He further adds we cannot achieve wisdom without seeing through the trickery of

ego Wisdom refers to Right understanding and Right view (two of the eightfold noble

paths) of reality This entails getting rid of those wrong views which manifest the three

poisons Through wisdom one will be able to distinguish between what is ethical and

unethical or virtuous and non-virtuous We see the essential nature of reality with utmost

clarity our perception goes beyond the illusive and deceptive veils of material existence

Wisdom clears the delusion that envelops the mind It overturns ignorance and the

attitudes that lead to non-virtuous actions and ultimately shows us the path to happiness

(Rink 2010) Thus overcoming the three poisons by understanding the true nature of

reality and developing qualities of generosity morality patience and meditating with

joyous effort is said to generate the highest level of happiness in Buddhism

34 Summary

Buddhist teachings show the true cause of suffering as ignorance desire and

hatred enveloping the mind The teachings on the Four Noble Truths open our eyes to

various perspectives and send us the message that happiness is beyond material

wellbeing They make us realize that the real essence of happiness lies within us It is

only through taming the mind that we can experience happiness Whether we want to be

happy or not depends on how we perceive things and how we act John Milton said The

mind is its own place and in itself can make heaven of hell and a hell of heaven (as

61

cited by Williams 2008 p24) Buddhism teaches that if we can overcome the three

poisons and practice generosity patience mediation and morality we can experience

inner joy in this life This can even be extended to the next life with the possibility of

attaining nirvana The idea of reward for virtuous action (Karma) creates a healthy fear

and pushes the Buddhist to be ethical and practice virtues at all time Buddhism thus

accords the highest authority to experience with reason second and scripture third

(Flanagan 2007) Some may wonder however whether a focus exclusively on getting

rid of desire would inhibit worldly progress The path to overcoming attachment and

achieving worldly progress such as accumulating wealth are indeed poles apart

Buddhism does not necessarily say that we have to give up the material life It stresses

more the importance of having a good heart of never harming others of being

compassionate of being morally disciplined and of possessing loving kindness

generosity patience and a joyful desire to practice virtues These positive qualities can

reduce ones suffering and give happiness to oneself and others

62

CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING

INDICATORS

People always experience moods and emotions which have an enormous range of

effects on their wellbeing To know about peoples psychological state something must

be known about their subjective experiences The psychological wellbeing domain of the

GNH index thus assesses peoples subjective experience based on eleven indicators

Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking account of Karma Jealousy Selfishness

Frustration Generosity Calmness Compassion Suicidal Thought and General Mental

Health The government measures psychological wellbeing by assessing the socially

destructive attitudes and symptoms of psychological distress and the prevalence of

practices to avoid negative emotions The main purpose of this study is to determine to

what extent the indicators under the psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of

happiness and their coherence with the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH This

chapter analyzes each of these indicators to determine the extent to which they reflect

Buddhist principles of happiness using the conceptual framework laid down in Chapter

Three and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH

This chapter is divided into five sections The first section briefly highlights the

meaning of psychological wellbeing and the importance of measuring it It also highlights

similarities between the views of some modern psychologists and the Buddhist view on

the understanding of psychological wellbeing The second third and fourth sections

analyze the indicators of psychological wellbeing by grouping them into three broad

categories Emotional Balance Spirituality Practices and General Mental Health The

chapter concludes with an overview of the overall findings

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41 Psychological Wellbeing Measures

Psychological wellbeing as the term denotes refers to the wellbeing of a persons

mental state It deals with emotions and feelings which are subjective experiences The

measure of the psychological wellbeing of its citizens is extremely important in a country

pursuing GNH because the mental or the psychological state influences the overall

wellbeing of people A GNH state therefore needs to minimize those mental conditions

that can be disruptive As Larsen amp Fredrickson (1999) point out the content of a

persons emotional life strongly influences his or her judgments of the quality of that life

(p40)

From the Buddhist perspective happiness depends on our mind Buddhist

teachings are directly or indirectly based on the workings of the mind Buddhism strongly

holds that it is the emotional and mental state of people that influence their wellbeing or

happiness The term ishepa which means the mind refers to all aspects of subjective

experiences In the Buddhist diction mind shepa) awareness (rigpa) and consciousness

(lo) are synonyms (Abhidhamma 1987 Negi 1999) The mind in Buddhism includes

all perceptual conceptual and emotional states both conscious and unconscious (Negi

1999) The emotional mental states therefore are all mind related subjective experiences

As explained in Chapter Three Buddhism is concerned with taming the mind

this entails understanding the types of mental activity that are truly conducive to

wellbeing and the ones that are harmful In this sense it would be justifiable to say that

Buddhism is all about achieving happiness mentally or psychologically Ekman

Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) agree that psychologists and Buddhists alike

64

believe that emotions strongly influence peoples thoughts words and actions and that

they help people in their pursuit of transient pleasures and satisfactions

The measurement of a persons psychological state is commonly based on the

self-report assessment Within the discipline of psychology there is a strong view that

self-reports on how well life is going can convey important information on underlying

emotional states and in measuring peoples subjective wellbeing Earlier psychologists

who were mainly interested in negative emotional states such as depression and anxiety

are now interested in positive emotions to evaluate peoples overall wellbeing (Ryff amp

Singer 1998) Indeed to get empirical clues of happiness establishing the absence of

negative experiences would not be enough positive feelings must also be present (Hirata

2006) The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index similarly includes

both positive and negative emotions

Structured questionnaires are used to collect data for each indicator A

sufficiency cut off or a threshold is set for each indicator A person is said to have met the

sufficiency cut-off if hisher evaluation in that indicator meets or exceeds the cut-off

point If the respondent meets or exceeds the sufficiency cut off heshe is given the full

score This means a person is psychologically well if heshe makes sufficient

achievement in each of the indicators Any shortfall from sufficiency that any

respondents experience in any indicator is considered to depress Gross National

Happiness The depth of insufficiency will rise if any person drops further away from

sufficiency cut-off This means that the distance from the cut-off or the sufficiency gap is

sensitive only if the achievements are below the sufficiency level This indicates that the

GNH index is sensitive to an unhappy or a poor persons experience Overall this method

65

is similar to poverty measurement where a poverty line is set to distinguish people who

are materially poor from non-poor (Millet 2010) However there is not much

information available on how the sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From

the information available on the CBS website it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut

off is set at a level that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises

questions because there is not any literature or research conducted on how the sufficiency

cut off has actually been set Arbitrarily setting cut-offs without any basis or setting it

based on some assumptions can lead to questionable results

42 Emotional Balance

The Centre for Bhutan Studies has grouped seven indicators under the category of

emotional balance The indicators can be further grouped into two categories negative

emotions and positive emotions The indicators under this index include emotions or

feelings related to wellbeing because these affect a persons evaluation of life Four of the

seven indicators pertain to negative emotions jealousy selfishness frustration and

suicidal thought and three pertain to positive emotion generosity calmness and

compassion Diener amp Lucas (1999) state that although the emotions are momentary

influences and would not reflect a stable state of happiness they do provide information

about the state of a persons life Research shows that a variety of etiological factors

contribute to these emotions (Berenbaum Raghavan Le Vernon amp Gomez 1999)

Buddhist teaching similarly maintains that these emotions do not occur on their own

there are causal factors associated with them

66

Buddhism places the mind at the centre of all experiences The Buddhist tradition

therefore places emotions at the core of individual and universal happiness In the

Abhidhamma Buddhist text the mind is presented in context to its primary and secondary

consciousnesses Primary consciousness refers to the content of mind which illuminates

merely the general nature of the content Secondary consciousness refers to the aspect of

mind that illuminates the particular nature of that content Both the primary and

secondary consciousnesses operate as one entity (Negi 1999) The Abhidhamma lists

fifty-one secondary consciousnesses All the positive and negative emotions fall under

the fifty-one secondary consciousnesses

a Negative Emotion

Chapter Three explained that negative emotions in Buddhism arise out of

ignorance desire and hatred Humans suffer because of their own negative emotions

These are negative because they harm oneself and others As we ignore the reality around

us and cling to the self or I we get angry for things we do not like jealous when others

succeed frustrated when we fail The extreme reaction is suicidal thoughts and action

All of these negative emotions from the Buddhist perspective fall under unethical

action action that occurs through the mind They are called nyong mongs meaning

distorted or confused or klesha translated as afflictive emotions Jealousy selfishness

frustration and suicidal thoughts arise due to covetousness ill will and wrong view The

four negative indicators form part of the ten non-virtuous actions and are afflictive

regardless of their degree or the context in which they arise These emotions are similarly

considered negative under the GNH index

67

1 Jealousy

Jealousy is often defined as a feeling of resentment when others succeed Harris

(2004) points out that jealousy is likely to arise over perceptions that a potential rival

poses a threat to what one perceives to be valuable in oneself and in an important

relationship In Buddhism jealousy is called dhrag-dog The Buddhist Abhidhamma text

classifies jealousy as part of hostility and calls it immoral Jealousy in Buddhism is

defined as a disturbing emotion that focuses on other peoples accomplishments such as

their good qualities possessions or success and is the inability to bear their

accomplishments due to excessive attachment to our own gain or to the respect we

receive (Berzin 2004 p 1) Jealousy in Buddhism is therefore related to attachment

Jealousy and envy have slightly different meanings in Buddhism Envy adds to what

jealousy means in Buddhism In addition to the inability to bear others accomplishments

envy is the wish to have these accomplishments for ourselves Therefore envy has the

element of what Buddhism calls covetousness (Bnab sem) Berzin (2004) points out that

envy as a combination of jealousy and covetousness leads to competitiveness Jealousy

is thus a disturbing emotion that drives us to become highly competitive and to work

fanatically to outdo others or ourselves Failure can cause much pain and success can lead

to further greed Jealousy has elements of resentment and hostility In addition it has

strong elements of insecurity and mistrust (Berzin 2004)

In the Abhidhamma text jealousy is opposite to compassion and appreciative joy

Lama Zopa Rinpoche (1973) states that rejoicing is the best remedy for jealousy and

envy (pl) Buddhist teaching maintains that we must rejoice for others success and

68

happiness and think that they created their own cause for their happiness Similarly in a

GNH society we must rejoice for others success and happiness Jealousy disturbs our

peace of mind and causes much suffering We cannot achieve GNH if we are all jealous

of others Jealousy is therefore opposed to GNH values

Mullen (1995) points out that men and women experience different types of

emotions when they are jealous These include pain distress oppression anxiety

sadness apprehension anger restless distress humiliation shame agitation and

betrayal All of these are negative and against happiness or wellbeing In order to

achieve GNH it is important to rule out the presence of such negative emotions Since

jealousy is directly opposed to the psychological wellbeing of people it is appropriate

that it be an indicator of GNH

In order to collect the data for this indicator the following question is asked of the

respondents (Box 1) The sufficiency cut off is set at never which means that

respondents are given full score when they answer never In a GNH state it is hoped or

expected that a person would never feel jealous Buddhism similarly marks jealousy as

non-virtuous and afflictive regardless of their degree in which they arise The sufficiency

cut-off which is set at never therefore also corresponds to Buddhist principles

How often do you experience jealousy

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 1 Survey question of Jealousy Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

69

2 Selfishness

The second indicator selfishness refers to an unwillingness to share because of

craving something for oneself Selfishness in Buddhism originates from attachment and

greed In Buddhism selfishness is closely related to the Buddhist term Serna (Negi

1999) Serna in the Abhidhamma text is termed as immoral consciousness (p96) and

appears as delusion arising out of a wrong view attachment and greed Negi (1999)

states that it is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity (p93)

Selfishness is also synonymous with the Tibetan Buddhist terms Rangdoed and lNoe

zirtwhich literally mean self-centered desire and material attachment respectively

Buddhist teachings condemn the idea of self or I from which selfishness arises As

explained in Chapter Three Buddhism teaches no-self (anatta) as an essential

principle The doctrine of no-self is to help us let go of our attachment and ego In one

of his interviews with FOR Atv the Dalai Lama (2008) narrates an incident in which a

rich couple asked him for a blessing He replied to them You are wealthy share your

wealth with the needy ones this will be the real blessing for you This indicates that

Buddhists believe in replacing selfishness with generosity to attain inner joy In

particular the paramita of ethics (see Chapter Three) emphasizes restraining self-

centeredness and to rooting it out completely The Dalai Lama (2000) states that the

ethic of restraining self-centeredness is crucial (p 101) A selfish attitude according to

Buddhism obstructs the path towards achieving Bodhisattva and thus genuine happiness

Selfishness gives rise to negative Karma leading one to be reborn in the lower realms

70

Similarly since the concept of GNH supports the idea of interdependence selfishness is

opposed to the GNH values

Under the selfishness indicator of GNH the participants are asked the following

question (See Box 2) For the answer never a full score is given which means that a

person should never feel selfish to get a positive GNH score This indicates that

selfishness is against the GNH essence Consistent with the Buddhist teachings the GNH

index similarly marks selfishness as a negative trait

How often do you experience selfishness

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 2 Survey question of Selfishness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

3 Frustration The American Heritage Stedmans Medical Dictionary defines frustration as a

condition that results when an impulse or an action is thwarted by an external or an

internal force There is no exact term for frustration in Buddhism but it can be related to

the term gopa which is translated as agitation Negi (1999) describes gopa as a

mental factor that disturbs the inner calm and focus of the mind (p44) Gopa forms

part of the twenty secondary delusions in the Abhidhamma In the Bhutanese national

language Ouggam1 holds equivalent meaning to frustration Ouggam literally means

pressurizing the breath Oug is breath and gam means pressure When we pressurize our

self we get frustrated and this comes out as anger causing suffering to others and

ourselves

71

Frustration is without doubt a negative emotion because it disturbs the peace of

mind causing anxiety and stress Like jealousy and selfishness frustration arises out

of attachment and desire In Buddhism any emotion that arises out of ignorance desire

and hatred is afflictive and non-virtuous Similarly in a GNH society that seeks to

maximize the happiness and wellbeing of people frustration is a negative trait and

opposed to the concept of GNH because it obstructs the path towards happiness Since

frustration has a negative impact on wellbeing it is necessary to determine if such

emotions occur frequently among people Therefore it is appropriate to have it as a

negative indicator of psychological wellbeing

The question (Box 3) how often do you experience frustration is asked of

respondents Since frustration hampers wellbeing respondents who never experience

frustration are given a full GNH score Respondents who often or sometimes

experience frustration are given a negative score

How often do you experience frustration

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 3 Survey question of Frustration Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

4 Suicidal Thoughts

Suicidal thoughts usually occur when one is no longer able to bear suffering in

life According to Buddhism suicide is an unwholesome act since it is encouraged by a

mind filled with greed hatred and delusion (Dhammananda nd) Killing is one of the ten

non-virtuous actions in Buddhism so any act of killing is unwholesome and suicide is

72

therefore an unwholesome act The Buddhist teachings on Karma maintain that death by

suicide only leads to another cycle of rebirth in the same condition Buddha Dharma

Education Association (nd) explains that in order for the act of killing to have its

complete and unmitigated power five conditions must be present a living being the

awareness of the existence of a living being the intention to kill the living being the

effort or action of killing the living being and the consequent death of the living being

Suicide will always lack the last element of a complete Karma because the one who

commits the act will already be dead at the time of the completion of the action

Therefore suicide becomes a defective action and is not completed as an act of killing

leading to rebirth in the same condition (Sopa 2005) The Dalai Lama (1981) states that

even if we take our own life we will have to take another body that again will be the

basis of suffering In order to get rid of all the difficulties we experience we need to get

rid of the fundamental cause (greed hatred and delusion) that gives rise to the aggregates

that are the basis of all suffering He adds that killing yourself is not going to solve your

problems Suicide in Buddhism is therefore a non-virtuous act that arises because of

afflictive emotion

According to Buddhism suicide does not end the problem The famous Buddhist

painting of truth depicts that death is only the beginning of another cycle of pain and

suffering Buddhists therefore do not support suicide and instead encourage constructive

living using this life to diligently practice virtuous action thus changing the present and

the future for the better

Research indicates that suicide and attempted suicide are associated with

elevated levels of anger anxiety guilt sadness and shame (Berenbaum Raghavan Le

73

Vernon Gomez 1999 p 279) Depression is found to be the main cause of suicides The

most common factors that push youth to commit suicide according to Bhutanese

psychiatrist Dr Nirola are peer and parental pressures competitive scenarios and failure

to get a job among others (as cited by Dorji 2010) This indicates that suicidal thoughts

occur because of what Buddhism calls the three poisons leading to further afflictive

emotions

Suicidal thoughts similarly are against the essence of GNH and therefore a

negative indicator of psychological wellbeing Under the GNH index a person who has

never thought of committing suicide (See Box 4) is given a foil GNH score while

respondents who have thought of committing suicide are given negative scores Overall

the indicator of suicidal thought finds groundings in Buddhist teachings

Have you ever seriously thought of committing suicide

1 Yes 2 No

Box 4 Survey question of Suicidal Thought Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Jealousy frustration selfishness and suicidal thoughts are negative emotions that

affect individuals and the societys wellbeing Satya Dev Negi (1996) asserts that the

distorted emotional states have achieved such a pervasive status that our era may become

known to history as the Age of Emotional Epidemic (p2) The effects of negative

emotions are clearly visible in society increasing crime substance abuse suicide and

divorce are all symptoms of emotional dysfunction

The entire Buddhist tradition evolved as a study of mental and emotional states

and ways to transform the negative emotions into positive ones Although Buddhism sees

74

ignorance desire and hatred as the main causes of suffering the three poisons come out

in the form of various negative emotions which include jealousy frustration and

selfishness Scientific research has revealed the role emotions play in affecting health the

immune system blood pressure and cardiovascular functions Research also indicates

that individuals with emotional disturbances are prone to induce negative effects upon

those with whom they have ongoing relationships (Berenbaum et al 1999) Besides

evaluation of the frequency of negative emotions it is important for the government to

know the reasons or the conditions that give rise to these negative emotions GNH as

policy must attend to it them

Overall all of the four indicators are directly opposed to the essence of GNH and

therefore it is appropriate to have them as indicators in order to minimize or eliminate

the presence of such negative emotions in a country Further all of these indicators are

rooted in Buddhism

b Positive Emotions

The process for accomplishing happiness in Buddhism involves uprooting the

negative emotions and enhancing the positive ones The three indicatorsmdashgenerosity

calmness and compassionmdashare positive because these emotions bring happiness to

oneself and others The practice of paramitas as explained in Chapter Three encourages

replacing the three poisons by practicing generosity ethics compassion and meditative

concentration Similarly generosity calmness and compassion are considered positive

indicators of psychological wellbeing

75

5 Generosity

Generosity is the act of giving and a means to overcome greed and selfishness In

Buddhism the practice of generosity (Dana Paramita- jinba) as laid down in Chapter

Three is one of the six paramitas and a way to practice compassion Buddhism maintains

that the practice of generosity in addition to the fivefold benefit to the one practicing it

brings happiness to others too Generosity is a moral practice that relates to positive

virtues such as compassion and loving kindness the cultivation of which leads to mental

development and spiritual happiness Through generosity we are able to extend ourselves

and help others The whole idea of generosity supports the concept of interdependence

which is the core principle of GNH and Buddhism The Centre for Bhutan Studies terms

generosity a positive emotion of great importance and a desirable habit Generosity as

an indicator is therefore coherent with the GNH principle as it promotes happiness for

oneself and others The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 5) for the

collection of data

How often do you experience generosity

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 5 Survey question of Generosity Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

The sufficiency cut off has been set as often which means a person should

frequently experience the feeling of generosity to get the full GNH score In a GNH

3 See Chapter Three

76

society people must help each other and promote a healthy environment Helping does

not necessarily mean giving all your possessions to others but it does entail sharing a part

of your wealth and being helpful in many ways An example would be a voluntary

service to society and charity Happiness derived by the act of generosity which does not

get included in the Gross Domestic Product (Hewavitharana 2004) should be included in

the evaluation of GNH Therefore generosity as an indicator of psychological

wellbeing is coherent with and appropriate to the concept of GNH

6 Calmness

Calmness refers to the clarity of mind and it entails patience and tolerance

Calmness is opposed to anger which is one of the three poisons in Buddhism The

Buddhist practice of Kshanita paramita the practice of patience and tolerance stresses

the importance of having a calm and composed mind at all times Patience in Buddhism

as seen in Chapter Three refers to having the strength to face the challenges and

difficulties of life without losing composure and inner tranquility In the Abhidhamma

text equanimity (long nyom) which is synonymous with calmness is listed as the

tenth positive secondary consciousness and a wholesome mental factor (Negi 1999)

Any mind that experiences such emotion becomes automatically positive states Negi

(1999) When we are calm we develop a tendency not to harm others and we are usually

at our best when we are calm Tranquility gives rise to clarity from which understanding

and wisdom grow (Graham 2007) A calm mind is therefore very essential for living a

happy and healthy life On the other hand constant fear and anger affect our own health

and overall wellbeing Horton (2010) states that through mental calmness one can

77

experience inner peace and as a result success too Calmness is therefore a virtue

consistent with GNH ideals

The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 6) for the collection of

data

How often do you experience calmness

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 6 Survey question of Calmness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Respondents who often feel calm are given the full GNH score which means in a GNH

society people should experience calmness frequently Overall this indicator can be

linked to Buddhist teachings and is coherent with GNH values as well

7 Compassion

Compassion is a wish to relieve the suffering of others and is central to Buddhist

practice As mentioned earlier in Chapter Three it is the most essential and important

trait for bodhisattvas within Mahayana Buddhism Mahayanists maintain that only

through developing a compassionate heart can one practice the other essential virtues

For example without being compassionate we will not develop a genuine sense of

generosity The compassion in Buddhism not only arises out of empathy towards the

suffering of others but from understanding and realizing the meaning of emptiness the

law of Karma and interdependence viewing self and others as devoid of inherent

meaning Compassion thus leads to the practice of loving kindness and helps to

78

overcome afflictive emotions such as hatred jealousy and selfishness which are

considered negative under the psychological wellbeing indicators

Compassion a profound human emotion can be a powerful means to creating a

GNH society When one is compassionate the thought of harming others does not arise

and this attitude cultivates a genuine sense to work toward everyones benefit The CBS

(2008) similarly holds compassion as an approach to sympathy for the suffering of

others which is necessary to establish a compassionate society Thinking about the

suffering of others and not just ones own is important for a GNH society Further

scientific studies suggest that individuals including children who may engage in

bullying people and society in general could benefit from practices of compassion (Lutz

Lewis Johnstone Davidson 2008) Therefore compassion as an indicator is very much

coherent with the GNH values

The following question (Box 7) is asked of respondents to find out how

compassionate they are The sufficiency cut off similar to the indicator of generosity

and calmness has been set at often which means a person should frequently

experience compassion to get the full GNH score

How often do you experience compassion

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 7 Survey question of Compassion Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Overall the presence of emotions such as compassion calmness and generosity

have a positive impact on physical wellbeing on decision-making process and on the

79

potential for leading a happy life Further each of the three indicators is clearly related to

the Buddhist practice of paramitas

43 Spiritual Practices

From the Buddhist perspective the indicators under this section consist of

practices to overcome negative or afflictive emotions Practicising them with sincerity

can hold negative emotions at bay

8 Frequency of Meditation

The Buddhists consider meditation a very important method to calm the mind

The eightfold noble path and the paramita of meditative concentration emphasizes the

importance of meditation as a means to destroy the three root causes of suffering (desire

hatred and ignorance) Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) states that the Buddhist meditative

practice does not merely suppress the destructive mental states but trains the mind to see

directly and concretely how the mind functions and using this understanding tames and

masters our own mind freeing it from afflictive states Many Buddhist masters prescribe

meditation as the key to finding happiness and peace of mind Tashi (2004) points out

that the important egalitarian aspects of meditation are its accessibility to everybody with

little or no cost involved Researchers have shown that Buddhists who meditate may be

able to train their minds to feel genuine happiness and control aggressive instincts

(Connor 2003) Another study of Buddhist meditation by scientists at the University of

California has found that meditation might tame the amygdale the part of the brain

involved with fear and anger Studies have also shown that even brief courses of

80

meditation with very short periods of the simplest meditative practices are associated

with better psychological and physical health (Levenson etal 2004) The CBS does not

link meditation to Buddhism but it is implicit that the indicators are inspired by Buddhist

teachings

Aside from the spiritual connotations meditation is a powerful method to calm

our mind (Connor 2003) Research has shown that practicing meditation regularly has

beneficial effects for a range of conditions These include stress anxiety depression

poor sleep and coping with chronic pain It also has other health benefits such as reduced

inflammation improved immunity and lower blood pressure A study conducted by three

universities (University of Wisconsin West Virginia University and University of

Reading) found that calmness and compassion could be developed through the practice of

meditation Lutz Lewis Johnstone and Davidson (2008) state that the long-term goal of

meditation is to weaken egocentric traits so that altruistic behaviors might arise more

frequently and spontaneously Meditation is indeed the best method to make the mind

relaxed and peaceful Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) maintains that the gift of learning to

meditate is the greatest gift you can gift yourself in this life (p58) He adds for it is

only through meditation that you can undertake the journey to discover your true nature

and so find the stability and confidence you will need to live and die well (p58)

The benefits of meditation as pointed out by the Buddhist teachings and supported

by modern research are immense The practice of meditation thus surely will have a

positive impact on the wellbeing of people which directly contributes to the essence of

GNH Having meditation as a GNH indicator signifies the importance the government is

putting on the benefits it provides The following question (Box 8) is asked of

respondents regarding the practice of meditation

Do you practice meditation

1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all

Box 8 Survey question of meditation Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

The sufficiency cut-off for meditation has been set as occasionally which means

one must practice meditation occasionally to get a full GNH score Although meditation

is considered a very important practice in Buddhism meditation among the lay

population is not popular in Bhutan According to the survey conducted by CBS (2008)

904 of respondents do not meditate at all This may arise from the fact that Bhutan

still does not have any meditation centre for lay people This may also be the reason why

the sufficiency cut-off has been set as occasionally instead of daily Very recently

meditation has been introduced in Bhutanese schools It however needs to be introduced

among lay population too Overall the indicator of mediation is coherent with GNH

values Further since Buddhism greatly stresses the importance of meditation the

indicator seems to have been influenced by Buddhism

9 Prayer Recitation

Prayer is a form of religious practice that seeks to connect to some greater power

Most religions involve prayer in one way or another The purpose of Buddhist prayer is to

awaken the inherent inner capacities of strength compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)

The translation for the word prayer in Bhutanese national language is thuen which

82

literally means the recitation of mantras Buddhism emphasizes the recitation of prayershy

like mantras A mantra is a word a syllable a phrase or a short prayer that is spoken

once or repeated over and over again (either aloud or in a persons head) and that is

thought to have a profound spiritual effect on the person (BBC 2006 p 1) Mantra

literally means that which protects the mind from negativity (Sogyal Rimpoche 2002

p71) Mantra Sogyal Rimpoche states is the essence of sound and embodiment of the

truth in the form of sound Each syllable contains spiritual power and vibrates with the

blessing of the speech of the Buddha There are mantras that are thought to subtly alter

ones mind and make a connection with a particular Buddha or enlightened being

Buddhists believe that when certain mantras are said many times they arouse good

vibrations within the person they awaken our inherent inner capacities of strength

compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)

A prayer can be silent meditation or a full chorus of chanting (Hanh 2006) In

Buddhism praying involves two important aspects the first is establishing a relationship

between ourselves and the one to whom we are praying This refers to reflecting on the

great qualities of the Buddha which involves visualization The second is regarding

effective prayer which is the idea of cultivating the energy of love mindfulness and

right concentration in prayer To pray effectively our body and mind must dwell

peacefully in the present moment (Hanh 2006) It is common that Buddhists lay prostrate

while praying This is a position that diminishes the ego opens one up and brings one

close to the earth (Hanh 2006 p 63) Since reciting prayers requires mindfulness and

concentration the paramita of meditative concentration extends to prayers too The

83

Buddhist Faith Fellowship of Connecticut asserts that Buddhist prayer is a form of

meditation and practice of inner reconditioning Similarly Sogyal Rimpoche (2002)

explains that reciting mantras is one of the meditation techniques He calls it uniting the

mind with the sound of mantra When one is nervous disoriented or emotionally fragile

reciting a mantra inspiringly can change the state of the mind completely by transforming

its energy and atmosphere He also mentions that mind rides on the subtle energy of

breath and when you chant a mantra you are charging your breath and energy with the

energy of the mantra so working directly on the mind and subtle body (p71) The

practice of reciting mantra for inner reconditioning is distinctively Buddhist

In addition to reciting mantras a majority of the Bhutanese Buddhists pray to

local deities It is a very popular belief in Bhutan that deities can protect us from evil

forces In a real sense this is not Buddhism because the Buddha never prayed to anyone

Buddhism stresses the recitation of mantras to awaken our inner qualities As mentioned

earlier Bhutan was largely a Bon country prior to the entry of Buddhism Bonism

emphasized worshipping the deities Buddhism in many countries flourished with

polytheistic features For example in Japan Buddhism mixed with Shinto which

worships kamis (nature spirits) created a tradition of praying to the kamis Bhutans

national newspaper Kuensel reported that Bonism mixed with Buddhism is still prevalent

in the country (Wangchuk 2005) The rituals of the Bon often include animal sacrifices

but animal sacrifices are discouraged in the country However many pray and perform

rituals to appease the local deities (yu-lha) For example in the village of Bongo under

Chukha district people worship and pray to two sister deities They also summon other

84

deities and spirits residing in mountains valleys lakes forests streams and cliffs

invoking them to assist and protect people from misfortunes (as cited by Wangchuk

2005) Similarly people in the capital Thimphu pray to a local deity located in the upper

valley Although this is not distinctively Buddhism (Powers 1995) it is an age-old

tradition that has been absorbed by Bhutanese Buddhists long ago This is now

considered an integral part of Bhutanese Buddhist culture

The following question (Box 9) is asked of respondents A person who prays

daily meets the sufficiency cutoff which means heshe is given a full GNH score

Do you sayrecite prayers

1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all

Box 9 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Although reciting prayers in Buddhism is seen as a method ofmeditation both

are given different sufficiency cut offs A person who meditates occasionally is given a

full score while a person who prays occasionally is not given a full score The different

sufficiency cut offs for the two different practices indicates that the prayer recitation

indicator is intended to be different from meditation However prayer recitation in

Buddhism itself is a form of meditation CBS mentions that those indicators which are

highly uncorrelated were selected but from a pure Buddhist perspective the two seem to

be closely related since both fall under the paramita of meditative concentration The

CBS does not mention how prayer recitation is consistent with GNH values

Nevertheless the benefits of prayer recitation and meditation maybe the same because

85

both practices require mindfulness and concentration In this sense prayer recitation too

is coherent with GNH To conclude prayer in the form of mantra accords with Buddhist

principles while prayer to deities is a local Buddhist practice Therefore the indicator of

prayer recitation seems to have been influenced by Buddhism with traces of local beliefs

10 Taking account of Karma

As seen in chapter three Karma is a very important Buddhist principle that guides

the Buddhist psyche The law of Karma provides the basis to practice the paramita of

ethics (sila) Karma as one of the GNH indicators clearly implies that Buddhism has

influenced the indicator The literal meaning of taking account of Karma is being

morally responsible for our own actions When a person takes account of Karma in daily

life heshe is being aware and morally responsible for their actions on which the result

depends When we understand the law of Karma we are discouraged from performing

non-virtuous or unwholesome actions which cause suffering Realizing that Karma

conditions and determines our happiness we will refrain from unwholesome behavior to

avoid the negative effects of these actions Similarly understanding that virtuous actions

bear the fruit of happiness one is encouraged to practice wholesome actions The law of

causality therefore promotes moral and ethical life

The sufficiency cutoff for taking account of Karma (Box 10) has been set as

daily indicating that a person who takes account of Karma daily is given a full GNH

score

86

Do you consider Karma in the course of your daily life

1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all

Box 10 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

For a country pursing GNH it is important to take account of Karma on a daily

basis because Karma promotes healthy and ethical living ideal for a GNH state

According to CBS for Bhutanese an understanding of the dynamics between causes

and effects are critical to each individuals pursuit for happiness as it tends to provide a

clearer understanding and cultivation of GNH values (pl) Understanding that the real

reason for our sufferings is our own Karma (action through body speech and mind)

serves as an antidote to all our afflictive emotions Karma promotes the sense of helping

each other and living in harmony with all forms of life It is therefore important that a

GNH society take account of Karma daily to promote wholesome actions for a happy

society The indicator of taking account of Karma daily is thus a reflection of Buddhist

principles and is consistent with GNH values

43 General Mental Health (GMH)

11 General Mental Health

The general mental health indicator assesses the mental health of people using the

General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) that would provide a possible indication of

depression anxiety low confidence and concentration levels Unlike the other indicators

under the psychological wellbeing domain the General Mental Health indicator consists

87

of fifteen questions (See Appendix 2) Questions related to ones stress level ability to

concentrate anxiety depression feeling of happiness and unhappiness are asked of the

respondents The questions are calculated and interpreted using the Likert scale with

lowest score at 0 and highest possible score at 36 A lower score between the ranges of 0-

15 indicates normal mental wellbeing a median score between 16-20 indicates some

mental distress and a high score of 21-36 indicates severe mental distress (CBS 2008)

The sufficiency cut-off is set as normal mental wellbeing which means people should

not experience any mental distress to get a full GNH score

The CBS (2008) asserts that mental health is an important indicator for the health

status of a population Studies have revealed that mental stress can negatively affect

wellbeing Studies also point out that stress may alter the immune system and increase

susceptibility to disease (CBS 2008)

From the Buddhist perspective psychological distress such as depression lack of

confidence and anxiety are the result of our own afflictive emotions Gyatso (2009)

points out that the overriding cause of mental stress is self-cherishingmdashseeing ones own

physical and mental pleasure as more important than anybody elses People who have

the tendency to use more self-referential terms (I me myself) tend to have more health

problems and earlier deaths (Dalai Lama 2009) According to Buddhism it is our own

ego the focus on the notion of I that cause us to suffer The causes of mental distress

thus lie within us Since cause is within us the cure is also in our own mind Buddhist

teachings maintain that meditating on emptiness4 can get rid of the notion of T Thus

4 A meditation technique

88

mental distress similar to other negative emotions are a result of ignorance desire and

hatred

Ven Thubten Gyatso (2009) a Buddhist teacher points out two reasons why

selfishness can cause mental illness The first is that unhappiness arising from

selfishness is cumulative When we do not obtain what we want we often over-react to a

ridiculous extent and our selfish behavior isolates us from others The accumulation of

small failures in life erodes our self-confidence and we fall into depression The second

reason he points out is that selfishness prevents us from doing the one thing that is

guaranteed to bring happiness - cherishing others being compassionate and generous

Self-obsession and self-centered thoughts blind us and we do nothing to help others In

Buddhism self-centeredness never brings real joy and satisfaction but instead causes

suffering

The mind drives every action that occurs through the body speech and mind

The causal factor therefore lies within us It is our ability to deal with emotions that

influences the mental state Since mental stress obstructs the path towards happiness it

opposes the goal of GNH It is therefore important to assess the stress levels of the

population to identify the risk group Intervention by government and offering remedy

(for example offering counseling) and monitoring changes over time can help people

pursue happiness

44 Summary

The purpose of this study is to determine to what extent the indicators under the

psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with

89

the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH Findings in this chapter reveal the following

The four indicators related to negative emotionsmdashjealousy selfishness frustration

suicidal thoughtmdashdo appear in Buddhism Jealousy (dhrag-dog) is clearly stated as an

afflictive emotion while the Buddhist teachings condemn the idea ofself through

which selfishness arises Although the exact term does not appear in Buddhism

frustration is closely related to the meaning of gopa or agitation which arises as a result

of the three poisons Buddhism holds that lack of wisdom or holding on to wrong views

leads to suicidal thoughts Jealousy selfishness frustration and suicidal thought thus

arise out of the three poisons ignorance desire and hatred All four indicators are what

Buddhism calls Klesha afflictive emotions that disturb the mind of oneself and others

thus obstructing the path towards happiness Similarly general mental health distress is a

result of afflictive emotion Buddhist teachings particularly points out that holding on to

the idea of self leads to mental stress

The indicators related to the three positive emotions (Generosity Compassion

and Calmness) and three spiritual practices (Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking

account of Karma) are clearly related to the Buddhist teachings on six paramitas

Generosity is the first paramita a practice towards achieving genuine happiness

Compassion is the root of all Mahayana Buddhist practices and an essential component of

the practice of six paramitas The indicator of calmness is related to Kshanti paramita

which entails the practice of patience tolerance and endurance Similarly the indicator

of meditation and prayer recitation is related to the Buddhist practice of meditative

concentration which is the fourth practice Dhayana paramita Prayer recitation

however does have elements of Bon practices which have been deeply absorbed by the

90

local Buddhist culture The indicator of taking account of Karma is clearly influenced by

Buddhism Karma promotes the practice of ethics which is sila paramita that stresses

avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and engaging in virtuous action Overall all of the

positive emotions and practices require wisdom which is prajna paramita The core

teachings of Buddhism thus find a place in each of the indicators Thus it would be

appropriate to conclude that the indicators have been influenced by Buddhism

Each of indicators either contributes to or negatively affects GNH In a GNH

society it is important to establish that people not only experience positive emotions but

also rule out the presence of negative emotions that can cause mental distress It is also

important to determine if people take up spiritual practices to keep the negative emotions

at bay Therefore each indicator under psychological wellbeing relates positively or

negatively with the concept of GNH It can thus be concluded that the indicators of

psychological wellbeing are consistent with GNH values

91

CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMMENDATIONS

From the very beginning of its development plan Bhutan chose to ensure the

preservation of its culture tradition and natural resources This came to be called the

philosophy of GNH where peoples spiritual and emotional wellbeing is afforded equal

importance to economic wellbeing GNH recognizes that economic development without

spiritual and emotional wellbeing will not bring happiness to people Several workshops

and discourses held on GNH led to the adoption of the GNH Index a set of indicators to

measure whether Bhutanese society is progressing towards GNH The index comprises

72 indicators grouped under nine domains that go beyond material values and incorporate

all values relevant to a happy life The GNH index is now the most important tool in

guiding the performance of the government towards achieving the goal of GNH The

purpose of this study was to determine to what extent the indicators under the

psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with

the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH The three questions that drove this study are

To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do the indicators reflect

Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept of GNH which does

reflect Buddhist principles The primary data that were used are the eleven indicators and

survey questionnaires developed by the Centre for Bhutan Studies The findings from the laquo

study reveal that each of the indicators under psychological wellbeing reflects Buddhist

principles The ultimate goal in Buddhism is to achieve genuine happiness Inspired by

this belief Bhutan is the only country in the world that officially pursues the state of

happiness The government believes that happiness is in the end what matters the most

92

The government has taken the utmost responsibility to create an enabling condition for

people to pursue happiness The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index

measures peoples psychological state which influences the overall wellbeing of people

Since the purpose of this study is to determine the extent to which indicators

reflected Buddhist principles it was necessary to highlight the key Buddhist principles

related to happiness Chapter Three examined the key Buddhist principles related to

happiness Specifically Thogme Zangpos teachings on the six paramitas were used as a

basis to develop the framework of happiness It was observed that happiness is not only

worldly pleasure derived from physical comfort but also an innate state of mind which

can be cultivated through the practice of compassion generosity ethics meditative

concentration patience and wisdom This can bring happiness to the individual and to

the society Although GNH stresses collective happiness Buddhism states that peace

must first be developed in the individual mind before it can contribute to others and the

happiness of the society Thus in the words of Master Shantideva it is not primarily the

outer conditions of our life that determine our happiness or suffering it is our own mind

that creates the cause for happiness or success

Humans experience many emotions and narrowing them down to eleven

indicators is not an easy task There is a strong relationship between emotions and

wellbeing The intensity of pleasant and unpleasant emotions influences the degree of

psychological wellbeing Studies have also shown that emotions play an integral role in

affecting the overall physical health Emotions also have powerful effects in shaping and

regulating social interactions and influencing how one appears to others Like the mind-

93

transforming practices in Buddhism the key to a nations progress lies in tracing

problems and solutions to the root causes

The indicators under the psychological wellbeing domain measure peoples

emotional state and the frequency of spiritual practices to eliminate negative emotion

Findings in Chapter Four reveal that each of the indicators of psychological wellbeing

correlates to Buddhist principles on happiness The relationship between the indicators of

psychological wellbeing and Buddhist principles are presented in the table below

Indicators Buddhist Principles

1 Jealousy Dhrag Dhog- Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

2 Selfishness Serna - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

3 Frustration Gopa - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

4 Suicidal Thought Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

5 Generosity Dana Paramita (Bjin ba) Generosity

6 Compassion The root of all Buddhist practices

7 Calmness Kshanti Paramita (Bzod pa) Patience tolerance endurance

8 Meditation Dhyana Parmto Meditative Concentration

9 Prayer Recitation Dhyana ParmitaMeditative Concentration

10 Karma Sila Paramita (Tshul khrim) virtue morality ethics

11 General Mental Health Klesha (Afflictive emotions) causes mental distress

Table 1 Relating the Indicators with Buddhism

The four negative emotion indicatorsmdashselfishness frustration jealousy and

suicidal thoughtmdashare found in Buddhism as afflictive emotions (klesha) arising out of the

three poisons Jealousy (dharg dhog) appears in the Abhidhamma text as an immoral and

94

deluded mental factor that feels displeasure in seeing others succeed Similarly

selfishness (sema) is listed as an immoral consciousness in the Abhidhamma Selfishness

is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity Buddhism teaches no-

self (anatta) as an essential principle and therefore strongly condemns the notion of I

through which selfishness arises Frustration in Buddhism is closely related to the term

gopa which is actually translated as agitation Gopa falls under the twenty secondary

immoral delusions in the Abhidhamma text Suicides and suicidal thought in Buddhism

are the result of wrong view Suicide is an unwholesome action and does not end the

problem Suicidal thought occurs because of afflictive emotions (klesha) All these

negative emotions (klesha) cause mental distress

The positive emotion and spiritual practice indicators such as compassion

calmness generosity meditation prayer recitation and taking account of Karma are the

replication of the six paramitas The positive emotions which Buddhists call virtuous

action such as generosity compassion and calmness tend to increase happiness in oneself

and others while negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration affect

psychological health and decrease happiness Since each of the indicators can be clearly

related to Buddhist principles of happiness it can thus be concluded that the

psychological wellbeing indicators are influenced by Buddhism and are consistent with

the concept of GNH One may argue that indicators such as compassion generosity and

calmness are universal values and ethics and may not necessarily be influenced by

Buddhism However in the case of Bhutan the Bhutanese worldview and its political

ethos are largely influenced by Buddhism The philosophy of GNH is also rooted in

Buddhism It is also evident that the government is seeking to measure and cater to long-

95

term rather than short-term happiness From the Buddhist perspective short-term

happiness is delivered chiefly by material goods while long-term happiness is derived

from spiritual cultural and social values

This study reveals that Buddhism stresses gaining control over our mind and

cultivating the right kind of habit which is said to be the root of all forms of joy and

happiness Buddhism in the original sense encourages exercises to tame and calm the

mind This study therefore partly seems to support the claims made by scholars such as

Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and Tashi (2004) who have argued that

Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH

Overall this study indicates that if the government creates good policies and

conditions for people GNH cannot be achieved if its citizens are not psychologically

strong For example if citizens are mentally stressed or filled with jealousy they will not

contribute to collective happiness In that sense happiness is inextricably linked to the

inner conditions of ones own mind

Measuring the psychological state of people will help the policy makers make

better decisions The emotional and psychological needs of people therefore must be

considered by the policy makers in order to achieve GNH A study by Sheldon Ryan

Deci and Kasser (2004) found that people pursuing intrinsic goals (emotional intimacy

community contribution and personal growth) had higher happiness expectancies than

those pursuing extrinsic goals (financial success attractive image and famepopularity)

By emphasizing human values of compassion generosity calmness and selflessness as

necessary indicators of GNH the government of Bhutan is providing the basis for

developing policies that focus on these values The domain of psychological wellbeing

96

thus focuses on the inner emotional development Within the concept of GNH inner non-

material development is equally important as external material development

Recommendations for Future Studies

The biggest challenge for the government is to combat the negative emotions of

the people The findings of this study reveal that Buddhist teachings are all geared

towards taming the mind and cultivating values that promote happiness Further

Buddhism does not emphasize individualism but emphasizes equality and cooperation

aimed at collective happiness It emphasizes individual effort geared towards universal

happiness Buddhist teachings and method to calm the mind can contribute to GNH

Ekman Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) suggest that Buddhist practices offer a

therapy not just for the disturbed but for all who seek to improve the quality of their

lives Although the majority of the population in Bhutan is Buddhist 25 are non-

Buddhist (CIA fact book 2009) Some scholars have argued however that Buddhism

can also be taught as education on human values (Mancall 2004 amp Lokamitra 2004)

Therefore extensive research on how this might be done could provide valuable lessons

insights and guidelines for the purpose of promoting GNH values

As pointed out earlier there is not much information available on how the

sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From the information available on the

CBS website however it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut off is set at a level

that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises questions because

there is not any literature or studies conducted on how the sufficiency cut off has actually

been set Arbitrarily setting a cut off without any basis or setting it based on some

assumptions can lead to questionable results Therefore an in-depth study on the basis

97

for setting the sufficiency cut off seems necessary to avoid misinterpretation by policy

makers

This study analyzed the indicators to determine the extent to which they reflected

Buddhist principles However it was observed that indicators of psychological wellbeing

were measured by questionnaires that only examined the frequency of occurrence of

emotions and the spiritual practices It is important that the government not only

recognize peoples suffering but identify its causes as well For example the questionnaire

notes the frequency of negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration but

does not identify their causes In order for the policy makers to identify effective

solutions the cause must be noted also Further the key terms such as generosity

compassion frustration and prayer recitation were not clearly defined For example the

term generosity could imply the practice rather than the emotional state of generosity

One can practice generosity yet not feel emotionally generous a practice can differ from

an emotional state Similarly the choices of answers such as often sometimes daily have

not been defined These terms can mean different things to different people To avoid

misinterpretation it is necessary that the key terms be clearly defined and nuanced

This study focused only on one of the domains of GNH index Although a similar

study needs to be carried out for the other eight domains there is a need for further

investigation into many of the issues related to the GNH index such as How would the

GNH index affect the government policies Does the index give equal importance to the

emotional spiritual and economical wellbeing of the people Does the index capture the

real essence of human happiness

98

References

A Manual of Abhidhamma (1987) Edited by Narada Maha Thera Malaysia Buddhist Missionary Society Retrieved from httpwwwbuddhanetnetpdf fileabhidhammapdf

Anguttara (nd) Dana Generosity Retrieved from (Anguttara IV 57) httpwwwbuddhamindinfoleftsidelifestv-2danahtm

Annas J (1999) Aristotles Ethics Critical Essay (p 35- 56)Edited by Nancy Sherman United States of America Rowman amp Littlefield Publishers Inc

Bancroft A (ed) (1997) The Dhammapada USA Element Inc

BBC (2006) Buddhist worships Retrieved from httpwwwbbccoukreligionreligionsbuddhisrncustomsworship 1 shtml

Berenbaum H Raghavan C Le H Vernon L amp Gomez J (1999) Disturbances in emotion In Daniel Kahneman Ed Diener and Norbert Schwarz (Eds) Wellbeing The foundation ofhedonic psychology (pp 267-287) New York Russell Sage Foundation

Berzin A (2004) Dealing with Jealousy Retrieved from httpwwwberzinarchivescomwebenarchivessutraylevel3 loiong materialgen eraldealing iealousvhtmln9203d70b0a90c002

Bhutan Observer (2010) A GNH School httpwwwbhutanobserverbt201 Qbhutan-news01a-gnh-schoolhtml

Boonyakiat S (2009) A Christian Theology of Suffering in the Context of Theravada Buddhism in Thailand

Brooks AC (2008) Gross National Happiness Why Happiness Matters for America and How We Can Get More of It USA

Buddha Dharma Education Association (NA) Fundamentals of Buddhism Karma Retrieved from httpwwwbuddhanetnetfundbud9htm

Buddhist Faith Fellowship of Connecticut (nd) Buddhist Prayers Retrieved from httpbuddhistfaithtripodcompureland sanghaid 14html

Business Bhutan (April 172010) A meditating school Retrieved from httpwwwbusinessbhutanbtp= 1366

99

Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) (2008) Explanation of GNH Index Centre for Bhutan Studies Retrieved on June 12 2009 from httpwwwgrossnationalhappinesseomgnhIndexintruductionGNHaspx

Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) (2008) Dimension Psychological Wellbeing Retrieved from httpwwwgrossnationalhappinesseomgnhIndexgnhlndexVariablesaspx

Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) (2008) Psychological Wellbeing Report Retrieved from httpwwwgrossnationalhappinesscomsurvevReportspsvchologicaIpwellbeingr eportdavidpdf

Central Intelligent Agency (CIA) (2009) Bhutan Retrieved from httpswwwciagovlibrarvpublicationsthe-world-factbookgeosbthtml

Chophel S (2008) Cultural diversity and resilience Journal of Bhutan Studies Centre for Bhutan Studies Thimphu Bhutan

Chopra S (2010) An exclusive interview with His Holiness the Dalai Lama Retrieved from httpwwwlifepositivecomspiritworld-religionsbuddhismdalai-interviewasp

Colman R (2008a) Application of the Genuine Progress Index to Nova Scotia Measuring Genuine Progress Indicators Accounts and Policy Retrieved from httpwwwgpiatlanticorgpdfintegratedpolicvapppdf

ColmanR(2008b) Measuring Progress towards Gross National Happiness Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference Held in Bhutan Retrieved on 30th

September 2009 from httpwwwbhutanstudiesorgbtadminpubFilesGNH41 GNH4pdf

ColmanR amp SagebienJ (2004) Measuring Genuine Progress- Indicators for Enlightened Society Proceedings of the First International Seminar on Operationalization of Gross National Happiness (p252- 259) Centre for Bhutan Studies

ConnorS(2003) Can Buddhists transcend mental reservations Retrieved on 14th April 2010 from httpwwwbiopsvchiatrvcomhappinessbuddhisthtml

Creswell J W (2007) Qualitative inquiry and research design Choosing among five approaches (2nd ed) Thousand Oaks CA SAGE

Dalai Lama (1981) Four noble truths A teaching given in Dharamsala Retrieved from httpwww Iamaveshecomindex phpsect=articleampid=380

100

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

Measuring the wellbeing of people is important in determining whether peoples

lives are improving or worsening over time Many countries in the world today focus on

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as a basis to measure the economic wellbeing of the

people Although GDP mainly measures market production it has been treated as if it

measures economic wellbeing The focus on economic growth measures fails to capture

fully the overall wellbeing of the people (Kusago 2006 Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009)

Due to the failure of GDP to measure the non-economic aspect of human wellbeing

alternative measurements such as Genuine Progress Index (GPI) and Human

Development Index (HDI) have been introduced GPI and HDI include many important

factors that contribute to healthy living but they are still calculated based on monetary

values (Hargen 2002 Kusago 2006) and do not capture the Bhutanese concept of Gross

National Happiness

Gross National Happiness (GNH) is the central development philosophy of

Bhutan (Planning Commission 1999) This unique philosophy aims at maximizing

human wellbeing and minimizing human suffering by balancing economic needs with the

spiritual and emotional needs of people Bhutans fourth king Jigme Singye Wangchuck

coined the term Gross National Happiness in the late 1980s when he stated that Gross

National Happiness is more important than Gross Domestic Product (as cited by Ura

2008 para 1) His vision was to create a GNH society which means the creation of an

enlightened society in which happiness and wellbeing of all people and sentient beings is

the ultimate purpose of governance (as cited by Ura 2008 para2) Since it was difficult

1

for the government to list every factor that contributes to the happiness of its people four

major areas were identified as the pillars of GNH cultural promotion equitable

economic development good governance and environmental conservation (Planning

Commission 1999) These four pillars constitute the broad strategic framework through

which national development processes are actualized for the maximization of GNH

Since the adoption of the concept of GNH the government has consistently

sought to address development beyond income or economic growth The country lacked

however a specific and relevant development index that takes into account the core

principles and dimensions of GNH In November 2008 coinciding with the coronation

of the fifth King of Bhutan Jigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchuck the Government of

Bhutan adopted the GNH index The purpose of the GNH index is to reflect GNH

values set benchmarks and track policies and performances of the country (Ura 2008

pl) Seventy-two measurable indicators grouped under nine domains have been

identified as the GNH index The Government of Bhutan states that the country is now

ready with a set of mathematical formulae to measure human wellbeing and government

performances towards achieving GNH (as cited by Dorji 2009) The purpose of this

study is to analyze the GNH index to determine the extent to which it reflects Buddhist

principles and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH

This chapter is divided into eight sections The first section presents a brief

background of Bhutan its people economy and culture The second section presents

Bhutans political journey from monarchy to democracy The concept of Gross National

Happiness is discussed in the third section The fourth section explains the nine domains

of the GNH index and how the GNH index is administered in the country The fifth

2

section presents the research questions and objective of the study The sixth section

presents the methodology of the study The seventh section lays down the significance

and limitation of the study The summary of this chapter and the outline of the study are

presented in the eighth section

11 The Bhutanese Economy and Culture

Bhutan is a tiny landlocked kingdom with a population of 691141 (Central

Intelligent Agency [CIA] Factbook 2009) and having a total area of 38394 square

kilometres (National Statistical Bureau 2007) The country is sandwiched between two

leading economies India and China (Figure 1) Until the 1960s Bhutan was the most

isolated nation in the world Today about 69 of the population in Bhutan are

smallholder agrarian farmers and they practice mainly mixed (crop and livestock)

farming systems (Gross National Happiness Commission 2010) Of the population

945 represent people from the age group of 0-64 years while only 55 of the

population are 65 years and above (CIA Factbook 2009) Bhutans GDP per capita was

estimated at $2218 in 2009 (International Monetary Fund 2010) The country is almost

entirely mountainous with altitudes ranging from 240 meters to 7541 meters above sea

level About 725 of the country consists of forest land (National Statistical Bureau

2007) and the policy of the government is to maintain at least 60 forest cover (Ministry

of Agriculture 2002) Bhutan has been declared one of the ten global biodiversity

Hotspots (National Environment Commission 1999)

The Bhutanese culture and development policies are greatly influenced by

Buddhism The philosophy of GNH has its roots in Buddhism Under this unique

3

philosophy Bhutan has been able to balance modernization with its ancient culture and

traditions From the very beginning of the enthronement in 1972 the fourth king Jigme

Singye Wangchuck was very clear that Gross National Happiness is more important than

Gross Domestic Product According to him happiness is the ultimate common goal of

every human being and everything else is a means for fulfilling this wish He believed

that happiness is an indicator of good development and good society (Thinley 2005)

This led the country to adopt GNH as its development priority

25 SO Km

50 25

G r e a

S Gasa Ozong

Toogsa THIMPHU Paro

Tashigang

Samdrup Jongkhar Phuntsholing

r~

BANGLADESH

Figure 1 Map of Bhutan (Source CIA Fact Book)

4

12 Political History and Transition to Democracy

Bhutanese polity is said to have begun in 1616 with the arrival of Zhabdrung

Ngawang Namgyal from Tibet Through the spread of Buddhism Zhabdrung was able to

unify the country Buddhism provided the ideological basis for unifying Bhutan

(Mancall 2004) Zhabdrung was both a religious and political figure in Bhutan He was

the head of theocratic state that he himself created (Ministry of Health amp Education

[MoHE] 1994) He started the dual system of governance known as the Choesi system

where political affairs were looked after by the Desi1 and religious affairs by the head

abbot called the Jekhenpo Zhabdrung died in the year 1651 The official announcement

of his death was however made only in the year 1705 There were several reasons for

this chief of which there was no clear successor to Zhabdrung During the period 1651 -

1706 the country was ruled in the name of Zhabdrung who was said to be in religious

retreat by various Desi appointed under the Choesi system established by the Zhabdrung

himself (MoHE 1994) The period between 1705 to 1907 was marked by internal

stability and external invasion Ultimately in the year 1907 Ugyen Wangchuck was

unanimously elected as the first hereditary king of Bhutan (MoHE 1994) Since then

visionary descendants of the Wangchuck dynasty have ruled the country

Bhutans political system however evolved from a monarchy into a constitutional

democracy Democracy did not come to Bhutan overnight the process of democratization

was going on long before but slowly and cautiously King Jigme Singye Wangchuck

continued the policy of controlled development with particular focus on the preservation

A title given to the person who looks after the political matters in the country

5

of the environment and Bhutans unique culture Yet during his reign there was a steady

decentralization of decision-making processes which aimed to enhance peoples

participation in the formulation of development policies and activities and to strengthen

the traditional local institutions This process started largely in 1981 with the

establishment of the District Development Committees (Dzongkhag Yargye

Tshogchungs) and in 1991 with the establishment of the Block Development Committees

(Geog Yargye Tshogchungs) The people democratically elect all members of these

committees The most momentous change came in 1998 when the executive powers

previously held by the King was granted to the Council of Ministers (GNHC 2008)

On 17 December 2005 King Jigme Singye Wangchuck announced to a stunned

nation that the first general elections would be held in 2008 and that he would abdicate

the throne in favor of his eldest son the crown prince Jigme Khesar Namgyal

Wangchuck Unlike other countries where people fight for democracy the opposite

occurred in Bhutan people were given power without having to fight for it The fifth king

was formally crowned on November 6 2008 becoming the worlds youngest reigning

monarch and head of the newest democracy The fifth King like his father proclaimed

that fulfilling the vision of GNH would be one of the main responsibilities of his reign

He said As the king of a Buddhist nation my duty is not only to ensure your happiness

today but to create the fertile ground from which you may gain the fruits of spiritual

pursuit and attain good Karma (Wangchuck 2008 para8) The newly elected

government Druk Phuensum Tshogpa (DPT) is also committed to the principles of GNH

6

13 Gross National Happiness the Development Philosophy of Bhutan

The notion that the emotional and spiritual wellbeing of humans should be

included into the development policies is gaining a lot of international support The

importance of the concept of GNH is articulated in the policy document Bhutan 2020-A

Vision for Peace Prosperity and Happiness (Planning Commission 1999) which states

that its aim is to maximize the happiness of all Bhutanese and to enable them to achieve

their full and innate potential as human beings (p41) Reflecting the importance of the

concept the promotion of enabling conditions for GNH has also been enshrined as an

important principle of state policy under Article 9 of the Constitution (Royal Government

of Bhutan [RGoB] 2008)

GNH is a noble and holistic approach towards development It seeks to

complement inner happiness with outer circumstances It addresses both material and

non-material wellbeing Although material wealth is associated with physical wellbeing

ones mental state or inner wellbeing is not conditioned by material needs alone GNH

supports the notion that happiness pursued and realized within the context of the greater

good of society offers the best possibility for the sustained happiness of the individual

The society as a whole cannot obtain happiness if individuals compete irresponsibly for

it To this end GNH recognizes that happiness can be realized as a collective goal it

cannot be left as an individual goal (Thinley 2005 Ura 2008) Prime Minister Jigme

YThinley (2005) in his speech at the 2nd Conference of GNH at Halifax stated GNH

stresses collective happiness to be addressed directly through public policies in which

happiness is an explicit criterion in projects and programmes (p7) If a governments

policy framework and its goals are adverse to happiness happiness will fail as a

7

collective goal (Ura 2008) In the GNH context a government concerned with the

happiness of its citizens must create an enabling environment for people to achieve

happiness

The concept of GNH is greatly influenced by Buddhism The Bhutanese

worldview including its social cultural and political ethos is rooted in Buddhism The

policymakers in Bhutan hold the view that simply imposing development models from

outside which do not take religion and tradition into account will not only serve to

diminish existing culture but will also meet with limited success (Planning

Commission 1992 p66) The Bhutan-Vision 2020 strongly reaffirms the notion of Gross

National Happiness as the central development concept for the country This vision

emphasizes a need and desire to balance economic development with cultural and

environmental conservation

14 Explanation of Gross National Happiness Index

Bhutan is not a GNH state at this moment it aspires to be one The Bhutanese

government is of the view that wellbeing arises in a society when sustainable and

equitable economic development is balanced with environmental and cultural

preservation and good governance (Rinzin 2006 Thinley 2005) These four pillars have

constantly guided the development policies in Bhutan This strategy has been referred to

as the middle path which is derived from Buddhist principles of avoiding extremism

and taking a balanced view (Planning Commission 1999) In November 2008 the

government adopted the GNH index as a means to measure GNH The government felt

the need for a GNH index for without some kind of measurement system GNH cannot

8

guide practical policies and programs (CBS 2008) Under the GNH index 72 indicators

were identified under the following nine domains psychological wellbeing cultural

resilience education health time use and balance good governance community vitality

ecological diversity and living standard The nine domains of Gross National Happiness

are explained below

1 Psychological wellbeing as an end includes satisfaction with all elements of life

life enjoyment and subjective wellbeing Under this domain there are 11 measurable

indicators (eg frequency of feeling of emotions such as jealousy compassion and

generosity) classified in three areas General psychological distress indicators Emotional

balance indicators and Spirituality practices indicators This study focuses on the

indicators under this domain

2 Time Use domain measures how individuals spend their time There are only two

indicators under this domain the sleeping hours and working hours The time spent

delivering voluntary and social service is also taken into account

3 Community Vitality refers to the quality of life in the community This domain

intends to measure how strong active and inclusive relationships are within communities

that work to foster individual and collective wellbeing It examines the nature of trust

belongingness vitality of caring relationships safety in the home and the community

and giving and volunteering The community vitality indicators are Family vitality

Safety Reciprocity Trust Social support Socialization and Kinship density

4 Cultural Diversity and Resilience This domain measures the diversity and

strength of cultural traditions The indicators study core values and perception of

changes in values and traditions Bhutanese tradition is a very broad term that

9

encompasses customs rituals religious ceremonies traditional dress sports music

dance poetry arts and code of behavior among other things The indicators of cultural

diversity and resilience are Dialect use Traditional sports Community festivity Artisan

skill Value transmission and Basic precept

5 Health Good health is said to have a significant positive effect on happiness The

GNH health domain assesses the health status of the population the determinants of

health and the health system Health status indicators show information on self-rated

health disabilities body mass index and number of healthy days experienced per month

Health indicators also measure the degree of knowledge about diseases and breast feeding

practices The health indicators are Health status Health knowledge and Barrier to

health

6 Education In a GNH society education should contribute to individual and

collective happiness The education domain assesses different types of knowledge and

skills that people have acquired in their lifetime It includes historical cultural civic

ecological and indigenous knowledge and skills which are mostly acquired informally

The education indicators are Education attainment Dzongkha (national) language and

Folk and historical literacy

7 Ecological Diversity and Resilience This indicator looks at peoples perception

of ecology The ecological diversity and resilience indicators are Ecological degradation

Ecological knowledge and Afforestation

8 Living standard The living standard indicators assess the levels of income at the

individual and household levels sense of financial security room ratio food security and

10

house ownership Thus the living standard indicators are Income Housing Food

security and Hardship

9 Good Governance The domain of good governance evaluates how people

perceive various government functions in terms of their efficacy honesty and quality

The indicators include human rights leadership at various levels of government

performance of government in delivering services and controlling inequality and

corruption peoples trust in media judiciary and police The indicators of good

governance are Government performance Freedom and Institutional trust indicator

A pilot survey was also carried out between September 2006 to January 2007 in

nine districts on 350 randomly chosen respondents to test the feasibility and robustness of

GNH pilot questionnaires The GNH index however was developed based on the result

of a final survey carried out in December 2007 to March 2008 (CBS 2008) A total of

950 respondents based on random sampling were interviewed in 12 districts by the CBS

in the final survey The questionnaires covered the key areas affecting the values and

principles of GNH roughly divided into the nine domains mentioned above CBS (2008)

states that the nine domains were selected on normative grounds and are equally

weighted because each dimension is considered relatively equal in terms of equal

intrinsic importance as a component of Gross National Happiness (pl) Within each

domain several indicators that seemed likely to remain informative across time had high

response rates and were relatively uncorrelated (CBS 2008 p 1) were selected For

example in the psychological wellbeing domain the respondents were asked how often

they felt emotions such as anger guilt selfishness pride calmness compassion

forgiveness disappointment jealousy and frustration Respondents were also given the

11

option to list other emotions that they often experienced From the survey results only

eleven indicators were selected under the psychological wellbeing domain In total 72

indicators under the nine domains were selected as the GNH index (See Appendix 1)

The GNH index is to be administered every two years in the country A survey is

currently being carried out by the CBS in all the twenty districts of Bhutan Tshoki

Zangmo a researcher at CBS states that the GNH survey will determine whether the

conditions leading to happiness have improved or not (Doiji 2010) Several structured

semi-structured and open-ended questions under each of the 72 indicators are asked of

the respondents to assess life satisfaction in each of the nine domains Any individual

having sufficient achievements in each of the nine domains is considered happy (CBS

2008) Unlike the GPI and HDI which uses GDP data the GNH index is measured based

on self-report assessment For example the GPI heavily relies on quantitative or

objective data produced by Statistics Canada as opposed to qualitative or subjective

survey data The GPI uses personal consumption expenditures as a starting point Those

elements which are regarded as regrettable are deducted mdash for example cost of crime

accidents and pollutions Values of leisure time unpaid housework parenting and

volunteer work are added back (Colman 2008a) All aggregation is done in terms of

monetary values The GNH index however is entirely depended on the self-report

survey data According to Diener and Lucas (1999) the self-report measurement of

subjective well being displays adequate levels of validity and reliability The GNH index

is calculated in two steps The first step involves setting a sufficiency cut off and

determining whether respondents have attained sufficiency in each of the nine domains

12

The final step involves aggregating the data using the formula GNH = 1 - Average

squared distance from cutoff

15 Research Questions and Objective of the Study

Measuring what really matters to people and framing policies in accordance with

the needs of people would help realize the goal of GNH The GNH index is an attempt by

the government to measure how well their citizens are doing economically socially and

emotionally The Centre for Bhutan Studies (2008) states that the nine domains identified

are regarded as the components of happiness and well-being in Bhutan However the

resulting question is To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do

the indicators reflect Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept

of GNH The objectives of my study are to analyze the indicators to determine to what

extent they reflect Buddhist principles and to determine the coherence of the indicators

with the concept of GNH

Although conducting an in-depth analysis of each of the 72 indicators would be

most beneficial due to the vastness of the indicators this study will focus only on the

indicators that fall under the domain of psychological wellbeing (see Appendix 1) I

choose this domain because many of the GNH indicators (for example education health

living standard time use ecology) are similar to those found in the conventional

economic measures like GDP Genuine Progress Indicators (GPI) Human Development

Index (HDI) and Quality of Life The psychological wellbeing indicator has not yet been

included in any of the national measures (CBS 2008) Since the measure of

13

psychological wellbeing is something new and unexplored as a development indicator it

would be a good place to begin assessing the indicators

16 Methodology

The main objective of this study is to determine the influence of Buddhist

principles and more specifically Buddhist principles of happiness on the indicators of

psychological wellbeing and the coherence of indicators with the concept of GNH This

policy analysis study uses the framework of Buddhist principles of happiness to analyze

the indicators Policy analysis research is associated with determining the nature causes

and effects of governmental decisions or policies designed to cope with specific social

problems Nagel (1980) points out four methods on which policy analysis focuses

determining what causes the policy determining what policies they are responsible for

determining what affects them and determining what policies will achieve or maximize a

given goal This study focuses on determining the influence of Buddhist principles on the

governments policy of measuring GNH and the consistency of the indicators with the

concept of GNH

Buddhism has long played an important role in the political economic and social

lives of Bhutanese It is in this context that Buddhism is used as a basis to assess the most

important development tool of Bhutan Gross National Happiness Index The intent is not

to prove that Buddhism is the best way to achieve GNH but to determine whether GNH

indicators reflect Buddhist principles of happiness This is done for three reasons First

the philosophy of GNH is understood to be engrained in Buddhism This study will

determine in part the extent to which this is the case (see chapter two) Second Bhutan is

14

a Buddhist country where the majority of the population is Buddhist (CIA 2009) As

such this study will determine the extent to which Buddhist principles have influenced

the indicators Third scholars such as Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and

Tashi (2004) have argued that Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH This study

attempts to analyze the psychological wellbeing indicators to determine the Buddhist

influence which then might support the notion put forth by them

Literature related to Gross National Happiness and the influence of Buddhism on

GNH are reviewed The origin of the concept of GNH and various discourses held on

GNH are explored Government documents and reports and secondary data sources such

as newspaper and research on GNH serve as important sources The primary data that are

used for the analysis are the eleven indicators of psychological wellbeing developed by

the CBS Each indicator is examined to see the degree to which it reflects Buddhist

principles of happiness

The indicators consist of positive emotions negative emotions and practices to

overcome negative emotions In a research design it is important to establish a

conceptual framework that acknowledges how the theoretical perspective will shape an

inquiry (Creswell 2007) To this end I will examine the Buddhist literature to find key

principles related to happiness Those principles and ideas that affect happiness will be

discussed In particular the key principles such as the four noble truths law of Karma

principle of interdependence and compassion will be discussed Further a theoretical

basis for happiness will be developed based on the Buddhist teachings of six paramitas

An understanding of these principles will assist the reader in gaining a sense of the scope

15

and direction of this study Overall the Buddhist principles of happiness framework will

serve as a basis for assessing the indicators

Since Bhutan is a Mahayana Buddhist country the key principles of Mahayana

Buddhist teachings will be examined The very popular Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse

Laglen will serve as a primary source This important Buddhist text on the thirty-seven

bodhisattva practices was written by the great Buddhist saint Thogme Zangpo (1245-

1369) The text is a summarization of the original teachings of Lord Buddha from

hundreds of volumes and contains all the key points of the vast and profound teachings

The text is used in all the schools of Bhutan In particular the six paramitas will be used

for the purpose of this study The thirty-seven practices were written to help every

sentient being achieve genuine happiness Therefore this study will examine the

teachings related to the six paramitas to determine the extent to which they are reflected

in the psychological wellbeing indicators Teachings by various Buddhist teachers such

as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will also be used

The Buddhist text Abhidhamma which is known as the higher teachings of the

Buddha and also called the ultimate teachings is also referenced for the analysis of the

indicators The text elucidates the working of mind or psyche thoughts thought-

processes and mental states The mind has been broken down into six primary and fifty-

one secondary consciousnesses representing the working of the psyche from an ethical

standpoint Abhidamma highlights wholesome and unwholesome emotions as well as

how they arise Since this study is on the analysis of the psychological wellbeing

indicators the text is appropriate However only those emotions which correspond to the

indicators are referred to for this study

16

17 Limitations and Significance of the study

There are three limitations recognized in this study First the theme of this study

focuses on the extent to which Buddhist principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH

indicators Happiness is a concept that can be viewed from a number of perspectives

Since the concept of GNH is inspired by Buddhism it is most appropriate that the

indicators be examined to determine the extent to which they reflect Buddhist principles

and then most specifically Mahayana Buddhist principles Further there are numerous

Buddhist teachings on happiness The teachings that are primarily used are those of

Master Thogme Zangpo the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche

Second the GNH index is still very new A survey was carried out to study the

indicators in twelve districts but the index has not yet been applied to the whole country

As such the GNH index is still in its infant stage and not many resources related to the

GNH index are available

The third limitation of this study is that only the indicators under the

psychological wellbeing domain are analyzed Findings from the preliminary survey of

the GNH index are not discussed

Exploring the psychological wellbeing domain is significant for various reasons

First there has been no study conducted on the indicators so far This is the first study

that analyzes the indicators and explores the relationship of the indicators to Buddhism

This study opens up a new perspective for future researchers Scholars interested in

studying the GNH index may use this study as a basis to analyze the other domains of

GNH Only one domain is explored in this study The remaining eight domains could be

an area of future research

17

Second the GNH index is the most important tool for guiding and analyzing the

government policy since the government will be designing policies based on the GNH

index The GNH index and its implementation will have a significant impact on the

design implementation and assessment of policy and the perceptions Bhutanese have of

the direction their society is taking Since what is measured affects what is done it is

important that the right indicators be used if measurements are flawed decisions can be

distorted (Stiglitz Sen amp Fitoussi 2009) Therefore it is important to determine

whether the indicators cohere with the GNH concept

18 Summary

This chapter provides an overview of the study The chapter began by looking at

Bhutans culture economy and political history including its transition to democracy

The concept of Gross National Happiness and its indicators the objective the

methodology limitation and significance of study were also presented in this chapter

Chapter Two will provide the review of literature on the GNH It explores how

the concept of GNH first originated It then argues that the concept of GNH has been

influenced by key Buddhist principles based on the eightfold path which are linked to

each pillar of GNH Various workshops held on GNH that ultimately led to the

development of the GNH index are also discussed

Chapter Three will provide the framework to analyze the psychological

wellbeing indicators The key Buddhist principles related to happiness are examined

Specifically the four noble truths law of Karma principle of interdependence and

compassion are presented The Mahayana Buddhist text Gyalse Lagin the 37 practices

18

of Bodhisattva are used to highlight Buddhist principles of happiness Specifically the

teachings on six paramitas are referenced to elucidate those principles

Chapter Four presents the core of the study The indicators of psychological

wellbeing are analyzed through the framework described in Chapter Three Each

indicator is examined from the perspective of Buddhist principles It highlights the extent

to which each indicator reflects the Buddhist principles of happiness and the consistency

of the indicators with the concept of GNH

Chapter Five concludes the study and offers some recommendations for future

studies

19

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW

There seems to be a unanimous agreement that Gross National Happiness (GNH)

is drawn from Buddhism but recognition of the influence of Buddhism on GNH is rather

implicit This may be due to the fact that Bhutan did not have the full academic

construction of GNH until recently When the concept of GNH was first pronounced in

the late 1980s it was just an abstract philosophy The concept has now gained more

depth and dimension through analysis and discourse While scholars such as Tashi (1999

2004) Priesner (1999) and Zangmo (2009) have linked Buddhism to GNH others have

argued for the importance of Buddhism in achieving the goal of GNH This chapter

reviews the influence of Buddhism on the concept of GNH Specifically the relationship

between the core concept of GNH and its four pillars to Buddhist principles is explored

Since this study uses Buddhism as the key lens in analyzing the extent to which Buddhist

principles of happiness are reflected in the GNH indicators the focus here is to

understand the centrality of Buddhism in the philosophy of GNH

The review is divided into four main sections The first section examines how the

core concept of GNH and the key teachings of Buddhism are related Literature points

out that key Buddhist principles such as interdependence Karma and the noble eightfold

path are linked to general themes that promote GNH The second section looks at how

the concept of GNH evolved Early Bhutanese history dating back to the 17th century

when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of living is explored This section

examines how Bhutan broke its isolationist policies and introduced planned development

giving priority to the preservation of its culture and environment thus giving birth to the

noble philosophy of GNH The third section discusses the various discourses held on 20

GNH that ultimately led to the development of the GNH index The final section of the

review discusses the idea of quantifying and measuring GNH The chapter concludes by

questioning whether the GNH index which is used as a basis to measure peoples

wellbeing in Bhutan captures the real essence of GNH

21 Buddhism and Gross National Happiness

Gross National Happiness is not a promise to make every individual happy This

is a common misconception The concept of GNH simply stresses the responsibility of

the government to create an environment for citizens to seek happiness Since all humans

value happiness the government of Bhutan takes the view that it cannot be left

exclusively to private individual devices and strivings (CBS 2008 pl) In the GNH

context the government should create by means of public policies addressing both

economic and emotional needs of the people an environment conducive for people to

pursue happiness Australian psychologist Suellen Donnelly (2004) defines happiness as

the sum of satisfaction with life domains and this satisfaction she states is judged against

the individuals and the societys values Happiness indeed depends on our social values

In Bhutan peoples social and cultural values are largely influenced by Buddhism GNH

thus places emphasis on happiness and wellbeing of people through promotion of social

and cultural values

Priesner (1999) Tashi (2004) and Zangmo (2009) argue that Buddhism and GNH

are intricately linked Zangmo (2009) points out that the concept of GNH is deeply rooted

in the rich traditions of Mahayana Buddhism Doiji and Pankaj (2004) state that GNH is

essentially a summarization of the basic tenets of Vajrayana Buddhism which embraces

21

harmony and compassion (p377) Vajrayana Buddhism is an offshoot of Mahayana

Buddhism The term Mahayana and Vajrayana is used interchangeably in Bhutan

Mahayana Buddhism emphasizes individual spiritual development rather than material

rewards compassion for others tolerance living in harmony with nature and the

importance of making the right choice Based on these values GNH seeks to achieve and

pave a middle path between material and spiritual aspects of life which are referred to as

peljor gongphel (economic development) and gakid (happiness and peace) (Zangmo

2009) Schumacher (1989) asserts that in a Buddhist society the lifestyle is strongly

influenced by Buddhist principles based on the Noble Eightfold Path The influence of

Buddhism is highly visible in every aspect of Bhutanese life Article 3(1) of the

Constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan states Buddhism is the spiritual heritage of

Bhutan which promotes the principles and values of peace non-violence compassion

and tolerance (p 9) Buddhism here is seen as a spiritual practice

According to Buddhism the main purpose of life the heart of being human is

happiness what we all seek knowingly or unknowingly is happiness (Rabjam Rimpoche

as cited by Tourism Council of Bhutan [TCoB] 2008) The chief goal of Buddhism is to

remove sufferings and achieve genuine happiness Tashi (2004) points out that the

cultivation of happiness is central to Buddhism Buddhism states that wealth pleasure

and power are all sought for achieving happiness but these are all material and only the

means to achieve short-term happiness As humans strive for happiness the end goal is

often forgotten and people spend time pursuing the means for their own sake In the

process humans remain deeply unsatisfied because they place all their hopes and fears in

the material outer conditions and neglect inner condition for happiness Happiness in

22

Buddhism depends on our actions and how we view and interpret the world Rabjam

Rimpoche states that although it is difficult to change the world it is always possible to

change the way we look at it (as cited by TCoB 2008) Buddhist teachings stress the

importance of training the mind and developing a set of human qualities such as

altruistic love compassion inner peace and inner strength

Similarly the concept of GNH emphasizes that happiness is the end goal and

economic development is just a means to achieve happiness GNH claims happiness to be

a major focus in assessing the welfare of the people Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley

states that GNH is all about living with basic human values in a sustainable way (Bhutan

Observer 2010) This view is influenced by Buddhist principles Buddhism advocates

living in harmony with nature and respecting all forms of life Although GNH places

equal importance on both material and non-material wellbeing of the people the idea of

GNH essentially is to encourage a rethinking of what is important in peoples lives is it

the ability to produce and consume or is it the happiness of its people derived from its

social and cultural values When Bhutan opened up to the outside world in 1961 it was

overwhelmed to see that the world had achieved tremendous development in every field

(Doiji 2007a) In their pursuit of development however many countries had lost their

forests cultures and much more In the neighboring region of Nepal for example the

governments policy of promoting economic development through mass tourism led to

environmental and cultural degradation Pandey Chettri Kunwar amp Ghimire (1995)

argue that mass tourism in Nepal led to erosion of local customs increase in drug abuse

theft of antiques and cultural property and prostitution Kinley Doiji (2007a) states that

GNH is therefore a response to this realization

23

Tashi (2004) and Lokamitra (2004) argue that GNH cannot be achieved unless

Buddhist philosophy is fully incorporated and practiced by every citizen of Bhutan

Similarly Hewavitharana (2004) proposes a framework for operationalizing GNH from

the perspective of Buddhist ethics and values Lokamitra (2004) asserts that unless a

society is morally and psychologically strong GNH cannot be achieved He states that

this moral and psychological strength can come from Buddhism Tashi Prakke amp Chettri

(1999) argue that the use of Buddhist concepts does not make the discussions culture-

specific They state that Buddhist wisdom differs from actual Buddhist cultures Buddhist

values and ethics can be followed without necessarily being a Buddhist

Tashi Prakke and Chettri (1999) argue that Buddhist spiritual concepts can be

clearly linked to general themes for the promotion of GNH Overall the Buddhist belief

ofinterdependence has inspired the four pillars because environment culture economy

and governance are interwoven in reality (Thinley 2005) Maintaining a balance among

these enhances the quality of life for the individual for society and for the environment

(Rinzin 2006)

1 The First Pillar Environmental Preservation

Although it appears that environment and biodiversity are not strong correlates of

happiness few would deny the value of environment in everyday life and hence our

happiness our health and aesthetic experiences depend on the quality of the physical

environment around us (Thinley 2005) The impact of climate change because of the

uncompromising nature of humans towards the environment is causing a lot of panic in

the world

24

Buddhism emphasizes preserving nature and the sanctity of life (Planning

Commission 1999) Tashi et al (1999) state that Buddhist philosophy provides strong

arguments for the adoption of an environmentally sensitive development strategy The

relationship between human beings and the environment is seen in a fundamentally

different way The Buddhist concept of sunyata holds that no subject or object has an

independent existence rather they dissolve into a web of relationships with all

dimensions of environment The Buddhist principle of interconnectedness- the idea that

nature gives back what we give it- has influenced the Bhutanese with a strong ethic of

conservation which in turn influenced Bhutanese environmental policies (Thinley 2005)

Bhutanese people believe that high mountains deep ravines ancient trees and

rocks are the abode of spirits gods and demons Disturbing them would enrage the non-

human inhabitants and bring ill luck sickness and death to families Appeasing these

spirits will be rewarded with luck peace and prosperity (NEC 1998 Rinzin 2006)

These beliefs about the importance of protecting nature have permeated Bhutanese

consciousness and have become integral to the Bhutanese way of life and value system

The government therefore has adopted strong environmental policies As per the

constitution of Bhutan the country must always maintain 60 forest coverage

2 The Second Pillar- Cultural Preservation and Promotion

The conservation and promotion of tradition and culture has always been an

integral part of Bhutans development policies since the initiation of planned

development in the 1960s (Planning Commission 1999) The Bhutanese started their

policies from a well-defined set of values and culture which are typically Buddhist

Within such Buddhist cultural values there is a strong belief in the implications of the

25

doctrine of Karma (Gurung 1999) The overall Bhutanese culture is based on customary

rules norms indigenous knowledge systems and institutions in addition to a rich

religious heritage based on Buddhism It includes a code of conduct known as driglam

namzha which is designed to carve out a distinct Bhutanese identity In addition to

promoting national dress driglam namzha is built on strict observance of vows (tha-

damtshig) which are quintessential^ Buddhist and emphasize strong kinship loyalty

community-oriented behavior hospitality to guests respect for ones parents elders and

superiors and mutual cooperation between rulers and ruled parents and children and

teachers and students (MoHE 1994 Rinzin2006 Chophel 2008)

In a study conducted by Rinzin (2006) it was observed that the Bhutanese people

consider culture to be very important They fully support the preservation of Bhutanese

culture as a means to maintain national identity sense of security and conservation of a

way of life A unique Bhutanese culture is also a means to generate income through

tourism activities Since the happiness of the people also depends on their social and

cultural values the government of Bhutan is committed to preserving and strengthening

the Bhutanese culture and tradition

3 The Third Pillar - Sustainable and equitable socio-economic development

The concept of GNH does not neglect the importance of economic development

While economic development in many countries takes place at the expense of external

factors such as social coherence cultural diversity and environmental integrity the

concept of GNH limits the exploitation of social cultural ecological and human costs

(Priesner 1999) Economic development is just a means to achieve GNH and is not an

end itself If we look at the world today there are spiritual sufferings in terms of anxiety

26

insecurity stress and pain in every part of the world including Bhutan Economic

development can secure a livelihood and is vitally important to resolve poverty but it is

easier to identify and alleviate misery than to maximize happiness

Given the huge natural resource base that Bhutan enjoys the country could have

opted for mass economic development by making use of these resources However the

government does not overlook the difference between renewable and non-renewable

goods Keeping in view the negative impacts of exploiting natural resources and

exhaustibility of non-renewable goods the government has identified three avenues for

economic development These are hydropower tourism and agriculture (NEC 1998

Planning Commission 1999) All have minimal negative impact on the society and are

sustainable The use of nature in a sustainable way can be related to one of the

requirements for the Buddhas eightfold path called the Right Livelihood (Schumacher

1989) Right Livelihood entails that ones means of livelihood should not be dishonest or

cause suffering to other sentient beings Wrong Livelihood is anything that is based on

trickery or greed (Harvey 2000) This noble path teaches us to avoid extremism and

follow a balanced path Schumacher (1989) argues that Right Livelihood touches on

economic aspects of the Buddhist life and forms the basis of economic principles By

following the path of Right Livelihood the government is being cautious not to engage

in trades or occupations that result in harming its environment culture and society

4 The fourth Pillar - Good Governance

This last pillar stresses the kind of government that Bhutan needs to make it into a

GNH state Good governance means exercising of authority in managing a countrys

political social economic and administrative resources in a manner that is transparent

27

accountable and responsive to peoples needs (Gross National Happiness Commission

[GNHC] 2009 p56) The fourth king His Majesty Jigme Singye Wangchuck asserts

that good governance is an important prerequisite for strengthening the other pillars of

GNH During his reign decentralization and democratization have always been the most

important considerations All changes finally culminated in the evolution of democratic

government in 2008 The King in his wisdom decided that parliamentary democracy

would be the best path to good governance and that happiness comes from having the

freedom to choose Kinley Doiji (2007a) points out that this step by the king is a

Vajrayana Buddhist approach For the Bhutanese this came as an overwhelming surprise

Thus democracy in Bhutan sprang from the womb of GNH Democracy in Bhutan is the

path to good governance that leads to GNH

Chapter Two (clause 22) of the Bhutan Civil Service Rules and Regulations 2006

states that the government needs to maintain and promote the values of Tha-Damtshig

and Ley Jumdrey to serve the people and the country Tha Damtshig is a traditional

Buddhist belief of trust respect and cooperation between the government and its people

Ley Jumdrey is a very popular Buddhist belief referring to the cycle of Karma which

encourages us to follow the eightfold noble path Right View Right Intention Right

Action Right Speech Right Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right

Mindfulness The royal decree issued by the king in 1998 stated that the Bhutanese

judiciary system is based on the Buddhist 10 virtuous actions and 16 pure human laws

(as cited by Nishimizu 2008 p 40) The ten virtuous actions are 1 Avoid killing 2

Avoid Stealing 3 Avoid Sexual misconduct (the first three form the part of Right

Action) 4 Avoid lies 5 Avoid divisive talks 6 Avoid harsh speech 7 Avoid Gossip

28

(these four fall under Right Speech) 8 Avoid covetousness 9 Avoid harmful intent 10

Avoid wrong views (the last three are the part of Right Mindfulness) (Tshongkhapa as

cited by Powers 1995)

Tashi et al (1999) explain that in Buddhism there are three doors body speech

and mind (lii ngag yid) These three gates provide a basic categorization for policy

makers in recognizing that existence embraces more than physical aspects Any

individual or government that strives to enhance happiness must make the right use of the

three doors Right Mindfulness Right Speech and Right Action The three gates are like

the neutral ground which can be used for good neutral or bad action (Tashi et al 1999)

Right intention in the mind must spark right speech and right action because working

with the mind directly is considered too illusive With Right View one needs to

understand the nature of the world and embrace compassion Right View is the path that

refers to wisdom which means seeing emptiness realizing that appearances in the

relative world or the world in which things change lacking permanent existence

Embracing compassion and wisdom results in the accumulation of merit (Sonam) and

wisdom (Yeshe) Every government must embrace compassion and wisdom and work

with Right Mind Right Speech and Right Action The Bhutanese government strives to

nurture and manifest these qualities

22 Evolution of the Concept

The term GNH became popular in the late 1980s but the concept itself is very

old According to Priesner (1999) this concept evolved from the constituent features of

Bhutanese society before 1959 a socio-economic system based on a Buddhist and feudal

29

set of values Buddhism came to Bhutan in the 7th century AD but made little impact on

the lives of the people until the 9th century (Ministry of Health and Education [MoHE]

1994 Dargye 2008) Prior to the 7th century Bhutan was called the land of Monpas the

land of darkness or no religion Records show that people mainly practiced Bonism an

animistic and shamanistic belief system where nature is worshipped (Giri 2004) Bon

rituals are still included in some Buddhist festivals in Bhutan From the 10th century to

the beginning of the 17th century Buddhism started influencing peoples way of life

culture and customs During that period many Tibetan scholars came to teach Buddhism

in Bhutan They built monasteries and temples throughout the country but none of them

could establish a formal Buddhist community in Bhutan (MoHE 1994)

It was Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyel (1594-1651) a Tibetan monk who formally

instituted Buddhism in Bhutan in the 17th century (MoHE 1990 MoHE 1994)

Therefore the 17th century is the most important period in Bhutanese history Bhutanese

development policies stem from this period All the high-ranking officials during

Zhabdrungs era were monks and the governments primary function was to support the

religious establishment which in turn promoted Buddhist morality and ethics among the

lay population (MoHE 1994 Ura 1993 as cited by Priesner 1999) In other words the

government promoted the wellbeing of people through spiritual teachings based on

Buddhism The Bhutanese legal system codified in 1652 and based on principles of

Buddhism is the foundation of the contemporary Bhutanese law (Nishimizu 2008)

Since the concept of GNH emphasizes the importance of living with basic human values

giving equal importance to both economic and spiritual wellbeing this clearly indicates

30

that the seeds of GNH had been planted during Zhabdrungs reign Prime Minister Jigme

Y Thinley (2004) writes

Traditional polity in Bhutan drawing much on the Buddhist culture was certainly guided towards GNH A Buddhist equivalent of a Social Contract declared in Bhutan in 1675 said that happiness of sentient beings and teachings of the Buddha were mutually dependent The 1129 legal code of Bhutan stressed that laws should promote happiness of the sentient beings (p 2)

Until the 1960s Bhutan possessed very little of the infrastructure we see today in the

country (National Environment Commission [NEC] 1998 Planning Commission 1999)

Life was hard and conditions were very harsh There was no electricity telephones or

postal services to connect different parts of country or with the outside world There were

no motor roads and money was unknown The health infrastructure was poor life

expectancy was estimated to be an average of 35 years Western education was

considered unnecessary The vast majority of Bhutanese lived in isolation in the rugged

mountain terrains The Bhutanese were subsistence farmers totally dependent upon the

land and the forests for survival People exchanged goods among themselves and were

self sufficient for most purposes Bhutans traditional socio-economic system was based

on the principle of communal self-reliance which is related to the Buddhist doctrine of

the benevolent nature of small-scale (Priesner 1999 Gurung 1999)

Due to the lack of foreign influences Bhutan developed an extremely stable

social environment and traditional system of knowledge Self-reliance was the first

explicitly emphasized development objective in 1959 (as cited Priesner 1999) The

National Assembly in 1959 stated that its primary task was to maintain the sovereignty

of the kingdom through economic self-reliance (Kuensel Vol 2 No 9 [May 1-15

31

1968] p7 as cited by Priesner 1999) Modern development came to Bhutan in the early

1960s during the reign of the third king Jigme Doiji Wangchuck (1952-1972) (MoHE

1994) However Bhutans decision to embark on modern development was not

voluntary During a visit to Bhutan in September 1958 the Indian Prime Minister

expressed his concern about Bhutans security and emphasized the need for a road to link

Bhutan and India offering at the same time financial and technical assistance To avoid

increased dependence the government refused to accept the assistance Nevertheless

Bhutans attitude changed during 1959 a consequence of events in Tibet In 1959 the

Tibetan revolt was suppressed by the Chinese which resulted in the flow of several

thousand Tibetan refugees into Bhutan At the end of the same year Chinese actions

began to be directed against Bhutan A triangular shaped part of Tibetan territory between

the small Indian state of Sikkim and Bhutan through which the most important trade

route from Bhutan to India ran was sealed off (Galay 1999 Priesner 1999) In the

following National Assembly session the construction of roads became the main issue of

discussion As an underdeveloped country Bhutan lacked financial and labor resources

and India was the only possible source of aid Thus Bhutan took the first step towards

development cautiously Later when Chinese aggression declined measures of cultural

preservation were soon adopted to contain and counter-balance the negative effects of

modernization (Priesner 1999)

Since 1961 Bhutan plans its development every five years The third King

always expressed his priority as making the people prosperous and happy (Kuensel

1968 as cited by Priesner 1999 p7) Prosperity and happiness were highlighted in the

third kings address on the occasion of Bhutans admission to the United Nations in 1971

32

Further the preservation of environment and culture is the most consistently applied

principle from the start of the first Five Year Plan (FYP) and this is a major input for

GNH

The Bhutanese development concept thus evolved from the countrys socioshy

economic historic and political circumstances The concept of GNH is thus the

translation of cultural and social consciousness into development priorities (Priesner

1999) To sum up the influencing factors that caused Bhutan to have such a unique

development concept are the absence of foreign domination the desire to preserve

national identity Chinese invasion causing threat to the national security and deeply

embedded Buddhist beliefs The philosophy of GNH therefore evolved earlier than the

term Gross National Happiness was coined

23 GNH Discourses and Debates

The first official keynote speech on Gross National Happiness was delivered by

the current Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley at the United Nations Development

Programme (UNDP) Regional Millennium Meeting for Asia and the Pacific in 1998 His

keynote speech was later published in the countrys national newspaper Kuensel Many

scholars responded to the publication and this led to the first workshop in 1999 to explore

the conceptual foundations of human happiness During the workshop Prime Minister

Thinley raised three questions for deliberation First can an index be constructed for

GNH as it has been done for Human Development Second what are the main

ingredients of happiness Third what would be the main indicators of happiness if there

were any at all

33

Some participants proposed that GNH could be quantified Others suggested that

it would be a speculative exercise into what is essentially a subjective experience and

would defy any statistical device aimed at its quantification They expressed their

suspicion that the essence of conventional economic theories runs counter to GNH

Rinzin (2006) states that two schools of thought emerged one took a philosophical

approach and the other an empirical analytical approach of defining and measuring GNH

On the philosophical side scholars argued that GNH is a development philosophy and

there is no need to define and measure happiness For Stehlik (1999) the attempt even to

define happiness is unnecessary and even less to measure it The other school of thought

argued that in order for GNH to be applicable it should be measurable The first

workshop failed to come up with concrete results The discussion papers from this

workshop were published in June 1999 under the title Gross National Happiness A Set

of Discussion Papers

After a gap of five years the First International Conference on GNH

Operationalizing Gross National Happiness was held in Thimphu Bhutan from

February 18 to 20 2004 The conference intended to explore ways in which the concept

of happiness as an objective of economic and social development could be

operationalized in terms of both policy and evaluation of change The conference focused

largely on the concepts of happiness or wellbeing Dr Ron Colman and Dr Julia Sagebien

(2004) presented a paper on Nova Scotias Atlantic Genuine Progress Index or GPI

which assigns explicit value to environmental quality natural wealth population health

livelihood security equity free time and educational attainment The conference

discussed the relevance of GPI measures to Bhutan Colman and Sagebien suggested a

34

potential framework for measuring GNH proposing indicators such as education basic

security respect and care for all beings Although the conference did not come to any

definitive conclusions Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley (2007) stated that the conference

was a milestone in the history of international discourse as it opened up the discourse on

happiness Further the ripples from this seminar spread far and helped Bhutan develop

the indicators of GNH in a later period

The Second International Conference on GNH Rethinking Development Local

Pathways to Global Wellbeing was held in Nova Scotia Canada from June 20 to 24

2005 The conference focused on the exploration of practices the sharing of actual

experiences and the development of a framework to operationalize GNH The first and

second international conferences seemed to have convinced Bhutanese policy makers that

in order to make GNH practicable it must first become measurable By the time the third

international conference was held Bhutan was well on the way to constructing the GNH

Index

The Third International Conference held in Bangkok Thailand in 2007 focused

on the indicators of GNH The then Prime Minister of Bhutan Kinzang Doiji spoke on the

importance of good governance and highlighted the wellbeing of people as a priority in

developing government policies Just a week prior to the fourth international conference

Bhutan officially adopted the GNH Index

The theme for the Fourth International Conference (November 26 to 28 2008)

was Practice and Measurement of GNH indicating a step forward into a new phase

which focused more on how to reflect GNH in policies and how to grasp the current

situation and measure progress Discussions revolved around the GNH indicators

35

psychology environment community relations education health living standard

governance culture time use and economy Rosellini (2008) says that some of the

indicators of GNH would be relevant to the UNDP-Oxford initiative in understanding the

missing dimensions of poverty Rosellini (2008) further suggested that GNH should be

used as an alternative approach from an international perspective because none of the

methods that attempted to move beyond purely materialistic interpretations of human

progress have gained broad acceptance among academics and development practitioners

The fifth conference held in Brazil in 2009 (November 20-23) was a revelation

for the Bhutanese While the understanding of GNH had grown tremendously at the

international level the GNH conference held in Brazil made the Bhutanese government

realize that Bhutan is still lagging behind in implementing the philosophy of GNH

(Bhutan Broadcasting Service [BBS] 2009) There is no doubt that the policies are

framed in terms of the four pillars of GNH but the government failed to infuse GNH

values into the education system Further GNH values were not reflected in the day-to-

day working of the government institutions businesses and at the community level

Brazil had left Bhutan behind in terms of implementing GNH ethics Several business

establishments in Brazil practice the principle of GNH One pharmaceutical company is

believed to be implementing its ethics and modalities into the way the company

functions Likewise Brazilian villages at the community level are also practicing the

dimensions of GNH on a day-to-day basis (Kuensel 2009) This definitely was a

revelation for Bhutan

On his return from the GNH conference in Brazil the prime minister expressed

his sense of the urgency and immediacy of bringing GNH principles and values into the

36

education system Following this a workshop was conducted on how to achieve a GNH

infused education system (Kuensel 2009) The education ministry has come up with a

road map and an action plan to begin the process of bringing GNH values and principles

into the school system starting in 2010 The education minister stated that every school in

the country will now develop GNH-inspired curriculum material The latest reports state

that many schools in Bhutan have now infused GNH values into their curriculum

Students in most schools meditate for a few minutes before starting any lesson Many

schools are now working towards becoming green (Bhutan Observer March 2010)

Many students were quoted as saying that Meditation somehow helps to relax and

concentrate more on their studies (Business Bhutan 17 April 2010) This is a very

practical move by the government towards enhancing GNH Bhutan has learned a lot

through seminars and debates held at the national and international level The idea of

measuring and quantifying GNH has however raised many questions

24 Quantifying Gross National Happiness

Initially due to the absence of a specific and relevant development index that

takes into account the core principles and dimensions of GNH the United Nations

Human Development concept and its measurement the Human Development Index

(HDI) was used as an interim tool to assess all-round development in Bhutan (Gross

National Happiness Commission [GNHC] 2008) The HDI fails however to capture the

overall essence of the concept of GNH because only three variables are used in HDI

health (life expectancy) education (adult literacy) and wealth (GDP per capita) Owing

to the number of discourses and questions raised regarding the applicability of the

37

philosophy of GNH Bhutan has now adopted the GNH Index Karma Ura (2008)

president of the Centre for Bhutan Studies writes that as many contemporary indicators

of progress and development do not reflect GNH adequately the Royal Government of

Bhutan directed the Centre for Bhutan Studies (CBS) to develop GNH index which will

provide appropriate indicators for Bhutanese development (pl)

In his first international speech the Prime Minister of Bhutan Jigme Y Thinley

(1998) stated that the trends of happiness of people are unknown Although people

perceive their wellbeing subjectively their subjective views are not incorporated well

into the design of economic and social policy (Kusago 2006) Similarly Mark (2008)

argues that as a direct consequence of different governments collecting and analyzing

economic data (and social and environmental data to a lesser extent) much is known

about the material conditions of peoples lives but little about their actual lived

experience and their sense of personal and social wellbeing It is to address this lacunae

that the government needs to adopt indicators for measuring the wellbeing of its people

Former Minister Kinzang Dorji (2007b) points out that indicators can be useful in

revealing institutional and human conditions to show both the potential and result of

policy decisions (p 2) He argues that the use of indicators reflecting GNH values will

enable policy makers to locate those principles in determining GNH policy and tracking

GNH processes

Many are skeptical however and wonder whether quantifying such a noble

philosophy is justifiable Reducing real people and real lives to numerical values does not

do justice to the emotional and spiritual depth of the human experience (Doiji 2007b)

There is much doubt as to whether the indicators capture the real essence of human

38

happiness Nonetheless if the government wants to promote the wellbeing or happiness

of its citizens it needs to know the happiness trend of its citizens and find out if its

policies contribute to both subjective and objective wellbeing Even if Gross National

Happiness cannot be quantified as precisely as Gross Domestic Product is currently

quantified Daly amp Farley (2004) state that It is better to be vaguely right than precisely

wrong (p243) The policy makers will at least get an idea of peoples state of wellbeing

Measuring GNH is indeed a milestone in Bhutanese history as it will always

remind Bhutanese of their founding ideals A GNH Index would help citizens know if

they are improving as a nation in protecting and exercising their right to pursue happiness

(Brooks 2008) The adoption of the GNH Index shows the seriousness of the Bhutanese

government in pursuing the goal of GNH Lastly there is hope that Gross National

Happiness will not remain as a mere catchphrase

25 Summary

This chapter presented a review of the literature on GNH and the influence of

Buddhism on the concept of GNH The aim of this review is to get a better understanding

of the centrality of Buddhism in the concept of GNH and to highlight issues that emerged

in the GNH discourses The key principle of GNH which focuses on happiness is

influenced by the core teachings of Buddhism which states that the main purpose of life

the heart of being human is happiness The four pillars of GNH reflect traditional

Bhutanese beliefs and values inspired by Buddhism The law of Karma the principle of

interdependence and the noble eightfold path has certainly influenced the Bhutanese way

39

of living and thus the concept of GNH The Buddhist values of interdependence equality

and compassion are inherent in GNH

History reveals that the basic philosophy of GNH emerged between the 10th and

17th centuries when Buddhism started influencing the Bhutanese way of life Buddhism

therefore is the backbone of the concept of GNH Bhutan however is not a Utopian state

because it advocates GNH Like many developing countries Bhutan is grappling with

problems of increased rural urban migration poverty and unemployment thus

challenging the goals of GNH The government is continuing to reflect GNH objectives

in its policy and programmes Through the effective use of the four pillars of GNH

Bhutan never placed excessive emphasis on economic development The country did not

opt for economic activities which promised huge financial gain but caused damage to

health environment and culture Bhutan therefore is said to have one of the best policies

in the world (Priesner 1999) However it is important to know if the policies are

promoting happiness and wellbeing among the people The government has rightly

adopted the GNH Index because only through the use of the indicators will policymakers

know if their policies are in reality promoting happiness The question remains however

as to whether these indicators capture the real essence of GNH and whether they are

influenced by Buddhist principles

40

CHAPTER THREE THE BUDDHIST PRINCIPLES OF HAPPINESS

We all want happiness and do not want suffering Many of us support the

importance of moral values in making our lives happier Buddhist principles emphasize

that human values and principles are necessary to lead a happy life Yet there is a general

assumption that income and happiness are directly related Happiness research findings

defy this generalization and show that increasing incomes are not accompanied by

increasing happiness (Hirata 2006)

The Buddha discovered this 2500 years ago The Buddha did not reject the idea of

possessing wealth but taught that wealth does not guarantee happiness He rejected greed

in accumulating wealth being enslaved to materialism and treating wealth as the

ultimate goal (Wijeyawansa 2009) The Buddhas teachings are based on the key

problem ofsuffering Since Buddhism focuses so much on suffering it is often

criticized as being pessimistic But Buddhism does not deny the presence of happiness in

our lives It teaches the way out of suffering and shows the path towards genuine

happiness Buddhism understands that not everyone can lead an ascetic life and accepts

that for a layperson a certain degree of wealth is essential to live a happy life Living an

ethical and moral life is said to bring genuine happiness in Buddhism The objective of

this chapter is to understand happiness from a Buddhist perspective by laying down some

key Buddhist principles related to happiness

Understanding Buddhist principles and values that underpin the Buddhist

worldview will provide a framework that will be the lens through which the

psychological wellbeing indicators of GNH will be analyzed in the following chapter

The principles that will be discussed here are however not definitive boundaries because

41

Buddhism teaches innumerable ways to achieve ultimate happiness In this chapter the

framework of happiness is based on a specific Buddhist teachings called the six

paramitas Nonetheless the entire Buddhist teachings have the same essence and arise

out of the four noble truths and eightfold noble path

This chapter is divided into three sections The first section begins with a brief

introduction to the Buddhist view of happiness Buddhism in Bhutan belongs to the

Mahayana tradition and therefore this study is limited to the context of Mahayana

Buddhism The second section looks at key foundational doctrines such as the four noble

truths Karmamdashthe law of cause and effect the principle of interdependence and

compassion The third section constructs a framework for happiness based on the

Mahayana Buddhist principle using the six perfections or paramitas Paramita refers to

crossing over from the sea of suffering to the shore of happiness The paramitas are the

six kinds of virtuous practice required for skillfully serving the welfare of oneself and

others and a path to achieve genuine happiness For the purpose of this study Thogme

Zangpos text on Thirty-Seven Practices of Bodhisattava (Gyalse Laglin) and teachings

by Buddhist teachers such as His Holiness the Dalai Lama and Sogyal Rimpoche will

serve as sources for constructing this framework

31 Buddhist View of Happiness

Buddhism was founded in the 5th century and has over 365 million followers

worldwide (Ontario Consultants 2009) The term religion is often associated with the

concept of creator or a god but Buddhism rejects the idea of creator god as well as the

notion of a permanent self or a indestructible soul (Flanagan 2007) Therefore it is

42

commonly said that Buddhism is non-theistic or atheistic Buddhism is a series of

practices and a way of life based on the teachings of the Buddha Buddhists are strongly

influenced by Karma the law of cause and effect with the implication that there is no

creator (interview with the Dalai Lama by Chopra 2010)

The word Buddha means to awaken from the sleep of ignorance and to spread

ones intelligence to everything that can be known (Dalai Lama 2000 p2) The Buddha

was like any other human being before he attained nirvana at the age of thirty-seven The

lessons that the Buddha learned while in search of truth is the foundation of Buddhism

chief among which is the pursuit of happiness

In his book An Open Heart Practicing Compassion in Everyday Lifethe Dalai

Lama (2001) states that the purpose of spiritual practice is to fulfill our desire for

happiness (p30) Buddhism indeed has much to say about happiness Sogyal Rimpoche

a renowned Buddhist teacher states there are two kinds of happiness one based on

material comfort and pleasures the other on inner contentment and peace (Doiji 2010)

The two are the physical and mental components of happiness The mental experience or

the inner force plays a more powerful role For example in a very pleasant environment

if we are mentally depressed the surroundings will not make a difference Similarly if

we have inner peace or mental happiness it will be easier to face any challenge This

indicates our mind and thoughts play a powerful role in experiencing happiness (Dalai

Lama 2001) Khenpo Phuntsho Tashi (2004) asserts that in Mahayana Buddhism

happiness springs from an altruistic or compassionate mind Since human minds are often

agitated by afflictive emotions the results frequently are negative actions which in turn

cause suffering The essence of Buddhism therefore is to tame to transform to conquer

43

the human mind for it is the root of everythingmdash it is the creator of happiness and

suffering The Buddha has said in Dhammapada (as cited by Bancroft 1997 p41)

Such a Wandering mind is weak and unsteady Attracted here there and everywhere How good it is to control it and know the happiness of Freedom (Verse 35)

And yet how unruly still how subtle the delusion of the thoughts To quiet them and master them is the true way of happiness (Verse 36)

There is a significant similarity between the Buddhas teachings and Aristotles

ethic Eudiamonia the Aristotelian term for happiness is very similar to Buddhism

Aristotle states that if we want to be happy we should cultivate and practice virtues

through wisdom He also mentions that happiness is vulnerable to external hazards

sudden disaster can reverse happiness no matter how virtuous ones life has been

(Annas 1999) This is exactly what the Buddha preached 2500 years ago The Buddhas

teachings are based on the impermanent nature of life and the importance of virtuous and

righteous deeds Most of Aristotles ethic is devoted to an account of virtuous activities

that he states constitute happiness Aristotle describes happiness as doing well combined

with virtue or self sufficiency of life or the pleasantest life with safety or prosperity of

possessions and bodies with power to protect then and use them in action (Irwin 1999

p3) Aristotle believes that power and fortune are also parts of happiness because they

are the best providers of safety This idea that happiness requires fortune contradicts the

Buddhas teachings The Buddha preached that fortune power possession are all

materials and subject to change They are therefore not a source of genuine happiness but

a cause of suffering

44

His Holiness the Dalai Lama states that Buddhists aim not merely for temporary

happiness but for long-term results They are concerned with life after life This means

that ultimate happiness in Buddhism is Nirvana the cessation of suffering the end of the

cycle of birth-and-death He further adds that spiritual practice the practice of dharma

can bring both long-term happiness and more inner strength day by day (Dalai Lama amp

Hopkins 2000) Buddhist teaching employs innumerable skillful means through which

happiness can be achieved at the individual and collective levels Being on the

Bodhisattva path the path on which all sentient beings can receive help can bring us

happiness Powers (1995 p91) defines a Bodhisattva as someone who is progressing

towards the state of enlightenment Bodhisattva symbolizes compassion Bodhisattvas are

also called jangchup sempa which means a compassionate heart in Tibetan and

Bhutanese

32 Key Mahayana Buddhist Principles

321 The four noble truths

In his search for the meaning of life the Buddha discovered the four noble truths

which are the very foundation of all Buddhist beliefs The Buddhas four noble truths

explain the truth of suffering and the way to overcome it The first noble truth recognizes

that suffering is the essence of human existence suffering from birth old age sickness

and death as well as the pain from separation grief and despair The second noble truth

explains that desire or craving is the cause of all suffering craving for pleasure for

individual existence and for release from our present situation The third noble truth

states that suffering can cease by overcoming craving or desire The fourth noble truth

45

prescribes the way to overcome desire by following the eightfold noble path (Bancroft

1997)

A closer understanding of the four noble truths leads to the realization that no

person can achieve constant and prolonged happiness because as the first noble truth

states Life is suffering This means that as long as humans exist there will be no end

to suffering Suffering in Buddhism has generally been categorized into three types First

is the suffering of misery which includes physical and mental sufferings Second is the

suffering of change where we achieve happiness only for a brief period because all

phenomena are subject to change Third is compositional suffering the suffering which is

endemic to cyclic existence because humans are under the influence of afflictive

emotions (Dalai Lama as cited in Powers 1984 amp 1995 Negi 1999)

The cause of all suffering is the desire and aversion arising out of ignorance

which is called Klesha Klesha literally means afflictive emotions or delusions and refers

to wide range of mental states (Negi 1999) Bhutanese call it nyong mong meaning

distorted or confused By following the eightfold noble path one can overcome the

afflictive emotions and thus achieve genuine happiness Light Party (1996) asserts that

the main map the Buddha offered for the trip to happiness and contentment is the

Eightfold Path Right Understanding Right Intention Right Action Right Speech Right

Livelihood Right Effort Right Concentration and Right Mindfulness Buddhist

teachings are all centered on one or more steps of the eightfold noble path The eight

steps are usually divided into three main practices Morality (Sila) which also means

ethics or virtues Concentration (Samadhv meditation) and Wisdom (Prajnaj (Dalai

Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2000 Gomes 2004) Right Understanding and Right

46

Intention pertain to wisdom (Sanskrit panna) Right Action Right Speech and Right

Livelihood pertain to moral virtues or ethics Right Effort Right Concentration and

Right Mindfulness pertain to meditative cultivation of heart and mind

Moral virtue meditation and wisdom form part of the six perfections which

are the core teachings of Mahayana Buddhism The six perfections are the six qualities to

the Bodhisattvas path the state of genuine happiness This study uses the six perfections

as a framework for happiness which will be explored in depth in the third section

322 The Law of Karma Principle of Interdependence and Compassion

The most common belief among Buddhists is that we can never escape from our

own Karma (Sanskrit Kamma) Karma (the law of cause and effect) states that nothing

comes into being without a cause The law of Karma can be simply related to Newtons

Third Law which states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction The

same holds according to the law of Karma though it is not known whether the reaction

will occur in this life or beyond this life Since Buddhism supports the idea of rebirth

certain key aspects of a persons next rebirth are thought to be karmically determined

These include the family into which one is born ones social status physical appearance

character and personality Karma does not however claim that everything that happens

to a person is karmically determined Karma does not determine precisely what will

happen or how anyone will react to what happen Individuals are always free to resist

previous conditioning and establish new patterns of behavior

The belief in Karma sometimes degenerates into a form of fatalism but fate and

Karma are different Humans have freedom to choose and their present action is not the

47

entire result of their past Karma action It does however influence a persons action

because of the character a person has developed (Harvey 2005)

The belief that one has to bear the Karma of ones act is deeply rooted in the

Buddhist psyche It is a very common belief among Buddhists that depending on ones

Karmic consequences (or accumulated positivenegative merits) one will experience

happinesssufferings of various types (Gaylag 2004) good action leads to pleasant

effects and bad deeds lead to unpleasant results Harvey (2005) asserts that the cycle of

Karma provides a perspective on life which is supportive of compassion and respect for

other beings In Buddhism if you want happiness you need to sow the seed of good

merit

Buddhist philosophy explains innumerable ways to achieve positive Karma

Actions motivated by greed hatred and delusion result in bad Karma while actions

motivated by their opposites - non-attachment loving kindness and right understanding-

- result in positive Karma Good intentions therefore must find expression in right

actions and right actions are basically those that are wholesome and do no harm either

oneself or others Tashi (2004) states that in order to accumulate merits and to be happy

our actions can be summed up under three principle causes 1) Developing the attitude of

not harming others (this is being mindful and awakening oneself from ignorance) 2)

Cultivating the attitude of helping others and 3) Being Content

The principle of dependent origination also known as the principle of

interdependence is one of the important principles of Buddhism This principle is actually

an elaboration of the law of Karma which states that all things are interdependent and

48

everything that happens depends on other things happening (Negi 1999 Flanagan 2007

Doiji 2009) In other words since a whole is dependent on its parts any existent thing is

composed of its parts therefore its very existence depends on its parts Buddhism states

that human beings in particular are the combination of the five groups of existence or

five aggregates The physical body is the material aggregate and the mental aspect is

made up of feeling perception (awareness recognition through senses) mental

formations or thoughts and consciousness (knowing the object through our senses)

(Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001 Harvey 2005) Since we are made of these five aggregates

and these aggregates themselves have no permanent existence there exists no permanent

self Buddhist teachings assert that humans do not comprehend this reality and assume

that all things including human beings have permanent selves As we are all

interdependent there are no existing phenomena which is not the effect of this What we

do affects those around us and vice versa People should therefore not think only of

themselves but should also take into consideration those around them To create

happiness it is important that we not only reflect on the interrelationship of all things but

also see ourselves clearly as a part of one system of causal relationships

The Buddhist belief is that genuine happiness can be generated from developing a

compassionate heart a heart focused not only on itself but which also helps and benefits

all beings Compassion is defined as the wish to free all beings from suffering (Dalai

Lama 2001) Gyatso (1984) and the Dalai Lama (2000 amp 2001) assert that the root of all

Buddhist practices is the heart of loving kindness and compassion In Buddhism it is

normally said that a person who lacks compassion does not have a good heart It is

49

through a compassionate attitude that Buddhists are motivated to have concern for all

humans animals and the environment because they are all part of the same world

Although it is not easy to free all beings from suffering Buddhism states that we can

develop virtuous minds and thereby help others to do the same (Dalai Lama 2001) It is

through the force of compassion that a person engages in accumulating the merit and

wisdom that make Buddhahood possible (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) and in that sense

also makes happiness possible The four noble truths the law of Karma the principle of

interdependence and the idea of compassion form the key components of a Buddhist

worldview The next section develops a framework for the Buddhist view of happiness

which extends from these key Buddhist doctrines

33 The Buddhist Happiness Framework

This section constructs a happiness framework based on the Mahayana

Buddhisms teachings on the six perfections paramitas) Thogme Zangpos 12th century

text on the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva especially his verses on the six

practices were referenced ( Hopkins 1989) The six perfections or paramitas are

1 Dana Paramita (generosity) 2 Sila Paramita (ethicsvirtuesmorality) 3 Kshanti

Paramita (patiencetolerance) 4 Virya Paramita (perseverance) 5 Dhayana paramita

(meditative concentration) 6 Prajna Paramita (wisdom) These six teachings are a way

for an inner cultivation which implies a kind of ethics that focuses directly on daily life

through which one accomplishes genuine happiness (Wright 2009) The first five are

methods or practices and the last wisdom is necessary for any of them to function The

first three practices are usually recommended for lay people Joyous effort and

concentration mainly refer to meditation normally practiced in monastic communities

50

However meditation is now becoming increasingly popular and is practiced also by lay

people

The opening verse of Thogme Zangpos (nd) text begins with the following

statement

The perfect Buddhas the sources of benefit and happiness arise from having practiced the excellent doctrine That in turn depends on knowing its practices Therefore I will explain the practices of Bodhisattva (p 1)

The Buddha is a symbol and a source of genuine happiness for the Buddhist The

Buddha achieved the state of eternal bliss through his practice of virtues Thogme

Zangpo states that one needs to understand that the source of all happiness whether

worldly or ultimate happiness comes from the practice of Dharma which means the

practice of virtues Geshey Kelsang Gyatso (1984) states that in general Dharma refers

to the teachings of the Buddha but the actual Dharma is the inner realizations which

directly protect living beings from their sufferings He further explains that there are

three kinds of meaning to be achieved through the practice of Dharma The highest is to

reach full enlightenment Buddhahood in this life The middle is to achieve self-

liberation from cyclic fears and sufferings The lowest is to achieve happiness in this life

by overcoming the inner problems and thus avoiding being reborn in the lower realms in

the next life Thus Buddhists aim at one of these three Lay Buddhists usually aim to

lead a happy virtuous life and to be reborn in the higher realms

Thogme Zangpos teachings stress committing oneself to virtues as much as

possible and not engaging in ill deeds Virtues are actions that bear the fruit of happiness

Ill deeds are those actions that cause suffering and unhappiness to oneself and to other

beings Everyone wants to achieve happiness the Dalai Lama defines happiness as a

51

blissful state devoid of all suffering Since the law of cause and effect binds Buddhism it

is necessary to examine phenomena that cause happiness and suffering According to

Buddhism ignorance desire and hatred are the main cause of suffering Our own

afflictive emotions and actions cause suffering

The famous Buddhist painting of a wheel with 21 parts outlines the meaning of

life in Buddhism The diagram designed by the Buddha himself depicts an inner

psychological cosmology This painting can be found at the doorway of every temple in

Bhutan The center of the wheel shows the picture of a pig rooster and snake These

three animals depict the root cause of suffering represented as ignorance desire and

hatred (anger) respectively They are known as the three poisons in Buddhism (Dalai

Lama 2000) Buddhism states that it is possible to overcome suffering since it depends

on causes which are within oneself When one understands the nature of suffering one

will work towards ending such causes However Mahayana Buddhism stresses that this

understanding must be extended to other sentient beings Others similarly want happiness

and not suffering Mahayana Buddhists therefore emphasizes developing compassion and

engaging in the practices of the six paramitas to overcome suffering

Ignorance is not just the absence of knowledge of the real status of phenomenon

but the inability to understand truth misconception of inherent existence of permanent

self (Dalai Lama 2000) The principle of dependent origination (Section 322) as

explained above shows that we do not exist independently on our own Thogme Zangpos

fourth verse states the following

Long-associated companions will part from each other Wealth and possessions obtained with effort will be left behind Consciousness the guest will cast aside

52

the guest-house of the bodv Letting go of this life is the bodhisattvas practice (pl)

The above verse states that our body is not ours The mind or consciousness leaves the

body at death as a guest leaves the guesthouse However we live as if we are going to

live forever and this ignorance draws us into afflictive desire and hatred Ignorance thus

comes out as greed and hatred Greed and hatred in turn promote ignorance The Dalai

Lama (2000) states without ignorance desire and anger are impossible These disturbing

emotions and attitudes are said to be true causes of suffering as are the karmic impulses

that arise under the power of these disturbing emotions Figure 2 below illustrates how

Buddhists perceive suffering and happiness It shows that the root causes of suffering are

ignorance desire and hatred These emerge through three doorsmdash body speech and

mindmdashas non-virtuous action generating negative Karma which causes suffering to

oneself and to others

Figure 2 Suffering and its causes

53

Gyatso (1984) points out that even though the body is like a guest house we will

receive many fruits if we practice Dharma meaning the practice of virtue which results in

the fruit of good Karma However all sentient beings are subject to the three poisons and

the question is how do we overcome them to practice virtue Buddhist teaching states

that the three poisons can be resisted and virtues cultivated through training in the six

practices When a person wants to reduce weight heshe goes through physical training

and dieting Similarly in Buddhism if one wants happiness one must practice the six

paramitas This will naturally generate virtuous actions leading to happiness This is

represented by Figure 3 below

Figure 3 Overcoming Suffering

54

331 Generosity

Mahayanists maintain that happiness comes from a compassionate and altruistic

mind The practice of compassion is training oneself in the perfection of generosity In

the thirty-seven practices of Bodhisattva the 25th verse states

If it is necessary to give away even ones body while aspiring to enlightenment what need is there to mention external objects Therefore practicing generosity without hope of reciprocation or positive karmic results is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)

The perfection of generosity is the first principle of happiness Generosity can be

practiced by anyone This practice refers to unconditional love a selfless generosity and

giving which is completely free from attachment and expectation Internally it means

overcoming our emotions (greed and hatred) and being generous with others voluntarily

giving ones material goods time or wisdom to others (Das 1995) Generosity is a cure

for the afflictions of greed miserliness and possessiveness The Anguttara Nikaya

(Anguttara Verse 34 and 35) a collection of Buddhist scriptures points out that there are

five blessings that result from the practice of generosity the person will be liked and

admired by everyone will have a good reputation will have lots of self confidence and

will have a heavenly rebirth Buddhists believe that giving without seeking anything in

return leads to greater spiritual wealth Generosity therefore is a very important virtue

bringing happiness to oneself and others

332 Ethics

The second practice is that of Sila which literally means ethics moralityvirtue

Right speech Right action and Right livelihood which form the part of Eightfold Noble

Path fall under ethical practice This perfection of ethics or Sila Paramita stresses quality

55

of virtuous and ethical behavior morality self-discipline personal integrity and never

having the thought to harm any sentient beings The Dalai Lama (2001) states that for

Buddhists ethics means avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions acts done by the body

speech and mind (p34) It is important that our practice of generosity is supported by

our practice of ethics Buddhists therefore abstain from the ten non-virtuous actions

killing stealing sexual misconduct lying divisive speech harsh speech gossip greed

malice and wrong views The first three (killing stealing sexual misconduct) correspond

to bodily action The fourth fifth sixth and seventh (lying malicious words harsh

language useless talk) correspond to verbal action The last three (covetousness ill will

wrong view) occur through the mind (Dalai Lama 2000 amp 2001) The ten non-virtuous

actions lead to bad Karma and suffering Avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and

cultivating a compassionate heart brings good Karma and happiness We can enjoy

greater freedom happiness and security in our lives because through our virtuous

behavior we are no longer creating suffering for ourselves and others we basically

become virtuous and harmless in our thoughts speech and actions Thus in the 26th

verse Thogme Zangpo writes

If lacking ethical conduct one fails to achieve ones own purpose the wish to accomplish others purpose is laughable Therefore guarding ethics devoid of aspirations for worldly existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)

Thogme Zangpo points out that with unethical behavior one cannot achieve

happiness Unethical behavior is always the cause of suffering and unhappiness For

example a person who speaks ill of another person will disturb their mind and later will

56

be a cause of suffering for himself or herself His 34th verse stresses the importance of

avoiding harsh words

Harsh words disturb others minds and cause the mode of a Bodhisattvas behavior to deteriorate Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to abandon harsh words about the unpleasantness of others (p 3)

By cultivating ethical behavior we do not cause harm to others and we are free of

negativity we cause no harm by our actions our speech is kind and compassionate and

our thoughts are free of anger malice and wrong views Through the practice of ethics

we gain confidence because we are not carrying any underlying sense of guilt or remorse

for our actions we have nothing to hide Being ethical and moral is the cause of all

goodness and happiness This practice of ethical conduct is the very foundation for

progressing in any practice of meditation and for attaining all higher realizations on the

path The Dalai Lama states that the aim of ethical practice is to transform motivation and

mental disposition this is how we become better human beings The more we succeed in

training our hearts and minds the more we will be able to cope with adversity and our

actions will be naturally ethical Thus we will experience happiness

333 Patience and Tolerance

The third practice is that of patience and tolerance It is called the perfection of

patience (Bhutanese Bzod pa) Thogme Zangpos 27th verse states the importance of

patience

For bodhisattvas who desire the pleasures of virtue all those who do harm are like a precious treasure Therefore it is a practice of Bodhisattvas to cultivate patience without anger or resentment for anyone (p3)

57

Patience in Buddhism refers to having the strength to face the challenges and

difficulties of life without losing our composure and inner tranquility Bodhisattvas are

challenged to endure tolerate and bear any hardship without retaliation or negative

thoughts Through endurance and tolerance we gain strength to overcome any afflictive

emotions The Dalai Lama states that this enlightened quality comes from having our

heart open and our mind deeply concentrated upon the Dharma He states that endurance

and tolerance do not imply defeat but make the mind stronger When the Buddha was

deep in meditation demon Mara and his daughters tried to tempt and distract him

Through his patience however the Buddha remained calm and undistracted and finally

attained nirvana The ability to endure is therefore integral to Buddhism With the

strength of patience we can overcome anything The mind will be calm and clear and

this enables us to make better decisions Through the practice of patience we maintain

inner peace under all circumstances and thus experience genuine happiness

334 Perseverance

The fourth practice is the perfection of joyous effort or enthusiastic perseverance

It is called Virya Paramita in Sanskrit and is the quality of persistent effort or working

hard towards achieving a goal The 28th verse of Thogme Zangpos teaching states

Even hearers and solitary realizers who accomplish only their own welfare strive as if putting out a fire on their heads Seeing this taking up diligent effort -the source of good qualities - for the sake of all beings is the bodhisattvas practice (p 3)

Thogme Zangpo points out that just as one makes an effort to put out the fire on

ones own head one must strive diligently to free oneself and all sentient beings from

58

suffering Our body speech and mind should put in effort to the best of our ability

Without putting in right effort we can be disillusioned and thus fail to achieve any goal

The Dalai Lama states that with joyous effort and enthusiastic perseverance we regard

failure as simply another step towards success danger as an inspiration for courage and

affliction as another opportunity to practice wisdom and compassion Thus to achieve

happiness one must put in right effort to be compassionate to be virtuous and ethical at

all times

335 Meditative Concentration

The fifth practice is that of meditative concentration It is called Dhyana

Paramita Meditative concentration is very important in developing mental qualities and

overcoming the three poisons The content of the very first verse of thirty-seven practices

of Bodhisattva is on meditation

At this time when the difficult-to-gain ship of leisure andfortune has been obtained ceaselessly hearing pondering and meditating day and night in order to liberate oneself and others from the ocean of cyclic existence is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)

The ship of leisure and fortune refers to the human body In Buddhism there are six

realms god2 demi-god human animals hungry ghost hell beings The humans in

comparison to the other realm is very rare It is therefore fortunate enough to be born as a

human Thogme Zangpo indicates that through hearing the dharma teachings meditating

day and night and developing a heart of loving kindness and compassion sentient beings

2 Gods in Buddhism are beings who are born into higher realms because of their positive Karma accumulated in their past lives Their lifespan eventually ends When their life ends they will be reborn in one of the six realms depending on their Karma

59

can be liberated from suffering Buddhism greatly stresses the taming of the mind

because the mind can be transformed and meditation is the means to transform it Tashi

(2004) explains the usefulness of meditation in destroying the root causes of suffering

and providing an antidote to them Meditation also plays an important role in achieiving

happiness at the individual national and global levels The perfection of meditative

concentration thus aims at taming the mind so that it does what we want it to do We

stabilize our mind and emotions by practicing meditation by being mindful and aware in

everything we do When we train the mind in this way all mental distortions and

misperceptions are eliminated We achieve focus composure and tranquility

Concentrating deeply makes us realize the cause of confusion and suffering and helps us

directly experience inner joy Thus Thogme Zangpos 29th verse states

Having understood that disturbing emotions are destroyed by insight possessed with tranquil abiding to cultivate meditative concentration which perfectly transcends the four formless absorptions is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)

336 Wisdom

The last practice is the perfection of wisdom called Prajna Parmaita in Sanskrit

Wisdom is the key to everything Wisdom will help us find the path to happiness

Without wisdom one will not understand the reality of phenomena and thus be

disillusioned by the three poisons Wisdom is therefore necessary to cultivate other

practices Thogme Zangpos 30th verse points out

If one lacks wisdom it is impossible to attain perfect enlightenment through the other five perfections Thus cultivating skillful means with the wisdom that doesnt discriminate among the three spheres is the bodhisattvas practice (p3)

60

Wisdom does not refer to mere intellectual understanding It is beyond that Ron

Liefer (1997) states that a mere intellectual understanding of reality will not change our

habitual negative patterns of thoughts speech and action because the intellect serves the

ego He further adds we cannot achieve wisdom without seeing through the trickery of

ego Wisdom refers to Right understanding and Right view (two of the eightfold noble

paths) of reality This entails getting rid of those wrong views which manifest the three

poisons Through wisdom one will be able to distinguish between what is ethical and

unethical or virtuous and non-virtuous We see the essential nature of reality with utmost

clarity our perception goes beyond the illusive and deceptive veils of material existence

Wisdom clears the delusion that envelops the mind It overturns ignorance and the

attitudes that lead to non-virtuous actions and ultimately shows us the path to happiness

(Rink 2010) Thus overcoming the three poisons by understanding the true nature of

reality and developing qualities of generosity morality patience and meditating with

joyous effort is said to generate the highest level of happiness in Buddhism

34 Summary

Buddhist teachings show the true cause of suffering as ignorance desire and

hatred enveloping the mind The teachings on the Four Noble Truths open our eyes to

various perspectives and send us the message that happiness is beyond material

wellbeing They make us realize that the real essence of happiness lies within us It is

only through taming the mind that we can experience happiness Whether we want to be

happy or not depends on how we perceive things and how we act John Milton said The

mind is its own place and in itself can make heaven of hell and a hell of heaven (as

61

cited by Williams 2008 p24) Buddhism teaches that if we can overcome the three

poisons and practice generosity patience mediation and morality we can experience

inner joy in this life This can even be extended to the next life with the possibility of

attaining nirvana The idea of reward for virtuous action (Karma) creates a healthy fear

and pushes the Buddhist to be ethical and practice virtues at all time Buddhism thus

accords the highest authority to experience with reason second and scripture third

(Flanagan 2007) Some may wonder however whether a focus exclusively on getting

rid of desire would inhibit worldly progress The path to overcoming attachment and

achieving worldly progress such as accumulating wealth are indeed poles apart

Buddhism does not necessarily say that we have to give up the material life It stresses

more the importance of having a good heart of never harming others of being

compassionate of being morally disciplined and of possessing loving kindness

generosity patience and a joyful desire to practice virtues These positive qualities can

reduce ones suffering and give happiness to oneself and others

62

CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING

INDICATORS

People always experience moods and emotions which have an enormous range of

effects on their wellbeing To know about peoples psychological state something must

be known about their subjective experiences The psychological wellbeing domain of the

GNH index thus assesses peoples subjective experience based on eleven indicators

Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking account of Karma Jealousy Selfishness

Frustration Generosity Calmness Compassion Suicidal Thought and General Mental

Health The government measures psychological wellbeing by assessing the socially

destructive attitudes and symptoms of psychological distress and the prevalence of

practices to avoid negative emotions The main purpose of this study is to determine to

what extent the indicators under the psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of

happiness and their coherence with the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH This

chapter analyzes each of these indicators to determine the extent to which they reflect

Buddhist principles of happiness using the conceptual framework laid down in Chapter

Three and the consistency of the indicators with the concept of GNH

This chapter is divided into five sections The first section briefly highlights the

meaning of psychological wellbeing and the importance of measuring it It also highlights

similarities between the views of some modern psychologists and the Buddhist view on

the understanding of psychological wellbeing The second third and fourth sections

analyze the indicators of psychological wellbeing by grouping them into three broad

categories Emotional Balance Spirituality Practices and General Mental Health The

chapter concludes with an overview of the overall findings

63

41 Psychological Wellbeing Measures

Psychological wellbeing as the term denotes refers to the wellbeing of a persons

mental state It deals with emotions and feelings which are subjective experiences The

measure of the psychological wellbeing of its citizens is extremely important in a country

pursuing GNH because the mental or the psychological state influences the overall

wellbeing of people A GNH state therefore needs to minimize those mental conditions

that can be disruptive As Larsen amp Fredrickson (1999) point out the content of a

persons emotional life strongly influences his or her judgments of the quality of that life

(p40)

From the Buddhist perspective happiness depends on our mind Buddhist

teachings are directly or indirectly based on the workings of the mind Buddhism strongly

holds that it is the emotional and mental state of people that influence their wellbeing or

happiness The term ishepa which means the mind refers to all aspects of subjective

experiences In the Buddhist diction mind shepa) awareness (rigpa) and consciousness

(lo) are synonyms (Abhidhamma 1987 Negi 1999) The mind in Buddhism includes

all perceptual conceptual and emotional states both conscious and unconscious (Negi

1999) The emotional mental states therefore are all mind related subjective experiences

As explained in Chapter Three Buddhism is concerned with taming the mind

this entails understanding the types of mental activity that are truly conducive to

wellbeing and the ones that are harmful In this sense it would be justifiable to say that

Buddhism is all about achieving happiness mentally or psychologically Ekman

Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) agree that psychologists and Buddhists alike

64

believe that emotions strongly influence peoples thoughts words and actions and that

they help people in their pursuit of transient pleasures and satisfactions

The measurement of a persons psychological state is commonly based on the

self-report assessment Within the discipline of psychology there is a strong view that

self-reports on how well life is going can convey important information on underlying

emotional states and in measuring peoples subjective wellbeing Earlier psychologists

who were mainly interested in negative emotional states such as depression and anxiety

are now interested in positive emotions to evaluate peoples overall wellbeing (Ryff amp

Singer 1998) Indeed to get empirical clues of happiness establishing the absence of

negative experiences would not be enough positive feelings must also be present (Hirata

2006) The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index similarly includes

both positive and negative emotions

Structured questionnaires are used to collect data for each indicator A

sufficiency cut off or a threshold is set for each indicator A person is said to have met the

sufficiency cut-off if hisher evaluation in that indicator meets or exceeds the cut-off

point If the respondent meets or exceeds the sufficiency cut off heshe is given the full

score This means a person is psychologically well if heshe makes sufficient

achievement in each of the indicators Any shortfall from sufficiency that any

respondents experience in any indicator is considered to depress Gross National

Happiness The depth of insufficiency will rise if any person drops further away from

sufficiency cut-off This means that the distance from the cut-off or the sufficiency gap is

sensitive only if the achievements are below the sufficiency level This indicates that the

GNH index is sensitive to an unhappy or a poor persons experience Overall this method

65

is similar to poverty measurement where a poverty line is set to distinguish people who

are materially poor from non-poor (Millet 2010) However there is not much

information available on how the sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From

the information available on the CBS website it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut

off is set at a level that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises

questions because there is not any literature or research conducted on how the sufficiency

cut off has actually been set Arbitrarily setting cut-offs without any basis or setting it

based on some assumptions can lead to questionable results

42 Emotional Balance

The Centre for Bhutan Studies has grouped seven indicators under the category of

emotional balance The indicators can be further grouped into two categories negative

emotions and positive emotions The indicators under this index include emotions or

feelings related to wellbeing because these affect a persons evaluation of life Four of the

seven indicators pertain to negative emotions jealousy selfishness frustration and

suicidal thought and three pertain to positive emotion generosity calmness and

compassion Diener amp Lucas (1999) state that although the emotions are momentary

influences and would not reflect a stable state of happiness they do provide information

about the state of a persons life Research shows that a variety of etiological factors

contribute to these emotions (Berenbaum Raghavan Le Vernon amp Gomez 1999)

Buddhist teaching similarly maintains that these emotions do not occur on their own

there are causal factors associated with them

66

Buddhism places the mind at the centre of all experiences The Buddhist tradition

therefore places emotions at the core of individual and universal happiness In the

Abhidhamma Buddhist text the mind is presented in context to its primary and secondary

consciousnesses Primary consciousness refers to the content of mind which illuminates

merely the general nature of the content Secondary consciousness refers to the aspect of

mind that illuminates the particular nature of that content Both the primary and

secondary consciousnesses operate as one entity (Negi 1999) The Abhidhamma lists

fifty-one secondary consciousnesses All the positive and negative emotions fall under

the fifty-one secondary consciousnesses

a Negative Emotion

Chapter Three explained that negative emotions in Buddhism arise out of

ignorance desire and hatred Humans suffer because of their own negative emotions

These are negative because they harm oneself and others As we ignore the reality around

us and cling to the self or I we get angry for things we do not like jealous when others

succeed frustrated when we fail The extreme reaction is suicidal thoughts and action

All of these negative emotions from the Buddhist perspective fall under unethical

action action that occurs through the mind They are called nyong mongs meaning

distorted or confused or klesha translated as afflictive emotions Jealousy selfishness

frustration and suicidal thoughts arise due to covetousness ill will and wrong view The

four negative indicators form part of the ten non-virtuous actions and are afflictive

regardless of their degree or the context in which they arise These emotions are similarly

considered negative under the GNH index

67

1 Jealousy

Jealousy is often defined as a feeling of resentment when others succeed Harris

(2004) points out that jealousy is likely to arise over perceptions that a potential rival

poses a threat to what one perceives to be valuable in oneself and in an important

relationship In Buddhism jealousy is called dhrag-dog The Buddhist Abhidhamma text

classifies jealousy as part of hostility and calls it immoral Jealousy in Buddhism is

defined as a disturbing emotion that focuses on other peoples accomplishments such as

their good qualities possessions or success and is the inability to bear their

accomplishments due to excessive attachment to our own gain or to the respect we

receive (Berzin 2004 p 1) Jealousy in Buddhism is therefore related to attachment

Jealousy and envy have slightly different meanings in Buddhism Envy adds to what

jealousy means in Buddhism In addition to the inability to bear others accomplishments

envy is the wish to have these accomplishments for ourselves Therefore envy has the

element of what Buddhism calls covetousness (Bnab sem) Berzin (2004) points out that

envy as a combination of jealousy and covetousness leads to competitiveness Jealousy

is thus a disturbing emotion that drives us to become highly competitive and to work

fanatically to outdo others or ourselves Failure can cause much pain and success can lead

to further greed Jealousy has elements of resentment and hostility In addition it has

strong elements of insecurity and mistrust (Berzin 2004)

In the Abhidhamma text jealousy is opposite to compassion and appreciative joy

Lama Zopa Rinpoche (1973) states that rejoicing is the best remedy for jealousy and

envy (pl) Buddhist teaching maintains that we must rejoice for others success and

68

happiness and think that they created their own cause for their happiness Similarly in a

GNH society we must rejoice for others success and happiness Jealousy disturbs our

peace of mind and causes much suffering We cannot achieve GNH if we are all jealous

of others Jealousy is therefore opposed to GNH values

Mullen (1995) points out that men and women experience different types of

emotions when they are jealous These include pain distress oppression anxiety

sadness apprehension anger restless distress humiliation shame agitation and

betrayal All of these are negative and against happiness or wellbeing In order to

achieve GNH it is important to rule out the presence of such negative emotions Since

jealousy is directly opposed to the psychological wellbeing of people it is appropriate

that it be an indicator of GNH

In order to collect the data for this indicator the following question is asked of the

respondents (Box 1) The sufficiency cut off is set at never which means that

respondents are given full score when they answer never In a GNH state it is hoped or

expected that a person would never feel jealous Buddhism similarly marks jealousy as

non-virtuous and afflictive regardless of their degree in which they arise The sufficiency

cut-off which is set at never therefore also corresponds to Buddhist principles

How often do you experience jealousy

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 1 Survey question of Jealousy Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

69

2 Selfishness

The second indicator selfishness refers to an unwillingness to share because of

craving something for oneself Selfishness in Buddhism originates from attachment and

greed In Buddhism selfishness is closely related to the Buddhist term Serna (Negi

1999) Serna in the Abhidhamma text is termed as immoral consciousness (p96) and

appears as delusion arising out of a wrong view attachment and greed Negi (1999)

states that it is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity (p93)

Selfishness is also synonymous with the Tibetan Buddhist terms Rangdoed and lNoe

zirtwhich literally mean self-centered desire and material attachment respectively

Buddhist teachings condemn the idea of self or I from which selfishness arises As

explained in Chapter Three Buddhism teaches no-self (anatta) as an essential

principle The doctrine of no-self is to help us let go of our attachment and ego In one

of his interviews with FOR Atv the Dalai Lama (2008) narrates an incident in which a

rich couple asked him for a blessing He replied to them You are wealthy share your

wealth with the needy ones this will be the real blessing for you This indicates that

Buddhists believe in replacing selfishness with generosity to attain inner joy In

particular the paramita of ethics (see Chapter Three) emphasizes restraining self-

centeredness and to rooting it out completely The Dalai Lama (2000) states that the

ethic of restraining self-centeredness is crucial (p 101) A selfish attitude according to

Buddhism obstructs the path towards achieving Bodhisattva and thus genuine happiness

Selfishness gives rise to negative Karma leading one to be reborn in the lower realms

70

Similarly since the concept of GNH supports the idea of interdependence selfishness is

opposed to the GNH values

Under the selfishness indicator of GNH the participants are asked the following

question (See Box 2) For the answer never a full score is given which means that a

person should never feel selfish to get a positive GNH score This indicates that

selfishness is against the GNH essence Consistent with the Buddhist teachings the GNH

index similarly marks selfishness as a negative trait

How often do you experience selfishness

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 2 Survey question of Selfishness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

3 Frustration The American Heritage Stedmans Medical Dictionary defines frustration as a

condition that results when an impulse or an action is thwarted by an external or an

internal force There is no exact term for frustration in Buddhism but it can be related to

the term gopa which is translated as agitation Negi (1999) describes gopa as a

mental factor that disturbs the inner calm and focus of the mind (p44) Gopa forms

part of the twenty secondary delusions in the Abhidhamma In the Bhutanese national

language Ouggam1 holds equivalent meaning to frustration Ouggam literally means

pressurizing the breath Oug is breath and gam means pressure When we pressurize our

self we get frustrated and this comes out as anger causing suffering to others and

ourselves

71

Frustration is without doubt a negative emotion because it disturbs the peace of

mind causing anxiety and stress Like jealousy and selfishness frustration arises out

of attachment and desire In Buddhism any emotion that arises out of ignorance desire

and hatred is afflictive and non-virtuous Similarly in a GNH society that seeks to

maximize the happiness and wellbeing of people frustration is a negative trait and

opposed to the concept of GNH because it obstructs the path towards happiness Since

frustration has a negative impact on wellbeing it is necessary to determine if such

emotions occur frequently among people Therefore it is appropriate to have it as a

negative indicator of psychological wellbeing

The question (Box 3) how often do you experience frustration is asked of

respondents Since frustration hampers wellbeing respondents who never experience

frustration are given a full GNH score Respondents who often or sometimes

experience frustration are given a negative score

How often do you experience frustration

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 3 Survey question of Frustration Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

4 Suicidal Thoughts

Suicidal thoughts usually occur when one is no longer able to bear suffering in

life According to Buddhism suicide is an unwholesome act since it is encouraged by a

mind filled with greed hatred and delusion (Dhammananda nd) Killing is one of the ten

non-virtuous actions in Buddhism so any act of killing is unwholesome and suicide is

72

therefore an unwholesome act The Buddhist teachings on Karma maintain that death by

suicide only leads to another cycle of rebirth in the same condition Buddha Dharma

Education Association (nd) explains that in order for the act of killing to have its

complete and unmitigated power five conditions must be present a living being the

awareness of the existence of a living being the intention to kill the living being the

effort or action of killing the living being and the consequent death of the living being

Suicide will always lack the last element of a complete Karma because the one who

commits the act will already be dead at the time of the completion of the action

Therefore suicide becomes a defective action and is not completed as an act of killing

leading to rebirth in the same condition (Sopa 2005) The Dalai Lama (1981) states that

even if we take our own life we will have to take another body that again will be the

basis of suffering In order to get rid of all the difficulties we experience we need to get

rid of the fundamental cause (greed hatred and delusion) that gives rise to the aggregates

that are the basis of all suffering He adds that killing yourself is not going to solve your

problems Suicide in Buddhism is therefore a non-virtuous act that arises because of

afflictive emotion

According to Buddhism suicide does not end the problem The famous Buddhist

painting of truth depicts that death is only the beginning of another cycle of pain and

suffering Buddhists therefore do not support suicide and instead encourage constructive

living using this life to diligently practice virtuous action thus changing the present and

the future for the better

Research indicates that suicide and attempted suicide are associated with

elevated levels of anger anxiety guilt sadness and shame (Berenbaum Raghavan Le

73

Vernon Gomez 1999 p 279) Depression is found to be the main cause of suicides The

most common factors that push youth to commit suicide according to Bhutanese

psychiatrist Dr Nirola are peer and parental pressures competitive scenarios and failure

to get a job among others (as cited by Dorji 2010) This indicates that suicidal thoughts

occur because of what Buddhism calls the three poisons leading to further afflictive

emotions

Suicidal thoughts similarly are against the essence of GNH and therefore a

negative indicator of psychological wellbeing Under the GNH index a person who has

never thought of committing suicide (See Box 4) is given a foil GNH score while

respondents who have thought of committing suicide are given negative scores Overall

the indicator of suicidal thought finds groundings in Buddhist teachings

Have you ever seriously thought of committing suicide

1 Yes 2 No

Box 4 Survey question of Suicidal Thought Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Jealousy frustration selfishness and suicidal thoughts are negative emotions that

affect individuals and the societys wellbeing Satya Dev Negi (1996) asserts that the

distorted emotional states have achieved such a pervasive status that our era may become

known to history as the Age of Emotional Epidemic (p2) The effects of negative

emotions are clearly visible in society increasing crime substance abuse suicide and

divorce are all symptoms of emotional dysfunction

The entire Buddhist tradition evolved as a study of mental and emotional states

and ways to transform the negative emotions into positive ones Although Buddhism sees

74

ignorance desire and hatred as the main causes of suffering the three poisons come out

in the form of various negative emotions which include jealousy frustration and

selfishness Scientific research has revealed the role emotions play in affecting health the

immune system blood pressure and cardiovascular functions Research also indicates

that individuals with emotional disturbances are prone to induce negative effects upon

those with whom they have ongoing relationships (Berenbaum et al 1999) Besides

evaluation of the frequency of negative emotions it is important for the government to

know the reasons or the conditions that give rise to these negative emotions GNH as

policy must attend to it them

Overall all of the four indicators are directly opposed to the essence of GNH and

therefore it is appropriate to have them as indicators in order to minimize or eliminate

the presence of such negative emotions in a country Further all of these indicators are

rooted in Buddhism

b Positive Emotions

The process for accomplishing happiness in Buddhism involves uprooting the

negative emotions and enhancing the positive ones The three indicatorsmdashgenerosity

calmness and compassionmdashare positive because these emotions bring happiness to

oneself and others The practice of paramitas as explained in Chapter Three encourages

replacing the three poisons by practicing generosity ethics compassion and meditative

concentration Similarly generosity calmness and compassion are considered positive

indicators of psychological wellbeing

75

5 Generosity

Generosity is the act of giving and a means to overcome greed and selfishness In

Buddhism the practice of generosity (Dana Paramita- jinba) as laid down in Chapter

Three is one of the six paramitas and a way to practice compassion Buddhism maintains

that the practice of generosity in addition to the fivefold benefit to the one practicing it

brings happiness to others too Generosity is a moral practice that relates to positive

virtues such as compassion and loving kindness the cultivation of which leads to mental

development and spiritual happiness Through generosity we are able to extend ourselves

and help others The whole idea of generosity supports the concept of interdependence

which is the core principle of GNH and Buddhism The Centre for Bhutan Studies terms

generosity a positive emotion of great importance and a desirable habit Generosity as

an indicator is therefore coherent with the GNH principle as it promotes happiness for

oneself and others The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 5) for the

collection of data

How often do you experience generosity

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 5 Survey question of Generosity Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

The sufficiency cut off has been set as often which means a person should

frequently experience the feeling of generosity to get the full GNH score In a GNH

3 See Chapter Three

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society people must help each other and promote a healthy environment Helping does

not necessarily mean giving all your possessions to others but it does entail sharing a part

of your wealth and being helpful in many ways An example would be a voluntary

service to society and charity Happiness derived by the act of generosity which does not

get included in the Gross Domestic Product (Hewavitharana 2004) should be included in

the evaluation of GNH Therefore generosity as an indicator of psychological

wellbeing is coherent with and appropriate to the concept of GNH

6 Calmness

Calmness refers to the clarity of mind and it entails patience and tolerance

Calmness is opposed to anger which is one of the three poisons in Buddhism The

Buddhist practice of Kshanita paramita the practice of patience and tolerance stresses

the importance of having a calm and composed mind at all times Patience in Buddhism

as seen in Chapter Three refers to having the strength to face the challenges and

difficulties of life without losing composure and inner tranquility In the Abhidhamma

text equanimity (long nyom) which is synonymous with calmness is listed as the

tenth positive secondary consciousness and a wholesome mental factor (Negi 1999)

Any mind that experiences such emotion becomes automatically positive states Negi

(1999) When we are calm we develop a tendency not to harm others and we are usually

at our best when we are calm Tranquility gives rise to clarity from which understanding

and wisdom grow (Graham 2007) A calm mind is therefore very essential for living a

happy and healthy life On the other hand constant fear and anger affect our own health

and overall wellbeing Horton (2010) states that through mental calmness one can

77

experience inner peace and as a result success too Calmness is therefore a virtue

consistent with GNH ideals

The following question is asked of the respondents (Box 6) for the collection of

data

How often do you experience calmness

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 6 Survey question of Calmness Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Respondents who often feel calm are given the full GNH score which means in a GNH

society people should experience calmness frequently Overall this indicator can be

linked to Buddhist teachings and is coherent with GNH values as well

7 Compassion

Compassion is a wish to relieve the suffering of others and is central to Buddhist

practice As mentioned earlier in Chapter Three it is the most essential and important

trait for bodhisattvas within Mahayana Buddhism Mahayanists maintain that only

through developing a compassionate heart can one practice the other essential virtues

For example without being compassionate we will not develop a genuine sense of

generosity The compassion in Buddhism not only arises out of empathy towards the

suffering of others but from understanding and realizing the meaning of emptiness the

law of Karma and interdependence viewing self and others as devoid of inherent

meaning Compassion thus leads to the practice of loving kindness and helps to

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overcome afflictive emotions such as hatred jealousy and selfishness which are

considered negative under the psychological wellbeing indicators

Compassion a profound human emotion can be a powerful means to creating a

GNH society When one is compassionate the thought of harming others does not arise

and this attitude cultivates a genuine sense to work toward everyones benefit The CBS

(2008) similarly holds compassion as an approach to sympathy for the suffering of

others which is necessary to establish a compassionate society Thinking about the

suffering of others and not just ones own is important for a GNH society Further

scientific studies suggest that individuals including children who may engage in

bullying people and society in general could benefit from practices of compassion (Lutz

Lewis Johnstone Davidson 2008) Therefore compassion as an indicator is very much

coherent with the GNH values

The following question (Box 7) is asked of respondents to find out how

compassionate they are The sufficiency cut off similar to the indicator of generosity

and calmness has been set at often which means a person should frequently

experience compassion to get the full GNH score

How often do you experience compassion

1 Often 2 Sometimes 3 Never

Box 7 Survey question of Compassion Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Overall the presence of emotions such as compassion calmness and generosity

have a positive impact on physical wellbeing on decision-making process and on the

79

potential for leading a happy life Further each of the three indicators is clearly related to

the Buddhist practice of paramitas

43 Spiritual Practices

From the Buddhist perspective the indicators under this section consist of

practices to overcome negative or afflictive emotions Practicising them with sincerity

can hold negative emotions at bay

8 Frequency of Meditation

The Buddhists consider meditation a very important method to calm the mind

The eightfold noble path and the paramita of meditative concentration emphasizes the

importance of meditation as a means to destroy the three root causes of suffering (desire

hatred and ignorance) Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) states that the Buddhist meditative

practice does not merely suppress the destructive mental states but trains the mind to see

directly and concretely how the mind functions and using this understanding tames and

masters our own mind freeing it from afflictive states Many Buddhist masters prescribe

meditation as the key to finding happiness and peace of mind Tashi (2004) points out

that the important egalitarian aspects of meditation are its accessibility to everybody with

little or no cost involved Researchers have shown that Buddhists who meditate may be

able to train their minds to feel genuine happiness and control aggressive instincts

(Connor 2003) Another study of Buddhist meditation by scientists at the University of

California has found that meditation might tame the amygdale the part of the brain

involved with fear and anger Studies have also shown that even brief courses of

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meditation with very short periods of the simplest meditative practices are associated

with better psychological and physical health (Levenson etal 2004) The CBS does not

link meditation to Buddhism but it is implicit that the indicators are inspired by Buddhist

teachings

Aside from the spiritual connotations meditation is a powerful method to calm

our mind (Connor 2003) Research has shown that practicing meditation regularly has

beneficial effects for a range of conditions These include stress anxiety depression

poor sleep and coping with chronic pain It also has other health benefits such as reduced

inflammation improved immunity and lower blood pressure A study conducted by three

universities (University of Wisconsin West Virginia University and University of

Reading) found that calmness and compassion could be developed through the practice of

meditation Lutz Lewis Johnstone and Davidson (2008) state that the long-term goal of

meditation is to weaken egocentric traits so that altruistic behaviors might arise more

frequently and spontaneously Meditation is indeed the best method to make the mind

relaxed and peaceful Sogyal Rimpoche (2002) maintains that the gift of learning to

meditate is the greatest gift you can gift yourself in this life (p58) He adds for it is

only through meditation that you can undertake the journey to discover your true nature

and so find the stability and confidence you will need to live and die well (p58)

The benefits of meditation as pointed out by the Buddhist teachings and supported

by modern research are immense The practice of meditation thus surely will have a

positive impact on the wellbeing of people which directly contributes to the essence of

GNH Having meditation as a GNH indicator signifies the importance the government is

putting on the benefits it provides The following question (Box 8) is asked of

respondents regarding the practice of meditation

Do you practice meditation

1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all

Box 8 Survey question of meditation Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

The sufficiency cut-off for meditation has been set as occasionally which means

one must practice meditation occasionally to get a full GNH score Although meditation

is considered a very important practice in Buddhism meditation among the lay

population is not popular in Bhutan According to the survey conducted by CBS (2008)

904 of respondents do not meditate at all This may arise from the fact that Bhutan

still does not have any meditation centre for lay people This may also be the reason why

the sufficiency cut-off has been set as occasionally instead of daily Very recently

meditation has been introduced in Bhutanese schools It however needs to be introduced

among lay population too Overall the indicator of mediation is coherent with GNH

values Further since Buddhism greatly stresses the importance of meditation the

indicator seems to have been influenced by Buddhism

9 Prayer Recitation

Prayer is a form of religious practice that seeks to connect to some greater power

Most religions involve prayer in one way or another The purpose of Buddhist prayer is to

awaken the inherent inner capacities of strength compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)

The translation for the word prayer in Bhutanese national language is thuen which

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literally means the recitation of mantras Buddhism emphasizes the recitation of prayershy

like mantras A mantra is a word a syllable a phrase or a short prayer that is spoken

once or repeated over and over again (either aloud or in a persons head) and that is

thought to have a profound spiritual effect on the person (BBC 2006 p 1) Mantra

literally means that which protects the mind from negativity (Sogyal Rimpoche 2002

p71) Mantra Sogyal Rimpoche states is the essence of sound and embodiment of the

truth in the form of sound Each syllable contains spiritual power and vibrates with the

blessing of the speech of the Buddha There are mantras that are thought to subtly alter

ones mind and make a connection with a particular Buddha or enlightened being

Buddhists believe that when certain mantras are said many times they arouse good

vibrations within the person they awaken our inherent inner capacities of strength

compassion and wisdom (Lewis 2006)

A prayer can be silent meditation or a full chorus of chanting (Hanh 2006) In

Buddhism praying involves two important aspects the first is establishing a relationship

between ourselves and the one to whom we are praying This refers to reflecting on the

great qualities of the Buddha which involves visualization The second is regarding

effective prayer which is the idea of cultivating the energy of love mindfulness and

right concentration in prayer To pray effectively our body and mind must dwell

peacefully in the present moment (Hanh 2006) It is common that Buddhists lay prostrate

while praying This is a position that diminishes the ego opens one up and brings one

close to the earth (Hanh 2006 p 63) Since reciting prayers requires mindfulness and

concentration the paramita of meditative concentration extends to prayers too The

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Buddhist Faith Fellowship of Connecticut asserts that Buddhist prayer is a form of

meditation and practice of inner reconditioning Similarly Sogyal Rimpoche (2002)

explains that reciting mantras is one of the meditation techniques He calls it uniting the

mind with the sound of mantra When one is nervous disoriented or emotionally fragile

reciting a mantra inspiringly can change the state of the mind completely by transforming

its energy and atmosphere He also mentions that mind rides on the subtle energy of

breath and when you chant a mantra you are charging your breath and energy with the

energy of the mantra so working directly on the mind and subtle body (p71) The

practice of reciting mantra for inner reconditioning is distinctively Buddhist

In addition to reciting mantras a majority of the Bhutanese Buddhists pray to

local deities It is a very popular belief in Bhutan that deities can protect us from evil

forces In a real sense this is not Buddhism because the Buddha never prayed to anyone

Buddhism stresses the recitation of mantras to awaken our inner qualities As mentioned

earlier Bhutan was largely a Bon country prior to the entry of Buddhism Bonism

emphasized worshipping the deities Buddhism in many countries flourished with

polytheistic features For example in Japan Buddhism mixed with Shinto which

worships kamis (nature spirits) created a tradition of praying to the kamis Bhutans

national newspaper Kuensel reported that Bonism mixed with Buddhism is still prevalent

in the country (Wangchuk 2005) The rituals of the Bon often include animal sacrifices

but animal sacrifices are discouraged in the country However many pray and perform

rituals to appease the local deities (yu-lha) For example in the village of Bongo under

Chukha district people worship and pray to two sister deities They also summon other

84

deities and spirits residing in mountains valleys lakes forests streams and cliffs

invoking them to assist and protect people from misfortunes (as cited by Wangchuk

2005) Similarly people in the capital Thimphu pray to a local deity located in the upper

valley Although this is not distinctively Buddhism (Powers 1995) it is an age-old

tradition that has been absorbed by Bhutanese Buddhists long ago This is now

considered an integral part of Bhutanese Buddhist culture

The following question (Box 9) is asked of respondents A person who prays

daily meets the sufficiency cutoff which means heshe is given a full GNH score

Do you sayrecite prayers

1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all

Box 9 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

Although reciting prayers in Buddhism is seen as a method ofmeditation both

are given different sufficiency cut offs A person who meditates occasionally is given a

full score while a person who prays occasionally is not given a full score The different

sufficiency cut offs for the two different practices indicates that the prayer recitation

indicator is intended to be different from meditation However prayer recitation in

Buddhism itself is a form of meditation CBS mentions that those indicators which are

highly uncorrelated were selected but from a pure Buddhist perspective the two seem to

be closely related since both fall under the paramita of meditative concentration The

CBS does not mention how prayer recitation is consistent with GNH values

Nevertheless the benefits of prayer recitation and meditation maybe the same because

85

both practices require mindfulness and concentration In this sense prayer recitation too

is coherent with GNH To conclude prayer in the form of mantra accords with Buddhist

principles while prayer to deities is a local Buddhist practice Therefore the indicator of

prayer recitation seems to have been influenced by Buddhism with traces of local beliefs

10 Taking account of Karma

As seen in chapter three Karma is a very important Buddhist principle that guides

the Buddhist psyche The law of Karma provides the basis to practice the paramita of

ethics (sila) Karma as one of the GNH indicators clearly implies that Buddhism has

influenced the indicator The literal meaning of taking account of Karma is being

morally responsible for our own actions When a person takes account of Karma in daily

life heshe is being aware and morally responsible for their actions on which the result

depends When we understand the law of Karma we are discouraged from performing

non-virtuous or unwholesome actions which cause suffering Realizing that Karma

conditions and determines our happiness we will refrain from unwholesome behavior to

avoid the negative effects of these actions Similarly understanding that virtuous actions

bear the fruit of happiness one is encouraged to practice wholesome actions The law of

causality therefore promotes moral and ethical life

The sufficiency cutoff for taking account of Karma (Box 10) has been set as

daily indicating that a person who takes account of Karma daily is given a full GNH

score

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Do you consider Karma in the course of your daily life

1 Daily 2 Occasionally 3 Not at all

Box 10 Survey question of reciting Prayers Source Centre for Bhutan Studies

For a country pursing GNH it is important to take account of Karma on a daily

basis because Karma promotes healthy and ethical living ideal for a GNH state

According to CBS for Bhutanese an understanding of the dynamics between causes

and effects are critical to each individuals pursuit for happiness as it tends to provide a

clearer understanding and cultivation of GNH values (pl) Understanding that the real

reason for our sufferings is our own Karma (action through body speech and mind)

serves as an antidote to all our afflictive emotions Karma promotes the sense of helping

each other and living in harmony with all forms of life It is therefore important that a

GNH society take account of Karma daily to promote wholesome actions for a happy

society The indicator of taking account of Karma daily is thus a reflection of Buddhist

principles and is consistent with GNH values

43 General Mental Health (GMH)

11 General Mental Health

The general mental health indicator assesses the mental health of people using the

General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) that would provide a possible indication of

depression anxiety low confidence and concentration levels Unlike the other indicators

under the psychological wellbeing domain the General Mental Health indicator consists

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of fifteen questions (See Appendix 2) Questions related to ones stress level ability to

concentrate anxiety depression feeling of happiness and unhappiness are asked of the

respondents The questions are calculated and interpreted using the Likert scale with

lowest score at 0 and highest possible score at 36 A lower score between the ranges of 0-

15 indicates normal mental wellbeing a median score between 16-20 indicates some

mental distress and a high score of 21-36 indicates severe mental distress (CBS 2008)

The sufficiency cut-off is set as normal mental wellbeing which means people should

not experience any mental distress to get a full GNH score

The CBS (2008) asserts that mental health is an important indicator for the health

status of a population Studies have revealed that mental stress can negatively affect

wellbeing Studies also point out that stress may alter the immune system and increase

susceptibility to disease (CBS 2008)

From the Buddhist perspective psychological distress such as depression lack of

confidence and anxiety are the result of our own afflictive emotions Gyatso (2009)

points out that the overriding cause of mental stress is self-cherishingmdashseeing ones own

physical and mental pleasure as more important than anybody elses People who have

the tendency to use more self-referential terms (I me myself) tend to have more health

problems and earlier deaths (Dalai Lama 2009) According to Buddhism it is our own

ego the focus on the notion of I that cause us to suffer The causes of mental distress

thus lie within us Since cause is within us the cure is also in our own mind Buddhist

teachings maintain that meditating on emptiness4 can get rid of the notion of T Thus

4 A meditation technique

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mental distress similar to other negative emotions are a result of ignorance desire and

hatred

Ven Thubten Gyatso (2009) a Buddhist teacher points out two reasons why

selfishness can cause mental illness The first is that unhappiness arising from

selfishness is cumulative When we do not obtain what we want we often over-react to a

ridiculous extent and our selfish behavior isolates us from others The accumulation of

small failures in life erodes our self-confidence and we fall into depression The second

reason he points out is that selfishness prevents us from doing the one thing that is

guaranteed to bring happiness - cherishing others being compassionate and generous

Self-obsession and self-centered thoughts blind us and we do nothing to help others In

Buddhism self-centeredness never brings real joy and satisfaction but instead causes

suffering

The mind drives every action that occurs through the body speech and mind

The causal factor therefore lies within us It is our ability to deal with emotions that

influences the mental state Since mental stress obstructs the path towards happiness it

opposes the goal of GNH It is therefore important to assess the stress levels of the

population to identify the risk group Intervention by government and offering remedy

(for example offering counseling) and monitoring changes over time can help people

pursue happiness

44 Summary

The purpose of this study is to determine to what extent the indicators under the

psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with

89

the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH Findings in this chapter reveal the following

The four indicators related to negative emotionsmdashjealousy selfishness frustration

suicidal thoughtmdashdo appear in Buddhism Jealousy (dhrag-dog) is clearly stated as an

afflictive emotion while the Buddhist teachings condemn the idea ofself through

which selfishness arises Although the exact term does not appear in Buddhism

frustration is closely related to the meaning of gopa or agitation which arises as a result

of the three poisons Buddhism holds that lack of wisdom or holding on to wrong views

leads to suicidal thoughts Jealousy selfishness frustration and suicidal thought thus

arise out of the three poisons ignorance desire and hatred All four indicators are what

Buddhism calls Klesha afflictive emotions that disturb the mind of oneself and others

thus obstructing the path towards happiness Similarly general mental health distress is a

result of afflictive emotion Buddhist teachings particularly points out that holding on to

the idea of self leads to mental stress

The indicators related to the three positive emotions (Generosity Compassion

and Calmness) and three spiritual practices (Meditation Prayer Recitation Taking

account of Karma) are clearly related to the Buddhist teachings on six paramitas

Generosity is the first paramita a practice towards achieving genuine happiness

Compassion is the root of all Mahayana Buddhist practices and an essential component of

the practice of six paramitas The indicator of calmness is related to Kshanti paramita

which entails the practice of patience tolerance and endurance Similarly the indicator

of meditation and prayer recitation is related to the Buddhist practice of meditative

concentration which is the fourth practice Dhayana paramita Prayer recitation

however does have elements of Bon practices which have been deeply absorbed by the

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local Buddhist culture The indicator of taking account of Karma is clearly influenced by

Buddhism Karma promotes the practice of ethics which is sila paramita that stresses

avoiding the ten non-virtuous actions and engaging in virtuous action Overall all of the

positive emotions and practices require wisdom which is prajna paramita The core

teachings of Buddhism thus find a place in each of the indicators Thus it would be

appropriate to conclude that the indicators have been influenced by Buddhism

Each of indicators either contributes to or negatively affects GNH In a GNH

society it is important to establish that people not only experience positive emotions but

also rule out the presence of negative emotions that can cause mental distress It is also

important to determine if people take up spiritual practices to keep the negative emotions

at bay Therefore each indicator under psychological wellbeing relates positively or

negatively with the concept of GNH It can thus be concluded that the indicators of

psychological wellbeing are consistent with GNH values

91

CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMMENDATIONS

From the very beginning of its development plan Bhutan chose to ensure the

preservation of its culture tradition and natural resources This came to be called the

philosophy of GNH where peoples spiritual and emotional wellbeing is afforded equal

importance to economic wellbeing GNH recognizes that economic development without

spiritual and emotional wellbeing will not bring happiness to people Several workshops

and discourses held on GNH led to the adoption of the GNH Index a set of indicators to

measure whether Bhutanese society is progressing towards GNH The index comprises

72 indicators grouped under nine domains that go beyond material values and incorporate

all values relevant to a happy life The GNH index is now the most important tool in

guiding the performance of the government towards achieving the goal of GNH The

purpose of this study was to determine to what extent the indicators under the

psychological domain reflect Buddhist principles of happiness and their coherence with

the Buddhist influenced concept of GNH The three questions that drove this study are

To what extent has Buddhism influenced the GNH indicators Do the indicators reflect

Buddhist principles Are the indicators consistent with the concept of GNH which does

reflect Buddhist principles The primary data that were used are the eleven indicators and

survey questionnaires developed by the Centre for Bhutan Studies The findings from the laquo

study reveal that each of the indicators under psychological wellbeing reflects Buddhist

principles The ultimate goal in Buddhism is to achieve genuine happiness Inspired by

this belief Bhutan is the only country in the world that officially pursues the state of

happiness The government believes that happiness is in the end what matters the most

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The government has taken the utmost responsibility to create an enabling condition for

people to pursue happiness The psychological wellbeing domain under the GNH index

measures peoples psychological state which influences the overall wellbeing of people

Since the purpose of this study is to determine the extent to which indicators

reflected Buddhist principles it was necessary to highlight the key Buddhist principles

related to happiness Chapter Three examined the key Buddhist principles related to

happiness Specifically Thogme Zangpos teachings on the six paramitas were used as a

basis to develop the framework of happiness It was observed that happiness is not only

worldly pleasure derived from physical comfort but also an innate state of mind which

can be cultivated through the practice of compassion generosity ethics meditative

concentration patience and wisdom This can bring happiness to the individual and to

the society Although GNH stresses collective happiness Buddhism states that peace

must first be developed in the individual mind before it can contribute to others and the

happiness of the society Thus in the words of Master Shantideva it is not primarily the

outer conditions of our life that determine our happiness or suffering it is our own mind

that creates the cause for happiness or success

Humans experience many emotions and narrowing them down to eleven

indicators is not an easy task There is a strong relationship between emotions and

wellbeing The intensity of pleasant and unpleasant emotions influences the degree of

psychological wellbeing Studies have also shown that emotions play an integral role in

affecting the overall physical health Emotions also have powerful effects in shaping and

regulating social interactions and influencing how one appears to others Like the mind-

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transforming practices in Buddhism the key to a nations progress lies in tracing

problems and solutions to the root causes

The indicators under the psychological wellbeing domain measure peoples

emotional state and the frequency of spiritual practices to eliminate negative emotion

Findings in Chapter Four reveal that each of the indicators of psychological wellbeing

correlates to Buddhist principles on happiness The relationship between the indicators of

psychological wellbeing and Buddhist principles are presented in the table below

Indicators Buddhist Principles

1 Jealousy Dhrag Dhog- Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

2 Selfishness Serna - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

3 Frustration Gopa - Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

4 Suicidal Thought Klesha ( afflictive emotions) Non-virtuous

5 Generosity Dana Paramita (Bjin ba) Generosity

6 Compassion The root of all Buddhist practices

7 Calmness Kshanti Paramita (Bzod pa) Patience tolerance endurance

8 Meditation Dhyana Parmto Meditative Concentration

9 Prayer Recitation Dhyana ParmitaMeditative Concentration

10 Karma Sila Paramita (Tshul khrim) virtue morality ethics

11 General Mental Health Klesha (Afflictive emotions) causes mental distress

Table 1 Relating the Indicators with Buddhism

The four negative emotion indicatorsmdashselfishness frustration jealousy and

suicidal thoughtmdashare found in Buddhism as afflictive emotions (klesha) arising out of the

three poisons Jealousy (dharg dhog) appears in the Abhidhamma text as an immoral and

94

deluded mental factor that feels displeasure in seeing others succeed Similarly

selfishness (sema) is listed as an immoral consciousness in the Abhidhamma Selfishness

is an extension of attachment and resists the spirit of generosity Buddhism teaches no-

self (anatta) as an essential principle and therefore strongly condemns the notion of I

through which selfishness arises Frustration in Buddhism is closely related to the term

gopa which is actually translated as agitation Gopa falls under the twenty secondary

immoral delusions in the Abhidhamma text Suicides and suicidal thought in Buddhism

are the result of wrong view Suicide is an unwholesome action and does not end the

problem Suicidal thought occurs because of afflictive emotions (klesha) All these

negative emotions (klesha) cause mental distress

The positive emotion and spiritual practice indicators such as compassion

calmness generosity meditation prayer recitation and taking account of Karma are the

replication of the six paramitas The positive emotions which Buddhists call virtuous

action such as generosity compassion and calmness tend to increase happiness in oneself

and others while negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration affect

psychological health and decrease happiness Since each of the indicators can be clearly

related to Buddhist principles of happiness it can thus be concluded that the

psychological wellbeing indicators are influenced by Buddhism and are consistent with

the concept of GNH One may argue that indicators such as compassion generosity and

calmness are universal values and ethics and may not necessarily be influenced by

Buddhism However in the case of Bhutan the Bhutanese worldview and its political

ethos are largely influenced by Buddhism The philosophy of GNH is also rooted in

Buddhism It is also evident that the government is seeking to measure and cater to long-

95

term rather than short-term happiness From the Buddhist perspective short-term

happiness is delivered chiefly by material goods while long-term happiness is derived

from spiritual cultural and social values

This study reveals that Buddhism stresses gaining control over our mind and

cultivating the right kind of habit which is said to be the root of all forms of joy and

happiness Buddhism in the original sense encourages exercises to tame and calm the

mind This study therefore partly seems to support the claims made by scholars such as

Lokamitra (2004) Hewavitharana (2004) and Tashi (2004) who have argued that

Buddhism can help achieve the goal of GNH

Overall this study indicates that if the government creates good policies and

conditions for people GNH cannot be achieved if its citizens are not psychologically

strong For example if citizens are mentally stressed or filled with jealousy they will not

contribute to collective happiness In that sense happiness is inextricably linked to the

inner conditions of ones own mind

Measuring the psychological state of people will help the policy makers make

better decisions The emotional and psychological needs of people therefore must be

considered by the policy makers in order to achieve GNH A study by Sheldon Ryan

Deci and Kasser (2004) found that people pursuing intrinsic goals (emotional intimacy

community contribution and personal growth) had higher happiness expectancies than

those pursuing extrinsic goals (financial success attractive image and famepopularity)

By emphasizing human values of compassion generosity calmness and selflessness as

necessary indicators of GNH the government of Bhutan is providing the basis for

developing policies that focus on these values The domain of psychological wellbeing

96

thus focuses on the inner emotional development Within the concept of GNH inner non-

material development is equally important as external material development

Recommendations for Future Studies

The biggest challenge for the government is to combat the negative emotions of

the people The findings of this study reveal that Buddhist teachings are all geared

towards taming the mind and cultivating values that promote happiness Further

Buddhism does not emphasize individualism but emphasizes equality and cooperation

aimed at collective happiness It emphasizes individual effort geared towards universal

happiness Buddhist teachings and method to calm the mind can contribute to GNH

Ekman Davidson Ricaed and Wallace (2005) suggest that Buddhist practices offer a

therapy not just for the disturbed but for all who seek to improve the quality of their

lives Although the majority of the population in Bhutan is Buddhist 25 are non-

Buddhist (CIA fact book 2009) Some scholars have argued however that Buddhism

can also be taught as education on human values (Mancall 2004 amp Lokamitra 2004)

Therefore extensive research on how this might be done could provide valuable lessons

insights and guidelines for the purpose of promoting GNH values

As pointed out earlier there is not much information available on how the

sufficiency cut off has been set for each indicator From the information available on the

CBS website however it has been asserted that the sufficiency cut off is set at a level

that is deemed sufficient for most people (CBS 2008) This still raises questions because

there is not any literature or studies conducted on how the sufficiency cut off has actually

been set Arbitrarily setting a cut off without any basis or setting it based on some

assumptions can lead to questionable results Therefore an in-depth study on the basis

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for setting the sufficiency cut off seems necessary to avoid misinterpretation by policy

makers

This study analyzed the indicators to determine the extent to which they reflected

Buddhist principles However it was observed that indicators of psychological wellbeing

were measured by questionnaires that only examined the frequency of occurrence of

emotions and the spiritual practices It is important that the government not only

recognize peoples suffering but identify its causes as well For example the questionnaire

notes the frequency of negative emotions such as jealousy selfishness and frustration but

does not identify their causes In order for the policy makers to identify effective

solutions the cause must be noted also Further the key terms such as generosity

compassion frustration and prayer recitation were not clearly defined For example the

term generosity could imply the practice rather than the emotional state of generosity

One can practice generosity yet not feel emotionally generous a practice can differ from

an emotional state Similarly the choices of answers such as often sometimes daily have

not been defined These terms can mean different things to different people To avoid

misinterpretation it is necessary that the key terms be clearly defined and nuanced

This study focused only on one of the domains of GNH index Although a similar

study needs to be carried out for the other eight domains there is a need for further

investigation into many of the issues related to the GNH index such as How would the

GNH index affect the government policies Does the index give equal importance to the

emotional spiritual and economical wellbeing of the people Does the index capture the

real essence of human happiness

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