Amy Dzera Clarke

Honors Conference Poster

 

 

The Global impact of Toxic Oil Spills on Marine Life and Their Habitats

 

 

 

 

Abstract:

There has been a significant amount of global attention focused on the British Petroleum

Deep water Horizon oil spill in which nearly 200 million gallons of oil as well as dispersants had

spewed in to the Gulf of Mexico over a period of 87 days. Researchers are attempting to predict

the long term impacts that have been inflicted on various marine life and their habitats by using

various methodology. DNA Sampling results from previous disasters such as this one have

yielded disturbing evidence of mutations or adaptations in various marine creatures created to

sustain life in a less than adequate environment. Hydrocarbons, lower oxygen levels, the

blocking of sunlight to phytoplankton and many other barriers to marine life are frequently seen

with oil spills which facilitate the necessity of frequent inspections and stricter preventative

procedures on oil rigs all around the world, especially due to the global increase of consumption.

 

 

Global Oil Spills and the Oil Industry

The frequency and location of oil spills are perhaps irrelevant as even one spill

can cause enough damage to last decades and with an increase in consumption and

revenue many people believe that finding a resolution to the crisis is a huge obstacle to

overcome. On average, India and China will consume 28 percent of global energy by

2030; triple what they required in 1990 according to the U.S Department of Energy.

China is set to surpass the United States in energy consumption by 2015. Although the

recession appears to be diminishing, the demand for oil is rising rapidly. One month

post Deep Horizon; the Australian government reaffirmed its commitment to ocean

drilling, putting 31 offshore blocks up for bidding, 17 of them in deep water. Although

this may seem logical as demand is up many worry that developing countries are not

ready to handle major oil spills which could cause significant damage. In 2003, the

worst environmental disaster in Pakistan’s history took place in which an oil tanker

called the Tasmanian Spirit grounded in a channel of Karachi Port carrying

approximately 67,535 tons of crude oil and started leaking from a 24 year old single

hull immediately upon impact. It impacted nearly 270 square kilometers of seabed and

2,062 square kilometers of marine waters.  The primary reason the spill was so

devastating was due to the fact that Pakistan lacked clearly defined strategies, proper

staffing and financial resources. The costs of an oil spill can be categorized into, the

environmental damages, socio-economic losses, clean up costs, research costs and other

expenditures. Oil spills lead to degradation of natural resources and to  decreases of

their services in the aftermath of the incident and in order to calculate the value of

natural resource, economists either link them indirectly to some market goods or

observed economic activities or construct directly a hypothetical market. What about

the party held accountable for the spill? Many people feel they go unpunished as they

are slapped on the wrist with fines that have no impact. Exxon in 2008 was fined 2.64

million dollars which was under 1% of their profits in one quarter of the year for a spill

in the Pacific. America's Exxon Mobil remains the most profitable company, with

income last year of $45.2 billion. Oil spills are not only impacting the United States but

are affecting us on a global level.

Global Oil Consumption and Production Consumption

 

 

 

 

 

2. The Crisis of Offshore Drilling and Oil Rigs

Perhaps the most perplexing dilemmas are the regulations and inspections of the oil rigs

instituted for offshore drilling.  In order to protect our natural resources there must be specific

inspections and regulations on the oil rigs themselves. The current problem with this is that

inspectors are for the most part former oilfield workers without college degrees, have little

formal training and aren't required to pass any certification tests; they are expected to learn their

craft by shadowing more experienced peers. They have almost no direct experience in the

specialized field of deep-water drilling, and, during offshore inspections, have no access to

technology more advanced than a pocket calculator. When mistakes are made and they fail an

inspection they rarely result in a fine and if they do receive one it is minimal. Last year,

inspectors wrote up 2,298 violations offshore, but only 87 were referred on for possible fines,

according to an Interior Department report. The agency levied civil penalties in 20 cases last

year, totaling $919,000 -- less than the cost of one day's drilling aboard the Deepwater Horizon.

Inspectors can shut down operations for safety reasons, which can cost energy companies far

more than the fines. The Obama administration has approved a permit to drill a new well in the

shallow waters of the Gulf of Mexico, the first such

clearance since new safety regulations were put in

place in response to the BP PLC oil spill.

Oil reaching the shoreline

Source: ITOPF

For more information:

Leslie Eaton, Stephen Power, and Russell Gold. "Inspectors Adrift in Rig-Safety Push --- Outgunned by Industry and Outmatched by Job, Agency Lags.” Wall Street Journal  3  Dec. 2010, Eastern edition: Wall Street Journal, ProQuest. Web.  26 Dec. 2010.

 

Siobhan Hughes.  "The Gulf Oil Spill: Permit Granted to Drill In Shallow Gulf Waters.” Wall Street Journal  20  Jul 2010, Eastern edition: Wall Street Journal, ProQuest. Web.  26 Dec. 2010.

 

The weathering process of an oil spill and Biodegradation

 

The first weathering process to occur is that the oil begins to spread which is dependent

only on its viscosity and amount. It forms a layer across the top of the ocean waters initially

impacting sea birds and many other organisms on the top layer. Evaporation then begins to take

place in an attempt to help to restore balance but is shortly replaced by the process of

emulsification. Emulsification begins to turn the water into a chocolate mousse like consistency,

creating a devastating death trap for many of the fragile marine life as seen in picture 1.

Following emulsification, dispersion and dissolution take place. Dispersion helps aids in the

resolution of oil in the water by forming the oil into droplets as well as the process of

biodegradation (where micro- organisms consume the oil and actually convert it into microbial

cells, carbon dioxide(CO2) and water. Dispersion is typically separated into two phases. The first

dispersion is relatively unstable and the oil separates easily by the process of gravity however,

the second phase, poses significant separation problems and the droplets float the surface as they

are now very light in weight, at a very slow rate. The increased surface area of the dispersed oil

can aid in the process of biodegradation. Frequently with oil spills, dispersants are used to aid in

this process and increase the rate of dispersion. Dissolution only accounts for a small amount of

oil loss but it’s still a very important component. “Dissolution is dependent on the composition

and state of the oil, and occurs most quickly when the oil is finely dispersed in the water column.

Components that are most soluble in sea water are the light aromatic hydrocarbons compounds

such as benzene and toluene. However, these compounds are also those first to be lost through

evaporation, a process which is 10 -100 times faster than dissolution. Oil contains only small

amounts of these compounds making dissolution one of the less important processes.”( ITOPF)

Photo-oxidation which is a family of light-catalyzed reactions at the sea surface is a crucial

process as is helps to reduce carbon in petroleum hydrocarbons. A hydrocarbon is an organic

compound that is made up of hydrogen and carbon and although there are several different types

of hydrocarbons the majority of hydrocarbons can be found in crude oil. Sedimentation begins to

occur next due to evaporation and the dissolution of hydrocarbons that brings an increase in the

gravity of the oil and it sinks to the ocean floor. This is where a majority of the weathered oil

will appear.

For more information:

Xhelilaj, Ermal, Shkelqim sinanaj. The Behaviour and Effects of oil pollution into marine environment and oceans. “pomorstvo/Journal of Maritime Studies 24.1 (2010): 19-25/ Academic Search Complete. Ebsco. Web.26 Dec.2010

 

 

The Global Negative Impact of Oil Spills on Marine life

According to NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association),  83 miles of

shoreline are affected by the most recent BP oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico and they have several

hundred research transmitters inserted in various marine species to analyze the impact. As of

November 2010, an astounding 2,263 visibly oiled deceased birds, 2,079 visibly oiled live birds,

18 visibly oiled deceased sea turtles and 456 oiled live turtles have been documented as well as

dead and dying sea corals 1,400 meters below the surface. Obviously, one of the major concerns

following an oil spill is for the fragile marine life in our waters that have to directly cope with the

damage and are unable to escape to a more sustainable environment. The long -term impacts to

the marine life have been noted by researchers in which marine creatures have mutated or

adapted under inadequate circumstances in order to avoid extinction. There are numerous

negative impacts to marine life following an oil spill.  Many Severe reactions appear in macro

fauna such as coral reefs, many species of fish and shellfish, zooplankton, seabirds as well as

shore birds, and marine mammals such as sea otters and seals and turtles that breed on the

shorelines. Mutations or adaptations, oxygen and CO2 (Carbon dioxide) levels, hydrocarbons,

population and growth, food chains in the water affected, are all issues that are addressed after

and oil spill by researchers. In previous oil spills, coral growth has declined and with the fragile

coral reefs near the Gulf of Mexico, so many researchers will be paying close attention this as

well as many other species. One of the primary negative impacts that occur shortly after oil is

released in the sea water is the arrival of the toxicity of the oil itself.  The oil enters into many

various marine creatures, coats numerous feathers of sea and shore birds and shortly after clean

themselves and end up ingesting the toxic oil. Hypothermia is commonly seen in various birds

after and oil spill due to the loss in body heat. The oil can also enter into smaller marine creatures

such as crabs, plankton and bottom dwellers which are severely affected and it travels up the

food chain effecting one species after another ,similar to a domino effect. The Exxon Valdez

spill took four summers to clean up and after ten years species such as the harbor seal, killer

whale, common loon and harlequin duck still have not recovered and all due to the surface

toxicity of oil. A severe impact to marine life below the surface involves hydrocarbons, oxygen

and CO2 levels. Dispersants are commonly used to help to break down the compound of oil

however; they pose significant risks to marine life. Poly-aromatic hydrocarbons are more toxic

than saturated hydrocarbons. These poly-aromatic hydrocarbons have been documented after

disasters such as Erika and Sea Empress to cause genetic anomalies in mollusks, plankton, and

crustaceans and various other species. As seen in the table below, following  the Valdez oil spill,

species were consequently impacted.

Picture 1"A bird was found dead in a pool of oil on East Grand Terre Island, Louisiana, on Sunday, June 6, 2010. (Carolyn Cole/Los Angeles Times/MCT)." (2010): Image Collection. EBSCO. Web. 26 Dec. 201

 

 Source: R. T. Paine, Jennifer L. Ruesink, Adrian Sun, Elaine L. Soulanille, Marjorie J.

Wonham, Christopher D. G. Harley, Daniel R. Brumbaugh and David L. Secord. Annual Review

of Ecology and Systematics. Trouble on Oiled Waters: Lessons from the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill

Vol. 27, 1996.Page [212] of 197-235

 

 

The Global negative impact of Oil Spills on Habitats

Impacts to the various coastal habitats as well as ocean habitats are very harsh. Following

an oil spill there is loss of food for marine species, displaced marine life and damages to the

marshes and mangroves caused by oil droplets and sedimentation. As plankton and other small

marine creatures begin ingesting the toxic oil droplets left behind, they become sick and this

continues up the food chain. When hydrocarbons are ingested they cause genotoxic damage to

liver cells. The species in the ocean are dependent upon one another so when one part of the food

chain is impacted and dies it trickles up the food chain and can cause a species to go without

food and possibly extinct. Many marine creatures have specific habitats that are essential to their

survival and instead of relocating; they remain in the toxic environment. Perhaps the most visual

is the damage that occurs to our shorelines, wetlands and marshes. Although preventative

measures such as booms are used to prevent oil in reaching our shorelines it still manages to find

its way. When this occurs the oil begins to settle into the layers of sand in which many sea turtles

make their nest as well as various other species, creating a toxic environment. Unfortunately not

only does the oil reach the shoreline but also the dispersants that are used to aid in the cleanup of

an oil spill. Dispersants contain many harmful chemicals to the environment but they do appear

to aid in clean up. When dispersants combine with sedimentation it creates a long lasting toxic

layer on the shoreline. Just recently, sedimentation was found off the shore of Louisiana. A big

hard block and when cracked open you could still smell petroleum. Oil spills also change the

structure of microbial communities and they become dominant and deplete the ocean waters of

oxygen which results in death for species dependent on oxygen. In mangroves, this is especially

damaging as microbial organisms play a crucial role in dinitrogen fixation which is necessary for

organic matter mineralization including biodegradation. Mangroves suffer asphyxiation and this

oil spill will affect animals that inhabit them as well.

A salt marsh impacted by an oil spill before (left) and after (right) replanting

Source: ITOPF

For more information:

M. S. Goñi Urriza, Ph.D., and R. Duran, Ph.D., The Gulf Oil Spill: We Have Been Here Before. Can We Learn From the Past? Journal of Cosmology, 2010, Vol. 8, 2026-

2028. JournalofCosmology.com, June, 2010. Equipe Environnement et Microbiologie – UMR

CNRS IPREM 5254, Université de Pau et des Pays de L’Adour BP1155 - 64013 Pau cedex, France

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

           

 

            

 

 

Evidence of the past and Predicting the outcome of oil spills

The most important thing we can do is to learn from previous disasters in how to analyze

the damage and move forward toward the restoration phase. Although there have been a lot of oil

spills it is still very difficult to predict exactly the outcome, such as; which species or habitats

will be affected the worst? The most recent oil spill in the Gulf is the worst oil spill in history

and judging from past spills it will take decades for our fragile ecosystems to recover. There are

a particular few that I will reference here such as the Ixtoc, Valdez and the most current BP oil

spill in the Gulf of Mexico. There has been significant documented evidence in the past of

mutations and adaptations following an oil spill.

Marine and land Species affected by the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill

PLEASE OMIT IT CAN’T BE TURNED AROUND

(Can the following picture be turned around?)

 

 

 

Technology and methodology used in sampling and analysis

Researchers use various tools and methodology to obtain samples and analysis which

consists of a particular process and time frame. Fortunately the tools and methodology that are

used to analyze damage and in particular species that have been affected have come a long way

and there are many new technological devices that scientists will use in obtaining data regarding

the BP oil spill. The first step to restoration is the pre-assessment phase. In this phase researchers

use data and mathematical models to assess the extent or severity of the impact. The next phase

dependent on whether there will be damage, is called the injury assessment phase where

researchers conduct economic and scientific studies to formulate a restoration plan. Following

restoration planning the next phase consists of putting their plan into action and continually

monitoring it to ensure its success. Possible restorations may include replanting

marshes/wetlands, reinventing oyster reefs or restoring commercial fishing sites. Once

researchers establish the required information they need to focus on they can go into the field and

conduct sampling, insert probes into marine species for monitoring, conduct gas

chromatography/mass spectrometry fingerprint analysis to analyze the process of oil degradation

as well as various other methods. The newest technology is the trajectory model which actually

tracks the spread and dispersion of the oil to enable scientists to properly diagnose which habitats

and species could be impacted.

Spectrophotometric Elemental Analysis System

The SEAS II sensor is a highly sensitive in-situ sensor capable of nanomolar level detection of

nutrients and trace metals based on liquid core waveguide technology. (Callahan Michael R,

Kaltenbacher Eric A et al. 2002). This sensor utilizes well characterized chemistries to analyze a

variety of analytes, including nitrate, nitrite, phosphorous, phosphate, CO2, pH and iron. The

Spectrophometric Elemental Analysis System ( SEAS ) utilizes long pathlength absorbance

spectrometry ( LPAS ) combined with colorimetric protocols to achieve the sensitivity required

to measure analytes at nanomolar concentration levels.

The SEAS II sensor has incorporated variable chemistry programming capability and support for

multiple connected instruments, such as a CTD, fluorometer, and a photosynthetically active

radiation ( PAR ) sensor. The allows for highly flexible implementation of measurement

chemistries for wide range of analytes and inclusion of external sensor data into the SEAS II

data.

 

 

 

 Roques, D. E., E. B. Overton, and C. B. Henry. "Using gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy fingerprint analyses to document process and progress of oil degradation." Journal of Environmental Quality 23 (1994): 851-5. Applied Science Full Text. Web. 27 Jan. 2011.

The Multi-parameter Inorganic Carbon Analyzer (MICA) developed in the College of Marine Science is an autonomous multi-parameter flow-through CO2 system capable of simultaneously measuring pH, carbon dioxide fugacity (fCO2), atmospheric carbon dioxide partial pressure (pCO2), and the total dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) of natural water

Source: (USF) College of Marine Science

Project TeamRobert H. Byrne, project leadSherwood Liu, method development and testingEric A. Kaltenbacher, instrument designJim Patten, software

Source: USF College Of Marine Science

Source: USF College of Marine Science

 

 

 

 

Conclusion:

So what have we learned? We have learned that in the world that we live in and the

global increase in consumption , unless alternative fuels and proper inspections and regulations

on oil rigs are utilized globally there will be more oil spills. In order to counteract the devastating

damages to our beautiful ecosystems we must have more funding and conduct extensive research

on the populations in these ecosystems and create more awareness and volunteerism. Many

people are needed to aid in various ways with many different organizations. But above all,

globally we need to become producers and less consumers.

 

Acknowledgments:

A sincere thank you to:

Ms. Kendra Daly at the University of South Florida, College of Marine Science who

provided information on previous environmental disasters and plankton research as well as Bill

Hogarth, Dean of the USF College of Marine Science, Ernst Peebles, Chad Mairn at the St.

Petersburg College and everyone else who helped me to obtain adequate resources for this

project.

 

 

Where can I find out more information on the most recent BP Oil Spill? There are many

organizations involved in the most recent BP oil spill. The University of South Florida, College

of Marine Science, The National Oceanic Atmospheric Association. To find more organizations

google: Bp Oil Spill

What can I do to help?

Take time to care… Volunteer at your local marine aquarium, aid in coastal clean-ups, donate to

marine life organizations and research facilities.

Who do I contact if I find and injured or sick marine creature?

If you find and injured or sick marine creature, sea or shore bird, damage or decaying mangrove

you should contact your local Audubon society or marine aquarium to find out what you can do

to help.

 

 

 

 

      For more information:

 

 

 

Margolis, Mac. "DRILLING DEEP." Discover 31.7 (2010): 48-76. Academic Search Complete. EBSCO. Web. 26 Dec. 2010

 

            Disasters, 2009, 33(3): 390−411. © 2009 The Author(s). Journal compilation © Overseas                  

            Development Institute, 2009.Published by Blackwell Publishing, 9600 Garsington Road, 

            Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USAThe Tasman     

            Spirit oil spill 391

 

Mian, Saima, and Suzan Bennett. "The Tasman Spirit oil spill: implications for

regulatory change in Pakistan." Disasters 33.3 (2009): 390-411. Academic Search

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Xin, Liu, and Kai W. Wirtz. "Total oil spill costs and compensations." Maritime Policy

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Dec. 2010.

Gunther, Marc. "China Inc. Takes Off." Fortune 160.2 (2009): 130-134. Academic

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Genaw, Jillian L. "OFFSHORE OIL DRILLING IN THE UNITED STATES AND

THE EXPANSION OF CUBA'S OIL PROGRAM: A DISCUSSION OF

ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY." Indiana International & Comparative Law Review

20.1 (2010): 47-77. Academic Search Complete. EBSCO. Web. 26 Dec. 2010.