America's Energy Choices

8/6/2019 America's Energy Choices

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www.AmericanSecurityProject.org 1100 New York Avenue, NW Suite 710W Washington, DC

Americas Energy Choices

Andrew Holland

August 2, 2011

In Brief:

Americaneedsmoreenergyofallsorts,butespeciallyelectricity.

By2035,U.S.electricitydemandwillincreaseby30%.

By2050,allpresentU.S.electricity-generationpowerplantswillneedtobereplaced.

Wehavetomakechoicesonwhatenergymixweneedinthefuturethepresentsituationisgeopolitically,environmentally,andeconomicallyunsustainable.

Americasenergychoicesshouldbeconsideredinlightofthreeconcerns:

- Energy Security

- Economic Stability

- Environmental Sustainability

erearethreebroadcategoriesofenergytochoosefrom:FossilFuels,NuclearEnergy,andRenewablepower.Withineachofthesecategoriesareabroadrangeofchoices,eachofwhichwillhavepositivesandnegativesineachofthethreeareas.

efollowingpaperlaysoutthefacts,matchingthe10mostimportantenergychoicestotheconcernstoallowpolicymakerstomakeinformeddecisions.

Andrew Holland is a Fellow at the American Security Project.


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AMERICAN SECURITY PROJECT

Americas Energy Choices

Thirty-sevenyearsago,PresidentRichardNixonannouncedanationalgoalthatbytheyear1980,theUnitedStateswillnotbedependentonanyothercountryfortheenergyweneedtoprovideourjobs,toheatour

homes,andtokeepourtransportationmoving.1

Sincethis1974StateoftheUnionaddress,giveninthemidstofanembargoofoilexportstotheUnitedStatesanditallies,somesortofenergyindependencehasbeenastatedpolicyofeveryPresidentialadministration.Regardlessofthisrhetoric,however,theUnitedStateshasnotcomeanywherenearenergyindependence.

Today,energypolicyisbackatthecenterofnationalaairs.Partlythisisbecauseonceagain,forthesecondtimeinthreeyears,theglobalpriceofoilhasjumpedtonear-recordterritory.

eurgencyoftheenergydebatetoday,however,isaboutmorethansimplygasolineprices.EnvironmentalconcernsarebringingtheverybasisofAmericasenergysystemintoquestion:theevidencethathumanfossilfuelusecontributestoclimatechangebecomesmoreunequivocaleveryday.

Americasforeignpolicyisconstrainedbyquestionsofenergysecurity,assupportfordemocraticrevolutionsacrosstheArabworldhastobebalancedbyapreferenceforstabilityinthemajoroilproducingnationsaroundthePersianGulf

EnergyinfrastructureacrosstheUnitedStatesisshowingitsageasthepowergridstrugglestomeetdemandandpoweplantsnearretirement.Meanwhile,advancesinnewtechnologiesholdthepromiseofplentifulenergyrequiringlittleornofuel;butsignicantresearchfundingisrequired.

Policymakerswillhavetoaddressthesechallengeswhilealsoprovidingfora20%increaseintotalenergydemandacrosstheUnitedStates,includinga30%increaseinelectricitydemandby2035.Allofthiswillhappeninaworld

wheretotalenergydemandsareexpectedtoincreaseby50%,drivenbyunprecedentedeconomicgrowthin

developingcountriessuchasBrazil,China,andIndia.

esechallengesaresignicantbutnoneofthemareaquestionofyesorno,either/or,doordonot.Instead,howtheUnitedStatesmeetsthosechallenges

willrequirechoicesstrategicdecisionsaboutinfrastructureinvestment,governmentpolicy,researchfunding,andevenforeignpolicy.

esechallengescannotbemetbyslogansorpoliticalsound-bites.eseareimportantdecisionsrequiringaninformedandwide-rangingdebatenottrench

warfareoversmallissues.etimeforrhetoricandposturingonenergyissuesisswiftlyapproachingitsend.etimeforaction,ortheconsequencesofinaction,isapproaching.

Source: EIA Annual Energy Outlook 2011, http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/MT_intl.cfm


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Assessing Americas 21stCentury Energy Choices

Today,theUnitedStatesfacesaseriesofchoicesthatwilldeterminehowitseconomyispoweredtomeettheneedsofthe21stcentury.HowAmericachoosestoreplaceandexpanditsenergysupplywillaectthehealthoftheworldsenvironment,Americasnationalsecurity,andthewell-beingoftheU.S.economy.However,thepoliticaldebatedoesnothaveaneectivevocabularytodiscussthecostsandbenetsofdierentchoices.

Policymakerstoooftenmakeargumentsaboutenergybasedonwhichwillsellthebestinordertotadecisionalreadymade.Instead,policymakersshouldlookattheoptionsandweighthetradeosforeach.Becausetherearetradeosdecisionmakersshouldnotpretendtherearesilverbulletsthatwillautomaticallybringcheap,clean,domesticenergytoall.

ispaperwillattempttooutlineamatrixofpolicychoicesforthegovernment,utilities,andtheprivatesectortoconsider.

ItwilllookattendierentoptionsforhowtofuelAmericaseconomy,eachofwhichwillbeconsideredinlightofthreeconcerns:

(1) Energy Security;

(2) Economic Stability; and

(3) Environmental Sustainability.

Sometimesthesetermsaresimplybuzzwords,soitisimportanttospecicallydeneeach.

Energy Security

Analytically,energysecurityisdiculttoquantify.PresidentJimmyCarterdenedenergysecurityina1977speech

asindependenceofeconomicandpoliticalactionininternationalaairs.2

eUnitedStatesshouldbeabletodeneitsinterestsoverseasindependentlyfromhowitusesenergydomestically.

Importantly,energysecuritydoesnotmeanenergyindependenceinthesensethatalloftheenergyusedintheUnitedStatescomesfromwithinitsborderswithoutinternationaltrade.isisneitherobtainablenordesirableinaglobalizedworld.Inaddition,energysecuritydoesnotdependonthepercentageofsupplythatisimported.Inaworldofgloballytradedcommodities,itisnolongerpossibletobetrulyenergyindependent:evendomesticallyproducedenergysourcesaresubjecttouctuationsinglobalcommoditymarkets.

Sincetheoilpricecrisesofthe1970s,theriskofabsolutesupplyshortageshasbeenreducedsignicantly.ecreationoftheInternationalEnergyAgency(IEA)anditsrequirementthatallmembercountriesholdoilstockscapableofreplacing90daysworthofimportsactsasabueragainstdisruptionsinoilsupplies.eU.S.Strategic

PetroleumReservecansubstitutefor,onaverage,75daysworthofoilimportsasofJune2011,andprivatelyheldreservesaccountfortheadditionaldaysofimports.3

Althoughspeculatorsaresometimesblamedforinatingprices,thedeepeningofinternationalfuturestradingmarketsallowspricesignalstogivewarningsofimpendingsupplyanddemandimbalances.Today,then,fortheUnitedStates,energysecurityconcernsarenolongeraboutphysicaldisruptionsinsupply.eseconcernsstemfrom


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thepossibilitythatactionsinforeignpolicywillleadtopriceincreasescausingundueharmtoeconomicgrowth.

Keepingthisismind,thispaperdenesenergysecurityastheabilityforacountrytoactinitsforeignpolicyindependentlyofhowitusesenergydomestically.

Obtainingenergysecurityactuallydoesnotcomefromincreaseddomesticproductionalone:itcomesfromexibility,

competition,andredundancy.Ifasourceofenergysupplyiseasilyreplacedbyeitheradierentfueltypeoradierensource,thenacountryisinsulatedfromsupplyshocks.U.S.foreignpolicyshouldbedeterminedbyitsinterests,notbyhowitgeneratesitsenergy.

Economic StabilityItseemsclearthatalldecisionsaboutenergypolicymustconsiderprice.eUnitedStates,though,isoneofthemostenergyintensivedevelopedeconomies,whichmakesitseconomyvulnerabletopriceuctuations.

Lowpricesattheexpenseoflittlebueragainstuctuationsinpricebothupanddowncanbemoreharmfulthanahigherpricethatisstableoverthelong-term.Upwardpriceshocksharmconsumersbyactingasatax,butdownwardpriceshockscanharmproducersaswellbyundermininglong-terminvestments.

Whenpricesarelow,consumersareencouragedintodependency,onlyincreasingtheeconomicdamageifpricesspikeupwards.ebestexampleofthisisthattoday,Americandriversarefeelingthepainofgasoline-dependencythatyearoflowpricescreated.

Whendecisionmakersaredeliberatingaboutenergychoices,therelativepriceofeachdecisionisacriticalcomponentHowever,short-termfuelpricescannotbethereasonthatlong-termdecisionsaremade.Whendeliberatingonanenergychoice,itseconomicstabilitydenedashowenergyaectsthehealthofthecountryseconomyoverthelongtermshouldbeanimportantconcern.Producersandconsumersshouldbeabletomakerationaleconomicdecisionsindependentlyofpriceuctuationsornegativeexternalitiesfromenergy.

erefore,itismoreimportantforanenergychoicetobemadethatwillprovidelong-termeconomicstabilityratherthanprovidingonlyforlowpricesatanyexpense,particularlyifthosepricestendtobevolatile.

Economicstabilityshouldbeprioritizedabovelowpricesbecausethepursuitoflowpricescangivelicensetoproducerstoignoreothercosts.Byignoringtheseexternalities,particularlypollution,thepursuitoflowpricescancausenon-economiccoststoariseelsewhere,forexampleinreducedhealthfrompollutedairandwater.

Environmental Sustainability

Whilethereremainsadeeppoliticaldivideinthiscountry(andfewothers)aboutwhetherman-madeemissionsarecausingtheclimatetochange,thedebateinthescienticcommunityisnolongeraboutwhetherhumansarecausingclimatechange,buthowmuchthoseemissionsarehurting.

emostcontroversialdebatesamongscientistsareaboutthesensitivityoftheclimatetoincreasedconcentrationsofgreenhousegases.However,evenifpolicymakersareskepticalofthescienticbasisforthetheoryofclimatechange,aprudent,precautionarycourseinthefaceofuncertaintywoulddemandthatsomeactionbetaken.

Afterthe2008election,inwhichbothBarackObamaandJohnMcCainsupportedgovernmentpoliciestocapand


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ultimatelyreducegreenhousegasemissions,environmentalistshadhopedthattheU.S.Congresswouldaddresstheproblemofclimatechange.However,theproblemsofamajorrecession,shiftingstancesonthetruthbehindclimatechange,andcompetinglegislativeprioritiesmeantthattheWaxman-MarkeybilltocapgreenhousegasemissionspassedbytheHouseofRepresentativesinJune2009wasnevertakenupbytheSenate.

Eventhoughthereisnodomesticlawlimitingcarbonemissions,theU.S.Government,underbothPresidentsBush

andObama,hascommittedtoanumberofinternationalagreementstocapandreduceemissions,expressedthroughstatementsattheG-7,theG-20,andtheUNsCopenhagenAccord.

Climatechangehasdeepimplicationsforenergypolicy.efossilfuelstheUnitedStatesusestoproduce83%ofitsenergyarethemaindriverofclimatechange.4erefore,anyplanthatlookstoreduceemissionswillrequireeitherreducingthetotalamountofenergyproduced(eitherthroughgainsineciency,orabsolutedeclinesinenergyused)orreplacingalargeportionofenergyproductionwithemissions-freepower.

Astheworldssecondlargestemitterabout5,360tonsofcarbonemittedfromenergygenerationin2009(19%ofglobalemissions)5theU.S.willplayanimportantroleindeterminingwhethertheworldcansuccessfullypreventdangerousclimatechange.

Environmentalsustainabilityisaboutmorethanclimatechange,however.

LocalenvironmentaleectsofenergyproductionareasimportantormorethanclimatechangetohowtheUnitedStatesmakesitsdecisionsaboutenergyproduction.Decisionsonhowstrictlytolegislateandenforcepollutionlimitshavesignicantimpactsondecisionsabouthowtoproduceenergy.Environmentalsustainabilityinenergygenerationandextractionarecriticaltothefeasibilityofanyenergysystem.

eextraction,throughminingordrilling,offuelsandmineralsnecessaryforenergyproductioncanhavenegativeeectsonthelocalenvironment.eseexternalitiesincludespills,watercontamination,andairpollutionallof

whichcanbeharmfultothehealthofpeoplelivingandworkingaroundextractionsites.Howenergyproductionaectslocalwatersuppliesandlocalairqualitywilldeterminehowthepublicacceptsnewenergydevelopments.

Anenergysourceshouldbedenedasenvironmentallysustainableiftheproductionanduseofitdoesnotcauseundueharm.Whetherthatharmistolocalecosystems,theglobalatmosphere,watersystems,neighboringbusinesses,orhumanhealth,anenergysourcewithsubstantialexternalitiesisnotsustainableoverthelongterm.

Environmentalsustainabilityandeconomicstabilityarecloselylinkedoverthelong-term,becauseanenergychoicethatharmstheenvironmentwilleventuallycostmore.Itmaybetruethatpollutingcanreducecosts,justasthrowinggarbageoutanapartmentwindowischeaperthanpayingforgarbagecollection,butoverthelong-termbothwillproveunsustainable.isisbecausepolitical,regulatory,andlegalpressurewillbebroughtagainstpollutionsourcestobothreduceeuenceandcleanupanycontamination.

WhenmakingachoiceofhowtopowertheAmericaneconomyforthefuture,decisionmakersshouldclearlyarticulatehoweachpotentialsourceofenergyaectsnationalenergysecurity,economicstability,andenvironmentalsustainability.


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Options for Americas Energy Use

AccordingtotheIEA,theUnitedStatesistheworldslargestuserofenergy,consuming18.6%oftheglobalannualenergysupplyin2008.6

AdescriptionofAmericasfutureenergychoicesmustbeginwithhowtheUnitedStatesusesandproducesenergynow.LawrenceLivermoreNationalLaboratorysowchart(Figure1)showshowtheU.S.energyusein2009.ischartshowstherelativesizeandimportanceofeachsourceofenergy,aswellashoweachenergytypeisused.Analyzingthechartleadstosomeimportantconclusions,suchastheseparationofenergybetweenthatusedforelectricitygenerationandthatusedfortransportationandthestaggeringlyhighamountofrejected(wasted)energy.emajordrawbackofthechartisthatitisastaticsnapshotofenergyuseitdoesnotshowgrowthordeclineovertime.Nevertheless,itprovidesanimportantbaselinefor

thediscussionofthedierentfueltypesthatfollows.

Source: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, https://fowcharts.llnl.gov/

Source: EIA International Energy Statistics, http://www.eia.gov/capps/ipdproject/IEDIndex3cm?tid=44&pid=44&aid=2


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I. Fossil Fuels

FossilfuelsmakeupthelargestportionofenergyproductionintheUnitedStates.Petroleumproducts,coal,andnaturalgasaccountedfor83%oftotalenergyproductionin2009.EachhasdierentphysicalpropertiesthathavegiventhemverydierentrolesinAmericascurrentenergymix.

Itisnotamistakethatfossilfuelsarethedominantsourcesoffuelintheindustrializedworld.ecombinationoflowpricesandhighenergydensityhavemaderstcoal,thenoilandnaturalgas,thepreferredchoicesforenergyproductionforover200years.islong-termusagegivesthosefuelstwocenturiesofbuilt-inadvantageintheformofinfrastructurebuilttouseandtransportthesefuels.Itisnotenoughtosaythatbecausefossilfuelsarecheap,theyalwayswillremainthebestchoice.

Risingglobaldemandforallsourcesoffossilfuelsisdrivenbypopulationgrowthandtherequirementsofaburgeoningmiddleclassindevelopingcountries.Meanwhile,althoughgeologists,economists,andanalystscontinuetoargueabouthowmuchcoal,oil,orgasremainsbeneaththeground,bydenition,suppliesoffossilfuelsarenite.

Together,increasesindemandcoupledwithconstrainedsupplywillinevitablyleadtopriceincreases.Itisonlyaquestionofwhenfossilfuelsarenolongertheeconomical.

esethreemajorfossilfuelsallpresentsignicant,thoughdierent,challengestoAmericanenergysecurity,economicstability,andenvironmentalsustainability.

Sincetheverybeginningoftheindustrialrevolution,whenthecitiesofEnglandwereturnedblackbycoalsoot,ithasbeenclearthatburningfossilfuelshaveacosttothelocalenvironment.ispollutionisnotonlydangeroustoecosystemsandwildlife;ithasalsoprovedtobedetrimentaltohumanhealth.IntheUnitedStates,industrialpollutionfromfossilfuelswasoneofthemainreasonsforthecreationoftheEnvironmentalProtectionAgency.7

Overthelastthirtyyears,advancesintechnology,suchasthecatalyticconvertoronautomobilesandadvancedscrubbersinpowerplants,havereducedtheamountoftoxinsreleasedintolocalairandwatersupplies.However,it

isonlywithinthelastthirtyyearsthatscientistshavebeguntoprovethattheemissionsfromfossilfuels,especiallycarbondioxide,arealsocausingtheclimateoftheentireEarthtochange.Sofar,thereisnotechnicalxtothis:theonlywaytopreventfossilfuelsfromemittinggreenhousegasesintotheatmosphereistonotburnthematall.

eresultoftwocenturiesofincreasingfossilfueluseisthattheconcentrationofcarbondioxideintheearthsatmospherehasrisenby4%fromabout275partspermillion(ppm)toarecord391ppmin2011andthattheEarthsaveragetemperaturehasrisenbyaboutonedegreeCelsius. 8

eUnitedStateshasaresponsibilityasthesecondlargestemitterofgreenhousegasesintheworldtoreduceitsemissions.Innovationandnewtechnologiesareincreasingtheeciencyoftheenginesandpowerplantsthatburnfossilfuelsmeaningthatlessfuelandfeweremissionswillproducethesameamountofenergy.

However,anyeortstoreduceemissionsmustrealizethatyoucanonlygosofarwithfossilfuels.If83%ofAmericasenergycontinuestocomefromfossilfuels,thentheearthwouldlikelybestuckonatrajectoryofwarming3or4degreesabovepre-modernlevelsfarbeyondwhatclimatescientistshavedeemedasasafelevel.9


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1. Oil

Oilaccountsfor35%oftotalenergyuse.Whileverylittleofthatisusedtoproduceelectricity,itisthedominantfuelfortransportation:94%oftheenergythatpowersAmericancars,trucks,trains,andplanescomesfromburningfuelsrenedfromcrudeoilinaninternalcombustionengine.

edominanceofoilfortransportationcomesfromitsuniquephysicalpropertiesthatmakeitwell-adaptedtotransportation:ithasahigheramountofenergyperkilogramthancoal,butbecauseitisinaliquidform,itiseasilytransportable,unlikenaturalgaswhichrequiresspecializedcontainment.

Oilalsoenjoysaneectivemonopolyontransportationbecauseitscentury-longdominanceoftransportationhasresultedinalargeandecientinfrastructurededicatedtoextracting,rening,anddistributingcrudeoilandthefuels

thatarerenedfromit.

Energy Security

FortheUnitedStates,dependenceonoilforitstransportationisadirectthreattoenergysecurity;concernsaboutthe

impactonthepriceofoilareanimportantfactorinforeignpolicydecisions.

eUnitedStatesproducesmorethanhalfoftheoilitconsumes(netimportsare47%onconsumption)with20%ofimportscomingfromitsNAFTAneighborsofCanadaandMexico,butthepriceconsumerspayforoildependsonglobalmarkets.10

EveniftheUnitedStatescouldproduce100%oftheoilitused,Americanconsumerswouldstillbevulnerabletoglobalpriceuctuationsbasedonsupplydisruptionsinunstableregions.Forexample,theriseinoilpricesduetotheSpring2011revolutionandcivilwarinLibyahaveimpacted

Americanconsumers,eventhoughLibyanoilexportsto

theU.S.composelessthan1%ofallimportsin2010.11

Integratedglobaloilmarketsmeanthatproducingmoreoil

withintheUnitedStateswillnoterasesecuritythreats.

Solongas30%ofglobalproductioncomesfromtheMiddleEast(12%fromSaudiArabiaalone,or10millionbarrelsperday)andsolongasithasover50%oftheworldstotalprovenreserves,AmericanforeignpolicyintheregionwillcontinuetofollowtheCarterDoctrine.12Firstpromulgatedin1979,itstatesthatbecauseofitsoilreserves,anattemptbyanyoutsideforcetogaincontrolofthePersianGulfregionwillberegardedasanassaultonthevitalinterestsof

theUnitedStates.13

Source: EIA, Petroleum and Other Liquids,

http://www.eia.gov/petroleum/data.cm


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Economic Stability

U.S.dependenceonoilfortransportationharmsitseconomicstabilityasmuchasitharmsitsenergysecurity.Inadditiontothelong-termproblemsofsupplyanddemand,oilsuersfromtheshort-termproblemofpricevolatility.Overthelastfouryearsalone,theglobalpriceofoilhasuctuatedfromanaveragepriceperbarrelof$69in2007toapeakof$147inJuly2008,backdownbelow$35inJanuary2009,thenbackupabove$120perbarrel

inApril2011.14isconstantuctuationharmsconsumersandbusinessesbecauseitimpairstheirabilitytoplanforthelong-term.

AsecondproblemofeconomicstabilityinAmericasrelianceonoilisthedependenceonimports.

eUnitedStatessendshundredsofbillionsofdollarsoverseastopayforoil.eUnitedStatesconsumedover$1.45trillionworthofoilin2010,ofwhich$680billionwasspentonimports.15Withouttheseimports,theU.S.tradedecit,whichwas$497billionin2010,wouldnothaveexisted.16atcapitalcouldbeusedforinvestmentathome.eexportofthiscapitalhastheeectofdrivingdownthevalueofthedollar.Coupledtogether,volatilityandimportdependencemeanthatrapidpriceincreasesactasataxincreaseonconsumersbutinsteadofthistaxincreasebeingusedtopaydownthebudgetdecitorinvestdomestically,50%ofitissentoverseas.


GreenhousegasemissionsfromoilandpetroleumproductsaresinglelargestsourceofcarbonemissionsintheU.S.17

Oilproduces164,000poundsofcarbondioxideemissionsperbillionBritishthermalunit(Btu)ofenergy--40%morethannaturalgas,but21%lessthancoal.18

eU.S.governmenthasinstitutedpolicies,suchastheincreaseinCorporateAverageFuelEciency(CAFE)standards,whichwillreducetheamountofgreenhousegasemissionspermiletraveled.ispolicywillproducetechnologicaloptionsforreducinggreenhousegasemissionsbyimprovingautomobileeciencyandbyincentivizingautomakerstolookforcleanerormoreecientfuelssuchasethanolorbiodiesel.

Althoughproducingoildomesticallyisgoodforeconomicstability,thereisatradeo.Drillingforoilcanproduceoilspills,liketheexplosionoftheDeepwaterHorizonplatformin2010whichkilled11workers,shutdownshingacrosstheGulfofMexico,andcouldultimatelycost$20billiontocleanup.19

Asexplorationforoilexpandsintomoredicult-to-accessareas,suchasdeepunderwater,intheArctic,orintheoilsandsofAlberta,Canada,itisclearthattherewillbeagreaterriskofenvironmentallydamagingspillsduetothetechnicalcomplexityofoperatingintheseareas.

eAmericanpublicwillhavetomakeachoiceofwhetheritacceptstherisksofenvironmentaldamagefromincreaseddrilling.Politiciansandthepublicshouldnotbesurprisedwhenfutureaccidentshappeninsteadproperriskmanagementproceduresshouldbefollowedtominimizeboththeriskofanaccidentandthecostwhenonedoes

happen.


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2.Coal

Coalprovides21%oftotalenergyuseintheUnitedStatesandisthesinglelargestsourceofelectricpower,providing48%ofelectricitygeneration.Onlyabout7%ofcoalisburnedforanythingotherthantheproductionofelectricity-mostlyforindustrialusessuchassteelproduction.

IntheUnitedStates,thelargeststatesforcoalminingareWyomingandWestVirginia,whichannuallyproducemorethanhalfofalldomesticcoal.20About$1.5billionworthofcoalisimportedeveryyear,althoughtheU.S.runsatradesurplusincoal,withaboutthreetimesthatamountexported.21

Energy Security

Coal,unlikeoil,isalmostentirelyproducedfromdomesticmines,anddoesnotpresentthesamesecuritythreatsasoil.Moreover,unlikeoil,coalisnotbeenaneasilytradablecommodity,duetoitssizeandweight.

evalueofcoaltoAmericanenergysecurityisevidentfromthehighprioritythatpresidentsfrombothpartiesgaveitduringthe1970senergycrises:PresidentsNixon,Ford,andCarterallinitiatedpoliciesthatfavoreddomesticcoalproductionforelectricitygeneration.

eUnitedStatesisestimatedtohave249yearsofrecoverablecoalreservesatpresentratesofconsumption.Coalwouldbeanearlyoptimalchoice,forpurelyenergysecurityreasons,wereitnotforthefatalawsofitsenvironmentalandsafetyrecord,whichwillbeexpandedonfurtherinsectionsbelow.22

Economic Stability

edominanceofcoalinutility-scaleelectricitygenerationisbecauseminingandtransportingithashistoricallybeencheap.

Sincethe1970s,technologicaladvancementsallowedfortheconstructionoflarge,high-volume,coalpowerplantswithhigherthermodynamiceciencythanolderplants,sothatmoreenergytobeconvertedtoelectricityandlesswastedasheat.

Forexample,thelargestcoalpowerplantinthecountry-theRockportplantinSpencer,Indiana-iscapableof

Source: U.S. Coal Overview 1949-2009, EIA, http://www.eia.gov/coal


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producing2600MWofelectricity,twicethecapacityofanaverageAmericannuclearpowerplant.23Itusesover9milliontonsofcoalperyear.

However,thelong-termcheapnessofcoalasasourceofelectricpowermaybebeginningtocometoanend.Railroadstransportmostcoalproduction,andincreasingdemandsontrackalongwithindustryconsolidationmeanthattheycanincreasedeliverypricesofcoal;forsomecoaldeliveries,transportationcostsaccountfor50%ofthepriceof

deliveredcoal.24


epriceofcheapcoalisapparentinvisitstominingcountry,wheremountaintopshavebeenremovedandpeoplearelesshealthy.Coalminingremainsthe7thmostdangerousjobinthecountry.25

Burningcoalistheworstoptionforgreenhousegasemissions,producing208,000poundsofcarbondioxideemissionsperbillionbtuofoutput.26Coalalsocontainspollutants,includingmercury,lead,andsulfur.Manyofthesepollutantscanberemovedinthesmokestackbymodernscrubbertechnologies.However,thereisnotyetatechnologicalxforreducinggreenhousegasemissions.

erearepilotprojectsinNorwayandGermanythataretestingcarboncaptureandsequestration(CCS)technologyasawaytoremovegreenhousegasemissionsandsequesterthemunderground.eyhavenotyetdemonstratedthatthisisasafe,long-termoption.Italsoispossiblethattheenergylostbycapturingandsequesteringthecarbondioxide

willmakecoalpowerplantswithCCStechnologymorecostlyandinecientthancompetingpowerplants.

Coalmayalsobetheworstoptionfortheenvironmentalandhumandamageitcauseswhenitismined.Coalminingreleasestoxicsulfuricacidintolocalgroundwatersupplies,destroyslocalecosystems,andharmshumanhealth.GreaterenvironmentalregulationsandtheincreasinguseofcoalfromWyomingsPowderRiverBasin,whichhaslessaveragesulfurcontentthanEasterncoal,meanthatthesenewcoalpowerplantsdonotemitasmanyacid-raincausingpollutants.

3. Natural Gas

Naturalgasprovides25%oftotalenergyuseintheUnitedStates,and18%ofelectricityproduction.Itisusedforelectricityproductionaswellasdirectlyinhouseholdsandbusinesses.Itisalsoaveryimportantsourceoffeedstockforfertilizer.

Inthelastdecade,newtechnology,particularlythecommercializationofhydraulicfracturing(fracking),hasrevolutionizednaturalgasproductionintheU.S.Frackingallowsnaturalgastrappedinshalerockformationstobereleasedandcaptured.ishasledtonaturalgasproductioninareasofthecountry,suchasPennsylvaniaandColorado,whereithadpreviouslynotbeeneconomicallyfeasible.Becauseofthenewshalegastechnology

production,totalnaturalgasextractionhasincreasedby15%fromtheendof2005through2010.

Energy Security

ecommercializationofshalegastechnologyhasrevolutionizednaturalgasproductionintheUnitedStates,easingconcernsaboutenergysecurity.Estimatesoftechnicallyandeconomicallyrecoverablegasresourceshaveskyrocketed


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becauseofthefrackingtechnology.

eU.S.EnergyInformationAgency(EIA)estimatedin2010thattheUnitedStatespossessesatotalnaturalgasresourcebaseof2,552trillioncubicfeet(Tcf)ofpotential

naturalgasresources.AtcurrentratesofusetheUnitedStateshasreservesfor110yearsofnaturalgas.

Beforetheboomwasapparentasrecentlyas2006therewaspressurefromnaturalgasuserstobuildmoreliqueednaturalgas(LNG)terminalsinordertoimportgas.27Now,however,thoseterminalsareincreasinglybeingusedtoexportgas.Injusttenyears,from2000to2010,U.S.exportsofnaturalgashaveincreasedbyover350%.28e

naturalgasboomintheUnitedStatesisnotonlygoodforAmericanenergysecurity,butithasalsohelpedAmericastradingpartnersandalliesespeciallythoseinEuropethatrelyonRussiangasimportstodiversifytheirfuelsources.

Economic Stability

Naturalgasisnotaseasilytransportableascoaloroil.Becauseitisagas,itrequiressignicantinfrastructureinvestmentsinpipelines,liqueednaturalgasfacilities,orfueltankstotransportit.ismeansthattherearenotuniedmarketsforgaspricesofgasdeliveredtoafacilityvarysignicantlyaroundtheworld,andindeedindierentareasofthecountry.

ispriceuncertaintyhasgivenutilitiessomeconcernaboutmakinglong-termcommitmentstousingnaturalgasasabaseloadpowersource.Instead,gaspowerplantshavebeenusedasback-upgenerationfortimesofpeakload.

efallingaspricesintheU.S.thathasaccompaniedtheshalegasboomhasbeguntostimulateinvestmentinnewgaspowerplants.However,electricutilitiesareverysensitiveaboutmakinglong-terminvestmentsthatrelyonnaturalgasafuelwithahistoryofsurprisepricechangesbecausetheyareoftenpreventedbystatelawsandutilitycommissionsfromincreasingconsumerrateswhenfuelpricesincrease.

eeconomicstabilityofnaturalgasasanenergysourceisstillanopenquestion,butifpricesremainhistoricallylow,investorsshouldbeexpectedtotestitslong-termviability.


Burningnaturalgasismoreenvironmentallyfriendlythananyotherfossilfuelbecauseitburnscleanerwithlesspollutantsandnomercury.Itsgreenhousegasemissionsare117,000poundsofcarbondioxideperbillionbtu;44%lowerthancoaland30%lowerthanoil.29ismeansthatifallelectricityproductioncurrentlyusingcoalnowwereswitchedtogas,totalU.S.greenhousegasemissionswouldbeabout10%less.

Source: EIA, http://www.eia.ogv/naturalgas


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Inaddition,naturalgaspowerplantsareexcellentpartnerstorenewablepower.Becauserenewablegenerationisbyitsnaturevariable,itisimportanttohaveareadyreserveofreliablepowerfortimeswhendemandexceedssupply.Modernnaturalgaspowerplantsareabletoeconomicallyturnonando,unlikecoalornuclearplantsthatrequirelongleadtimestoheatupandcoolo.Forthesereasons,naturalgashasbeencalledabridgefueltoenablegreateruseofrenewablepowerinthegrid.

Althoughburningnaturalgasisrelativelyclean,thereisanongoingdebateabouthowdangeroustheminingofgasisforlocalairandwatersupplies.Hydraulicfracturingrequiresthatlargeamountsofwaterandchemicalsbeinjecteddeepintotheearthathighpressures.ereisajustiablefear,andsomeevidence,thatthechemicalsinthefracturingwillleachintowatersupplies.30Properlydone,thechemicalsshouldnotgointothewatersupplybecausethefracturingtakesplacefarbelowthewatertable.

Withmorethan460,000wellsoperatingintheUnitedStates,however,itisimportantthathighstandardsaremaintainedacrossthecountry.Furtherstudy,increasedtransparency,andtightoversightatallstagesofthedrillingprocessshouldbeembracedbybothregulatorsandindustry.

Frackinghasotherenvironmentalconcernsbeyondthepossiblepollutionofwatersources.Peoplelivinginareaswithnewdrillingreporthigherincidentsofasthma.Inaddition,newdrillingrequireslargeamountsofwater,increasing

waterscarcityinareasalreadyunderwaterstress.Finally,newfrackingprojectsintheUnitedKingdomhavebeensuspendedbecauseofconcernsaboutearthquakes.31

II. Nuclear Power

NuclearpoweristheexpressionofEinsteinsfamousequation:E=MC 2,orEnergy=MassxSpeedofLight,squared.ismeansthereisatremendousamountofenergylockedinthenucleusofeveryatom.isenergycanbereleasedinoneoftwoways:bysplittingtheatom(ssion)orbyfusingtwoatomstogether(fusion).

Humanityrstunleashedthefullpoweroftheatomwithresearchthatledtothebuildingoftherstatomicbombsin1945.Shortlythereafter,in1952,athermonuclearhydrogenbombwastestedbytheUnitedStatesresultingintherstman-made(thoughuncontrolled)fusionreaction.

Aftertheworldsawthedevastationthattheatomicbombcouldbring,someforesawthatthesamepowerunleashedbynuclearweaponrycouldbeharnessedforpeacefulpurposes.Inthishope,PresidentEisenhowerbegantheAtomsforPeaceprogram,witha1953speechtotheUnitedNationssaying,themiraculousinventivenessofmanshallnotbededicatedtohisdeath,butconsecratedtohislife.32

4. Nuclear Fission

Americanciviliannuclearpowerbeganin1955,whentheAtomicEnergyCommissionaskedforproposalsfromtobuildnuclearreactorstoproduceelectricpowerfromnuclearssion.By1960,3civilianpowerreactorswereinoperation.Twentyyearslater,by1980,87reactorswereinoperationaroundthecountry.However,the1979accidentatreeMileIsland,inwhichanuclearreactorscoremelteddown,andquestionsaboutthecostandeciencyofnuclearpower,slowednewconstruction.After1980,over100reactororderswerecanceledandfourteenalreadyoperationalreactorswerepermanentlyshutdown.


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Today,atotalof104reactorsareoperationalaroundthecountry,withacapacityof101.0gigawatts.In2009,nuclearenergyprovidedabout20%ofthecountrystotalelectricity

generationand9%oftotalenergy. 33

ereisonlyonenuclearreactorcurrentlyunderconstructionintheU.S.Othersareawaitingpermittingandnancing,butforecastsofanuclearrenaissancehavenotyetcomeabout.Oneareathatcouldseegrowthinnuclearreactorconstructionissmall,modularreactors;theTennesseeValleyAuthorityrecentlysignedaletterofintenttobuilduptosixsmallreactors.enumberofthesetypesofnuclearpowerplantscouldincreasesincenancingwillbe

easiertocomebyandconstructionwillnottakeaslong.

Energy Security

Fromatraditionalenergysecuritypointofview,increasinguseofnuclearssionreactorsforelectricitywouldgiveastrongboosttonationalenergysecurity:itsfuel(uranium)iseitheravailablefromdomesticmines,orfromdecommissionednuclearweapons.

However,nuclearpowerdoespresentmoretraditionalthreatstosecurity.Nuclearpowerplantsclosetopopulationcenters,suchasNewYorks

IndianPointreactor,arepotentialterroristtargets.

Economic Stability

Originally,nuclearpowerwasenvisionedasacheapsourceofplentifulelectricitymostmemorably,itwasdescribedin1954bytheheadoftheAtomicEnergyCommission,LewisStrauss,astoocheaptometer. 34Unfortunately,thathasnotprovedtobethe

case.

Unlikefossilfuel-poweredelectricitygeneration,mostofthecostfornuclearpowerisxed,inup-frontinfrastructure

Source: EIA, Nuclear and Uranium, http://www.eia.gov/nuclear/data.m


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costs.Onceaplantiscompleteandrunning,thevariablecostoffuelonlyaddsasmallamounttothepriceofelectricitygenerated.

Historyhasshownthatthebudgetfornewnuclearreactors,alreadyhigh,isveryoftenexceeded.Anassessmentof75ofAmericasexistingreactorsshowedpredictedcoststohavebeen$45billion,buttheactualcostswere$145billion.35ecountrywiththemostrecentnuclearpowerconstructionexperience,India,showsthatcostsofitslast10reactorshaveaveraged300%overbudget.Oncebuilt,however,anotedbenetofnuclearpoweristhatthepriceofelectricityisstableandpredictable.

Spentfuelisalsoadrainongovernmentresources.Underthe1982NuclearWastePolicyAct,theU.S.governmentwastocreateapermanentstoragesiteforradioactivespentnuclearfuelbyFebruary1998.irteenyearslater,thefederalgovernmentisnoclosertomeetingthisrequirement;asaresult,utilitieshaveleddozensoflawsuitsforover$6billioninclaims.Ofthis,thegovernmenthasalreadypaid$956million,andithasspentnearly$170millionsimplydefendingitself.DepartmentofEnergystatisticsshowthatnewlawsuitsandothercostscouldeventuallypushthegovernmentslegalliabilitytoover$16billion.36


Nuclearpower,bothfromssionandfusion,doesnotproducegreenhousegases.Forthisreason,someenvironmentalistsmostworriedaboutclimatechangehaveshiftedfromtheirtraditionaloppositiontonuclearpower.IftheUnitedStatesproducedthesamepercentageofitselectricityfromnuclearpowerasFrancedoes(77%),itwouldproduce19%fewergreenhousegases.

Althoughtherearenopollutingemissionsfromexisting(ssion)nuclearpower,thatdoesnotmakeitcompletelyclean.Spentnuclearfuel,whichcanconsistofradioactiveuranium,plutonium,orthorium,presentslong-termthreatsfromradiationcontamination.Afterspentnuclearfuelisremovedfromthereactor,itisplacedintemporarywatercoolingpoolswithinthereactorfacility.iswasnotintendedtobe

permanent,butthegovernmentsfailuretondalong-termstrategyforstoringspentnuclearfuelmeansthatmostofAmericasradioactivespentfuel63,000tonsofnuclearwasteisstoredon-site.37

5. Fusion

Fusionhasnotseenthesamesuccessasasourceofenergy.ebasicfuelforfusionishydrogen,andenergyisproducedbyforcingtogethertheatomicnucleiofdeuteriumandtritium(twoformsofhydrogen)toformhelium.Agreatdealofenergyisreleasedbythisreaction:onepoundoffusionfueliscapableofyieldingasmuchenergyasiscontainedin10millionpoundsofcoal.

erstpatentrelatedtofusionenergywasissuedintheUnitedKingdomin1946.Sincethen,therehavebeenanumberofsignicantbreakthroughs,includingcontrolledfusionreactions.Uptonow,theproblemsofhowtocontaintheintenseheat


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andpressureneedforasustainedfusionreactionhavepreventedfusionreactionsfromachievingthepointwheremoreenergywillbereleasedfromthereactionthanisbeingusedtoinitiateandcontrolit.

Recentadvancesinlaserandmagnetictechnology,however,haveraisedhopesthatfusioncouldbecomeanewsourceofelectricityoverthemedium-term.ScientistsfromtheLawrenceLivermoreNationalLaboratoryinCalifornia,

workingundertheauspicesoftheNationalNuclearSecurityAdministrationattheNationalIgnitionFacility(NIF),

havepredictedthattheywillbeabletoachieveafusionreactionthatgetsnetenergygainasignicantmilestoneusingadvancedlasersforcompressionandcontainmentbytheendof2012.38

Energy Security

Fusionpowerhasthepotentialtoalleviateconcernsaboutenergysecurity.Fueltopowerfusionpowerisavailableinseawater.

edownsideriskonenergysecuritycomesfromnotinvestinginresearchanddevelopment.Ifothernationaleortsinothercountries,particularlycompetitorcountrieslikeChina,aresuccessfulincommercializingfusionreactions,thentheywillsellthetechnologyabroad,attheexpenseoftheU.S.

Importantly,dependenceontechnologyandinfrastructuredonotraisethesameenergysecurityconcernsasdependenceuponimportedfueldoes,buttheywillcertainlyexertacost.

Economic Stability

Bringingfusionpowertoalevelthatitiscommerciallyviablewillrequiresignicantresearchanddevelopmentspending,estimatedatabout$35billionovera15-yearperiod(or$2.33billionperyear).39isisasignicantoutlay,butforcomparison,thecostoftheManhattanprojectwasapproximately$22billionincurrentdollarsover5years,andtheApolloprogramwas$98billionover14years.40

Oncecommercialized,powerplantsarelikelytorequireahighinitialconstructioncostandlowoperatingcosts.

Fusionhasthepotentialtobealong-termsourceofenergy,butitwillrequiresignicantandsustainedinvestmentinordertomeettheengineeringandscienticneedsrequired.


Fusionpowerdoesnotproduceradioactivewasteatnearlythesamelevelasssion.Infact,developingfusionmayactuallyhelptosolvetheproblemofspentnuclearfuel.PhysicistsattheUniversityofTexasatAustinhavedesignedanewsystemthat,whenfullydeveloped,wouldusefusiontoeliminatemostofthewasteproducedbyssionnuclearpowerplants.

Pairingssionandfusionreactionswouldalsoallowthedangerousradiationtobeabsorbedbyfusionreactions,

therebyusingtheharmfulradiationfromssionreactionstopowerfusionreactions.Inthisway,fusioncouldhelpthelong-termenvironmentalsustainabilityofexistingU.S.nuclearpowerplants.


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III. Renewable Power

Beforethewidespreadadoptionoffossilfuelstwohundredyearsago,renewablesourcesofpowerwerethe

onlyenergysourcesavailable.Manytownswerebuiltonornearriversinordertotakeadvantageofthepowerofrunningwater.

Windwastheprimemodeofpowerforwatertransportation.Biomassisjustamoretechnicalnameforburningwoodforheatorlight.Inthe21stcentury,inaneorttoreturntoanenergysystemthatismoresustainable,limitless,andislesslikelytoprovokeconict,humanityisreturningtoitsoriginalsourcesofenergy.istime,though,scientistsareusingthecombinedtechnologyandinnovationofthe21st

centuryinordertobetterharnessthesesources.Renewablepowerincludespowergeneratedbywater,

wind,thesun,plants,orthenaturalheatoftheearth.Together,thesevepowersourceshydro,wind,solar,biomass,andgeothermalaccountfor8.2%oftotalenergygenerationintheUnitedStates,and10.8%ofelectricitygeneration.

edierentfossilfuelornuclearsourcesofenergyeachpresentseparatechallengesorconcernsaboutenergysecurity,economicstability,andenvironmentalsustainability.However,thepositivesandnegativeforthesethreecriteriaarelargelysharedacrosseachofthevetypesofrenewableenergysource.Forthatreason,thischapterwill

brieygiveashortoverviewofeachtypeofrenewablepower,followedbyadiscussionofthesharedconcernsaboutrenewablepowerforenergysecurity,economicstability,andenvironmental sustainability.

6. Hydropower

HydropoweristhelargestrenewablesourceofenergyintheUnitedStates.Itproduces7%ofthecountryselectricitypowerin1950,itproduced30%ofthecountryspower.eGrandCouleeDamontheColombiaRiverinWashingtonisthelargestelectricitypowerplantinthecountry,

capableofgenerating6.9gigawattsofelectricity.41

However,thereislittleroomforgrowth.Hydroelectricplantscanonlyoperatewhereriversprovidesuitableamountsofpotentialenergy,andmostofthebestsiteshavealreadybeendeveloped.

Source: EIA, Renewable Energy Consumption and Electricity PreliminaryStatistics 2010, http://www.eia.gov/renewable/annual/preliminary


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Consequently,conventionalhydroelectricgenerationgrewsteadilythroughthe1970s,peakedin1997,andhasbeendecliningforthelastdecade.

oughthereareotherformsofhydrogeneration,likeunderwaterrunoftheriverturbines,theirmaturitydoesnot

approachtheleveloftraditionalhydropower,andtheirdevelopmentisspeculative.

7. Wind

WindpoweroverthepastdecadehasbeenthefastestgrowingsourceofAmericanenergy.Forthetenyearsto2009,windhadanaverageannualgrowthrateof32%.Today,itaccountsfor2%ofelectricitygeneration.42

Largescalewindfarmsarebeinginstalledacrossthecounty.Oshorewindfarmsare

beinginstalledrapidlyinsomeEuropeancountries,butintheUnitedStates,onlytwoareintheplanningprocessandnonehavebegunconstruction.Windfarmsplacedfarenoughoshorecanovercometheoftencitiedoppositiontowindthatcomesfromconcernsaboutobstructedviewsinonshorefarms.

8. Solar

SolarpowerislessutilizedthanwindintheUnitedStates.In2009,itaccountedforonly.03%oftotalenergyproduction,withmostofthatgoingtohouseholduses,suchassolarheating.43Utility-scaleelectricitygenerationintheUnitedStatesfromsolarcellsisstillafar-odream.Europeangovernmentshavebeeninvestingmoreheavilyintogovernmentpoliciestopromotelarge-scalesolarpower.

erearetwomainwaystoproduceelectricityfromthesun.erstisthroughphotovoltaiccellsthatcapturesunlightonsiliconandtransformitintoelectricity.

esecondiscalledconcentratedsolarthermal.Inthismethod,specializedmirrorsareusedtofocustheheatandlighofthesunonacentralcorethatisheated.eheatfromthiscoreisthenusedtogeneratesteam,turningaturbineandcreatingelectricity.ebenetofthisformofsolarthermalpoweristhattheheatofthecentralcorecanbemaintainedsothatpowercanbegeneratedevenwhenthesungoesdown.


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9. Biomass

Generatingenergyfrombiomassistheabilitytouseplantsforfuel.iscanbeassimpleasusingwaste-woodfromsawmillsorpaperfactoriesinresidentialheatingsystemsoritcanrefertotheprocessofreningcornintoethanolthatisthenblendedintogasoline.

EthanolisthemostimportantofthesefuelsintheUnitedStates,butothercountrieshavemadebiodieselmadefromoilseedsandpalmoilsignicantpartsoftheirtransportationfuels.Givengeneroussubsidies,corn-basedethanol,blendedintogasoline,providesabout3.4%oftheenergyusedintransportation.

Advancedformsofbiodieselincludeproposalstorenefuelfromalgae.

10. Geothermal

GeothermalpowercomesfromtheEarthsnaturalheat.Residentialgeothermalsystemsincludesimpleheatpumpsthatusethesoilsconstanttemperaturetohelpkeephouseswarminthewinterandcoolinthesummer.

Geothermalonautility-scaleisastable,long-termsourceofenergy,butonlyincertainareaswherethecrustoftheearthisthinandvolcanicorseismicactivityishigh.eUnitedStatescurrentlyhasthemostinstalledgeothermalelectricitygenerationcapacityinternationally,withapproximately3.1gigawattsofonlinecapacity.

AsofApril2011,geothermalelectricpowergenerationisoccurringinnineU.S.states:Alaska,California,Hawaii,Idaho,Nevada,NewMexico,Oregon,Utah,andWyoming.elargestproducerofgeothermalenergyisCalifornia,

with83%ofnationalgeneratingcapacity.44

Energy Security

Anyformofrenewablepowerpresentsfewconcernsaboutenergysecuritybecausetheydonotuseafuelthathastobeimported.

Somecomplainaboutdependenceonimportedsolarpanelsorotherenergy-producinggoodsfromChina,butthisisnotthesameasenergysecurity.Unlikedependenceonacommoditylikeoil,importingsolarpanelsforexampleconstituteaone-time-onlyxedcost.Oncethecostisborne,thereisverylittlevariablecostforgeneratingrenewableenergy.esameistruewhenconcernsareraisedthatimportinglithiumforadvancedbatterieswillonlyreplaceimportsfromunstableVenezuelaorIraqwithimportsfromunstableBolivia.isislikewiseafalseargument,becausebatteriesshouldbetermedasaxedinvestmentcost,notavariablecost,likefuel.Whiletherearegoodeconomicargumentsfornotbeingreliantonimportsofmineralsorrenewableenergymaterials,therearefewvalidsecurityarguments.

Aneconomythatreliesonrenewablepowerforitsenergyneedswillbeabletomanageitsforeignpolicy

independentlyofhowitutilizesenergy.

However,giventheseparationinfuelsbetweenelectricitygenerationandtransportation,policymakersshouldnotbedeludedintothinkingthatincreasingrenewableelectricitygenerationwillautomaticallyincreaseenergysecurity.erealsoneedstobeacoherentstrategytousemorerenewablepowerintransportation.Onlybygivingconsumersachoiceabouthowtofueltheircarswillpolicymakersbeabletobreakthegripthatoilhasontransportation.


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IntheUnitedStates,transportationisprimarilybyautomobiles,soanyproposaltousemorerenewableenergyintransportationmustbeginbyeitherelectrifyingtheautoeetorsignicantlyincreasingtheavailabilityanduseofethanolandbiodiesel.

Economic Stability

Renewablepowerreceivessubsidies,andinsomecases,verygenerousones.Ofthevetypesofrenewablepower,onlyconventionalhydroelectricisconsistentlycompetitiveoncostofgenerationwithfossilfuels.However,thedemonstratedbenetsofgeneratingelectricitywithoutusingapollutingfuelareabenetthatthegovernmenthasaninterestinpromoting.

eproblemwiththerenewableproductiontaxcreditandanyothersubsidiesisnotthatthegovernmentispickingwinnersandlosers,butthatitschoicesareinconsistent.Forbusinessesandutilitiestomakemulti-yearinvestmentsinlarge-scalerenewableenergy,theyneedmorecertaintythantheconsistentbipartisanbrinksmanshipoverwhethertoextendthesesubsidiesforonemoreyear.

Inareasofthecountrywithconsistentandstrongwinds,installingnewwindturbinesisalreadypricecompetitivewithnewfossil-fuelgeneration,withoutsubsidies.However,windpowerpresentstwoproblemsofeconomicstability:

intermittencyandgridstability.Toovercometheseproblemswillrequiretheelectricitygridtomodernizefromits19 th

centuryrootsintoamodernsmartgrid.

Withasmartgrid,installedenergystoragefacilities,suchasbatteriesorywheels,willstoreelectricityfortimeswhenitismostneededandcomputerscandirectelectricityalonglong-distancehigh-voltagelinesfromareaswherethewindisblowingtoareasthatneedelectricity.

AsmentionedintheFossilFuelschapter,thissmartgridshouldbepairedwithnaturalgasturbinepowerplantsthatcaneasilyincreasepowertomatchuctuatingloadlevels.Hydroelectricpowercanalsobeeasilystoredfortimesofpeakload.

Solarpowerseconomicbenetisitscompactnessandversatility.Itdoesnotrequirelarge,expensivesolararraystogeneratepower.Instead,smallunitscanbeinstalledtoosetthecostsofelectricity.Withproperlegalregulations(notimplementedinallstates),consumerscaninstallsolarpowerontheirpropertylikelyontheirroofanddefraythemonthlycostofelectricity.Attimesoflowhouseholdusage,theycanevenselltheelectricitybacktothegrid.


Ingeneral,renewablepowerproducesnogreenhousegasemissions.However,thatdoesnotmeanthattheyarewithoutenvironmentalcontroversy.

Americasethanolprogram,forexample,iscomingunderintenseandjustiedscrutiny.erearesignicant

questionsaboutthelifecycleemissionsofethanol.Eventhoughitcomesfromplants,heavyinputsoffertilizeranduseoffossilfuelstoproduceandtransportitmeanthattheminimalbenetinreducedgreenhousegasemissionsmaynotbeworththesubsidiesethanolproductionreceives.Cellulosicethanol,whichisderivedfromgrassesorothersortsofherbaceousplants,isnotyetinwidespreaduse.Onceitcommerciallyviable,thistechnologyshouldaddresstheenvironmentalsustainabilityandtheeconomicconcernaboutusingfoodforfuel.


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emainenvironmentalproblemswithrenewablepowercomefromthesizeofitsfootprintanditsimpactsonlocalwildlifeandecosystems.eGrandCouleeDam,forexample,oodeda125squaremilearea,displacingthousandsandpermanentlyendingtheannualsalmonrunuptheColombiaRiver.

LargesolarpowerplantsplannedfortheCaliforniadesertsarecurrentlycomingupagainstoppositionfromenvironmentalistswhowanttoprotectendangeredwildlifefromhumanencroachment.

eenvironmentaloppositiontothesitesofsomerenewablepowerplantscomesdowntoprioritization.Isthehealthoflocalecosystemsmoreimportantthanpromotingnewtechnologiesthatcouldpreventthemanydangersassociated

withclimatechange?

Conclusions

echallengesfacingAmericaonhowtoproduceandusetheenergyitneedsforeveryaspectofmodernlifearenotnew.elasttimetheUnitedStatesfacedaseriesofchoicesaboutitsenergypolicywasintheenergycrisesofthe1970s,whichweretraumatictotheUnitedStates,withoilpricespikes,shortagesofgasoline,ination,andnuclearscares.Decisionsaboutenergyproductionandusemadeinresponsetothesecriseshadfar-reachingconsequencesfor

Americasenergyinfrastructure,itseconomy,anditsforeignpolicy.

Today,Americaisfacingsomeofthesamechallengesasconcernsaboutenergysecurityareonceagainatthetopoftheagenda.However,thenewcomplicationdealingwithachangingclimatemeansthatgreenhousegasemissionsareanaddedconcern.

Noneofthechallengesareinsurmountable,buttheydorequirethatpeopleingovernmentandintheprivatesectormakechoicesandpriorities.Simplyretainingthestatusquoprovidesintolerablyhighlevelsofrisktoenergysecurity,economicstability,andenvironmentalsustainability.

eUnitedStatescannotaordaforeignpolicythatcontinuestobeworriedaboutdistantoilmarkets.Itcannotallowthedollartocontinuetobedebasedbysending$680billionperyeartoforeigncountriessimplytobeallowedtodrive.Itisdangeroustoallowgreenhousegasemissionstogrowunchecked.

Tomeetthesechallengeswillrequirepolicymakerstomakesomedecisionsandsetsomeprioritiesthatwillnotalwaysbepopular.But,inthelong-term,theyareinthebestinterestsofthecountry.


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(Endnotes)

1 ToreadallofPresidentNixons1974StateoftheUnionAddress,see:http://stateoftheunionaddress.org/1974-richard-nixon(accessedJune22,2011).

2 ToreadallofPresidentCarters1977AddressonEnergyPolicy,seehttp://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/fea-tures/primary-resources/carter-energy/(accessedJune22,2011).

3 UnitedStatesDepartmentofEnergy,StrategicPetroleumReserveProjectManagementOce.Dataavailableathttp://www.fe.doe.gov/programs/reserves/spr/index.html(accessedJune22,2011).

4 Forafulldiscussiononthemaindriversofclimatechange,seeIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC)FourthAssessmentReport,WorkingGroup1,ePhysicalScienceBasis(2007).

5 USEnergyInformationAgency(EIA),EmissionsofGreenhouseGasesintheUnitedStates2009.Reportavailableathttp://www.eia.gov/environment/emissions/ghg_report/pdf/0573(2009).pdf.

6 InternationalEnergyAgency(IEA)KeyWorldEnergyStatistics,2008Reportavailableathttp://www.iea.org/textbasenppdf/free/2008/key_stats_2008.pdf.

7 EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)OriginsoftheEPAhttp://www.epa.gov/aboutepa/history/origins.html(ac-cessedJune22,2011).

8 NationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration(NASA),OceofGlobalClimateChange,KeyIndicators.Dataavail-ableathttp://climate.nasa.gov/keyIndicators/index.cfm#co2.

9 Wynn,Gerald,4degreeswarminglikelywithoutCO2cuts-studyReuters,September28,2009,http://www.reuterscom/article/2009/09/28/idUSLP228193(accessedJune22,2011).

10 EIA,PetroleumandOtherLiquids,U.S.ImportsbyCountryofOrigin.Dataavailableathttp://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/pet_move_impcus_a2_nus_ep00_im0_mbbl_m.htm.

11 ibid.

12 EIA,WorldOilProduction,SaudiArabia.Dataavailableathttp://www.eia.gov/countries/index.cfm?view=production.

13 Yergin,Daniel, ePrize:eEpicQuestforOil,Money,andPower,NewYork:Simon&Schuster,1991.

14 EIA,PetroleumandOtherLiquids,WorldCrudeOilPrices.Dataavailableathttp://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/pet_pri_

wco_k_w.htm.

15 ibid.

16 U.S.DepartmentofCommerce,InternationalTradeAdministration,TradeStatsExpress.Dataavailableathttp://tse.export.gov/TSE/TSEhome.aspx

17 EIA,EmissionsofGreenhouseGasesintheUnitedStates2009.Reportavailableathttp://www.eia.gov/environment/emissions/ghg_report/pdf/0573(2009).pdf.

18 EIA,VoluntaryReportingofGreenhouseGasesProgram.Dataavailableathttp://www.eia.gov/oiaf/1605/coecients.html.

19 DeepWater;eGulfOilDisasterandtheFutureofOshoreDrillingFinalReportoftheNationalCommissionontheBPDeepwaterHorizonOilSpillandOshoreDrilling,2011.Reportavailableathttp://www.oilspillcommission.gov/nal-report.

20 EIA,Coal,CoalProductionandNumberofMinesbyStateandCoalRank.Dataavailableathttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/coal/page/acr/table6.html.

21 U.S.DepartmentofCommerce,InternationalTradeAdministration,TradeStatsExpress.Dataavailableathttp://tse.export.gov/TSE/TSEhome.aspx.
http://stateoftheunionaddress.org/1974-richard-nixonhttp://stateoftheunionaddress.org/1974-richard-nixonhttp://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/primary-resources/carter-energy/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/primary-resources/carter-energy/http://www.fe.doe.gov/programs/reserves/spr/index.htmlhttp://www.fe.doe.gov/programs/reserves/spr/index.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/environment/emissions/ghg_report/pdf/0573(2009).pdfhttp://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2008/key_stats_2008.pdfhttp://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2008/key_stats_2008.pdfhttp://www.epa.gov/aboutepa/history/origins.htmlhttp://www.reuters.com/article/2009/09/28/idUSLP228193http://www.reuters.com/article/2009/09/28/idUSLP228193http://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/pet_move_impcus_a2_nus_ep00_im0_mbbl_m.htmhttp://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/pet_move_impcus_a2_nus_ep00_im0_mbbl_m.htmhttp://www.eia.gov/countries/index.cfm?view=productionhttp://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/pet_pri_wco_k_w.htmhttp://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/pet_pri_wco_k_w.htmhttp://tse.export.gov/TSE/TSEhome.aspxhttp://tse.export.gov/TSE/TSEhome.aspxhttp://www.eia.gov/environment/emissions/ghg_report/pdf/0573(2009).pdfhttp://www.eia.gov/environment/emissions/ghg_report/pdf/0573(2009).pdfhttp://www.eia.gov/oiaf/1605/coefficients.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/oiaf/1605/coefficients.htmlhttp://www.oilspillcommission.gov/final-reporthttp://www.oilspillcommission.gov/final-reporthttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/coal/page/acr/table6.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/coal/page/acr/table6.htmlhttp://tse.export.gov/TSE/TSEhome.aspxhttp://tse.export.gov/TSE/TSEhome.aspxhttp://tse.export.gov/TSE/TSEhome.aspxhttp://tse.export.gov/TSE/TSEhome.aspxhttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/coal/page/acr/table6.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/coal/page/acr/table6.htmlhttp://www.oilspillcommission.gov/final-reporthttp://www.oilspillcommission.gov/final-reporthttp://www.eia.gov/oiaf/1605/coefficients.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/oiaf/1605/coefficients.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/environment/emissions/ghg_report/pdf/0573(2009).pdfhttp://www.eia.gov/environment/emissions/ghg_report/pdf/0573(2009).pdfhttp://tse.export.gov/TSE/TSEhome.aspxhttp://tse.export.gov/TSE/TSEhome.aspxhttp://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/pet_pri_wco_k_w.htmhttp://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/pet_pri_wco_k_w.htmhttp://www.eia.gov/countries/index.cfm?view=productionhttp://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/pet_move_impcus_a2_nus_ep00_im0_mbbl_m.htmhttp://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/pet_move_impcus_a2_nus_ep00_im0_mbbl_m.htmhttp://www.reuters.com/article/2009/09/28/idUSLP228193http://www.reuters.com/article/2009/09/28/idUSLP228193http://www.epa.gov/aboutepa/history/origins.htmlhttp://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2008/key_stats_2008.pdfhttp://www.iea.org/textbase/nppdf/free/2008/key_stats_2008.pdfhttp://www.eia.gov/environment/emissions/ghg_report/pdf/0573(2009).pdfhttp://www.fe.doe.gov/programs/reserves/spr/index.htmlhttp://www.fe.doe.gov/programs/reserves/spr/index.htmlhttp://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/primary-resources/carter-energy/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/primary-resources/carter-energy/http://stateoftheunionaddress.org/1974-richard-nixonhttp://stateoftheunionaddress.org/1974-richard-nixon


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23

22 EIA,ANNUALENERGYOUTLOOK2011.Reportavailableathttp://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/pdf/0383(2011).pdf.

23 EIA,ElectricPowerAnnual.Dataavailableathttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/electricity/epa/epaxlle1_2.xls.

24 EIA,eCoalTransportationRateDatabase,Dataavailableathttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/coal/ctrdb/database.html.

25 MostDangerousJobsinAmericaCNN/Money,http://money.cnn.com/galleries/2010/news/1004/gallery.Most_dan-

gerous_jobs/index.html(accessedJune22,2011)


27 Mufson,Steven,AsNaturalGasGlutLooms,ProducersEyetheWeathereWashingtonPost,June16,2006,http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/06/15/AR2006061502062.html(accessedJune22,2011).

28 EIA,NaturalGas,ImportsbyCountry.Dataavailableathttp://www.eia.gov/dnav/ng/ng_move_impc_s1_m.htm.


30 Urbina,IanRegulationLaxasGasWellsTaintedWatershitRiversNewYorkTimes,February26,2011,http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/27/us/27gas.html?pagewanted=1&_r=2&hp(accessedJune27,2011).

31 Shalegasfracking:MPscallforsafetyinquiryaftertremorsBBC,June8,2011,http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-eng-land-lancashire-13700575(accessedJune27,2011).

32 EisenhowerPresidentialArchivesDraftofthePresidentialSpeechBeforetheGeneralAssemblyoftheUnitedNationsNovember28,1953.Availableathttp://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/research/digital_documents/Atoms_For_Peace/New%20PDFs/Atoms_for_Peace_Draft.pdf(accessedJune22,2011).

33 EIA,NuclearandUranium,U.S.NuclearStatistics.Dataavailableathttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/nuclear/page/operation/statoperation.html.

34 AbundantPowerfromAtomSeen;Itwillbetoocheapforourchildrentometer,Strausstellssciencewriters,NewYorkTimes,Sept.17,1954.

35 GreenpeaceInternational,eEconomicsofNuclearPowerSummer2007.Reportavailableathttp://www.green-peace.org/raw/content/international/press/reports/summary-the-economics-of-nucl.pdf.

36 Sapien,Joaquin.WhileNuclearWastePilesUpinU.S.,BillionsinFundtoHandleItSitUnusedProPublica,March30,2011,http://www.propublica.org/article/while-nuclear-waste-piles-up-in-u.s.-billions-in-fund-to-handle-it-sits-unu/single(ac-cessedJune22,2011).

37 BlueRibbonCommissiononAmericasNuclearFutureDraftRecommendationsMay19,2011,http://brc.gov/index.php?q=announcement/brc-releases-its-draft-recommendations-may-13(accessedJune22,2011).

38 eNationalIgnitionFacilityeBostonGlobe,October8,2010,http://www.boston.com/bigpicture/2010/10/the_national_ignition_facility.html(accessedJune22,2011).

39 AmericanSecurityProjectFUSIONENERGY:AnOpportunityforAmericanLeadershipandSecurityJanuary24,2011.Reportavailableathttp://americansecurityproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/White-Paper-on-Fusion-Final-21.pdf.

40 Stine,DeborahD.eManhattanProject,theApolloProgram,andFederalEnergyTechnologyR&DPrograms:AComparativeAnalysisCongressionalResearchService,June30,2009.Reportavailableathttp://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/

RL34645.pdf.

41 EIA,ElectricPowerAnnual.Dataavailableathttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/electricity/epa/epaxlle1_2.xls.

42 ibid.

43 ibid.

44 ibid.
http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/pdf/0383(2011).pdfhttp://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/pdf/0383(2011).pdfhttp://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/pdf/0383(2011).pdfhttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/electricity/epa/epaxlfile1_2.xlshttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/coal/ctrdb/database.htmlhttp://money.cnn.com/galleries/2010/news/1004/gallery.Most_dangerous_jobs/index.htmlhttp://money.cnn.com/galleries/2010/news/1004/gallery.Most_dangerous_jobs/index.htmlhttp://money.cnn.com/galleries/2010/news/1004/gallery.Most_dangerous_jobs/index.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/oiaf/1605/coefficients.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/oiaf/1605/coefficients.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/oiaf/1605/coefficients.htmlhttp://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/06/15/AR2006061502062.htmlhttp://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/06/15/AR2006061502062.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/dnav/ng/ng_move_impc_s1_m.htmhttp://www.eia.gov/oiaf/1605/coefficients.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/oiaf/1605/coefficients.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/oiaf/1605/coefficients.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/27/us/27gas.html?pagewanted=1&_r=2&hphttp://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/27/us/27gas.html?pagewanted=1&_r=2&hphttp://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/27/us/27gas.html?pagewanted=1&_r=2&hphttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-lancashire-13700575http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-lancashire-13700575http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-lancashire-13700575http://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/research/digital_documents/Atoms_For_Peace/New%20PDFs/Atoms_for_Peace_Draft.pdfhttp://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/research/digital_documents/Atoms_For_Peace/New%20PDFs/Atoms_for_Peace_Draft.pdfhttp://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/research/digital_documents/Atoms_For_Peace/New%20PDFs/Atoms_for_Peace_Draft.pdfhttp://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/research/digital_documents/Atoms_For_Peace/New%20PDFs/Atoms_for_Peace_Draft.pdfhttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/nuclear/page/operation/statoperation.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/nuclear/page/operation/statoperation.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/nuclear/page/operation/statoperation.htmlhttp://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/international/press/reports/summary-the-economics-of-nucl.pdfhttp://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/international/press/reports/summary-the-economics-of-nucl.pdfhttp://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/international/press/reports/summary-the-economics-of-nucl.pdfhttp://www.propublica.org/article/while-nuclear-waste-piles-up-in-u.s.-billions-in-fund-to-handle-it-sits-unu/singlehttp://www.propublica.org/article/while-nuclear-waste-piles-up-in-u.s.-billions-in-fund-to-handle-it-sits-unu/singlehttp://brc.gov/index.php?q=announcement/brc-releases-its-draft-recommendations-may-13http://brc.gov/index.php?q=announcement/brc-releases-its-draft-recommendations-may-13http://brc.gov/index.php?q=announcement/brc-releases-its-draft-recommendations-may-13http://www.boston.com/bigpicture/2010/10/the_national_ignition_facility.htmlhttp://www.boston.com/bigpicture/2010/10/the_national_ignition_facility.htmlhttp://www.boston.com/bigpicture/2010/10/the_national_ignition_facility.htmlhttp://americansecurityproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/White-Paper-on-Fusion-Final-21.pdfhttp://americansecurityproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/White-Paper-on-Fusion-Final-21.pdfhttp://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL34645.pdfhttp://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL34645.pdfhttp://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL34645.pdfhttp://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL34645.pdfhttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/electricity/epa/epaxlfile1_2.xlshttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/electricity/epa/epaxlfile1_2.xlshttp://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL34645.pdfhttp://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL34645.pdfhttp://americansecurityproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/White-Paper-on-Fusion-Final-21.pdfhttp://www.boston.com/bigpicture/2010/10/the_national_ignition_facility.htmlhttp://www.boston.com/bigpicture/2010/10/the_national_ignition_facility.htmlhttp://brc.gov/index.php?q=announcement/brc-releases-its-draft-recommendations-may-13http://brc.gov/index.php?q=announcement/brc-releases-its-draft-recommendations-may-13http://www.propublica.org/article/while-nuclear-waste-piles-up-in-u.s.-billions-in-fund-to-handle-it-sits-unu/singlehttp://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/international/press/reports/summary-the-economics-of-nucl.pdfhttp://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/international/press/reports/summary-the-economics-of-nucl.pdfhttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/nuclear/page/operation/statoperation.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/nuclear/page/operation/statoperation.htmlhttp://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/research/digital_documents/Atoms_For_Peace/New%20PDFs/Atoms_for_Peace_Draft.pdfhttp://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/research/digital_documents/Atoms_For_Peace/New%20PDFs/Atoms_for_Peace_Draft.pdfhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-lancashire-13700575http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-lancashire-13700575http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/27/us/27gas.html?pagewanted=1&_r=2&hphttp://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/27/us/27gas.html?pagewanted=1&_r=2&hphttp://www.eia.gov/oiaf/1605/coefficients.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/oiaf/1605/coefficients.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/dnav/ng/ng_move_impc_s1_m.htmhttp://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/06/15/AR2006061502062.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/oiaf/1605/coefficients.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/oiaf/1605/coefficients.htmlhttp://money.cnn.com/galleries/2010/news/1004/gallery.Most_dangerous_jobs/index.htmlhttp://money.cnn.com/galleries/2010/news/1004/gallery.Most_dangerous_jobs/index.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/coal/ctrdb/database.htmlhttp://www.eia.gov/cneaf/electricity/epa/epaxlfile1_2.xlshttp://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/pdf/0383(2011).pdfhttp://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/pdf/0383(2011).pdf


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Building a New American Arsenal

Te American Security Project (ASP) is a bipartisan initiative to educate the

American public about the changing nature o national security in the 21stcentury.

Gone are the days when a nations strength could be measured by bombers

and battleships. Security in this new era requires a New American Arsenal

harnessing all o Americas strengths: the orce o our diplomacy; the might o

our military; the vigor o our economy; and the power o our ideals.

We believe that America must lead other nations in the pursuit o our

common goals and shared security. We must conront international

challenges with all the tools at our disposal. We must address emerging

problems beore they become security crises. And to do this, we must orge a

new bipartisan consensus at home.

ASP brings together prominent American leaders, current and ormer

members o Congress, retired military ocers, and ormer government

ocials. Sta direct research on a broad range o issues and engages and

empowers the American public by taking its fndings directly to them.

We live in a time when the threats to our security are as complex and diverse

as terrorism, the spread o weapons o mass destruction, climate change,

ailed and ailing states, disease, and pandemics. Te same-old solutions

and partisan bickering wont do. America needs an honest dialogue about

security that is as robust as it is realistic.

ASP exists to promote that dialogue, to orge consensus, and to spur

constructive action so that America meets the challenges to its security while

seizing the opportunities the new century oers.

www.americansecurityproject.org

America's Energy Choices

Documents

Transcript of America's Energy Choices