American Revolution

American Revolution (1775-83)

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The American Revolution is the single most important event in American history. Not only didit create the United States, but it defined most of the persistent values and aspirations of theAmerican people. The noblest ideals of Americans the commitments to freedom, equality,constitutionalism, and the well being of ordinary people came out of the Revolutionary era.The Revolution gave Americans the consciousness that they were a people with a specialdestiny to lead the world toward liberty.

Gordon Wood

Europe and America

The impact of Renaissance and Reformation movements in sixteenth Century in Europe galvanized the spiritof individual independence and made people more adventurous. Long standing beliefs were tested and theacceptance of challenging long held beliefs became acceptable. The decline of feudalism in Europe duringthis period had far reaching consequences in the economic, political and cultural fabric of European society.Both political and economic developments of this period stimulated people at Europe to explore and conquernew countries.

The Age of Discovery, also known as the Age of Exploration, was a period starting in the early 15th centuryand continuing to the 17th century during which Europeans explored Africa, the Americas, Asia and Oceania. America was discovered and colonized by Europeans during this period.

Discovery of America: The New World

The period between sixteen and eighteenth century is characterized as a time when European Nations beganexploring the world by sea in search of trading partners, new goods, and new trade routes. The main reasonfor exploring the new routes by sea was the fact that the Turks, the arch rivals of Europeans, had conqueredConstantinople and the eastern Mediterranean, and controlled the land routes to Asia. This not only blockedthe route to Asia but also blocked access to North Africa and the Red Sea -- two very important trade routes tothe Far East. Therefore a new sea route was needed which could act as a viable trading channel with Asia.

In addition, some explorers set sail to simply learn more about the world. Whatever their reasons though, theinformation gained during the Age of Exploration significantly helped in the advancement of geographicknowledge. The European countries during this period were also in the pursuit of larger empire, find spicesand other riches, and expand Christianity.

During this Age of Discovery were the renowned voyages of Christopher Columbus financed by the king of

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Spain. These voyages started as an endeavor to unearth a trade route to Asia by sailing west to find theshortcut to the Indies. Columbus and his crew reached the island of Hispaniola after three months in theAtlantic Ocean. Although Columbus believed he had reached Asia, he had actually discovered the entirecontinent of North America. Thus A New World was discovered by Columbus although accidently!

In 1500 Amerigo Vespucci was successful in preparing the maps of Atlantic Ocean and Asia which proved veryuseful both for the trade and navigation purposes. His efforts were really of great significance for the westernworld.

Colonization of Americas

The Colonization of America was made possible by the voyages and discoveries of the early explorers whocame from the great sea-faring nations of Europe. During the sixteenth century (1500's) the work of theColonization of America was left almost entirely to Spain. Their program of colonization was concentrated onSouth America but the Spanish also explored the regions of New Mexico and Texas and had established theSpanish colony of St. Augustine, in Florida

As the Spanish empire grew, explorers forced native populations into slavery and to convert toChristianity. Soon the other competing European Nations started the colonization of North America. Franceclaimed of much of Canada and the north Atlantic coast. England too established its first settlement in the NewWorld at Roanoke Island, North Carolina. Soon England and France became the major contesting colonialpowers in America as the Spains days of greatness were gone. The Colonization of South America also had asignificant presence from the Portuguese.

Columbian ExchangeThe post-1492 era is known as the period of the Columbian Exchange.The potato, the pineapple, the turkey, dahlias, sunflowers, magnolias, maize,chilies, and chocolate went East across the Atlantic Ocean. Smallpoxand measles but also the horse and the gun traveled west.

There were a few diseases which were introduced by Europeans and were verynew to the people of New World. Some of these diseases took the form ofepidemics and proved detrimental for the local population.

13 British Colonies

There were Thirteen British Colonies in America on the Atlantic coast of North America founded between 1607(Virginia) and 1733 (Georgia). These were Delaware,Virginia, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, Connecticut,Massachusetts, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina,New Hampshire, New York, and Rhode Island. Thesewere the colonies later rebelled against the colonial rule ofBritain and came to be known as United States of America.

A large number of immigrants from Europe in general andBritain in particular settled in these colonies. Apart fromBritain, France, Germans, Scotland and Ireland alsoswelled the population of these colonies. The populationof settlers in these colonies had grown from a fewthousands in early 17th century to about 2 millions by1760. Along with the increase in population, the westwardexpansion of these colonies was also the hallmark of thisperiod. They have extended their territories inland tobetween 240 and 320 kilometers from eastern coastline.This frontier moved continually westwards over the 19thcentury creating a society which was more democratic andAmerican than it had been during British colonial rule.Boston with a population of 15000 and Philadelphia with apopulation of 20000 become the emerging centers during that period.

A commercial revolution which commenced in the middle eighteenth century led to a considerable expansion inAmerican imports and exports. The value of imports from Britain rose from less than a million pounds in 1747to nearly 4.5 million pounds by 1772. The process of commercial change which was mainly because ofexpansion in internal trade and use of paper money enabled people of "middling rank" to break away fromtraditional patron-client relationships. The religious revival known as the Great Awakening also weakenedtraditional authority and the position of the gentry and the established Anglican clergy. The existence ofAmerican philosophical society including several other institutions of higher education, including Harvard andYale was testimonial of the fact that the intellectual life was thriving.

Political condition of America on the eve of therevolution

There was a stark difference between the political conditions prevailing in Europe and in America. The higherstrata of society in colonial America wielded much less economic and political power vis-a-vis Britain. On theother hand the majority of American farmers owned their own land unlike in Britain which had a majority ofmarginal tenants and landless agricultural workers.

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Two-thirds of the white colonial population owned land in America while only one-fifth of the population ownedland in Britain. The relative weakness of the aristocracy, the existence of a large body of land owning farmers,the absence of a large indigenous population and the possibility of acquiring land by westward movementimparted a strong republican flavor to the politics of the 18th century America.

The British legacy of parliamentary politics and constitutional monarchy inspired the American Revolution to agreat extent. Since a huge chunk of European settlers in these 13 colonies were from Britain they werealready exposed to parliamentary politics of their home land. The settlers were independent minded andintrepid.

Much political power had been delegated to America from Britain in these colonies. In all the colonies peoplevoted for the representatives to make up popular institutions like legislative assemblies. These institutionspass laws on taxation, defense etc. There was an arrangement for military governor in all the colonies, exceptfive. The governor was the representative of British monarch had extensive powers like such as makingappointments and vetoing laws and ruled the country with the iron hand. Thus unlike in the other colonies ofBritain in Asia and Africa, where it took decades for the indigenous people to get inspired by the modernideologies like limited government, parliamentary politics and constitutional monarchy the stage was alreadyset in the case of America.

Apart from Britain the people who went to America were Germans, Swiss, Dutchmen, Scotsmen and Irishmen.Some of them even did not speak English and had their own interests in trade and agriculture. Their socialsystems were even different from those of Englishmen living in England. They were mostly criminals and hadbeen exiled for political offences.

Rivalry between the colonial powers

The two great European powers of the time i.e. Britain and France were arch rivals in America, Asia and Africain order to extend their political influence and make new colonies. The conflict evolved into a series ofmaritime wars between two European powers as they sought to expand their own empires at the expense ofthe others. These conflicts came to have a big impact on how English and French spread around the world.

From the 1650s, the New World increasingly became a battleground between the two powers. The 13colonies of Britain in America from north and west were surrounded by the French colonies. The French hadsettled in the province of Canada to the North, and controlled Saint-Domingue in the Caribbean, the wealthiestcolony in the world.

In the early 1750s, French expansion into the Ohio River valley repeatedly brought France into armed conflictwith the British colonies. This culminated into Seven Year War (1756-63) between the two European powers. Itis also known as French India War in Northern America. The name refers to the two main enemies of theBritish colonists: the royal French forces and the various Indigenous forces allied with them.

Apart from Britain and France, their respective allies and colonies in Europe, Asia and America got involved inthis war. The war escalated from a regional affair into a world-wide conflict for example in India the hostilitieswas manifested in the form of Carnatic War wherein the English and French companies and their regionalallies in India got involved.

In the Seven Year War, the French forces got the support of the native tribes of America; on the other hand the13 colonies sided with Britain. Representatives of the colonies met at Albany Congress in 1754 and advocatedfor a union of the British colonies in North America for their security and defense against the French. TheAlbany Congress also an adopted proposal of Benjamin Franklin to establish a colonial union. GeorgeWashington the first President of United States played a dynamic role in this war. Washington never gainedthe commission in the British army but he gained valuable military, political, and leadership skills. After SevenYears War George Washington had become the first in war, first in peace and first in the hearts of hiscountrymen.

Causes of American Revolution

Basic contradiction: The most significant cause the American Revolution was the basic contradictionbetween the interests of the metropolis and the colony. The colonial powers have all along been responsiblefor this, as these continued to exploit their colonies much to the annoyance and displeasure of their people.Apart from this the political awakening has been gradually coming in every part of the world. This is whathappened in America as well.

Britain adopted mercantilist policies in colonial America which were designed to promote British economicinterests mainly in the form of a favorable balance of trade. Various Navigation Acts of 165 1, 1660 and 1663ensured that trade was carried only in British or colonial ships; that most European goods had to pass throughBritain before entering the American colonies; that certain goods like tobacco and rice declared enumeratedgoods could be shipped only in Britain; that bounties would be paid for the production of certain enumeratedgoods to promote British economic self-sufficiency. Moreover colonies were not allowed to exportmanufactured goods under various Acts effecting wool and woolen textiles in 1699, the hat industry in 1732and iron products in 1750.

Geographical constraints: The distance of the colonies from Great Britain created an independencethat was hard to overcome. Those willing to colonize the new world generally had a strong independent streakdesiring new opportunities and more freedom.

Political factors: British government usually deployed Governors in American colonies. These governorsruled these colonies with an iron hand and took many tyrannical measures without caring for the sentiments ofthe people. This was bound to repel and because of their repressive policies, the people became bothrepulsive and revengeful. Grenville, the then Prime Minister passed the Navigation and the Molasses Actsimposing several limitations on the colonies. He wanted that the colonies should also contribute some moneyfor their protection but this policy very much offended the colonies. This British government perhaps did notrealize the gravity of the situation and continued with the taxes. This resulted in great resentment in America.


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On the other hand the 13 colonies of Britain in America were much advanced in terms of political ideologiesand institutions vis--vis their Asian and African counterparts. The existence of colonial legislatures enjoyedmany powers and were in many ways independent of the crown. The legislatures were elected institution andhad the legitimate power to levy taxes, muster troops, and pass laws. Over time, these powers became rightsin the eyes of many colonists. When they were curtailed by the British, conflict ensued.

European settlers in America were inspired by the ideas related to the Enlightenment. Many of therevolutionary leaders of these colonies were inspired by the writings and ideas thinkers like Thomas Hobbes,John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and the Baron de Montesquieu. From these writings, the foundersgleaned the concepts of the social contract, limited government, the consent of the governed, and separationof powers.

During the Seven Years War, England had conquered the eastern parts of the rivers, Ohio and Mississippi.But after the war was over (1763) and peace restored, the people of these colonies wanted status quo ante.But England wanted to retain these places as was prize. In order to implement this decision she began to planto have an effective control over the territories lying east of the Ohio and the Mississippi rivers. This areabecame a bone of contention between the colonists and England and proved another cause responsible forRevolution.

Prior to the defeat of France in the Seven Year War, the settlers in America were engulfed by the Frenchpossessions in America also called New France. These 13 colonies were under the invariable threat of Frenchinvasion from northern and western parts. Thus they were dependent on the British support against theimperial France. Nonetheless after the Seven Year War the fear of French invasion passed into the oblivionand so was the dependency on Britain.

Economic factors: Britain won the Seven Year War, but her engagement in the war proved extremelydetrimental in the financial context. By 1763 the British government had an extreme shortage of money. Britishgovernment wanted that the people of the colonies should raise huge amounts to write off the debts andexpenses of Seven Years War. For this the argument advanced was that the war was fought on behalf of thecolonies. The colonies were not prepared to bear this financial burden, whereas the British government wasbent up collecting these funds.

Religious factors: The majority of the English people believed in Anglican Church of England whereasthe people in American colonies followed Puritanism. There were thus clear religious differences between thetwo.

Ideological factors: The ideological movement known as the American Enlightenment was a criticalprecursor to the American Revolution. Chief among the ideas of the American Enlightenment were theconcepts of liberalism, republicanism and fear of corruption. Collectively, the acceptance of these concepts bya growing number of American colonists began to foster an intellectual environment which would lead to a newsense of political and social identity.

The eighteenth century Enlightenment produced ideas which undermined traditional beliefs and socialrelationships in a variety of ways. By adopting enlightenment ideas the ruling elites and those in authorityundermined their own authority whether as rulers magistrates, masters and fathers. A revolution againstpatriarchy took place simultaneously with a general growth of republican ideas. With the growth ofcommercialization in the 18th century contracts which had been based on patriarchal relationships betweenhusbands and wives or masters and apprentices in an earlier period were replaced by contracts which werepositive bargains between two equal parties representing specific transactions rather than social relationships.The widespread adoption of the language of modem legal contractualism made it easier for the Americancolonists to break with the mother country and the patriarchal authority of the British king.

The Course of Events

No taxation without representation

The British Parliament controlled colonial trade and implemented the taxing of imports and exports since 1660.The colonist objected the right of British Parliament to impose taxes on the American colonies. The logicbehind this objection had its basis in the English Revolution of 17th century. In the 17th century in Britain, theParliament (House of Commons) became gradually powerful institution and objected the legitimacy of thoseActs passed by Kings related to the taxation in which the consent of Parliament was not taken. Thechampions of Parliamentary politics in England were of the view that since Parliament was elected body andthe representative of the people so it should have the exclusive rights related to taxation. The colonists wereof the view that since British parliament did not have representation of American colonies, principally it shouldnot make the taxation laws for them. By making the taxation laws for the American colonies, the BritishParliament is actually defying the principles and legacy on which it itself rests.

American colonist came up with the slogan of No taxation without representation. According to therevolutionaries the lack of representation in the British Parliament was a clearly a violation of the rights of thecolonists. Thus, taxation and all other laws that affected the colonists directly and indirectly were notconstitutional at all. During the American Revolution, there were only a few British citizens that wererepresented and they were not even a part of the colonies. The phrase summarizes the sentiments thatcaused the English Civil War, as told by John Hampden.

The British, on the other hand, supported the concept of virtual representation, which was based on thebelief that a Member of Parliament virtually represented every person in the empire and there was no need fora specific representative from Virginia or Massachusetts etc.

The following were the taxation laws which were opposed by the colonists:

S.No Name of the Law Year Details


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1 Navigation Acts 1651A series of Acts that restricted the use of foreign shipping for

trade between England and its colonies.

2Molasses Act

1733

Forcing the colonists to buy the more expensive sugar from

the British West Indies instead.

3 Currency Act 1751, 1764Restricted the emission of paper money by the colonies of North

America

4 Stamps Act 1765Act required that many printed materials in the colonies be

produced on stamped paper produced in London

5 Townshend Acts 1767To raise revenue in the colonies to pay the salaries of governors

and judges so that they would be independent of colonial rule

6 Tea Act 1773To reduce the massive surplus of tea held by the financially

troubled British East India Company in its London warehouses

The annoyance of the Americans at the imposition of import duties became so alarming by 1773 that LordNorth compelled the Parliament to pass an Act repealing all duties except that on tea. This duty, which wascalculated to bring in little more than three hundred pounds a year. It was retained merely to assert the right ofEngland to tax its colonies.

Thus it was the principles of taxation which was involved in the import duties and not the actual amount whichwould come to the treasury. This was very much objected by the people of America. The resistance of taxgradually changed into open defiance and lawlessness.

In 1773, Lord North bargained with the East India Company to carry a large quantity of tea to Boston. On itsarrival in the harbor of the town a number of America youths, disguised as Indians boarder the tea ships brokeopen the tea cheats and poured tea into the sea. This is known as Boston Tea Party. At this time therepresentatives of Massachusetts collected at Concord against the orders of the British Government.

The outrage perpetrated by the American youths was intolerable for England. This was taken as anunpardonable offence and thus the British government was roused to take strong action against the Americansaccordingly the following two Acts were passed as the punitive measures. These Acts are also popularlyknown as Intolerable Acts. The Acts passed were as:

1. Boston Part Act: By this the port was ordered to be closed. All its trade was transferred to the port of theNew Salem which was quite in the neighborhood. This was a punitive measure to punish the colonies fortheir annoyance to the Government at what had happened at Boston.

2. Massachusetts Government Act: According to this Act, Massachusetts was deprived of the right ofelecting representatives to all in the Assembly. The Act annulled the old charter of the colony. Public libertieslike holding meetings etc were curtailed. The American rioters were to be tried in England and not inAmerica.

General Congress at Philadelphia

The punitive Acts or the Intolerable Acts, as mentioned above, seriously terrified the colonies and they had anauthentic fear that the other colonies might as well face the same fate. A Congress was convened by thecolonies (also known as General Congress at Philadelphia) to decide the future course of action.

Congress issued by a Declaration of Rights and declared that the recent Acts passed by the BritishGovernment were an infringement of their basic rights. The Congress also accepted a declaration forbiddingthe import of goods from England until the grievances of the Colonies were redressed.

Revolutionary War

The Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia on May 10, 1775 and they declared themselves thegovernment. They also named George WashingtonCommander in Chief of the newly organized Continental Army. The Continental Army was supplemented by local militias andother troops that remained under control of the individualstates.

After repeated pleas to the British monarchy for interventionwith Parliament, any chance of a compromise ended when theCongress were declared traitors by royal decree, and theyresponded by declaring the independence of a new sovereignnation, the United States of America, on July 4, 1776.On July4th, 1776, Congress adopts the Declaration of Independence.

Skirmishes between British troops and colonial militiamen inLexington and Concord in April 1775 kicked off the armedconflict, and by the following summer, the rebels were waging a full-scale war for their independence.

France entered the American Revolution on the side of the colonists in 1778, turning what had essentiallybeen a civil war into an international conflict. France bitterly resented its loss on the Seven Years War andsought revenge; it also wanted to keep Britain from becoming too powerful. French ruler saw the revolution asan opportunity to strip Britain of their North American possessions in retaliation for France's loss of Canada adecade before. French money, munitions, soldiers and naval forces proved essential to America's victory overthe Britain.


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The Declaration of IndependenceWe hold these truths to be self evident; that all men are created equal; thatthey are endowed by the Creator with certain unalienable rights; that amongthese are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.

These united colonies are and ought to be independent; they are absolvedfrom all allegiance to the British Crown; and all political connectionsbetween them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totallydissolved.

The following were the important battles fought during this period:

S.No Name of the Battle Year Results

1 Battle of Lexington April 1775 American victory

2 Battle of Bunker Hill June 1775 British victory

3 Battle of Long Island August 1776 British victory

4 Battle of Harlem Heights Sept. 1776 American victory

5 Battle of Saratoga October 1777 American Victory

6 Battle of Monmouth June 1778 No result

7 Battle of the Chesapeake Sept. 1781 French Naval victory

8 Battle of Yorktown October 1781 Franco-American victory

A French naval victory just outside Chesapeake Bay led to a siege by combined French and Continentalarmies that forced a second British army to surrender at Yorktown, Virginia in 1781. Fighting continuedthroughout 1782, while peace negotiations began.

The factions in the American Revolution

People of 13 British Colonies in America were not a homogeneous group. Duringthe American Revolution they were divided into following categories:

1. Patriots: Popularly known as "Patriots", "Whigs", "Congress-men", or"Americans". They belong to different socio-economic status and classes butthe commonality among them was that they wanted to defend the rights ofAmericans and uphold the principles of republicanism in terms of rejectingmonarchy and aristocracy, while emphasizing civic virtue on the part of thecitizens.

2. Loyalists: "Loyalists", "Tories", or "King's men" were typically older, lesswilling to break with old loyalties, often connected to the Church of England,and included many established merchants with strong business connectionsacross the Empire, as well as royal officials

3. Neutrals: A minority of American population tried to stay nonaligned inthe war. They came to known as Neutrals

Significance of American Revolution

The American Revolution proved to be important not only for the 13 colonies which gained freedom fromBritain, but it also propagated the modern ideas of liberty, equality and republicanism in European nations andtheir colonies. The impact of Revolution was not just confined to the political life and related institutions but itexplicitly and/or implicitly shaped the socio-economic dynamics of the society as well.

Political

All the 13 colonies in North America freed themselves from the yoke of the Britain. For the first time in thehistory of mankind a written Constitution came into force which explicitly talked about equality and rights.Americans succeeded in establishing themselves as an independent country. In due course of time they grewstrong and had deep influence on the social, political and intellectual life of people everywhere. The worldcivilization was considerably effected and politically balance of power changed which effected world politics.

Revolution led to the growth of mass participation in politics and the emergence of the free market based onthe ideals of economic development and political equality. American Revolution gave a big blow to monarchicalsociety and aristocratic privileges.

The loss of American colonies shaped the colonial policy of England. By this defeatEngland learnt that if old colonial policy was continued, she might lose other colonies in the same way too. Asa result England came to follow liberal policy towards her colonies. Thus the new policy of England amplycompensated the loss of American colonies. England now gave economic and political independence to thecolonies to a large extent and ensure that grievances of these people were redressed and removed withoutloss of time and to their satisfaction.


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Economic

American Revolution gave the impetus to the policy of liberalism and free trade. It was realized that theprinciples of free trade and commercial monopoly were opposed to each other. The erstwhile conservativepolicy of denial of economic independence to colonies was considerably relaxed. The policy of economicinterference was relaxed.

Social

American Revolution not only ended feudal forms of land tenure but supported more enlightened attitudetowards the family. After the Revolution the patriarchal control of men over their wives declined, the lattergaining the right to hold property separately and to make contracts and do business in the absence of theirhusbands.

The equal rights of widows and daughters were recognized in matters concerning inheritance and possessionof property. Prior to the War they had no rights except to raise families, but they did gain little rights afterwards.Women now gained the power to be able to divorce their husbands if they chose to, something they nevercould've done before. However, this power was only available in certain colonies and the woman would losemost of her property to the man.

(This article is powered by Competition Wizard)This article is Chapter 1 of the book: "World History for I.A.SExam". The details of the book are as: World History for IAS: Click Here

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# UJ 2013-06-05 16:43Good one!!!

# Tejashrippk 2013-06-05 16:44

The article is really good, simple and easy to understand. Flow is good. Please do post the correspondingquestions on the topic so that we can think of answers and you also give some standard outline of answers.

Thank you so much for the material. :)

# rachna 2013-06-05 20:58Nicely compiled

# Rahul 2013-06-05 21:01Succintly put.. a nice read.. kudos or efforts :)

# rajesh%% 2013-06-06 01:09

thanks for material..plz post daily.it z useful for students lyk us(village) students

# venu y 2013-06-06 02:30Very nice and interesting article. Never felt bored while reading it.

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American Revolution

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